'{iF;;'

THE NOIJN

0 the root vowel changes:

goose

man

geese,

men, wom6n

louse

lice,

g) -rr is added to the

|"I

ehild

According

,) s irn p le:

toword-formatlon, nouns cfinb.t

pencil, dog,mountoin;
b) d e r i v e d : driver, booklet, discontent;
c) c o m p o u n d : postcord, dining-roarn, editar-in-chie{.
I "2. According to countability, nouns can be:
a) c o u n t a b I e, when they can have a plural forrn and can be
used with the indefinite article, oi with rnanlr few, severai: opple,
/esson, son;
Give me on opple. They eot many apptes.
b) u n c o u n t a b I e, when they cannot be used in the plural
or with the indefinite article, but can be used with much, little:
There w6s much noise in thot holl.

rs expensive nowodays.

r'

.f:r..-,.

;'t
J

lrook
l,)

books, cot

*{r5 r(r added t,q

-ch, -rlr

t,,

Irr

-G$ t,.

.r( l,

Itt

(y tlr.url,,(",rrrlo

r.ses, bax

ltrrl

i)

boxes, wotch

in

wotches, brush

r ^zr -x,

- hrushes;

to nouns ending in -y preceded by * consonant

lly flrr:*, titf * cities;

-c!
d)
r.,,r(l(lt.rl to nouns ending ifl -o preceded by a consonant:
herr,r lrerocs, pototo * pototoes, (but: photo - photos);
e) -(*)* ts ,lt lr l,.r I I o rlouns.. ending in -f(e) (which changes

ry:OfF: Some nouns have the same form in the singular and in the plur al:deer,
sheep, ftsh, frqit, chinese, portuguese, swiss, da4en, hundred, thquso
nd, m[orr, u**i,
'

knifb

ktuves.

bul

leoves, (but: roof

chief -* chiefls, etc.);

species, etc.:

raofs, belief- befiefs,

'"'

;1

iidti-'"-r

u,,

t/

us.

WestudiedthefrshesoftheAt,lontic0cean"!-_-.

or the plurol.
nouns, which take a verb in the

have either the singulor

a) concnete uncountable nouns: bread, rneat,

/uggoge

money, etc.:

furniture,

My fa*ggoge is very heavy. (Bogojefe rmele sunr grele.J

The mor?ey is on the toble. (Bonii sunf pe nrosd",]

b) abstract uncountable nouns: musfc, progress, ffiCInser;se, fnflormation, #(nowledge" advice, hamework, etc,:
His o&ice is.olways good. (sfoturile tuisunt intotde aunnbune,)
His knowledg* of French rs poor. flCuno;tirugeJe lui de
{ranc*zd
sunt s/obe.)

c) pT,p*1
::un:' Jahn, The Llnited srsres, The D*nube, etc.:
The united stotes tries in North Amerieri.
d) nouns ending in -s! news, mecsles (and other names of dis-

eases), opfics, mathemotics (and other narnes of sciences), c#n'ds, njne-

Pins (and

'

narnes of games):
::l"r
Ihis new$ is very good.
,

(Aceste vegti sunt

Mothematrcs i$ fun.

116

1W

lrl

't

rlil

iiir

7hisisonefficientrmeons.Iheseoreefficient,meons.
The plural forms fishes, fruits denote different species or varietles:

I' Singular invariabte

iir

i'

A sheep is in the volley. Ten sheep ore in the valley.

A Chinese wos lookingot us. The' iwo Clrfnese were lookingor

into -v):

,n

machines, forget-me-not & forget-me-nofs, * ufr[

first element: pcssgr"by * posse rs-by, son-in- law sons- in*law, or beith
elements take the piura! : wofftan"1river
- women drive,s.

singular, are:

:s

t,

strots, b*sis

maehine wcslring

cdts, toy - toys;

the singular nouns ending

larvse, strotum

i) .-5tis added to the last element of a cornpound noLln: wcshinp

,

2.2" Invariable -nouns

wny:

1:;i

2.?"

? I Variable nouns farm the plural in the follawing

,r) tlrc inflcctior"l -s is added tc the singular:

i,

ftrtl riw - criteFigi ui, * i.,:l i ,, i: ,

i !i, i;.. ii.i/."ri,,
o
,qi' ', ', -, (but: ctrctus - coctilcoctuses, formula _
formuloelformwlds)

't
o'f

ll

teeth,

singular:
- oxen;

. bose,f:

}:,.."'ai:,e

* feet, tooth -

h) foreign plurals are preserved with some borrowed nouns

I hove crn eye ning paper.

7. Nurmber of Nouns

chitd,'efl, ox

wamen, foot

(rnainly Latin and Greek):

stinrulus - stirnul.i, lorva

NOTE: Sorne nouns can be countable in one meaning and uncountabte in another:
poper, difficuity, lemb, etc.:

Poper

molJse *i.*;

fa*rte

bune.)

71
|

"/4

,'c"

ft
NOTH: To express quantity of uncountable nouns, we can

item, bar, slice, gramme, pound, etc.:

"

use the

b) nouns denoting measul.ement, time, space, quantity, value:

o two months'vacotion,'a /ife's work, a mile,s driye, a pound's

words: piece,

a piece of newslinformotionlfurniturelodvicelcokelbreod (o veste/informcgielmabild,

un sfat., o bucotd de prajiturdlpdine),
o,bar af soaplchocolate, o slice of boconf coke,
a paund

df sugarlftoyrlrice:lc:affee

',

worth of pears;

c)' collbctive nouns:

decision

2.2.2. Plural invariable nouns, which take a verb in &he plu-

ra!, are:

a) articles of dress: tro,users, .pyjomas,

and instrr.lrnents:
': it..'}i-tools
"'\'
etc.r l* ,* I {1 i
1
- His
trouserb rtre on the choir. Where are the scfssorsT
b) proper nouns: The A/ps, The Highlonds:
The Alps ore high mountoins.
c) qther "p.luralia tqntum": cgvings, surroundings, customs, cCIn-

tents, woggp,-stpirs,

etc.:

''

Ih.

surroundings are very beoutiful. His wdges ore decent.

d) substantivized adiectives: the rich, the poor; goods, etc.:
The poor sre suffering. The goods were iorried by troin.
e) u::arn*r9" O,.H.f-Ah; cattle, infantry, peop|e, F,y!,ice, etc.:
The
.potice ars.after the thief.
NOTE: When we want to refer to one article of dress or instrument, we can
use the word pair: o poir of trousers/scissors/sco/es. Some "collective nouns" like:
fomily,
teom, crew, iury, etc., take a verb in the plui'al when reference is rnade to the component

t:lettrents, and a verb in the singular, when they ane used generical,ly: Hio
famity is lorge.
l-lts farnily ore ot home. (Ai tuilmembrii familieilui sirnt acosd.i

the firm's rnyestment, the ogovernment's

d)'nouns that can be personified (geographical names, vehicles,

natural phenomena, etc.):
England's history, the sh,p's crew, the doys heot.
NOTE: ln the elliPtic geniti-ve the head noun in not expressed: the boker's

scoles, scissors,

'

my grondryoth,er's.(hoErse):5t.
none of Mary's (drowings).

{shop),

but

Paul's (Cathedrot).1'ye seen somb

of lo^'s drowings,

4. Gender of Nouns

4.1. There ore four categories of gender:

4 m a s c u I i n e : men, brother, n-ncle:

b) f e m in in e: wamon, sister, ount;
.) n e-u t e r: book, house, snow;

d) c g m m o n : cousin, friend, pocient.

4.2. Gender contrasts ore express ed with the help of:
a) different words: husb,ond'- wife, boy girl, butt cow,

cock

hen'

b) compounds: schoolboy - schoolgirl, londlord - londlady, mo"ie

cousin - female cous in, he-beor - she-beo r, bull-elephant * cow-e l'ephont,
tom-cat

tobby-cot;

.c) suffixes: host

'widower

widow.

hostess, hero

heroine, bridegroom

bride,

.{

i
I

3.,Case

of Nouns.
. -,.

EXERCISES

iiew of form, there are two types of genitive:

3. I , The analytical- genitiv e with the preposition of, used with
Frottt tltc poini of

neuter nout,s or with long noun phroses: .

tht' r over of the book, the colour:'o'f his foce, the wife
' "'
tndn yau hove met.
oos,.,&

of

the

3.2. The synthetical genitiv ewith's added to singulor nouns or

irregulor plur.dlS: the rnan's perfo rmonce, the men's results, and (r) addpd
t9 regulor ltlurols, or to proper nouns ending infsiithe students'orrru.r,
Dickens,worki.lt,maybeusedwiththefoltoiling,Jr
a) nouns denoting persons or other beingls:
"6eorge's letter, the doctor's order, the cow's mitk;
118

l. T'urn the itolicized nouns into the plurol ond moke oll the otther
ry changes in the sentences;
l. The chicken was eaten by a fox. 2. Have you seen this interesting phenomenon? 3. That knife should be wiped ar once. 4. Last
night a house was robbed by u thief. 5. The child in that
fomily has
bad manners. 6. The farm_er' has a hen, o goose,. and a sheep. i . My
sister-i n-law is a teacher. 8. My cot never catches a ,oure. 9. The
busines smon is considering the Rew tariff. I 0. She has lost the key to
that door. I l. The housewife and the middle-aged woman are the
principal consumers of this product. 112. The inspector will speak to
the witness who has seen the accident.
i, ,,,,, /
I {,, {, i,
. .,," --.,,,--."..,...*
,-i .
119
necesso

'--*t[

c) with adjectives in the superlative degree:

Ihis rs the oldest building in town"
d) with nouns considered unique:
The sun rises in the edst"
e) with singular noLtns used in their most generai sense:
The horse is s useful animsL She can Flay the piono"
with
Rouns converted from adjectives, denoting a class, ffi&0
tionality, or an abstractibn:
We shou/d hetp tfie pssr. Tf"re Fremch love wine. Tfue gomd

lV. l. wall of his room 2. students' panents 3. earth's distance 4" that
wornan's lies 5" world's natural wonders 6. country's future 7. bottorrr of
the stairs 8" Helen's words 9 " today's newspaper I 0. leg of the table.
V" l. footballer, player 2. explanation, behaviour 3" cr.rrlosity 4. beginning, ending 5. difference 6. description 7. visitors 8. advertisrnent.
Vl" l. apple-trees, farmhouse 2. headache 3" hanclshake 4" raindrops
5" window-pane 6. seaside, sunrise 7 . birthplace.
Ul. l. Significant progrcss lras been made in this area of knowledge.
2. Gllbert White, tlre fatJrer of Englislr rratural history, lived in the lBth
century. 3. The police claim that their relationship witlr the puhlic is getting
better. 4. l've got much homeworl< to do fon tomorrow. 5" Do you eat
mueh fruit? 6" lcan give you somc irrforrnation on/abourt this matter"
7" T-here are some interesting 1;icccs/itcms/bits of news in today's paper"
8. tast year's prize was awarded to a ver"y young musician" 9. You needn't
leave so early, the station is ten rnirrutcs'wall< frorn the hotel" I0. Do you
believe that the nich have any worrics? I I My son's nrew girl friend is a
charming young wonran. 12. Diana, tlre goddess of hunting, was called
Artenris in Greek mythology. I 3- At ttre begirrning of this century there
were few female sturdents in the English colleges. 14" Dinili Prepeleac, the
hero of Creangi's story, traded a she-goat fon a garrder, and the gander for
an empty bag.

rs cflten forgotten.

g) with prCIper nouns in the plural, denoting a farrrily:

The ;Browns ore nice people

h) with propen nouns denoting countries, if they are in the

0r if they represemt a union:
the NetlierComds, tfte United Srstes, the United Klmgdonl;
i) with proper nouns eienoting groups of islands, chalns of,

plura!,

msumtains, deserts, cceams, seas, rivers, channels, tanals, stnaits:

the &chemss, t$re AIpr, the Sshara, tfte Paerfrc Scesm, tfue
Bfsck Sem, tfie Thsm?es, frhe rtgJish {hannel, ,&he Suez Car:sd,
the Strofts of Dover;

,) with proper noums denoting hotels, shops, institutions:

the L-liltan, the British fi4useum, the Midlond Bank:
k) with proper noln"rs denoting ships, tnains, planes:
the Queen Mory, the Orient Express, the Cornet;
l) vy-ith prCIper nouns denoting newspapers and rmagazines:

T}.IE ARTICLE

The ffieffimite Article

II
I

The ftme, The

m) in 'phrases:

lrt, fornt of the definite article

[o tel/ tfue frn'le, by t*ue wfiy, to ploy the fool, or] the whole.

lr,' I rrllr:;Jr definite article is'the,:

I/

lltr' ttt(ul,

the

I lt,'

the

I 1,,,.,,

wall
heir

:"

.
:

Z^

The tmdefirnite Artiele

2"1

" Ifue farrns af the rndefrnite article

,tl t lle defrnite article

or l<nown to the speaker:

the windaw. The girt w6s very pretty"

,t) wrtlr ri,run,, alrearJy rnentioned

Observer;

,,rnv et y11l ,,,

I ltwt. y(lr r lt il the dog?

b) witlr rrr !l L r', I.ll, iwcrd by a prepositional phrase, a rel.ative
clause, or f,il ;rIrl ru',rl roI
The le:ttt't' frorn l-ondon arrived yeste rday " fhis is tfue
mon who II{rr/.' ,nL! the book. MrJomes, tfie pos'tmaefr:
':'
is o We/sllnrrrn

The English indefinite anticle is a, before a worei begin;ring with

consonant or semi-vowel, and afi, before a word beginning with
wovel.

fil
\1,

a mon, a wsll, an egg, s bod egg.

2.2" Uses of the indefrnite article
a) with nouns representing a single item of a
Girre rne s pen, p/eose/

722

ll,

x23

class:

ffi

b) instead of the numeral one:

l've bought a tdble and four chairs.
c) with singular nouns used in a ger:,:ral sense:
A babl requires speciol core.
d) with houns denoting a profession, re!igion, class:
She is o student. He is o Christion. They colled him a fool.
e) in certain expressions of measurement:
I have English lessons three times o week. Apples ore 40p.d
pound.

h) with nouns like school, church, hospitol,

the use made of the building:

He goes to school (to leorn).

with nouns denoting meals and seasons:
I hove dinner ot seyen. Spring isrcoming.
with
nouns denoting languages:
i)
i)

She speoks Engtish.

k) with nouns denoting a profession on an office held at one

time by one person only:
They appointed

0 with proper nouns denoting

an unknown person, a rrrember

of a family, or a person with certain characteristics:
" Ttte lette r is fram o Mr Smith. He is o Kennedy.
He is o Don tuan.

g) in phrases:
to be in o hurry, to hove a heodoche, dtt oY o
matter of fgct, to take an interest in.

sudden,

,*nrJ)

'

cose o{, by sea,

ot

sunset, ta be

in trouble,

by

l. Insert the definite article or the zero article:

,with uncountable nouns or plural nouns used in a general

Mory, Richard, Captoin Smith,

regions,

[owtts.

