SHAHAD TEMGHAR WATER AUTHORITY THANE

Structural condition
assessment report
PREPARED BY
M/S TANDON AND ASSOCIATES

2009

S T E M WAT E R A U T H O R I T Y , T M T A D M N B U I L D I N G , 1 S T F L R ,
O P P O U N I O N B A N K O F I ND I A WAG L E AG A R T H A N E ( W )

INDEX
1. Methodology of inspection, testing and cost estimation
2. List of structures
3. List of non destructive tests carried out
4. Observations
5. Recommendations
6. Discussion
7. References
8. Appendix A-Repair methods
9. Appendix B-Necessity of repairs
10.
Appendix C-Load testing procedure

1 Methodology of Inspection, testing and cost estimation

All the sites were visited with STEM officials and experts. During these visits
various structures were inspected.
The overall structural system was studied. All visual signs of distress were
studied and noted. The crucial members were identified for various equipment
testing.
Visual observations/distress mapping is carried out as per following procedure
1 Layouts of the structures are prepared based on available drawings or site
measurements. These layouts are prepared from the point of view of
identification of elements. Wherever available, photocopies of existing drawings
are used
2 Following distress is documented
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.

Structural cracks
Corrosion cracks
Spalling of concrete
Reinforcement corrosion
Reinforcement buckling
Leakage
Deflection
Structural steel corrosion and reduction in thickness
Joint failure in structural steel strutures

Non destructive testing is carried out as per scheme finalised after visual
observations
The cost estimates are prepared based on the measurements of repairs required.
As BMC DSR is found to be realistic and covering most of the items ,it is used for
costing
2 List of structures
The structural condition of following structures were assessed
Shahad intake structure - This includes the intake screen structure, Sump and
Pump house, anchor blocks, transformer room, staff quarters located in the
premises
1. Intake structure consists of two screens and RCC support structure with
wing walls.
Overall dimensions of the structure: 20x5x10m
NWL (top of weir crest): 3.5M
LDL: 2.5m
2. The sump/pump house structure is RCC structure with raft foundation.
Sump at bottom level (+1.3): 35x10x2m
Weir top level: +3.5 Mtrs
Ground level: +11.0 Mtrs
Large cantilever beams are taken from +13.5 to +17.0 level to
accommodate the pump house

Pump House 25x17x7.5m

Type of Roofing: Steel roof truss with sheeting
Gantry girder capacity: 10 ton
The electrical room: 25x10m with lower stilted floor with transformer on
upper floor. Type of construction: RCC structure.
3. The residential building:
Type of construction: RCC frame structure
Size: 10x10m with two floors. (The lower floor is stilted. On upper floor
apartments are constructed)
Pipeline bridge on Ulhas river
Type of Structure: Structural steel truss bridge supported on Concrete Piers
Spacing of piers: 40m C/C
Width of bridge: 7.5 m
Height of bridge: 3.2 m
HFL of river: 12.765m
Total length of bridge: 180 m
Pipeline bridge on Waldhuni Nalla
Type of Structure: Structural steel truss bridge supported on Concrete Piers
Spacing of piers: 35 m C/C
Width of bridge: 7.5 m
Height of bridge: 3.2 m
HTL of river: 3.25 m
LTL of river: 0.125 m
Total length of bridge: 35 m
BPT for STEM in Kalyan
Type of construction: RCC structure with 400mm thick wall with strip circular
footing.
Diameter of the circular tank: 45 m
Water height: 6 m
Ground level: 23.48m. FSL is at 27.0m tank bottom RL is 21.0m
Walk way: 1.5 m height along the circumference of the tank at the top
Pipeline bridge on Ulhas river near Saravali
Type of Structure: Structural steel truss bridge with RCC deck slab supported on
Concrete Piers
Spacing of piers: 40 m C/C
Width of bridge: -- m
Height of bridge: 3.2 m
HFL of river: 9.5 m
HTL of river: 3.6 m
LTL of river: -- m
Total length of bridge: 417 m
Temghar water treatment plant - This includes anchor block on inlet pipe,
inlet channel, flash mixer, channels to clariflocculator, channels to filter, rapid
sand filters and filter house, pure water channel, chlorine contact tank , pure
water sump, pumping station, electrical substation
Pipeline bridge on Ulhas river near Anjur
Type of Structure: Structural steel truss bridge supported on Concrete Piers

Length of bridge: 800 m

Chairs supporting the raw water and pure water pipeline
Chair/Saddle details
Type