I tnope, England, Loncoshire, London;

d) wrtlr l)roper nouns denoting mountains,

lakes, capes:

Morurt f-verest, Loke Superior, Cope Cod;

l)r oper

nouns denoting buildings, streets, bridges:

Coyent Gorden, Oxford Street, Woterloo Bridge;

0 with proper nouns denoting

rnonths, festivals, days of

the week:

ot Eoster . We
"
on Mondoy.
g) with proper nouns denoting magafjnes and perio{icals:.
"':s''" '
Neweweek,rPu
ltrvourite month. He is going there

are leovfng

nc.h:

124

for ... children" 3. ..0 fosd in restaunant near rne is very good"
4. Please, put butteri ... bread, and eggs !n r'efrigelrtor.
5. " ". lions are ... wild animals" 6. One of Mark Twain's works is "Life
on Mississippi". 7. ln Asia elephants are used for carrying
Manchester by train. 10. How many rockets have been sent
moon? I l. He came to his room late at night and told
Uncle Theo how he had spent ... evening at .. . theatre. I 2" We have
... breakfast rather early. 13. Lizzie, ... cool<, left .." Chapmans three
weeks ago. l,4. AII the people in village go ro
chur.ch on
Sunday. 15. ln some houses dinner is
biggest meal of ,.. day.
ll" lnsert the indefinite orticle ar the zero orticle:

to

Pl,ofessor Jonep;

) witlt proper nouns denoting. continents, countries,

luly,s ,Ity

in

mistoke, in silence.

EXERCISES

. Uses af the zero orticle

e) wltlr

day by day,

os a

Oil is lighter than water. Bobla sre his best friends.

b) with proper nouns denoting persons:
r

him mondger.

l) in phrases:

3. The Zero Art(cle

3.1

prison, when we imply

favour? 3. The electric light was

there's

::" important

inventioh, 4. Where

snnoke, there's .:. fire. 5. Meeting you has been great

pleasure. 6. He is studying ... reiigion. 7. They asked him difficult
questidn. 8. She wants to become nurse. 9. The lawyer gave his
client ..". very good advice. I0. She likes to ear "'..goad food. I !

honestyandloyaltyare...rarevirtues"l2,Eggsare50P"
... bad weather we are having todayl 14: She

dozen. 13. What

..

. city in Scotland.
125

#
2"

THE NUMERAL

numercl
2"1- The forms of the ordinal
I lth the eleventh 2l
lst the first

l. The Cardinal Numeral

I

.l

The forms of

one

7 two
3 three
4 four
5 five
6 six
7 seven

eight

9 nine
l0 ten

the cordinal numeral

eleven

12 twelve
I

3 thirteen

14 fourteen

l'5 fifteen
16 sixteen
17 seventeen

l8 eighteen
l9 nineteen
20 twenty
100 a (one) hundred
106 a (one) hundred

2l

twenty-one

22 twenty-two
23 twenty-three
30 thirtY
40 forry
50 fiftY
60 sixry
70 seventy
80 eightY
90 ninetY
and

seven

twentY-one
5?,1 six hundred and
I ,000 a (one) thousand
hundrgd and forry-nine
3,749three thousand seven
I ,000,000 a (one) million

1.2. Uses of the cordinol nurnerol tirne

+ha clock'
r
etc":
^r the
a date' -A of
It is used to express a number,
Twdfve
expressed in letters:
a) shorter numerars are generaily
This
ronger numerals in figures:
of the e rew monoged to escopi
Z'iOO years ago' r r
Greek thlnker liveJ nearly
-^t +^1.
take the pluthousand do- not
b) Tlre numerals hundred and
plural when
the
in
books; they are used
of:
ral: 400 bo,ks four hundred
the
PrePosition
or when followed by

they functiorr as nouns,

her
it; Thousonds of people sen!
Hundradr haye protested ogoinst
when
or
of'
tnl plural with the PrePosition
retters. Mlillon rnay ,ut *
wos

miilions
no other numeral foilows: trilo
iold for thrcc mllllons'

of

dottors; The painting

or of
tens refer to yeat-"f life
c) when used in the plural, the
wos
He
1929);
built in the twenties ( 1920a cenrury: This house wos
ostrongheolthymaninhisflftles(50*59).
128

The Ordinal Numeral

It'

I'l.

i
I

st the twenty-first
the twenty-seelnd
22nd
l2th the twelfth
2nd the second
twenty-third
the
23rd
thirteenth
3rd the third ,' ,- l3th the
thlrtieth
the
30th
l4th the fourteenth
4th the {ounth
fortieth
the
40th
I 5th the fifteenth
5th the fifth
fiftieth
the
50th
I 6th the sixteenth
6th the sixth
sixtieth
the
60th
I 7th the seventeenth
7th the seventh
8th the eighth
9th the ninth
I Oth the tenth

lEththeeighteenthT0ththeseventieth
eightieth
lgth the nileteenth' 80th the
ninetieth
the
90th
?Cth the twentieth
the (one) hundredth
sixth
l06th the (on*) hurndred and
twenty-first
62lst the (cne) hundred and
! ,0CISth the (one) thousandth
millionth
I ,CI00,00*th the (one)

l0CIth

2.2. [,lses of the ordinsl nameral

things, Gt actiGns in tirne
It shows thu, crder of Bersons,
and space:

sfxrh floor'
t'AY flot is on the
city in Fronce?
whcrt i.s the ,u.ora lorgest
the lSth (flfieenth) cent'ury'
in
lived
Third)
III (the
Richsrd

TheFirstWarldWorstortedinl9l4.
oct'
The hero dies in the fourth

I (one)' wortd war

are used.in: Act lv (.fottr)' scctte
s.roT*: The carclirrar numerars j'?.i*r*n), Flot 23 (iwentv-t,ree)' etc'
(one), I-esson;

i;;-i,

CttsptJ,''f

3 The Fl'actional ${unteral

3.1. Tl're forms uf the fi'ortlor"cl

a)

nLtmerol

ztz rwo rhirds

'fi[T?:JlT:1i'' u4 a (one) rourrh
five si-xths
3/5 rhree

iiftr-', "v 5t6 seven and

b) decitnal fractions:

nine
35.89 thlrry-five Point eight
thnee
nought
(nought)
Point
0.03

,nq

froctional numeral
indicates one or several parts of a whole:

3.2. Uses

It

lV. Read the following phone numbers:

I 18605 (double one eight six O [ou] five)

otf the

They stoyed here (fol holf an hourla half hour.

The fitm losted one and a hdlf hourslan hour and a halfOnty a tenth of the poputotian voted ogoinst the proiect.

255799 (two five five seven double nine)

197300; 380 177; 553 192; 670A29; 126603; 713350.
.a

V. Reod the following times of the

clock:

3:25 (lt is twenty-five [minutes] past three/three twentyfive)

4" The MultiPlicative Numeral

4"1

6:45 (lt is a quarter to seven I six forty-five)

9:00; l: l5; 2:30; 4:50; 7:l l; 8:53; l2:30-

, Ttte forms of the multiplicotive numerol

*rs\
l I#"'"
' { s'l'lt*
I x single, once
'l
2 x double/twofold, twice
3 x triple (treble)/ttrreefold, three times
4 x fou.rfold, four times,
l0 x tenfold, ten times'
I00 x a hundredfold, a hundred times

Vl.

Translate into English.

l-am scris de trei ori pind acum, dar ?ncf, nu mi-a rispuns.
2. Venus este-mai aproape de Soare decit P5mintul, iar lumina solari
care ajunge pe Venus este de doui ori mai intensi decAt cea care
ajunge pe P[rnint. 3. Zeci de mii de microbi;ti au urmirit meciul de
ieni. 4. Phileas Foggsra sigur c[ va puteainconiura pimAntul in nurnai
optzeci de zile. 5. in decursul anilor '80 guvernul d-nei Thatcher a

t-*'

4.2. Ur., ,f tfr'u- *uttipticative'nttmerol

It shows the proportion in which a quantity

creases:

or an action

l.

in-

"

l've been here onlY once or twice'

Many things now cost q hundred times what they did o few
yeors ogo.
The PoPe weors o triPle crown'
We con give o fourfold classificotian of these materials.

EXERCISHS

l.

Recrrl

the fottowing

408, 5,729;

ll.

Rt

75,

numbers:
I

00; 771,963; 4,20

rtrl lltt' following fractions:

ll8, 9/ l0; 217; l9 314; 6

l/3,

6 Otl , 0 7, 7.69; 18.259; 3.4 l;

lll, Rertrl llrr f ollowing dotes:

1,953

9ll2; 3
0.00

72,760,449

"

519;

1; 10.58'

refuzat si spriiine industriile vechi ;i neprofitabile. 6. in Marea Britanie

orele de curs la ;coali sunt de obicei de la nout dirnineala pAnX la
trei gi jumltate sau patru dupS-rnasa-

KEY TO THE EXERCISES

Vl. l. I've writt.en lrirn threc tinres until/till now, but he hasn't answerccl nre yct 2. Vcrrrrs is closer to ttrc Sun tlran the Earth is, and the
sunligtrt reaclritrg Vcrrtrs is twice;ls powerfrrl ;ls ttrat reaching the Earth.
3. Terrs of tJrorrs.rrrcls fans watclrecl yesterday's football game. 4. Phileas
Fogg was sltre lrc wotrlcl be ablc to go r"ound tlrc world/earth in elghty days
'l'hatcher's government
orrly. 5 . Ttrrouglrorrt the I 980s/B0s/eiglrties M rs
rcfusccl to strp;rort olcl urrprofitable irrdustries. 6. ln Great Britain school
lrotr;s ilr-r) tr:,rrully frorrr rrinc in thc nrorttirrg/9.00 a"ln. until half past three/
3,30 or- fottt' itt tlrc afternoonl4-00 p.m.

) I Jrrne 1994 (the twenty-first of June, nineteen ninety-four)

2 Apr tl I 903 (the second of April, nineteen O [ou] three)
5 Augurt ltl00 (the fifth of August, eighteen hundred)
3 Decomber 1860; 30 May I 70 I ; 28 September I 066; 23 july
1900; 2? tet,r rrat y l9l 5; I January 1980; l2 November I9l 3'
130

131

i
$
far

'
]

l. ComParison of Adiectives

fashian.

fi

c)

finer- rhe finesr, dry

sweeresr, fine
biggest;
nf*
bigger
the driest, big -

.f*jl*::fl

-d*' -rr syllabic [l]'

:i-X,.f:::'fi: .3l'-X

co{'man' pteosdnt'

the

honctrsoffre:

times"
"'.
period" ol- "the first of two in fornner means

- tft

lotestlthe lost

:rneaRs "finali

fieaver
is

Hardy's

lost novef'

the necrest lthe next

show me the way t'a

used of distance: Can yau

next
The next refers to onder: The
inrter

train is ot

the neorest

sven'

'* inmast/innermost t -r ^.-* ^ a*

q1# * outer lugter , oYt:fmop,,#utmost/utterrnost

uP .. ,[Pt' *- u1most/upperntost

!,
l,
t,

#t
I
I

\t

but adlectives in the com-

in the positive degree,

-lnmost
"most private": my in'
NOTE: rn, out, up are adverbs
and innermoit rnean
parative ny,t trre ,up".lotive. ;;.o.npt*te", "total":
**r stronger' utmost a*d
.o,
most fberings. utter means
Upmost and uppermost

uttermost n]ean

..gr.0atest,..:

d the Utmost

import,o:-1.;.

ltts
,,predonrina,.,ii,: rhese tfroughts were upperrnost itt
nreaTr

{I

t,

{{
!i

nlirrd

.4. SPeciol Construction's

li

di{:3t-ffik
adiectives:

ri

rs useel

for plurisyliabic

:ffiffi:"

,'

raPid'
apirl more raPid - the most
*
most beautiful'
the
beautiful
more
lreorrt ifttl

.3 lhe lrueg ttlar (omPorison

good - better *' the best

'-' wot$e] .'- the worst

older lelder * the oldest/tire eldest

badlill
old
ItoTE:

'

$i

t
I

the most

the foremost/the frrst'

laterllatter

The last

in

ll

TI;;;JffJ'
;,r,r.il iJ' J;,'J

It

bonk?
t
l

Z',:

- *rnlre -

lt0TE: The nearest

i

no"ower

medr

n a *i rr a of
crrnr.rioritv
-.f superiority
(adiective) + er forthe conlparative
suPerlative
the (adlectivef + est for the relative

n^;::,:k*-lfri

Xeost

the fornrer is o
of two": tr've met Wilt and Ssm;
the lotest
recent":
NOTE; katter means "the.second
most
"the
lawy*t: .Th.u, latest means
uioa***, ond tha lofter is o

l.l. The Synthetical Cornparison

b) disyllabic adiectives ending in -Y,

the

works'
"not so imPortant": the tvriter's lesser
NOTE: LesSer means,'smailer",

late

i^+n,a,.tittn.

the farthest/the furthest

Former means "of an earlierpren'lost poet of his period' The first

ti*
The foremost means ".hiJl,
"initial": the first man ta come'

os/

-absolute:verYt.all,extremelygood,YerYjnterestiig,
interesilng"
relative: the tollest, the best, the most

drier

F.(CITE:

* of supe;iority: toller, b.ett'er' more interestlng (than);

so good os' nCIt so interesting
- of inferiority:.not s-rL toll cls' not
Iess interest iYrg thon;
* of equiality: g: tolJ g; os good os' os interesting os;

H::',-"l}:;fl:i'ffi

Iittle -. Iess/lesser

,f-ri;'l fini*r

")
b)comParative

It is used for:
a)

fartherlfurther

muehlrnqnY

of cornparison:
Adiectives have the following degrees
interest'ing;
goad'
: toll,
Posit ive

a)suPerlative

informatian'
of "additional", "il"lore'n: furt'her
NOTE: Funther has t,he meaning

ThlE ADfEcTlvE

my
attributively, in family relationships:
EXder and the aldort are used only

1'

132

adiective. ("din ce in
He is getting better ond

+ rnore *

l;'

b) the

Ir,

l"

t' ,

'

better'
l-'{isonswers6relmoreandmo!"ecorrect.+ *o*p*ative " the + comparativl

tr\"i i

c6*'

.(".u

rnai "

'

rj

4;,t
tl

eldee" brother-

a)cotl'lparative+and+comp3,'"ji'*orm$E"etond*
Ce niai" "tot mai")

two tlings
c) rhe * csrnparrative (when
comPared)'Mary

is the pre"ttier of the two

133

sisters'

oI pe::ons are

a (little) personage in the

rhe sea is Dan,s. r0. He had a word with
is (hot) rhan the weathen in
police force. I I . The weathen in Florida
than her sister does.
Monrana. 12. She earns much (rittle) mon:-y
want to get to the
lf^you
l4(bad)'
13. My worl< is bad, but yours is
he is a famr,,us
5".Although
r
right.
the
to
market, tar<e (near) turning
l1 Y?u can buy'some stamps
man, he is (modurq than rnost people.
she was in the (out)
ar (near) posr-office. 17 . She so.on realized (up) rooms. 19' He
the
of
danger. rg. The new iodg*, rook one

2. Classification of Adiectives
2.1

. Fram o
both

")
block, etc':

Pr

, adiectives can be:

good' tall
and attiiUutive:

syntactic point of

edicative

view

good book. The book is good"

etc':
i v e only: waollen, total, rnere,
b) attr ibutive
I like this woollen skirt. He is o mere former'
c)pred icative o n lyt olive,owake, osleep' worth' etc':
When I wolked into his room, he wos owoke' '
l'm

pgTE:
swetr

reading o

preilrred the (fo,:e) altennative to the (late)'

H" frsnslote into English :
cu atat mai scurtl i1i va fi viafa'
r . cu cit vei fi mai gras,
s[ cilitore;ti. 3. Cu cAt vorbeam
2" Astlzi este din ce ?n ce r-nai uFor
Am citit arnbele lucrtri 9i cred
4.
mai mult, cu atit eram mai abrtut.
mai departe, cu atit
mergeam
cat
ci a ta este cea mai bun[. 5. cu
in aceste idei'
mai foarne.6. Tot mai pugini oameni cred

tdstes good' The air smells

Adiectives can be sublect complements: fhe soup
I lik.e my tea strong'
open.
or obiect complements: He flung the windaw

2.2. From the

u/ord-formation

4simPle
b) derive

'.