Location

Numb
er

Details

RCC
Chair

Raw water

125

1800mmdia line

RCC
Chair

Pure water

49

Pure water to thane

MBR

RCC
Chair

Pure water

251

2mx1.5m (ht)size

RCC
Chair

82

2mx1.5m (ht) size

RCC
Chair

1121

Pile
mm

Saddle
UCR

1167

Rising main on 1800

mm dia

Pure water Thane 657

MBR

1530 mm dia line

Expansion joints
Typ
e

Diamet
er

Numb
er

C1

1800

31

C1

1500

11

C1

200

39

Valve chambers
Nos

foundation

19

400

Size

2m X 2m

1.2m X 1.2m

Meter room
Size

location

4mx3m

Mankoli

3mx2.7
m

Anjur
Bridge

Type of construction

MBR for STEM near Mankoli

Type of Construction: RCC
Capacity: 13 ML(for Mira Bhayandar)
Size:48x48 m
Foundation: Raft
Capacity: 15 ML(for Thane)
Size:60 m diameter
Foundation: Raft
MBR for Bhiwandi
Type of Construction: RCC
Foundation: Raft type resting on made up UCR masonry platform
Bridge for Pipeline to Bhiwandi
This bridge is provided for crossing the BMC pipe lines
Type of Structure: Structural steel truss bridge supported on Concrete Piers
Elevated Sump at Patlipada
Type of construction-RCC ground resting tank
Size-18.5x18.5x3m
Pump room 26x7 m ht 6m- 2no
MBR at Patlipada
Type of Construction: RCC elevated water tank supported on column braced at
intermediate levels
Capacity: 4 ML
Size :32x32x4 m
Foundation:Raft foundation

Capacity: 5 ML
Type of Construction: RCC elevated circular water tank supported on column
braced at intermediate levels
Size :44 m dia
Foundation:Raft foundation
Pipeline Bridge near Murda
Type: 400 dia pipe directly spanning the nalla with support system of 2 piles with
pile cap (Originally the pipe was encased in concrete for protection and strength
purpose)
Pipeline Bridge near Rai
Type: 400 dia pipe directly spanning the nalla.
Supports: Laid on the culvert support of the road.
Pipeline Bridge near Morva
Type: 400 dia pipe supported by structural steel truss Type Bridge
Supports: 2 piles with pile cap.

3. List of non destructive tests carried out

i) Rebound hammer test
The test is performed as per IS 13311(part 2). In this test the rebound
number is measured, which is correlated to compressive strength of
concrete.
Spring-driven mass strikes surface of concrete and rebound distance is
given in R-values. Surface hardness is measured and strength estimated
from calibration curves.
Equipment details
Make-Proceq Switzerland
Methodology of test

Plaster is removed at test locations

For testing smooth, clean dry surface without

honeycombing, crack or hollow sound is selected

Area of approx 300x300 mm is rubbed with carborandum stone to remove

loosely adhering scales etc

In this area points at approximately 30 mm apart are selected in grids

By holding the rebound hammer at right angles to the surface of the

concrete member 12 readings are taken at selected points

Abnormally high and low results are neglected and average of balance
readings is worked out

Corrected rebound number is worked out after considering moisture,

carbonation ,test location ,direction of test

Compressive strength of concrete is obtained from graph

Statistical analysis is carried out for this set of values

ii) Ultra sonic pulse velocity test

any

defect

like

This test is performed as per 13311(part 1). In this test, the velocity of
ultrasonic waves through concrete is measured, and is related to concrete
quality.
It operates on principle that stress wave propagation velocity is affected
by quality of concrete. Pulse waves are induced in materials and the time
of arrival measured at the receiving surface with a receiver. Ultrasonic
pulse velocity is influenced by elastic modulus and strength of concrete.
Methodology of test
Plaster is removed at test locations
For testing smooth ,clean dry surface without any defect like
honeycombing, crack or hollow sound is selected
Area of approx 300x300 mm is rubbed with carborandum stone to
remove loosely adhering scales etc
Two points are marked on the opposite faces of the concrete
members for direct transmission of ultrasonic pulses
Grease is applied as a coupling medium to ensure proper contact of
the transducers with concrete surface so that ultrasonic pulse is
transmitted through the medium without much disturbance
Both the transducers are held at correct test locations by applying
constant pressure and ultrasonic pulses are transmitted through the
concrete
The velocity is calculated from the readings
Following is the criteria as per IS code
Sr
no

Ultrasonic
velocity(km/sec)

pulse Concrete
grading

Above 4.5

Excellent

3.5 to 4.5

Good

3 to 3.5

Medium

Below 3

Doubtful

quality

iii) Carbonation test

Principle- Carbonation is one of the two main causes of corrosion of steel in
concrete, the other one being chloride attack. As the result of the interaction of
carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere with the alkaline hydroxides in the
concrete, the carbonation process effectively drops the pH of the concrete to a
level where the steel will corrode. The carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form
carbonic acid, which can migrate to the reinforcing steel if the concrete cover is
low or if the concrete is of poor quality (open pore structure, low cement content,
high water cement ratio, or poor curing of the concrete). Carbonation is more
common in old structures,

Methodology: Phenolphthalein is a type of pH indicator which will indicate the

change of pH on a freshly exposed concrete surface. The indicator is simply
sprayed on the surface to be checked. The indicator will change to pink in
uncarbonated concrete and remain colourless when sprayed on carbonated (low
pH) concrete. If the concrete test area is very dry, a light misting with water will
help show the colour.
By spraying the indicator along a core drilled from the top surface down to the
reinforcement bar it can be readily seen how far the carbonation has progressed
and therefore the outlook for corrosion, which will only occur after carbonation
reaches the reinforcement bar. Care should be taken to prevent drilling and
coring dust from contaminating the surface to be tested.
iv) Profometer tests
a) Cover test- This test is performed to find out the concrete cover in
structural member.
b) Rebar locator- This test is performed to find out the reinforcement dia in
structural member.
c) Location of steel reinforcement in RC structures by non-destructive tests
v) Half cell potentiometer test for corrosion
Corrosion test - This test is performed to find out corrosion in steel
Ref code: ASTM C 876
Objective of test: To find out the probability of corrosion of steel inside
concrete
Principle- When concrete is permeable and non uniform, atmospheric oxygen
and water can penetrate up to rebars. Their varying concentrations give rise
to potential cathode and anode sites in the concrete body. Electrons from
anode are transferred to cathode facilitating formation of hydroxyl ions which
in turn diffuse back to anode to get associated with ferrous ions there. Due to
this, iron at anode gets converted to ferrous oxide and hydroxide which may
be termed as corrosion products
The possibility of corrosion by above process is detected by half cell
potentiometer test by measurement of e.m.f. generated in the corrosion cell
which is the driving force in above reaction. For this purpose external cathode
is provided in the form of copper rod and copper sulphate solution half cell.
Any point on the reinforcement bar inside the concrete body functioning as
anode when connected electrically to cathodic half cell generates e.m.f which
is measured by connecting a milli voltmeter in the circuit. Thus the presence
of corrosion process gets detected
Operation- the half cell potentiometer consists of a rigid tube which contains
a copper rod immersed in a copper sulphate solution. This is connected to a
voltmeter and another live wire connection comes through voltmeter to

connect it to rebar. To start the experiment firstly the live wire is connected to
a rebar of the test specimen and the rigid tube is put on the surface of
concrete and the reading of voltmeter is taken. Reading gives the potential
difference between the electrodes. From the value of the potential difference,
corrosion status inside the concrete can be predicted
A sponge dipped in soap solution is used between the rigid tube and concrete
surface for proper electrical contact.
Corrosion risk by half cell potentiometer
Probability
corrosion

of

active Cu-Cuso4
electrode

Silver-silver
electrode

chloride

>95 percent

More negative More negative than

-700mV
than
-350 mV

50 percent

-200
mV

< 5 percent

More
positive More positive than
-500mV
than
-200mV

to

-350 -500 to -700 mV

vi) Core test

A core of 65/95 mm dia is extracted from the structure and the compressive
strength of concrete is tested.
Drilled cylindrical core is removed from structure. Tests may be performed on
core to determine compressive strength
Methodology of test
The reinforcement is detected at planned location with the help of rebar locator
to avoid cutting of reinforcement
The core cutting equipment is fixed at the planned location and extracted up to a
length of approx 250mm maximum
The cores are transported to the laboratory and kept submerged in water for 24
hours
The cores are removed from water and cut to the required l/d ratio of 2 exactly
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. Both the ends are prepared by grinding