.) comPo

point of view, adiectives con be:

ni se ff,cea
nrai harnic gi cel mai anrbilios'
7. Dintre cei doi frali, George este cel
cu atf;t nrai bilc'
B. cu cat poti vinde mai t*tt* bilete,

old, worm, ernpty;

: beautiful, unh'appy, btock-hoired,

u n d : homesick, t.iptought,

horrnless;
well-meanrng'

o lot, o good
lll' Fill in.theblonks wit.hthe intensiflers: much, far,
imagpossible,
by
ond
,
far,
deor, o gr*r* deotr, for the comparotive

il,-i..

inoblc, for tlle suPerlotive:

for it' 7' Travelling
I lrr tlrt: t.rrrl [rc will pry a higher price
tlre nrost
*r ,l()t (- lrtr.t t:,;tllt11 tlran watching TV' 3' This is

3. Position of Adiectives
When adiectives are attributes, theY ane Placed:
onimsl;
a) before the noun: short hair', hemvY box, big

|)l(.:,.'lll}',1lttrltlt.lt.l....,,1,,{lrrrlilicstlriswirrtcr.4.Yortlt;tvcllottttdthe
W. lrirt'l tlrc t';lt'('st tlilf rcrf lty

a n*un,,thein order from the noun

NOTE: lf there are several adiectives nnodifying
pr*tty
age, sha?*l tiil:1::'Ir":
origin/style,
material'
ro rhe left is: (noun)
yrrurlg French wornan,

"ol*ir,
lang yeltoi silk dress,

An:e ricon

let

plone"

'n '*{"nsive
some bady impontslTt' a carpet
mtsrtisl,
court
noun:
the
b) after
two metres lon$, a mnn difficult to pfeose"

EXHRCISES

l. SuPPlY the

comparotive

or

superlo tive farm

of the odjective

in

hrocke ts;

l.

for a (big)
He is (lu=y) student in the class. 2.. she is lool<ing
o' H:
l<now
I
cook
(gooct)
is
3.
rhe one she has

low.

flat than

Jane

muslc'
with moder, [:ainting than with rnodern
.f,^ -*-,{"inn
information
(run)
ro
unt*
him?
war
of
irc
6.
ser
news
5. what is (lare)
./t -r-\
^l^*,
7. "The t t..r1)csr" is shal<urpu11e's. (late) play"
;;
'l
g.
from
hourse
(far)
The
yo*.
g. Her (old) iiut*, is five years (rlrl) tlur.

is much (farniliar)
lt,

llarl\-lr

\re

il;;;il;;ation.

So^m

1"r
t,lt l, llly ,, ,,,1[llcS' 5'
lris group'
ill tilrr,. i, ltrr lr.rt rl is tlrc wtrr :,t :,turlt'rtt. ilr
new one'
t.ltc
tlt'tlr
t'tl
('xl)t!l
('
l('ll<
r,(.r
lll()l
I r.1,, y l',
I . ()rrr ,,lrl
itt'ttt'l tlt'ttt ltr:tS"
tl I tlrffrl* yotll llllt'lVlt'W'..lll'

Irt.:,t

.r.lttt

l,t:ilrrr1,, ll{.r r.

lV\rr|r|rlylltr.r111llll,tr.l,(t..ll,{,l,rtffr.tt.t,tlttnl1t:c"ttye.
t"rieS tO be pOlite
I f{,il y t.r V(.ry l()trrl ( lrllrll ('ll ) I lt' ;tlw'tys
her" 4' She has
l,.lY
to
ytltl
wlt.lr
(,rt
,,
t.lul
I 1,,r. Vr,l y
Irl,, lt.,l, llr.t
have all the
Wg
5'
tltlttt''
ll'1.'
'llryrlrrrrll "llt'
nr'v('t lrt't'll ',ll( ( t""'ltll
,rr (.xr)r.r ,r(,rrr (r slrt' is quite differgnt
r.r|lr,rrrt,rrr ,r.r r.,,.,., /
,l ;.ll Irt:e ,t,"(' ltt' ll() longer wanted to be
l,,lc
lr,.t lr,,,l r,ttr,l / I 1,,
"l
iS Very patient
,lr.1,,.trtlr,trl ltl', l).ll'.llt', B' lrtl ll('W lt:;tCltef
l0' Flt'
schOOlmretes?
(l
yollr
Wl ry r16 y()tl lt'trl ttt[t:t tot
,lrrl,lr ,.rr

tt,|rIlll('lt..W,l.,V(.ly.llll1lyy()tlll.WhatareyouafraielI
ytltll ltl((tlss'
ll I'ttt lrt .,itrl
jtlto ttre carrect sentences.
V l,tll lllr. Itlllt)w,ll!| ttd1r,<.[tyt:s
grelr srnooth, SOur' well
good,
fresh,
f.rlie,
,r) dr.r1lt.l-.ltt.,
(

ttr lru('tl llr"rltlr;

135

t1{

*
c) to emphasize a word or a phrase (e*phatic

THE FRONOUN

"it")

It

wos Tom *)ho come late lost night.

d) as a subject when the subiect clause comes later in the

o'it")

l. The

sentence (introductory
It is nice thot you come.

personal Pronoun

t.l.
Ferson/Number

1.4. Speciat Use of '*yau", "\Me" Ond "they'*. We sometimes

"you" ond "they" to speok about people in general (:everyone);
Plural

Singular

First person

Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative

we
ours

mine

$o)

Vou con't do much without maneY.

They soy he is a gaod doctor.
They may also be used to talk about a group of people if
not important to say who theY are:

tirl

me

us

US

me

Second person

Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative

You

You

yoars
(to) you

lrours

fto) You

You

Yau

me

dicine, we'll get

chocolote.

he
his

2.

The possessive pronoun and the possessive adlective

2.1

fto) him
him
she
hers

$o)

her

her

Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative

theY

theirs
(to) them
them

The possessive pronoun

Person/Number Singular

Plural

First

ours
yours

person
Second person
Third person

it

mine
Yours
his
hers

theirs

its

its

It's

is

by rulers), or "editorial" we (used by authors, lecturers, etc.). They

use it in order to avoid l, which might sound too egoistic.
We may also be employed to replace you, which might be felt
roo aurhoritative (particularly when talking to children or the sick):
flow are we todoy?

tf we toke the

(to) it
Accrts:ttive
" it
1,2 Ilrc frersonol pronoun is used to talk about the speoker(s), l,
or
W, tlrc pcl-son(s) we are speaking tO, You: or the person(s)
they.
it,
she,
thing(s) w,, ,lt'c speal<ing about, he,
1.3. Uses {)f "it"" We use "it""
a) to t;rll< about a thing
I lost nty pen lt wos red.
b) as subicct in a sentence about time, weather or distance (imPersotral

it

They are buitding a new hosPitat"

lrYe may be used by a single person. lt is called "royal" \A/e (used

Thlrd person

Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Norninative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Norninative
Gr,rrrtive
Dnt rvr:

Use

"it")

The possessive pronoun rePlaces both the object that is possessed and the person who Possesses 'it. lts basic function is that of
predicative.
Mother's cor is new. Mine is old.
The cor

is mine.

2.2. The possessive adiective

Person/Number Singular
my
First person

person
person

Second

yaur

Third

his

Plural
our
your

her

tertt o'clock.

their

it

tt is roirrtrrg.
138

139

The possessive adjective neplaces the person whc pcssesses

something and detenmines the noun that expresses the object w"hich
is possessed: This is her clr.
The possessive adjective has the functicn cf an attribute.
NOTE: The adlective "o\ffn" can be used after the possessive adjeetive to underline
the idea of possession:

It wos his own

/t

**

,,,.rr1,:r

* it rnay be used in questions concerning deseriptions on when

inquining about someone's oce upatlon:
lrYhot do yau wont to become, s teacher or o trcnsfst"orT
it
implies
that the choice is rnacle from an unllnrited numben:
What, lvos his answer?
WHICH: * as subject of the sentence it is foilowed by u verb
eithen in the singular or in the plural, ciepending on the situation.

rc/es to go there.

/ brought the test-pelpers, see whfcfi

rs yours sncl

which are

theirs.

it

3. The interrogative pronoun and the imterrogative

adleetive

Whicfi shn// I
3

3.1. fhe interrogative pranoun occurs in

cnd reploces the noun in the dllswer:
"kl/ho ls ccming?"
".f

"5.

o,n interragstfve sentence

"Nothing"" I "l'rr7 reoding the newspa|er."

The interrogative adlective deterrnines a ncun and helps to
hulld a sentenee:
Whtick boak riid yau read?
prono{.Jns. The pronCIttn

'n\

4" The demonstrative pronoiln and the demonstrative

adjective
4.t

Drtive: to whcn'e
#

t iltttl ,t 1:lural mecning:

they?
'.s

Jolu,

What filn

"near" reference
"distant" refenence

Singular
THIS
THAT

Plural
THESE

THOSE

The clemonstrative pronouns usually express spatial and temporal relationships between the objects they stand for and the speaker:
Ihot fs our house.

"Whose Pen is this7"

"lt'-s

ane?

/ho'*

Ar, usa[ive: fsr whom

1.3 I irt: interrogotive pronouns cnd cdjectives (#n fucve borh

Who lrc

ar the b/ue

phroses;

He knorvs what's whct. (fii le ;tie pe toote.)

be

Wfas is your teach*r?

Norninative: who
Gcnirive: wn'aose

sirrgu/cl

tic

Who's Who (Anuoru I nstabilitdyilor)

What obout y*u? (Dar tu?)
Whot obout it? (fi, .pi? I Ce-i cu osta? Ce zici despre asta?)
bVhot about o eskeT (Ce zfcf de o prcjrtura?)
A4ory's bag v/os futt of perrs, pencf/s, rubbers ond what mot.
(Gecnts fW,sruef erc plind cu stfJouru, creioane ti cdte altele.)
What o[ rhert? f Whst then? (Ei gf7 Ce- i au asta?)
I don't know which is which. 4nNu Ie pot deosebi.)

0hn""

"VVho*u, "whoryr" con onXy

rs used anly {ar persorTs:

Ie/iornc]

lsuy, ffoe red pullaver

fe/l n'le Who's wha! (Spune-rni crne-i de {*ya!)

"Lfffumt Gre yCIu daing?r'

i.Z.

implies that the ehoice is made from a limited number:

,'

'The

4.2.
demonstrotive odjective determines a noun and expresses
the ploce of the noun in time or spoce:

clid you see?

Which book.s did you buY?

3.4. Diflbrences between what ond which

WHAT: .. as subiect of the sentence it is followed by

the singular:

, verb in

This man helped me.

4.3. Other demonstrotiyes that can function both cs pronouns ond
odjectives ore; the former ond the latter (they moy hove both Fer-

sonol ond non-personol reference), the flrst, the last, the other (the
others), the same (usually occurs with a definite orticle), such:

What has hctltPened?

140

141

t
Somebody is ofren us*d with the indefinite article or irr the
plural, when siinifying 'na person of some importance".

Now that he did that', he is {n} somebody'

fhis big new house made them think they are somebodfes.
soMETl-llNG usually has ncn*persona! reference. lt nray refer
to some thing, obiect, event of an indeflnite nature:
She wsnts sornething to cut the cake wit"h'
something may have personar reference when it signifies a
or cther.
person of importance or a person who has scnre position
Deportment.
Affairs
Foreigrl
Jone is somet hing at the
8.2. fhe indefinit"e pronouns erllr anybody, affiyome, amything'

They atcur
They have the some uses os the corresp ondtng forms of'some"
clauses
, and in
canditional
in
sentences,
negotive

in

interragative and
sentences when doubt

'

gffiThf;lF\8ffi has non*personal reference:

Ncthing cfin hetrP n"Ie.
8"4. The indefinite prenoufis nruuch, ffilamye rno! e, most t6n also

[:e nouri substitutes" Much suhstitutes singuffrr, uncoun table r]ouns, while

ntaffiy silbstitutes plural moufis.

We hsve ntuefi to he rhcnkfi;l f,ot'
ManY were broken-hecrted.
This is the mmst I csri do {or Y*u'
There

personal reference:
too dsrk
Some soid they hadseer? everything, but tthinkit wos

for drry to see how it' oll started'

ANyBoDy, ANyoNE are sernanricaily

lar to somebody and someone:

and functionally simi:

Is anYbodY there?
r) There isn't anyone here wha can do it.

ANyTHING: lts meaning is "a thing of any scrt" or, in affirffla*

"no matter what":
sctttctlces,
tivc
I lrrs anYthing unusuat haPPened?
I wnnt to drink something; anything will do.
indefinite pronouns none, nobody, no one, nothing'

8.3. Iltl
offtrmative"
They o( ( {,r tn negotive sentences when the verb is in the
and it
nouns
uncountable
or
countable
NONE ,,,""y substitute
references:
non-Personal
or
may ltave pet'seittal
"l lttw Inetly letters have Yau writt'en?"
ttNorle. "

Of olt he:r friends, none come to her birthdoy party '

Gny m?#'"e' hoye )'orJ eotem

alt?

8.5. The indefinite pranouns everybCIdy, eYe;Yoffi, everythf;ng

in ft,nction and csnnctction to tlre other cornpounds

yiitii -h*dy, -srlie' *thing, Hverybody mrid everything hove Pers*r"r*l referemre, whfle even'ything hss n$m-pers* nal reference.
Is everYbodY lrerel
ln smull towns like tliis, eyeryome knows everyone.

EnerYtfiing is sll right"

8"6" The indefinite cd3ecfiye $orme clc(urs in affirrnotive sentences;

I have $orme

frr*lportmnt pnoblerns

to sa:fve.

g"T. The indefinite adjectiye amy ls used in intenrogcfrve and negotiye sentences, in condrtf anc{ efaruses, trnd in sentences when doubt or
negotiorr is intPlied:
I lrcvett't got cIffiY mCIffeY.
lf there should be ony difficrtlty, pleose call me.
B.B. The irrr/efinite cdjective nc) oc(urs in nelgcttive sentences, when
in the affirmative. It is used with singular ar plur*l esunt

the yerb is
able

no{lrls.

no rnistokes in your paper

no more coffe.

There are

Ihere

i.s

'

8.9. fhe indefinit"e adjectiyes much ond many. Much is used with

singular, u.ncauntoble nouns , while many is used with plural nouns:

There isn't ntuch {ood in the house-

N,rtnY PeoPle think so.

E" 10" The indefinite od.lectfrre every is used only wfth singulor
'

uY.'&;:THxT ffi ;:,' ;,:{

NOBODY arxl No oNE have personal reference and as a

subiect take a verb irr the sirrgular:
Nobody knows where he is"
No one hos seen him for two weeks'
744

it

{r}-* sfryr ilar

or negotion is inrplied.
plural countable noun.
a
substitute
to
I went to buy some eggs becouse I didn't" have anY'
- to substitute an uncountable"or tnass noun:
tneed sorne mone1' Have You got anY?

is hardly

r45

r"

mouns;

d
AND TI.IH INFINITIYAI.
COf{STRUCTIONS

T}TE INFINITEVE

EXERCISES

l. Tronslote inta Rom onian oni comment upon the lmperative;

and l<eep fitl 2. Suit yoursetf! 3. Watch youlr rnouth!

4. Help yourself and also help your guests to some cherries! 5- Be
preparing the dinner when mother comes! 6. Please, be seated, sirl
7. Have done with it! B. Do come to ffi, please! 9. Weep not, ye
trees! 10. Come and see me some time!

l. Eat fruit

ll.

Tronslate into English:

. I . Stai jos gi nu spune nimic. 2" Vorbegte cit vrei, cf, tot nu mt
convingi cI el g.Ste nevinovat. 3. Tu vino aici! 4. Nu te mi;ca, ai o
rnusc[ pe p[lirie. 5. Tu scrie scrisoarea mea. 6. S[ nu indriznegti
si-i faci vreun rf,u! 7 . Di-mi drumul, ticillosule! B. Acum papi tot ti
mergi sf, faci nani. 9. Nu te interes eaztt I 0. li dai un deget ;i ?!i ia

toatt mina.
lll. Write o short

ge6 reddy; Iceep coon, Pleose.

KEY TO THE EXERCIsES

vrei! 3. Ai grili
cu c!repe.
oaspeti
pe
ceilalgi
gi
servepte-i
fr vor'lrc5ti. 4. Servepte-te
;i
5 I't r.t,,rt t:gte cina cind vine mam a" 6. Luagi loc, vf, rog, donnnule!
I lt.r nrnr.i c rr asta. 8. Vino, te rog, la mine! 9" Nu plAngegi voi, copacilor!
I 0. Vrr r, ) l)c la mine odatS!
It I \rr rlown and don't say anything! 2.Talk as much as you !ike, yolJ
won't (.()nvnr( rl rne that he is innoeent. 3. You come here! 4. Don't flinch,
you lrrrvt: .r lly or) yoLir hat. 5, You write the letter! 5. Don't you dare harm
her! 7. 1-cr rnc go,you bastard! 8" Now you eat everTthing up anal go nicely
to bed! 9. Ncvo' you nnindl I0" Give her an inch and she'll take an ell-

I I I'lincali fructe

hope yau

didn't annoy

her.

Having the grammatical categories of voice and aspect, the infinitive

can have the following fonnns:

Active voice - lndefinite lnfinitive to ask
.'lnfinitlve ContinuouC" to be asking
Perfect tnfinitive to hove osked
rt,r- Fe/fiect Continuous lnfiruitiye to hove been osking
Passive voice Indefinite lnflnitive to be ssked
Ferfect lnfinitive to hove been ssked.
2. A special use of the infinitive, known as the split infinitiv,
where the adverb which modifies the verb is inserted between the
particle to and the verb prcper, occurs sometimes in the language
fon the sake of clarity.
l-le was too mrserobie to reqlly cdre about onything at all.
3. TI"ae aecusative with the infinitive"represents a combination of a noun or pronoun in the accusative case and an infinitive.
This ccnstruction has the syntactic function of a cornplex object. The
accusative w9th the infinitive suggests a completed activity, while
the accusative with tlre participle views the erction in its progress.
3.1. Ihe occ{rsotive with the infinitive is used:
a) after verbs of perception such as feel, hear, notice, observe, perceive, see, wgtch, etc.
Ihe womdrr"t back in the store had seen hint stesl the ban6nos.
They watched him tidy his rooni.:irefulty.
b) after venbs expressing wish or intention:. ehocse,
deslre,
u i"
intend, mean, w!sh, want, etc.
,'

dialogue in which you will use the lmperative

Mood and slso the fotlowing words: seoU sit down; have a cigdrette;
hetp yourse tf; belieye; say; give; never mind; tolk; storYi true; lie;
Ietj interfere with a problem; Prepare; hold back; go; fool; sen-

sible;

I . The infinitive is considereci to be the base form of the verb.

It narnes the action or the state expressed by it, without reference
to person, number, oF mood" lt occurs in the langtrage either as long
infinitive, i"e. preceded by the panticle to
I didn't know what to s6y"
or as short infinitive, i.e. not preceded by the particle to

pi rnenfinefi-v5 ?n formdl 2. Fe cLlm

They wonted rmeiudo*',be o doctor.

"They

180

intend the house

to be fr,rrnrshed

beflore Christmos.

.l
{

rfip
.'-

i;

,. . "ii

'

, 51, The for-to infinitive

after verbs expressing nnental activities: helf;eve, esmsider,

expect, feen, irmagirae, lcnswr srlppose, thimk,

It'ley expeeted

8r"rxst, usnderstmnd,

i:

tfieir chifdrers to &e wef$ dnessed*

We rhougfur frfrm to he kind

ernd frlendfy, whicfu

he vv#s r:at.

,.d)'aftei- verbs of cleclarlng: declare, pr&mer*fficee repmr.

l-le reparted the sfffstfCIm to &e unb**rshfe.

e) after verbs expressing feelings and en:ations:

$[Eqeo disflE!<e,

EXERCISHS

[ove, hate, prefer, etc.

ot waufd you fike ffiffi e$epfucmt *o perfCInm in
lCislike him ts dnive so flast.

Wh

tfue eircusi

u:t, etc.

put awby

hfs toys before'he gces outJ

f-fe wanter! to rmoke his buildings frt fntc the lsnd sraund
ti:em.

4. The nsemimative w$th the inflnitive !s basically a passive

constri;etimn, made up of a noun or prCIRsun in the nsminative case,
ancl ar-l intinltive. Syntaetically, this constructi*n'has the functlon
c()n

of

-.,'

,''.

l) M*ry wanted her fiance to be honest with her"

2) Mother asked the baby sitter to iook afrer the chilcjren.
3) The connmander ordered the so/drers to stand -straight.
4) The antibiotics rnade the fever abate.
5) They woulld lil<e their dnwghter to go to rhe seaside"
ll. Answer the foltowing questior?s.-"
l) What encouraged you te move to another town?
?) !f you mal<e a friend, how do you expeer him to be?
3) What do her good nesults in school enable her to do?
4) If sorneone is neliable, what can you trust him to do?
5) What does a trainer ehallenge a sportsrnan to cl6?

g) after causative verbs on verbs expressing constraint: 6ause,

A4oke &fm

l- Chomge the words in ito/ics to the corresp on:,airg pronoups in tfoe

0ccus0tive.

f)'after verbs expressing order, perrrtission or demand: aBlow,

ask, cormlmamd, den'land, let, order, requiren *tc'
l've decided to allaw him to do os he pleases.
He ordered hJs suftcoses to be ready in *he rnarning.
foe'ce, Bet, have, nnake,

construction contains an inf,initive w,hich

predicate relation to a noun or pronoun pneceded by the prepoln

sition for.
Ihere is nothing for frim to do fhere.
It's tirne fror you to tetrl tfoe truth.

f f l" ffiewrite the sentences using

Begin ds srrggested.

rplex subject.

r)

4.1. fhe nqrninatrve wftf: tfue infrnitfue rs used.

;r) with most verbs which used in the active vciee are followed
Lly ;l11 ;r( crts;ttive with the infinitive.
She wos heard to sfirdek desperorefy.
His story rs beffeved to be reol.
Her stote wos reported to be criticol.
lotut v1los ollowerJ to do os he pleosed'
The children were made to tidy their raoiri.
b) with vu-bs lil<e appea[', prove, seem, turn out, etc"
7 he bry proved to be very gaad at mathenlotics"
c) with verb;rl phrases sucl-r as to be suail, to be likefy, to be

2
3

4
5

lJ:ff r;,1,9J*;;:]l

the accusatrye with the infipitive"

anvone tr was suppc';sed ro be a

I can't do that alone . You surely clort't ilrtend

Can't you stay a little longer? l'<J lovr] ...
Alice is ill. She needs to be seen by . cl'cror. I odvised
Lool<, the baby is running in tlrc strct:t! Do yow want... ?
You won't change your nrincl, will y.u? l'd hate"..
The ambassador's wife dresses srn(rr-tly. L"te /ikes..
I'lother gave Peter an alarnr clocl<. she expects
The soprano has a Ioud vorce . Everyone in the house can
"

t0) [::;'a'sreat fisherman. we eiov to wotch

IV. Moke up 5 sentences using the accusctive with the

after causotive yerbs.

rl.g. Benny Hill mode his audience 106r with laughter.

gBmdu etc"

'ffe is srlre to learn the ,'ule now"

182

183
i

aF

infinitive

You surely don't intend me

I advised her to see
longer.4)
little
a
stay
to
you
love
I'd
to do it alone. 3)
a doctor. 5) Do you want it to be hit by a car? 6) I'd hate you to change
your mind. 7) He likes her to dress smartly. 8) She expects him noEto be

lll. l) I didn't mean you to tell anyone.2)

voice:
Put the following sentences into the possive

V.

l)WeknowtheDutchtospeakmorethanonelanguage.
by the end of
2) They expect him to be bacl< frorn his iourney
the
in

weel<.

3) Everybody considers vorone! to

iate for school anymore. 9) Everyone in the house can hear her sing-

be the most beautiful church

V. l) The Dutch are known to speak more than one language- 2) He

Romania.

4) They heard him whisper sorne nasty remarks'

5i People know him to be a great pianist.

Vl.

is expecred to be back from his journey by the end of the week- 3) Voroneg
is considered to be the most beautiful church in Romania. 4) He was heard
to whisper some nasty remarks. 5) He is known to be a gneat pianist-

Translot'e into English:

Vl. l) I don't advise you to leave in such weather.2) He likesyou to

finish your work in time. 3) Her friends persuaded her to do what she had
to do. 4) They arrived on Friday although we expected them to be here the
followin,g day 5) He asked you to write him a letter rnotivating why you
thoughtio. 6) Do you like the way { dance? My sister taught me to dance7) From time to time the sound of a fugitive laughter made him tremble like
a leaf. B) Your interest in advertising will make you throw a deeper look

Nu te sff,tuiesc s[ pleci Pe o asernenea vreme"

2) Lui ii place s[-!i termini treaba la timp'

l)

3i Frietenii au convins*o s5 facd ce tnebuie' fie aici in ziua

4) Ei au sosit vineri de;i noi ti agteptam sft

urmdtoare-

g&ndeSti aFa"
rugat s[-i scrii o scrisoare motiv&nd de ce
s& dansez'
Tnvligat
m*a
mea
sora
dansez?
cum
6) IIi place
sil tnernure
T) Din c&nd tn cflnd, sunetu! unui rAs fugitiv Tl filcea

S)

f*-u

towards TV, movies, and commercials. g) ln the past teachers had the
children sit for hours and memorise all sort of things. l0) During the history
classes you ought to make them feel that they are presented the lives of
'people
who r"rlly lived. I l) He is a quick tpmper who easily gets bored and
who finds such decisions difficult to take. l2) Everybody exPects me to do
everything like my neighbours, the Japanese. I 3) Here are some rules for
you io learn. l4) The fence was left for you to paint. l5) This is not for him

ca o frunz6-

s)

sf, arunci c
Intenesul tdu pentnul pubtricitate te va detei"nnina

privire ry*i atent[ sPIe televjziune, fllme pi reclan-le'

g) In trecut prefesorii ?i puneau pe cspii s6 stea ore in ryir pi s6
de lucruri'
I $\;r
Imemoreze
"ibj*in tot felul
crel* de isrmrle trebuie s5-i faei s[ simtt cd li se prezintf,
viegile unCIr oameni care au tr&it cu adevfirat'
care gisegte
I l) Este o {ire iute, cat'e se plictiseqte u$or ;i
ascrnenea decizii dificil de luat'
vecinii mei'
12) Toata lumea se aFteapta sx fac totul ca 9i

't

iaponez-ii

l0) We

enjoy to watch him fish-

to

decide.

*
THE PARTICIPLE AND PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTIONS

13) lat[ aic! cfiteva reguli pe care s[ le Tnve$i'

l4) Gardrrl !i-a rXmas lie de vopsit"
l5) Accst lucnu nu-l decide el"

KEY TO THE

EXERCISES

There are two participle forms in Englislr: the 'ing participle

which denotes a continuous action or state, artcl the past participle,
which is the third form of the verb and denotes the action as a resultThe -irrg participle has the categories of voice and aspect; thus it has
the following forms:

':'

r. -lnalp&r,l.

l. l) hirn, 2) hcr, 3) them, 4) it, 5) her'

2) I'd like
1. r) The corcr wearher made me move to anothen townher get a good
help
results
good
Her
3)
funny.
and
nice
honest,
him to be
him.5) He always
job" a) lcan trust hirn not to let me down when lneed
better'
fight
to
more,
train
to
sportsnrctt
the
challenges

Active voice
I

II

Passive voice

lndefinite ParticiPle -gskfng i

Perfect ParticiPle hoving osked
lndefinite Participle being rsked
Fei'fect Participle having fieen osked.

\r

185

184

The accusative with the participle represents a conrbination of a *o*o ,.o,. pronoun in the accusative case ahd a particlple.
function of a
Syntaeticalty the accusative with the partieiple has the
partieiple
-ing
The
.l*plex o'biect, after a monotransitive verb.
infinitive,
the
with
construction
the
construction differs slightly from
par"ticEp[e
past
The
progress.
in
acrion
in that ir gepenally lmfitiei
constructisn in resultative in nreaning'

l.

!,I

b) after the verbs leave, find, keepr catch"

He wos found trying to breok the computer code

absolute participial. construction contains a participle
The
3.
which stands in pnedicate nelation to a noun or pronoun in the nominative case, but the noun or pronoun is not the subject of the
sentence.

Everyba{l being presenf, the host will moke a toost.

tt being too lote, they stopped waiting {ar her.

The occusotive with the partieiple fs used.

'[oo[<
&t, nertice, ohse$rye,
after verbs of perception: feel,
srmell,
see,
penceive,
Fl: ..
I sow srmoke con'ling tllrough the tretfer bax"
She fblt her secret reveofed to onyone present'
b) af'ter such verbs as: find, l<eep, Ieave, caeh, semd, spot'

EXERCISES

the fotlowing questions usrng the accusotive with the

participle
constru ctian:
indefinite
I. Hsw did you l<now there was a nightingal" ]n the garden?
(sing).2. l{ow did you guess he was the guide? (lead)"5" Wny did you
say rhe horning pigeons were back? (fly)" 4. Who told you we were
playing hide-and-seek? (hicle). 5" How did you notiqe they quarelled?
(leave angrily).

l.

dEscover:
The fescher ceuglit John throwimg stones
He left her erYing in oespoir. \
A4otfuer flound

st the wfr:dow'

fier f,nigh-heeled sfuyes worm hy her lrttle

A

dCIughter.

r'

e) after causative verbs lil<e: have, Set, set, stant,

ete"

I'rn sure they'fl get thimgs gofmg'

"l'!! ficye tfoerm sft$Werrmg ati my questlod'Is", smfd the detee tlve

you're *!w*ys fste;' you certornly nrust fusve ysexr

"

5sd tfuelr tents nofo&eef u,'f:tfe they v{e{e h;firug.

with verbs expr}ssing wish: w[sh, wamt, prefmr; Iike'
'[lrr: pofire wdnted tfue fsw respected'

I slrould

Irtr.le

tfue Wor$d Cerp wffim hy rfue {:est

The nomrilotiye with t"he partfcipfe is

used;

Use the words

in

brcrckets

l.

to the poticeman

or

rn I lrt: clcctlsotlve wltli

the

Father saw (Amelia, iump, barn, alt Ltltrbrella as a parachute).

(she, retell, dramatic exper-ier)ces while travelling).
watched
Z. We
3. I don't want (she, hurt). 4" Alice hates (they, waste tirne)" 5. They
dis'covered (the advertisir"lg company,use, their pletr-rre)" 6. fivery-l'he police ea'u$ht (the ycung
body watched (they, play cricl<et).7.
U"y, steal a can). B. She surely l<nows hou'to get (thirrgs,go)"9. Dr:n't
leave before yo!,t have (the matter, settle). 10. hle is an frxpert. He'll
Irave (they all, beat at chess).

a) aiter verbs of Pe[cPption:

F-Jn vros seen clin'lbing the cliffi
1
186

hte reports

fsarti ciple cons ti ueti an

which is usr,.r;,rlly ;,rrr ing partie lple. Syntaecical{y, this eonstrueticn fLlnc*
tions as a cniiiPlcx srrbiec'{:

a car occident" Now

tll.

flecrm.

2. f"he rromimative wEth the pmrtfianpfie is basically a passive

from whieh
constr^rrctiprr ;rl ralogous to the narninatiue wltfi the fnfrrlltfl'e,
or state" tt
aetion
esn"tinu#Lns
a
irnplies
generally
ii
tlurr
irr
it cliffers
panticiple,
a
and
contains a noLtn or a F:,rorioun ir, th"e nominative ease

2" t

Johnwitness ed

yellow car -- go slowly. 2- it -- l<eep to the centrc of the road"

3. green car behind spced up- 4- driver tall< to a lady. 5. he try to overtal<g. -6. green car sl<id off tlrc roacl. 7. it - crash into
a tnee.8. lady - bleed. 9. slte - collrc otlt of tlrc c.ar. 10. yellcw can
clrive uway.
I

wmtcFl

They

l)

ll.

obout it:

rmpmfred.

Answer

1B:l

ffi
. The geru nd is usecl after:
a) transitive verbs; to avoid, to bear, to finish, to hate, tn
imtemd, tG keep, to pn'efer
3

he \,^/as caught replacing the statue

angle. 10. Although he operatec quickly,
to death hael thelr
with a copy. ! { " tn France, the pris*nens senteneed the press wants the
yet,
solved
Lreen
hasn't
heads eut off. 12" Although it
try chance the "Airbus" was filnned
case discussed in deta!l- 13" Absolutely
we can start the party' 85" l-he
falling. r4" The preparations berng ready,
off'
tal<e
can
$iuuing clissipateC, the plane

They l<ept tcfkrmg all the trn:e.

h) prepssltional verbs: to accuse,&$, 8ffi agree oH, to ain'l at,

tm believe fin, to consist in, to
fu"mm'e, ts result in, to stic-

flng

ffiX;.n-

She succeeded in Srrmgrmg fufn: bmck home.

TI.trE ffi'HM[-JNffi

CI$, eapmb$e of, csmscis{Js

vespCInsibte feixo, worth

c) aCjectivss: afrafd

d:
!

t#

is ficrn-lecl with rhe herp ef thm

. The gerurnci

*f;s'ag

suf'fix added

e)

ehe verb'
Passfivm vCIlae

&atfrve varicm
$radmffiruBte

ffien"nsmd l-relp!mg; writlng

having heiped;,

Pmr{ect gerumd

havirrg writtenr

being
'heing

helPecl,

lil<,.

gmr

having been heiPed;

having beem r*rritten

und s?ey als(} exps:ess antmnisnlty

{rxc.r,r${3} fi-*trr$e*&h*n, smrgave,

tB"emn*q cr

aftmr"

l-ras

affmt- venhs

prepositions

!il<e;

{)n, rtpr}tI,'mfifmr* tva*hmug*

for" foefPrmffi rme"
Atrr,:r wn$*$ng tfuls pook h* heemrne ft:rmo*:s'
S*ggests an aeti*n
l lrr, llr *l)r,sitlmr: h*$mre usee{ wlth a gerulne{
I ir;t,tl< You

poste

ror lt I tlr:t

n-x1"lp#ss*$
wrnufnag 'cf"le

hy

th* finite

fet*er,

verb

/\ftg

A4y crrr \rl'ents rePmfrins.

1

ffio

art

mf

Hrs apclogy for he$rng fste wtrs c;crepteef.

phreses such as: theu'e is/was fl?ffin, *e he rxsed tq*, can'ff
he$p, emm'f stmsld, can't n'esist
whenever she rneets him.
loughing
help
Sfue can't

4. The gerund diffens frorn the -fiu"tg partieiple in that the f$rn")er
both verbal and i'lcminal ehanactenlstics:
4. I . Verbsl characterisfrcs of tfue geru*rud"
*) it has the category cf voice ane3 aspect (see I . l ,)
b) the gerund can [:e determined by an obiect:
Sfrre trisisted on rny hefpfng her.
c) it can be determined hy an adverbrial.
I'd suggest leoving n lrtr/e earlier.
,l) it rney bB use d"e: part of a conlpouncl ;tslicct pnecJicate
writirTg' the long lr'Itt't"
l,l'(f,ni1tr1r
,1 ')
Nrrrimto I char acteristics of the vct lr
,r) rt (;rn llc ;rreccded by a pt-cposll icln.
It will 1xc v(),t t hc,r frunt
l,) rt (.ln Irr" nl()(ltlrt:tl l-ly ;i

Jlr r',',r

srmokfrrg
n()r.nr rrt t-ltc'' I)():,s()5sive f;astr eli- by a

".',lV{' ,tt l;t:, tlVt'

/ \tr,r', ',ttt ltr,',t't/ r!{ lolttt' being t uclu:

I thttt'{ nuntl ltt', contirlg l,rIltt' Ittlr'.

d phcmed f:fm"

*m
,r,cir vepL:s as yxeedr wffitrrs flffiqu$re, desfire,
rneaniilg;
wmrth [[,** actrver v*i*:r* flenuncl is used with a passlve
Yorr hnir nt:ods cufitftrug.
The bcuk is vvorth rmmd$mg'

"t"

She rs proud cf fuefpimg Tom.

nouns -t- prepssltions: mstsmfishrmesx a, apmlogy $or,

"

written

The indeflinrite gerund, acr-ivm $r passiv*' dem*tes an metior:

expressed by the
sirn*rtaneous with ttre preser!r, past ffir futqine
irrrtt-e v*rh
d rhsnke d hiwt f$r fumfP$rxg '"re
l-l.re ir:dcir-lite

ef, pn'oud of,

.,

.;

ffiffi

lltt'

, ) ll (.ilt
',('ltl('ll( {'

lr lurrt t rorr uf sul:iee{ or eib]ect rn

Ctlllt:ctillg'rl rtr I l/ri r\ lrts lxtblty.

I lnt(* ltt', c0rtlillg lloll lt: klte"
'rqr

-H'

5. The gerund and the ParticiPle

,) if the -ing form determining a noun can be expanded into a
relative clause, it is a participle, if it can't it is a gerund
participle
growtng children (children who are growing) growth) growing pains (pains felt by the children during
gerund
b) the action denoted by the participle is carried out by the
su[iect of the
subleci of the sentence, while the gerund is itself the

sentence

r
Driving:ot night is tiresome' gerund
Driving around, l met John. participle
-

EXERCISES

gerundiol
Tronslate inta English rnoking use of o gerund or o
constru ctian in each of the following sentences'
mea necesitf, reparagti I
I . Mulgumesc cf, m-ali aiutat. 2. Magina
aici? 4" El a iegit din
dac[_fu{":,
deranieazr
v6
3.
trebr,rie repararx"
si mt uit la
camer6 fir[ si rispundx ra ?ntrebare. 5. imi displace
toli banii pe
eheltui
st
permit
televizor toatil ziua. 6. Nu pot sf,-mi
8. Vara
lui
sosirii
cauza
din
plecarea
"fohn'
eare-i am. 7. Ne-am aminat
?n lac cilnd
inot
si
place
inni
f.
zi.
fiecare
?n
ap[
de
florile au nevoie
ploui. 10. Nu are rost s6 pringi. I l. Renunlf, la fumat ;i te vei simgi

l.

mai bine. 12. lnsist ca ea

si ri" prezentS.

13.

Ai terminat de scris

vestea.
romanul? 14. Nu s-a putut abline s[ nu pl6ng[ cind- a auzit
spele vasele
s[
chef
are
nu
Ea
I6.
ta.
plecarea
de
depinde
Torul
15.
acest
azi. lT. Nu are rost se-i dai telefon acum. 18. Meritf, si vizitezi
lntenlionez
20.
voi.
cu
vorbi
de
stau
s[
nr*zeu. 19. Mi-a ff,cut placere
sai-i scritt

ll.

o scrisoare"

good at driving'
occasion of teiling him my opinion. z0. He is very

lll.

Buitd up sentences oflter

the follawing

model;

she is a good cook. ---------) she is good at cool<lng.

3" She
l. They are good translators. 2. Tom is a good me.chanic'
5..fohn is
teacherEnglish
excellent
an
is
Mary
reader]4.
*j il good
7- Jane is a very
ir v,.y good tennis playei. 6. He i.t * good worl<er.

9- Helen is a very good

l,rt.rtl srory-teller. a. nL is an excellenifisher.
skater'
good
a
is
rrovcl-writer. I 0. He

lV. f)uitd up sentences after the following model;

The room is dirty. flt needs (to clean)

It

needs cleaning'

2' The furniI lrt: c;il- is in a bad shape. lt neecls (to repair)'
!t needs (t*
stopped.
cloc!<
The
3.
crust).
(to
rrcecls
lt
rrrr.;ty
r* r. r.,
is dirty
The.carpet
s.
lt needs (to cut)"
rrrr*rr,r) ,r t.4y rr.lrr iu, too rong.
-il.irt
in)"
take
(to
needs
lt
loose.
too
is
lr ;1r.r,{1,, (r, w.r,,lr) 6 Ttre

lrt'fwcorl the brockets in the gerund:

in
I Ir,, y{,rt tttlltrl (t'o e lose) the windoW?' 2' There is llo harm
rude'
so
b*)
(to
for
(1, , wr ltr. I I lrt.lt t ,tltt lr tt f ltt'., trip. 3. ExcUSe hirrr
OUtSide
4 f*lr, ll,ttr.,, (1, tl.tltr r:) .lt lr.irtics" 5. ln spitc of tlrc storm
IWent
rain'
tlte
ilt
(,
yOtl
folW;rit)
Alt1r"(tO
(ltt',lt't'ft)
llr*I wt.irt ,tr
l;rrr5'1lr) when they 5AW
(t6
()tllcltt't
(
lrrl;l
llr,'y
/
.r,!lt
lt,,rrr. v,rl /
i,.t,1,g,,.,1 (fCr C trt) ilt,, ( tll't.ttll5 When I entefed
lrltrr +.1 r \,(F-l g I lrr.y

l'ttt llrr.

vr',

l,i

tltr, 11r,tlr r, I rl,tr't lr,trrl y(),t,(t.

.r1n;tf t 1{r nll

(lrI

\rrrrr1

.,t,tl|<t.) lll lrere. 10. Don't

li)

Tronslate into Roman ian:

in spite of her.father's thneats' 2. They

up
prefer reading ro watching the TV. 3. l'm sick and tired of waking
a.bout
talking
help
can'r
John,
she
4.
nrorniilg.
very early rn the
whenever .we meet. 5. pr yCIu mind taking him to the airport?
I

her
I need a pen for wriring him a leffier. 13. Althougl1 I asked l'rair
Your
14.
questions.
silly
to srop tulking, she l<ept Jn asking
to him? 16. I am
needs cutring. 15. Don't you r*gr*t having lied
to walking to the
used
is
He
lv.
late"
horne
coming
surprised at f,er
had the
office" I g. The winclows need washing. I9. I have already
12.

. They went on nneeting

6. The cold prevented thern from gcing out of the house. 7 - lt's
is proud
useless washing the car now; it will i-ain in an hour. 8. He

of having succuudud to build a house. 9. Stop shouting at me! 10. John

rememburc having seen her there. I l. My being latre annoyed him'
192

l(lY I(] Illt- hX['RClSES

I I llr,rtrl'
I lt,r y'ult trrlttrl
rt
t Itc= r ttr:l inI t
rfrnlrrllrrg,rll tlts'
folttt'r ,tt I iv;tl lt
1r

car needs repairing'

i',r l'lI lt,tvtltll ltt'l;rrtl lllo' 2' My
WithOUt anSWeritrg
rOOm
,,p11,,1*tn11
tlre
left
['-'lt:
1,,,,,,, 'l
,,,y
I rl, rlr't ltl,r, w.ttr lrrrrg I .V. all day long" 6- I can't afford
we postponed our leaving because of
| | tttI rily I lr,rvr: /
ltr \1111t(:t, flowcrs neecl watering every d,y" 9' I lil<e
193

B'
dar: nu ai voie s[-1 parisegti'
umbra liber prin orag,
Trebuie
9'
tine"
ca
si intilnesc o fatf,

i:.po1i
in urmi mi-ar fi pricut

Ben nu putea
a solicita acest post' l0'
oarecare experienlf, p-*lr
gtiu.despre acest caz'
t t . ii voi ,pTu tor ce
rispandi aseLenea birfe.
ti: * Doresc si am
trebuie sf, cornpreu*=L formularul' r4" crezi ci vrea
1 2. solicimnlii
disean[. - va fi-reyarate.
rnagina reparati pina
s6 te gandqti la
caserofonuli .t i Ar trebui
videosf,-mi imprumute
cAnd iei asemenea decizii'
consecinge

KEY TO T'I.{E EXERGISES

as well" ?"
because she rook mine
she
r" She might rike chocorate
person' 3' 'he
honest
an
as
known
is
because she
4' He
it'
of
fond
may be te'ing the truth
very
theatr; i tinow 'h*'s
could be gorng to the mrdnight
listening'

t.

might have

#;

been
busy. sl ft-,"y might have

ll.l.Somebodycouldhavestolenit.,2"otherwisethedressmight
china pieces'
Th*v *ight have bror<en varrrabre
have been ruined. 3.
she should be
he's got experience' 2'
lll. l. He should get it because
be enough but take a
phon" ,tr*uJf" 3: rt shourd
ar horne to answer your
bit more in case it isn't'
eaR't hear it
it without studying. ?,.S1: 4' You can't
lV. l. He could,t have done
light"
i*a
#.
can't have seen
fnorn the garden. 3. The"Jrir*,
have Painted them Yourself"
shouldn't
.v" I" He may not cor*e ro the meeting tanight. 3'.Youneedn't
fly
'3'we
,*ro'"i'ud"
compleo?ly
or-ight to
.vrro'y about her because she has
D-rivers
4'
drive'
of pranes. we can
5' Ynu must not
to Bucharest if yor-r ur"-uf.uid
in the crowded cities'
*up*.ial.ly
rufs
traffic
have made his
cauld
conforrn to the
r-re
owith the denrisr.
uppoirr***u-,,
freeiy
your
about
n"ray
forgct
er' 7' You
"ralk
his paper on the comput
lil<ed to meet
have
worl< casier by writing
would
H;L it. 8. ?;l{^y:l
in rown but you *ur*ni,
in order to apply for this
have some experience
g
rnusr
a girr ril<c you
wi* tell him all I l<now
r
r.
r
lluhave spread uu"n*gosuip.
g"n can,t
l3' "l want
r0.
tob"
*o riit in tt u upplication f:t*'
r4' Do you thinl< he
about rlrrs case" tz. Applicants ,ur:, ;:rr 11-11
fi'old'"
.bu
to thinl< of the conto havc rTry car frxed tly n""ighr.':
rne his video relord*ri- i5-'yo"
take such Cecisions'
sequences when you

would

rencr

ought

T[48 ANVERB

cu anl
si ai CI

l"l"Theadverbshowsccharacteristicofaneventarastdte,o
quatity therecf

.2. An adverb ntnY modifY:

We shall see obout it t'omorrow'
a verb:
an adiective: f-Je wos owfullY grateful'
I

She spoke extren'letrY loud'

an adverh:
0nly .fane kmew the onswer"
a noun:
ysLi too.
And
a prclrtoLuffi:
goins '
i-r particiPle: F{e wss afraid of ifl-gotten
style"
her
mot
wcs
Living nrfsersbly
.r gcrund:
soor?"
verY
it
do
to
wunts
"ur infinltive: She
flltoybe theY wilt be there in time'
.! t I;tusc:
per*r nrode strcigfut fbr the fofock dacr.
.r lrltrirse:
) I l ltt:, t' are twoc{ossrfrcotlmnsofrheodverb:oneaccording
to the criterion of
In tlr,' r tllt'l l()ll o{ fr:rrn, anothen accsrding
n lr',ll lll ll'

criterion there are: sinrple adverbs;

plrrases'
,lt r r,,,',1 .r,l',','t l,'-. { { )rrtlrortttd adverbs; and adverbial

,t

.t

l\, r ,r ,llr rl:

. I llt: farmal

.ttl vcrbs areonewordformations with,,., I ',tptl,lr'

far; fast; now:
.ilr, .rllr,r". ttt; {rtlt; tll); down; here; then; wcll;
{ rliltr' llt'l"t'l
ttl

frl lrr-','.

tr

It r' I t v r rl
tlrllt'l t'ltl

v',llrt'l ,'lry

r- t-l

r^Orrr

tlrc derivational

lrc cotlv(tl t:cl bY means of

lil<ewise; elocl<wise; afl oat;

rt.pertteclly; t'xecllently; hardly;

lslntrt lrlY
llr,'1 ,l'.1,r',1 lrttlt tltt', rf llt" 'tttttl rcpt:rltt'dly

by definition combi,lv r I lr
thefeby; OUtt'l
l"
r'
ltli'l
lt'l
rl
lll,l
.,,l
;t'll
l "', t
'r
r.l---Ir,rli,,,.
ll,ll lr .t I
"lttlCCIl:
tOday;
rr,lllt'Wllt't't';
lr*r'r'With; thgfefofe;
rlrr,t q, I.ttl.,lI{l*,,
wltt,l t'lll. wltt't ttf t )l tl'
I lsetalry lt'' rtr ltlt'\'r"' llt" lrltttr
of words
;'lr t'l ,,cs arecombinations
tt{ Arl v('tlrt'll
t:ll{llllIrrrllll(l,r.lVt.tll...ll(.UyLltjlilIlLlL
r

tn,rl, ltrIl rllr ,lll 'ltl'rt'tlrl'tl

rtl lnt 1., lry I ltt' w'ly;

ltllttll(!ll
llt)w 'trrd

at least; at first; at present;

then; by all rneans; first and

203

202

-'ttllt""')
rfli,'r'. ll't ,'lt't". .llt'l
,tf-tt, ltnlltt'w.ll rl("),

s conlc

They olmost did it.

She knows her bos s verY well.

fgrernost; in full, at random; as a matter of fact; of old; by and

by;

to and fro; in and out; up and down; upside down; in

general; in all ProbabilitY:

NOTE: The adverb enough, unlike othen adverbs of quantity, is placed after the
adverb which it modifies:

ln all ProbabilitY she is right'

2.3.

According

lf

to the meoning criterion there ore:

Manner, Adverbs of Place, Adverbs of Time

You've done your iob

l. AdverUs
(definite, indefinite and frequency);
Z. Adverbs
mation;

The advenbs of caus, reason, iesult

and concession show the respective circumstances under
2.3.6.

of Quaniity, M.asute, Degree and Approxi'

which an event or state tal<es place: hence, consequently, there'

fore, so that, for this reason, that is why' stillr /et:

3. Adverbs of Cause, Reason, Result, Corlcession;

4. lnterrogative Adverbs and Adverbs of Negation;
5- $dverblal Particles'
,2.3]1. The adverbs of rnanner showtheway an
o, how a state persists and their characteristic question
.r"n,-#lu6
,'how?": quietly, superblf excellently, well, badly, kindly, SQ'
is
nerously, io, thus, usually, fast, heavily"

Hence he is not the thief.

Still she behoves in a friendly monner

2.3.7.

evelrysomewheie, inside, outside, whither, thither, hither,

'',ii
B
,i,

$
tr
ffi

f
',

t,'

He looked for her everYtvhere'

2"3.3" The adverbs of time pointout-tothetemTheir typical
poral circurnstances accornpanying any event or state.
formenly,
early,
already,
afteriiards,
after,'
question is,1hen?":
once'
occasionally,
Presently,
then,
late,
since,
immediately,

today, Yet, still, tomorro\i/, monthly'

it todaY.
2.3.4. The adverbs
He hos done

of f requency: eyer,
tilTl, sometimes' rarely'
every
alWays,
oftilr
never, seldonn,
once, twice:
I have mever seen him in mY life'
Again he PtoYed that loud music'

2.3.5.Theadverbsofquantity,measu[,
indicate what they point
degree and approximationawfully,
terribly, little, alour in their denomination: extremely,

most,

2"3.8.

vtlr enough, much, too'

He is much obliged to You'

204

"

adverbs

coverthe

The adverbs of negation rlo,notcan

negate a word, a group of words

rf
,f

where.

The interrogative

whoie ser-nantic range: how, where, when, wherefore, why:

How did you do it?
Where did you do it?

ntlY'
John Perfarmed excelle

2,3.2. The adverbs of place indicaterhewherequestion

aboul or ,n event or state and answer the characteristic there'
here,
near'
far,
anyvrhere,
abov,
aboard,
il;;iZ;,awal,
under, UP,
doWnstairs, ufstairs, bacl,rnarards, iot'wards, onwa!'ds,

well enough-

,ry

't
f

il
,t

or a sentence:

No, I did nat do it.

It was not the War ofl Rose s which took ploce then.
2.3.9. The adverbial
Particles alwaysshowup
wrtlr verbs. This fusion yields lexically complex verbs or phrasal verbs:
.rbout, away, aslde, bacl<, down, in, off, through, out, over,
uncler, up. The particle changes rnore or less the meaning clf the
; L'r";r' verb

iilil*lffi:J" Jliifrtfrli;t;o'?Ifil',

Sor,erimes parrictes ,"rT fft:J:lt*nutriers: to iocl< vs to

lot l< ttp.
I lrt.rc are also homonymic or quasi-homonymic prepositions
wlrrt lr llovcrn some verbs mapping out some relationships between
I lrr. vr-r lr .rnd each of its objects in turn:
\lrc left off right here. (adverbial particle)
\lrt' rs off the trock now. (preposition)
\lrr. took lim on os on employee. (adverbial particle)

llrr frrr wo.s on the plate. (preposition)

r lrr kr:rl in. (adverbial particle)
,lrt krrl into the hotel. (preposition)

',hn

"l,r'

205

.,,1
j-.

the verb which bears the stress"

The adverbiar parricre fuilows
a sentence whereas tl"re prepoin
rt may take up the finar posltian
stress
or- prsnouffi whieh beens. the
.style:
sition either pr*cedes the nfiun
sentence ii'l ecllaquial
or may be plaeed at rhe end of the
You ore going to Jook tip tfue ftffaw'
rrP"
You ore going to trook rhe fleltrow

You ore

gaing

is passible
to lock hirn up' (**V this pcsitimm
here;

applies ts a part of the ad3.1. The corffiparfisom CIf adverbs

ar* ehree degrees of'
There
time.
verbs cf manm*re pf;mce, and

ccrnpanative' the superlative"

companiscn: the poiitive, the

adverbs is
The re!*tive swperlative of supe riority for monosyllabic
by (the)
adverbs
*st
plurisyllabic
for
and
expressed by: ttre ,.
n

rnost

adverb:
He rsn (the) fostest {of

3.l"t,TheC0rnpar.atlvedegE-eeisofthreekinds:

is burir by m"*#&ns of the

The *ornparstiye degree nf
advmrbs (and emrly as mr"} nx*
suffix -r as far as the irono*yllaLic
as th*
rneans of mdvmnh Bffi&re as flar
ception) are eoneerned, and hy
is calied the
are eoncerned" The forrner
dr_ and prurisyrlabic adverbs
eaa"fly*emrxies'; and the latter
synthetical comparison: soon*sooner;
axearfiy*m:raru,'e eEearty; tmudfly*
is called the analytica! eCImpal1r$Gffi:

verb

lt

COT"4PARATIVE

well

better

rnr"lch

m0re

far

farther

late

laten

ill

w0rse

badly

w'OTSE

little

Thecamparotiveofequatitymakesuseof.aso".&sl
He runs os fost as John '
of inferiaritY emploYs the Phrases:

less

tlear

nearer

The

mmt

camParat'ive
as ".. as and less c c c than:
ss brightlY as .lahn d'd'
She solved the Problem not
os Peter"
Gearge did nat. run so fost
thon Jane did.
ghlY
thorou
Iess
Mary worked

3.1.2-

The suPerla tive

obsolute arrd relot'ive

'

The obsolute suPerlotive

nrost; quite; extremelY:

The octor

IS

degree isof two

formed bY using adverbs

lil<e:

very I remarl<ablY well'

most touchi ngly'

s*1

two sorts: of
The relotive superlotive l<nows
inferiaritY.

supe riority

of adverbs resembles the one of ttre adiective very much"

''. irr rneaning t"ltn parallel to those of the corresponding ad!ectives.

r-ornpar"ison
r

suffix for adverb formotion is "-ly" which

sloW-slclWly; X| . ,t{trt, ltt.,l I. llre adiectival form; Usual-usually;
may be menformation
adverb
for
suffixes
other
r I r,r,.r, r.xl l=r,mely.
may be
n*r rt , I w,u-<l(r); -way(s); *Wise; -s; -long or some prefixes
SideWOYS'
tO- in WOfds lil<e: eastWafd;
'.y,; tlr ilr.trlt.,l,,,,*1, a-; be';
r lur l*wlrrr; rrowadtYs; sidelong; again'
forms
llr,'r ,, .1 (. ',()1lc adVerbS Of manner WhiCh knOW parallel
brightquicl<-qrricl<ly;
..,r
r rr. * r(:rrting: loud-loudly;
urlt f r I l*,

.t

ki nds:

very;

part
PIoYs his

She reod the Poem

*illglrlly,

and of

Ilrt:

rlros

corutmon

I Irlrlf r,ll('

ll,,

rr,,,,,t.,

t,

1r1.

rich quick.

and l-lewonts to

207

206

SUPERI.^ATIVE

the best
the rnost
the farthest
the furthest
the latest
the last
the worst
the worst
the least
the nearest
the next

furthen

mare raPrdlY'

of ad-

should be learnt by heart as such:

POSETIVffi

She arrived soomer tfusn we expected"

drew

comparison

The irregular

more loudlYl
He

'

absolute n'leaning.

3.1.3.

a{
of supe riority, of equoirty and
-in{errerifly'
superio*ty

alt}

Shescng(the)mpgtbegutifwily(ofall).
phrase:
The relative superlative o{ inferiority is expressed by the
(the) least * adverb:
She eats {the) {esst heortf ty {af all) '
"the" may be
The round parentheses indicate that "of all" and
tal<es on an
su,lperlative
the
case
this
ln
missing from the sentence.

get rich quickly'

NOTE: tsanely; scarcely and hardly are synonyms and behave

friendly, tirnely, loneBy,

The suffix -Ey also creates adiectives:

adverbial
tikely are adiectives and can make up

pl'rrases:

lnafn$errdxywoytheyshowedusthehouse.
is nather straightforward:
The speiling of these derived words
trure-trulEy; wholebut
entire*errtine[y,

beautiful-beautifully;

whol ely; ha'py-happ i ly;

due-duBY'
cases

lnteresting
pairs of adverbs

lil<e:

hi stou'i

How

He is far better than jahn"

show up
stiil: it is used mainly in non-negative clauses !n general. lt may
negative ones, too.

by the
of differences in rneaning are nrade up
etc':
near-nea!,By; hard-hardf;y; late*trately

yet: it is employed in rron-affinmative

Hss he got lt
He hcsn't got

close="aproape" / closely:"indeaproape"
"profund"
deep = "?n adAncime" I deeply =
directly
= "Tn rnod direct; imediat";
:
I
drept"
"direct;
direct
easy:"calrn;u$or;incet"teasily*oucuu;urin$i;u$otr"
"corect; eum se cuvine; destul de"
fair = "corect; onest" t fairly ,.gratuit,, l freely =.,,liber; in rnod neconstrf;.ns''
free =
: "cu greul
hard : "foarte mult; greu;' I hardly
!e;abia;

sentences:

Yet?

it

Yet'

I-{ove Yau arrived Yet?

or following
Still, yet and all the same placecl at the beginning of a sentence

"but" an(t "and" become

But,

still

yet

coniunctions:

l all the sorne she does n,t. love him"

lf an adlective'
enough: if an adverb, it follows verbs, adiectives or adverbs'
trnough may come before or after nCIuns:
You ron fost enough'

'

It rsined hord.
I can herdlY underst ond him'

He rs smort enough ta tumble to it"

has money enough'
She hos enougfi ilon"y t"o buy yau aut' I She
also accompanies words
and
comments
fairty: it is used to make favourable
lrl,r' well; pretty; clever"; good; entertaining:
The cor

is fairlY

rather: it is used tc
,

I )l I ll

good'
mal<e unfavourable corflments and

The hunter wos

rsther

rnuddY"

"adineauri"
;rrst now; it has two meanings: .l)

fo*ne;,#;:,;r,l;:::.?,,riTl3',^i::I;

,, r

prcscnr l e rse conrinuous:

\lrc is cleaning the house just r?ow'

,,

I ',
,r l'1, ,, ,

, ,1 ,

He
l've seen her nearlY I A0 ttmes'

will not occur before

r;ft ;tttVeS"

The pdcce

CIf

odverbs rs deter mined by tlre plnce of the word

r{ 111,,,f,f;,,,, WIren there are mare adverbs

trives r"Eedr.

rtltl(lr, PIACe, Tf nf e. Whe

A'1i

th

of differerlt kirrds then the wond

n tltere are

Seve

r\l

OCverbS Of Tirne

).,i) whiCh pAint aut" tO the c/etoi/s cOnle befare the

rn0l'e

1', tt, i,ll ,1,ft't'tli';

,,

belaw:

bus"
hove barely enough money to go by
the phone rang'
when
Scorce ty had he entered the roCIm

in

sentence:
wlren "yet" means "already", it is placed at the end of the

*
il'Tt.utate
high = "sus" I highly "foarte; extrem
:
"pe
dnept"
lult = "tocmai" I itlstly 'nTn ultirnul tirnp"
late : "tir ziu" t lately =
,.u;or; fini bagai'i I lightty : "cu u$uringe; supenficial"
right "il genera!"
nnost = "cel rnai muli' / mostly =
:
'oapnoximativu'
nearly
/
nea' = "aproape; lingil"
'
i'destul de" / prettifiy = '-dr6gug"
pretty =
: "repedel' (iiterari
quick * "! epede" (colocvial) ! quickEy n'b!Re; cCIreet; pe drept"
=
right : '-chiar; drept; intscmai" I #g[ntny
:-"nnult; pe a suprafagd mare"
,,de
widely
t
complet"
tot;
wide : "?* mod grepit"
wrong - "gregit; rtu" I wg'ongly

barely:
scarcely:

far is it?
be far awaY now"

She must

c-hi storicai Iy; pn"obahl e-prohabBy;

indrcoted
4.2. How to use sorne frequent adverbs is

lil<e negative words

being follovred by an affirrnacive verb'

far: it occurs mainly in interrogative and negative sentences: in affirmative
an lntensifier:
sentences it is often accornpanied by away' lt is also
drive
She didn't
fa'"

',t rt

.,

Ilr,, t,xceptiorrs to these rules ore vorious. We shall /ist down

l,* ,,f lltrttt

lllr,'
ultllt't

of place and manner are placed either after

tlre direct cbieet or the short inrdirect obiect; they
.rltcr the verb when the obiect is long'

.rclverbs

2A9

5.2.2. The adverbs of exact tlnre (tomorrow; tonight; East

nig6t; yestendny; in the rmorning) are placed at the beginning or
at the end of the sentence; late and early appear in enej pasition"
5"2.3. Frequency adverbs either come before the 'rerb (Sirnple
Present, Past) or ccn'le in after the first auxiliary:
t only wsnted to lend him the baok.
He sow o bus in the vrlloge- yesterdoy.
in 1962Jahn wos born at 6 0.m., on the I6th August
Chorles gnve him the book on tfgers st the office"

in lcte"
never tell it.

She often gor

You cen

She hss never been lrke thct"

EXERCISES

lll"

l"

Choose the rigtr t" {orm.

2. I went by the rules

(closm; closely). 3" They dug (deep; deeply)" 4" (Easy; easily) corr]e,
(easy, eesily) go. 5 " Dlci they treat her (fair; fainly)? 6. I could {hand;
irardly) rnal<e out what iru was saying" 7 " I want hin'r (just; justly)
pllnished.8" The shop assistant dressas (pnetty; prettilyi.9" Vle (right;
riglrtly] deem her the best. 10. The door wiil be (wide; widely) open.
Thm flowens srnell (sweet; swe*tly)"

lV. Fu[ the cdrrerbs iri tlie brsckets in the ,'ight degree of

n. ffio it (slowly) than you usualtry d*" 2" Piease, dr^ive (fast) so
[[r;rt'rse rnay catch the plane" 3. Of the t'vvo, Manl< solveci tfre pnulli,.rrr"r (inventiveiyi. 4" kq/hich of yoli three (an vrortr< (well)? 5. She
q,roi;ti*ned n"ry good wiil (disgust;ngiy).6. He vrent (far ) that Idid.
' I-nis rnonth he r,voi-l<ed {mueh} and had got (little) than lre ex,i,:c-tecl" ffi" H* always arrives (late; than tl'iet'" dn" 9. We shall rneet as
f
(c:rr"[y) &s possib!e"

I . Insert the given adverbs in the carrect places:

l. John did this to throw us off the tracl<. (deliberately)

7" She
volunteered to ccver the Persian Gulf war for me. (l.indly) 3. When
igot off the train I couid find no one. (in the morning; early) 4. Grandfather had losr his watch (the duy before) and began to lool< far it.
(slowly and with no result) 5" She will go (at eight o'clccl(; tc schacl;
in the morning; by bus)" 6. She hasn't been (to England; ever). 7. The
soldiers nnet the comrnander (in the mornlng; in town; eanly) and
greeted hinn (qr:icl<ly; on the spot; then). 8. Even though he rnight
relecr my proposal (flatly; tornorrCIw; at the office), lstill believe he
can pur it off (only, till next weel<)" 9. You can tell it. (never; here;
however) 10. I ren:ember meeting a gentlernan (the other day; in
Lorrclon; here) who Cid't care about the bomb attacl<s which tal<e
placc (always; right here; eaeh weel<; at least).

ll.

Fill in the b/snks with

rather snd {airly:

it a extrerne vievr to take? 3" That's vrhat we are lll<e: .:. rnuddy
angry because you hacl been
up to yoLir ears " 4. I told he got
sl<ipping classes. 5. I ".. lil<e his performance. 5. She draws lvell"

short", rnether complained. 8. We enjoy his

to our place.9 His iob lool<s
difficult, but in fact it isn't. 10. lt is foolish of them to go wall<ing
7" "The dress

was

presence whenever he rs coming

in such weather!
210

corn-

porisorr:

I0. Cf ati the students, jerry per"fc,rrned (little),

V \A/rifg o sfu*rt drcf*ge.re lm wfulcfl fr.,r r-rse ff;e eor"ref:r:iir/ing adverbs

r;/ rllese phr"ms*s; tru m eexneS*$ smmrus?trr'; rm m emfqC wmtee; cr sfrnple flfle.;
wr th u:l .wu*'rffi ffi?,#v#rffienB; rn e mnwimcrrsg qverrds; tow*rrds wesfi golng
rrr;ide; ,t-pt$'r rxxsfled rr?#w#$??*m*s; mE f;fus
fnshimm.il gmrmg dike

tf*e

$??ffirmerut;

fm

repeuted

efmek"

\,'f;. trrmmsfc{e lnto fimgfisll, using Htrfr* sstff, a/rc*ody;

I. Degi nil s*a tenniinat [ectia fnce, e[ dela pare nendbd5tor.
,) L"l.r.,rrr;,i ta mratX ?nc5 noua. 3. Tmt n-;l$[ rfru$it sA flaccti cafeaua? 4. E
Iru tl,u- irrc5 r"i-a ineeput st rring6. 5; Hi alr:;lr"ga gi rrr;ir repecle deeAt
1,,, I (, Ar par"cu!^s deia cartea? l'" inca n -;ur1 [ern ririat-o, c5ci nrai
\ r{',rrr ',,r riofez cf;teva citate" 8" Se:ra e]i a si ;lir-rns l;l NewuYortrq. ?. Tct
rr.rr t t r.'lr c-;r el a f5cut-o? 10" inc5 nu ai splrs cicstul cJespre flarnilia tror.

KEY TCI THE EXERCISES

I I l,,lrrr clicl this deliberately to throw us off t[-re tracl<. 2. She l<indly
,,iuirlr r'1r'ql t, r ovcr the Persian Gulf war for me . 3. When i got off tlrc
n.rirr r ,r l,' nr (lrc rrror-ning, I could find no one. 4. Grandfather lrad lost lris
:rt,lr tir,' ,l,ry lrr'lr:t-c an.d began to look for it slowly and with no rcsult.
*. ',1* ill 1',, l,y lrus to school at eight o'clocl< in the morning. 6. Slrc hasrr't
E. , | 1,,'r rr t,, I rri,l.rrrrl. 7. The soldiers met the commander in towrr carly irr
t lr*. r r, ,r rrn u, lt I vcrr though he might reject my proposal at thc office
211

1.2. The coniunction if may be omitted in the conditional clauses

expressing an unreal condition, and containing the verbs to be, to
have or one of the modal auxiliaries; this triggers the inversion of the
subject with these verbs"
Were I tired, I would take CI noP.
Had he maney, he would f*e/ more secure.
Had he taken o nop, he wauld feel better now"
Coutd I solve this situotion, I would be highly though t ofShould he drop by, they would inrrite him to stoy.

the next week" 9' Howtomorrow, I still believe he can only put it off till
a gentleman here
meeting
ren'tember
I
10.
here'
it
ever, you can never tell
attacl<s which
bomb
the
about
in London the other day, who didn,t care
weekeach
least
at
here
always take Place right
fairly;
ll. l. fairlY rather; 2' rather; 3. fairly; 4 . nather; 5. rather; 6 '
rather.
0'
I
7 " rather; 8. rather; 9 ' rather;
4" easy, easy; 5- fair; 6' hardly;
il1. I . sweer; 2. closely; 3. deep;
wide'
l0'
7 . iustly; 8. prettily; 9. rightlY;
inventivelY; 4 " the best;
lv. l, more slowlY; 7- faster; 3' the r;nore

5.

8. later; 9. as earlY as;

most disgustinglY; 6- farther;7 ' more; less;

l0' the

2. There are three kinds of conditions:

2.1. Reol (aPen) conditian"
2. I . I . Sentences of real condition do not contradict reality, and
refer to either the present or the future. ln botlr clauses the verbs
are in the indicative mood, or sometimes the rnain clause may con-

least.
seems irnpatient.
vl. l. Although the lesson is not over yet, he arready
to make coffee yet?

z. your car still looks new. 3. Haven't yoLr been.able

even faster than
4.lt's cold, but it hasn't started snowing yet' 5'- T* runs
haven't finished it yet
book?.7.1
the
thr"ough
g"n*
already
you
Jack. 5. Have
quotations- 8. Her sister has
because lstill want to irite down sorne
g.
that he did it? I 0' You
york.
believe
still
you
Do
New
reached

tain the imperative mood" No future tense occurs in the conditional

clause. Thi; is replaced by the present to express simultaneity with

already

the future or the imperative action of the main clause, or by the

present perfect to express anteriority to the action of the verb of the

still haven't said enough about their family-

rnain clause"

I wsuolly work in the garden if the weather is frne.

We shall go on a triP if I have time'

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

you nneet him, remind him to be on time.

I shall get verY ongry if yau have lost it'
lf you hoye flnished let rne tell you one or two words.

lf

or "if"
conditional sentences are made up of'a conditional
whose
action
an
denotes
clause, and a nnain crause. The latter
action exPressed by
fulfillment is conditioned bY the fulfillrnent of the
the verb of the former'

tf yow have done your homework by seven , YoLt will be

ollowed to watch fY.
Z.l .2. lf wilt appears in the conditional clause, it is not an auxiIr.r y of tense, helping to form the future, but a modal auxiliary,

if, urrl. The coniunctions intpoducing conditional clauses are

prsviding,
(that),
provided
less (* if not), suppose, supposing-,
on condition that, in case, as/so long as'
lf he inYites rrle, I sholl go'

r, " I )l

CI"

He witt fail unless he works horder

were
I would ga providing {provided thot) mY requirernents
"

nret.

Suppose (suPPosing) he didn't onswer , what would You

thot
They promised to give rre so,'ne moneY on condition
it.
d
neede
tr
esse
did whot theP told me I in

do?

I.I

. tJnless

clauses rarely have hypothetical meaning'

212

r.s:;ing willingness, intention, determination,

lf you witt do the dishes, I will moke sorl]e col'fee.

I[ she witt not accept my proposol, our plon will not wark.
.rrrrrilarly, if should or would are used in a conditional clause
{rr, rrr,rttcr of what l<ind), they are not auxiliaries of mood, helping
t*, f ,r rrr tlre conditional, but modal auxiliaries; the former suggests
rlr,rt tlrr.acrion is highly inrprobable, while the latter has the sanle
lnt=r,lllllll1"

ils will

lf he should refuse us, we'll try samething else.

t[ yon should poss through Timi;oora, pleose give nle o call.
lf you would open the door, I'll toke this tray out.
213

Other modal auxiiiaries may aiso appear in cenditional

tf h* eoufd give expressfon to ir rn CI book of poenrs,
men will listen.

tf yau mey stay for snoffuer

flme.

clar:ses:
pe

rirops

foour, we'J/ flnisfo everX'{fuir"lg

sfi

4. Sornetimes the time reference of the main clause rnay be

different frorn the tin']e reference of the conditional clause, thr-rs the
nlain clause may refer to the present or future, while the concJitional
clause rnay refer to the past or vice versa. ln this case, the two
clauses display mixed tenses.
lf he rmailed it yesrerday, yau wilt get it in time.
tf he kad lived here, he woufdn't be tatking like that.
lwswldn't have these prob/ems if I hsd fistened to yau.
He wauld hove nelped me if he were more intetligenr.

The clauses that ref"er ta the pest &re only apperenr

or a cai,]sative rnea]"lrng:
l{ yau were present , why didn't you ssy ssrme{fufng? (edverbial
e trause of reason).

2" I "3.

conditiena$ clauses, often ['raving a ternpcral

l{ t had {ime, / usuolly helped her. (adverblatr elaus* mfl rinre].

The sarne rnay happen also v,rhen the c[auses nefer to the p;-esent"

[*-i.L*:o1lrff[Jl--flffiffil111;r&:

ds*sn'r sri* sr{

NOTE: As remarked under 2. 1.3., there are "if" clauses w'hich, besides concJition,
rrray involve other types

(temporal)

"

!s ape tc be fulfilled ssryl* {ir-tte cn

TF.IE

i'q ir.t

ff fue rmds&eftmve4 he worufd &m seefded foy fois parenrs"

.qo mucri rf vou sempped sski*g

f|;ffif,y'f#_:_fl:rmr$qrsrs

tuer

?^.3. fn:possifofe eomditfon (hyp<:rhetrcal canditrsn).

Simnter:ees CIf inrpossible conditi*r"r

refer to {he past; ehet e*ntra

rlicL reaiity, whieh ean no ionger he eharrged. The conditlmn is highly
lrylrothetica[. The verb im the n-rain clause Is in the
Bnst/perfect
corlditionml, whrle the verb in the conditional clause is in the past
pe rfect su hj

ux

concessive:

,v/os fine, we went for

a walk in the

caLtntry.

lf (: since/os) big cors ore still used alang with smoll ones, rwo sers of roods
are needed. (causative)
lf you arrive (: olthough you may arrive) lote, nabody else will. (concessive)

2"2. fmpr*bmhfe condf rir:ru thyfrarhetrrml e*mdrtrrr:ni

$entences *f irnpr*bable eonclit[un r-efler {m the pr#sent eln fluture tlr,nm; they eCIntradict neality, buil tlie actimr-r ffixppffi$s*C by thenn

*t[ier" The v*r-[: rlt the r"nain ea&use

the presemt csrcdie8mmm$; the venh Is-r the eerriditi*r-ia! elaisse is
[n the pas* sub]ume*$ve.
She woufd fesrrx it by &esrt if you ms$sed foer.

of relatiorls: temporal, causative,

{f (= when} the afternaon

rrr{e

Active

CONDITIOhIAL MOOD

/ indefinite present: should I would osk

present progressive: should I wauld be osking
past I perfect: should I wauld have osked
past progressfive: should I would hove been osking
P.rssive simple / indefinite present: shou/d I would be osked
past I perfect: shou/d I wauld have been osked
sinnple

I.I()TE: ,t) The progressive aspect of the ccnditional is not vcry frcquent.
tr) -l-he conclitionai mocd may also appear in indepenclcrrt clauses.
/ shou/qj /ike to be e/sewhere"
I Ii: wauld oniy be o burCen fo Fou.

s'aetive.

lf I hsd kmowr*, / woufd hoye tald

I"/e woudd femve

yaLt.

3. ln Rornanian the mood ernployed both in the main ctause

and in the "if" clause, in the case of the improbable or the impossible
condition, is the optative-conditional ("conditiona! optativ").
lf I knew rhe uuth, I ,arculd tell it to you.
Dacd aS ;ti adevdrul, {i l-ap spune.
I would have done it, if he had ssked me to.
A; fi fdcut-o

EXERCISES

been pleose d i{you *zad csrTgrtrtutrsted him.

dacd m-ar

fi

214

rugat.

Arr',we'r'

trrt/ ly,frr'

the fo//owing questions with conditianol sentences af the

\
Wlr,rt lrappens if it doesn't nain for months? 2. What must a
,l;;;r'1 rl,, rl ltt: sees a zebra crossing? 3. What presents wili you bry
il ',rr l't, llrt,t t.:? 4. What do you plan to visit ifl you go to Buchar"ri?
', Wlr,, rl,r y,rrr call if you fall ill? 6. What grade do you expect to get
tl ,,rr wl ll,' .t l'ood paper? 7. What do you need if you want to mail

215

DIRECT AND INDIRECT / REPORTED SPEECH

ll.

t. After the emperor's son (had) understood that lleana wouldiwas

going to come to his garden to steal the gold apples, he ordered that, if
enyone heard any rnoanlng !n the garden, they should not dare to enter"
7. He answered that he didn't like to go out / was't particularly fond of
going out,3. Doctor Meyer came twice a day; he would tell hinn that he
was all right / there was nothing wrong with him, but that he should stay in
bed until he had brought him some miraculous remedy, which would cure
trlm instantly. 4.. Mind you don't open the door until yCIu have heard my
voice. 5." She uranted to go home where everybody knew hen. 6. lf I had
such a hardworking and faithfu! servant, I would seat him at rny tab,le,
beeause such a pe!'son is worth a lot. 7. My neighbour asked me if / whethen
we were going in the same direction. B. The truth is nobody knew much
about what his reaction would be.9" You can rely on rny help as long as
you need it. 10. The fontress whose walls yoLi can still see today was
destroyed a long time ago. ! I . He told me that he had understood / had got
it and that he did not need other explanations. I2" The pupils knew that
water contains oxygen. 13" He reallzed that he had no tinre to read her long
lerter. 14. Don't Neave home until I have called / phoned you" I5. But how
alt this would take place, who would take care of everything, it ali seerned
unimportant to hinn" 16" And wt"len we get bae k, after we have fulfilled i
done our duty, everybody will be on our side. 17" Where he was going he
did not tell me. 18" The strangens askecl him again where he was from and
what school he had atter"rded i at what school he had studied. 19. I an*
swered in his langltage, as / hecause I don't know German" 20. He did nat
realize that his voice was hoarse and that you had to make an effort in
order to understand whether he was angry or not" 2l . We walked along the
valley to the place where the waters flow into the sea.22. After the cro'wd
had gneeted the king in one voice, it was only the night guards that were
le.ft on the ,,*;alls. 23. Kid said that it was his turn.to go down / deseend into
the precipice and he told his etder brothers that when he moved the rope,
they should help hinr move downwards, and after they had seen that the
rope did not go downwards any funther, they should assign some guands to
*it.h the place. 24 " Since he had remained locked in his room, he did
norhing else but read. 25" He realized that everything was not all right and
thar the people would thinl< that he dicl not know what he was deing"
26. She had cut the branches !n the Japanese way / as the Japanese do, so
rhar rhey were three different lengths" 77 . They had alneady switched I
turned off the light and were about tc fall asleep, wl-ren Mr"s. Wilkinson
heard a strange noise" 28" Later ofl, after he had left school, and was
iool<ing for a !ob,he met a classmate whose uncle was a rilerchant" i"9. l'm
afraid you will have to return it / give it back as soon as you read / have read
it" 30" I was told that after he had stayed there for abr:ut ten years, he
would write a book.

speech is the ternn used to refer to the

of expressing what a person has said by reproducing either
t lrc exact words uttered or the essence of the utterance. The words
.rl rlrc speal<er are subordinated to a reporting verb, usually in the
l,r rrr of an object clause intrcduced by that, within the reporting
..(.nl ()ncc. ln direct speech, the speaker's exact utterance is not
.,r!lr,,r rlinated withirr the neporting sentence, but it retains its status
.r,. ,r lnain clause. ln writing, the exact words of the speaker are
r .n(lcrcd between quotatlon marks"
I

. lndirect / reported

r(::lns

) When direct speech is converted into indirect speech, vari.rr,. r lr;rnges tal<e place in the f,orrn of the clause. These changes
r,n{,.r rr the tense r-lsed, the prCIncuns, and the adverbial modifiers of
reported in a
;,1,r, r. ,u r(l tirne, because a perscn's words are often
,lrll,'1t.nt tlrne context, from the point of view of a different person,
.rrrrI nr .l rliffererrt place.
) I l-llc chonges involving the tense of the verb are those menrr.,I nt ( o,urectiorr with the seguence of fenses, when the reported
ttt tc.r rltr (, r., rrrtrocluced by a verb in the post tense. fhe rules are the

I rr rr

"ll"\! " ll'

I lir t.r I Sllccch

Past
lrl r ritl{",'rlV(-l

lr.r I
;rr.r lr.r I l)l'()1,l^cssive

g,r.t

-*.-*-t>

past
past
past
past
past

*.-_>

fr,r

-*---}>
->
._-_"-+>
-",
-----)>

lrf r rlrl
;" t l'

l" tl'

'."1'lt'

*--_-->

I 1,t ,rl'lt",',lV('

--**-)
-* -__)

progressive

perfect

perfect progressive
perfect

perfect progressive

tu re - i rr -tlrc - past

future"'irr-the-past progressive

future pcrfect in-the-past

futr-rre perfcct progressive in*

tlrc-past

I lrt. l,.r' r rr I lrr I .rrrt I t.lrc past perfect progressive remailt llll
rli+rrEFrl tlrr. , ,,n,lrtrr,rr,rl .rrrrl tlrc subjunctive usually remain unchatlgtltl
il tlte 1ililr. tr fr trn, r' .ttr,l lltt' Jllace are the Same.
1

,lr; ; \, ',1r,' ',r,t(/. She soid thot she felt diz.zy

f *,t,1
ttt tttrtlrfttg il t t,l.t"'
*,ir* frrfrrrurr,', lttttt Iltttt ';ltel wos making o cokt'
I

224

?.25

"l

) I l ?" No change of the past tense

have already onswe red these lettersl", she exclaimed"

letters.
She excloimed thatshe ho d alreody answered those
complained'
she
dly",
"l have been reading att

she
,,1

comploined thot

she had been redding oll

tolked to him yesterd

"l wos of home when fhe ne!'vs

stcr[eC. "
Slre insisted thot she wss at horne wfuen tl.le

doY'

She osked (me) what

Promise'

.t

had been doing there'

I I I Would, should, oulght (tn),

,r.rllr- nr rt', ;;r-o[ribiticln sense)

"

She Promised she Yroufd do it"

the house when you arrive-"
when
She totd me that she woufd be cleaning the house

bY then.

"By the end of next academic yeor,l shotrtr hove been teoching for thirtY Years'"
Sh; informed us thot by the end of the fallowing academic
yeors'
year she would hove beem teaching for thirty
then"'
bY
"l had token th'te mone1
She totd us thot she had token the money by then"
"l wish You were here with n'le' "
I said I wishe d you were here with rne'

.'

,i,I

: llrr.

.I

l ir,r,,' ,Iorr. tl
'.1r, , ,,1,rrr('(
I lrc'rr-

',1r,

No change of the Present tense occurs in the reported

a natural law, a univensal

as-

sertion, ?ft eternal truth.

,'

langt,age
The teocher told thern that Englfsh fs r;n onolytic longuoge.

226

krlour.

from c/oss ogttin""

I lt, rr.irr Irr.r ,n(f,ltiorred fhot he hod ohsr,:rlte</ fnira'pseff frarn
Y,,ss f r,rr.'r' rrfr',;c,Ited yCIf,"flr,self

, /, l'.', r,lI(l,ll

not observed in certain cases. Thus:

on onalytic

,.,

',lti' !rtnt{r'i/ ottt t/ro[ fue soid he didn't

or a gerund'

'"English is

l,

I tltttil, J lri<.t' {tl"

rii / ..,lle r/loug,;ht she Jiked rt.
Y ttrr ',,ty ltlrlt) you cfon't knoltr.

',itt.

"Sorry l'm so llte", she said

She opologized for being late'

.l

(espe-

the f:ersonof, reflex,ye, et?'lphcltfc, possessive (both

,t,tii r rrr,rl ,rrrl l,r,,rtonuurl/ serresj rnd fhe demonstrottve (borh odjectivof
,,r,1 I,r,,rrrrrrrr,rl) Illr'.shiflt is a;sumtr/y CIffie fnorn frst and ?nd person
r, l,l f rr | . . ,11 lrr r,r1r r{ur, whiJe frfue dernmnsrrotlyes denotlng proximlty
r l *,
r t lri
1, lt,ur;,r' r,lo llrose figrl0flimg,'ef??CItemess (that*thoSe)"

"l'll be there on time. "

She promised to be there on time'

2.1

(to), must

ftllrwtny, prCImm$dffis #re offbcted fuy fhe chcrnge from df-

lrr ir r,lttt', I',1,r,,',

"lf he hdd time, he would do it naw""

it now'
She soid thot if he had time, he would do
utterance may
Sornetimes the verb introducing the reported

clause when the statement contains

ursed

change.

I worned thern thsf sfue wou$d get up early in the rnorning"

"Yort shnutd be ffi"lcre c*re{u|."
I rrrJvise ctr her rhot sfue sfue u$d be rriore careful"l ought to know. "
\/rc soid she mn*gfut tm know.
"Yorr mus'tn't srmoke in tfue cJnssroom""
I ll tolcl us thot we muxsts?'t smoke in the c/ossroonl"

I arrived"l witl have finished dusting the place by then'"

the place
She hoped thst she would hove finished dusting

2. I . I . These rules are

do not

"Slre woufd get up e*rly rn fihe rnorning."

"l'll be cleaning

tal<e an infinitive

fV news stcrted.

"When I saw her, she w6s tolkimg to Tor:l,"

I told hirn thot when I saw fuer, she wfl$ tcdkrmg to forn"

aY,, , she onswered.

before.
She answered thot she hdd tsfked to him the doy
osked'
she
"Whot were You doing there1" '

"l will do it, I

occurs when thre time of

tlr,. rr r.urr r l;rttsc is fixed by an adverbial clause of tim*-

rrryselfl"

I t!t<r[ sfie hod done it herseff.

rrir rttt( tnine I mY keys, but yours lywur

' 1r,vl.<'.1 tfirl[

keys. "

those were ltot hens / her keys, but his

.! J I I lrr. ,1r,ly11,,. {u I lrc rnore c/istclnt or rernote rnemning does trot

rtlrr;r1= ttrl r, I,l,r, , r,it(- nl,',1 trlke intO ACCOunt the fe,hOfting SitUOtiOtt.
i lrrr= il F. l,rr i I ll I,r ,tt y{}ur' 1r/rl<,e in an hour" o[' '-YOU are crazy!" ;trrt
r Hf *rt f ==*l 1,, tlr I ,, r '..n'. .r,lr lr tlsscd, the shift in tlre possesivc wrlt tl
rir i1 tlrr- *.r ,r' rtr,rl ;,r , ,tr,lllr yolt will be frOl'ri Znd to I st persOll: I lt:
f

lre
=cli*l

,l

1,,=

rir ttty l,l,tt i' tn

trn Ilour; She tO/d

22t

fne I was

c,r07y,

of time and ploce atric lhl"S*

2.3" Adverbs or odverbiot phrnses

tosuggest,iionnessf{om,,here,,and,,]n@\,y',,;.,''
there
h'ere #>
inthisplace-_.4inthatplace

#il ----+
yesterday =
lasr night / evening / week

i::;

tfa,day
("*) the previous
(*rn)

t"

r r.r

r.xr l,lnliltlons

"Wlrct

the d*Y befone

th*

I
l l{ t l

sure Yau can come here mow'

I invite her?"
lgskediflwhetfierlsirouldinviteher"

"Sholl

"Whot are You doing

here?"

there'
I*{e wondered whst n wos doing
infinitive clauses (acbecorne
orders
4.lmperatives or direct
in reported speech or, aften
cusative with the infinitive construction)
clauses with the verb
certain verbs, they may becorne finite'oblect
in the subiunctive mood"

"Shut the door a{ter You!"

She osked I ordered me to sf"lut the

doo

r a{ter ffie'

Sheoskedlorderedt,hotf(should}shutthedoorof't,erR,}e.
2:28

proflessed his love for her.

l ln ( ,nvr,r,,.rtt{)n, one comes across a comb,ination of direct and indirect /

lr rrrlcs, when, for instange, oil utterancg was not understooC or

lr,.r, rlt,-r .r ,r,,lrrlt,, lntcr^locutors revert to thelr original subject in order to clear
: r lt r l;

up

1r, rllll'.

"Wt"r(:

,lourg there next week." (pause; conversation)

Wlr,.n wcrc you gaing there?"
lWlrrr t rlrtl yoLt soy You were going there?)
',1r. rltrt'w tt irr the woste-poper bosket."
\\,'lr.r ,' lt,t,l slre thrawn it?"
llirrrl, 111,' tlrrrt book ot. ance!"

,,.

here mow"
she said she wos sure I could aorne
week"'
"|m having o dfnne r porty tfiis
dlnner party tfiis week'
She told nre that she *ou hoving c
reported questig*u is the
3" The wond order of indfireet/
there is no sublect -_ auxiliary inversame with that of a statement:
by if or wtrether' excep'e
introduced
sion. R.eported questions are
are introduced by the
for the reporued speciar questions, whichwhich' where' etc")'
when,
question words (who, what, how,
x:sts7"
weor
"Does she alwoYs
,
hsts'
f{e osked if I whefiher she always wore

I love yCIu!"
Ic called her "darling" ond

r;.1,,,r1t.r1 ..1,,,,.,

[roar.ed,
otrT-t

terrible nofse/"

"Dor.lingl

connected with the present

If the reported sentence is stili

changed"
"l

il

Slre cornlslained of the noise.

"C,crorJ rnorning!"
\lrr: .qreeted ,rle" / She wfshed nre o good marning.

freim the same place where

or if the speaker reports the utterar"lce
phrases remain unadverbial
or
adverbs
the
flrsi

it was

are frequently pai'aphrases of di-

clauses-

Slrc soi d I excloimed she wos de/rgirted to rneet ffie ogain.

SIre welcamed nre.

previous
night / evening 1 weel<

-----.----> (on)
'

or are obiect

"l low nice to tneet rou oguin!"

duy

day
tonrorrow --+" nnoiday / the following
week
the follcwing day -f
next day / week ---4
two days laten' after two days
-.*
t.rnorrow
the day after
-----.+
before
ago
#>
week I nronth
that
thls week I nronih
2.3.

,, Reported exclan"lations

\\ lr,rt rrir', I ttt bring?"

EXERCISES

I I'r r r I t,. l, rllt n+,u tJf s(it ttcnces into reported speec h, introducing them
illr tt i r ,1, ,tl tlt,' /,,,',1 ltltlsc.
I I f rr r rnrr..r. n()l lo rrral<e so much noise from now ol1" 7. Mil<e
i= rll 1 1, rrr r .rrrrrr rt Ji() :rrotrrrd banning toy inrports" 4. I krrow w'hat
I +r'r t* rl,, l1r.rr I r,'trrc 5. I lil<e the idea very rnr-rch. 6. I feel that
ri ll,=r ,. , "rr 1,, ,r i,rr.,!l r lr,urgc in the country it will sweep the world.
, l*rtr.lliF=,,,t 1,,nr!,', lrrri tlrc canirls there. 8. I bought this beol< yeste;l+, t, I lrr r l,r.r'n !lrr.rc twice. 10. I triecl to understand this
ar ri: lc l,rrt I f .ril, , I I I l't ,tc trcally everyone has lreard this stor-/, as
lxr *r, =r.ll | ,lr,lri't lrl,r. tl,, clrding" lr2. You ought to becorre an
9>pr+rrrl+rrt 1,, , ,rr*,r' tt r', .l v('r'y safe lob. 13. My h,usband and I havc
E;rent 4 lr,,li,l,r, rlrr.r r. l'1 I will locl< the door at one n:linute past
tvrei ,= lF, I rr ,,rr ,1., ,1r,. nr,rny titrles before thein deaths. 16. At
lggC* rl I tlxl I i1,, , rut vvrtlr lrr.t , rrothing ca.n 8cl wron8. 17. lt wolt't
lirtr t . ,itli +;i irrlr.r li,lr. l,rrt rt rir,ry lrurt a little afterwards. lB. Whcn
r

rr

229