A thin layer of plaster of Paris is applied to ends to ensure proper contact. Now
the cores are tested for compression test
Correction factor for diameter is applied
Estimation of cube strength- As per IS 516, the equivalent cube strength is
calculated by the formula
Equivalent characteristic cube strength=1.25*fc*k where k=0.87+0.13*((l/d)-1)
Based on the above, formula the estimated equivalent cube strength of concrete
is worked out which shall be equal or more than the acceptable value of 85 % of
the characteristic compressive strength as per the acceptance criteria of IS 456
vii) Chemical test
This test is performed to find out chloride, sulphate content and pH of concrete.
Chloride content- whenever there is chloride in concrete there is increased risk
of corrosion of embedded metal. The higher the chloride content, the greater
the risk of corrosion
As per IS 456 the maximum total acid soluble chloride content expressed as
kg/m3 of concrete shall be 0.6 for reinforced concrete
Sulphate content- the excessive amount of water soluble sulphates can cause
expansion or disruption of concrete. The total water soluble sulphate content of
the concrete mix, expressed as SO3, should not exceed 4 % by mass of the
cement in the mix
pH of the concrete sample- the pH of freshly prepared concrete is around 12
and hence it is highly alkaline in nature. Carbonation of concrete by attack from
atmospheric carbon dioxide will result in reduction of alkanity of the concrete
and increase the risk of reinforcement corrosion.
viii)

Ultrasonic thickness gauge test for structural steel

This test is done on structural steel members to find out the in situ
thickness of the member.
This test is carried out on structural steel members of columns, beams,
trusses and also on plates to measure the in situ thickness of the
structural steel member
The measured thickness of the members then are compared with standard
steel sections to determine whether there is any reduction in thickness of
members
Methodology of test:

The area of approx 50mm x 50mm is cleaned and loosely

adhering scales etc are removed using emery paper or wire
brush

Grease/oil is applied as coupling medium to ensure proper

contact of the transducer to the steel surface

Transducer is held at the test location by applying constant

pressure and ultrasonic pulse is transmitted.

The machine displays the thickness of steel in mm in between

the testing after every 20 to 25 tests ,the test is carried out on
the steel plates of known thickness for calibration

4 Observations
I)
Shahad intake structure
a) Shahad pumping station
Severe corrosion is observed in structural steel support system for pumps.
The steel sections are very much reduced in thickness.
RCC columns are having reinforcement corrosion . at some places the
concrete spalling is observed . corrosion of reinforcement is observed in columns
,beams and slabs.
b) Electrical transformer room
The terrace slab is showing signs of heavy corrosion of reinforcement
Reinforcement corrosion has occurred in slab to a large extent
The slab is showing leakages
c) Residential building
The columns, beams and slabs are showing heavy cracking and spalling of
concrete.
Terrace slab is leaking and shows signs of heavy distress
All structural members are showing signs of heavy distress
There are structural cracks observed in columns, beams and slabs
Corrosion of steel is observed in all the structural members
There are leakages in the terrace slabs

The beams and slabs are showing deflections

II)

Pipeline bridge on Ulhas river

Major corrosion in bottom structural steel members
The thickness of corroded members is reduced
Truss members and connection plates are showing varying degree of
corrosion
III)

Pipeline bridge on Waldhuni Nalla

Severe corrosion is observed in bottom members. The thickness of the
member is heavily reduced.
The joints are heavily corroded and the plates are reduced in thickness
Access staircase members are severely corroded . there is complete
reduction of thickness of members. Due to heavy reduction of thickness the
staircase is broken
IV)

BPT for STEM in Kalyan

Minor structural cracks are observed in the wall of the tank
Reinforcement corrosion is observed in walkway slab
Some concrete spalling is observed in the walk way slab

V)

Pipeline bridge on Ulhas river near Saravali

Corrosion is observed in bottom members
There is some reduction in thickness of bottom members
There is slight reduction in thickness of truss members
Some truss members and connections are lightly rusted

VI)

Temghar water treatment plant

The inlet channel sides are eroded and the reinforcement is exposed.
There is cracking and minor spalling in columns of channels and flash
mixer
Leakages are observed in channels, clarriflocculator and filter walls
Heavy distress is observed in CCT
Pure water sump shows signs of major distress

VII) Pipeline bridge on Ulhas river near Anjur

Bottom members of bridge are showing major corrosion
Trusses and connections have varying degree of rusting
VIII) Chairs supporting the raw water and pure water pipeline
Chairs have varying degree of distress at various locations
UCR masonry chairs are needed to be replaced with concrete.
The chairs were checked for tilting by measuring the levels and found OK
IX)
MBR for STEM near Mankoli
13 ML 48x48 m tank is showing heavy distress in top slab and side walls.
X)

MBR for Bhiwandi

The bottom slab of tank is showing severe leakages
Leakages are also observed in side walls

Some cracking is observed in top slab

XI)

Bridges for Pipeline to Bhiwandi

There is some corrosion in the bottom members
Connections are showing minor corrosion

XII) Elevated Sump at Patlipada

Leakages are observed in bottom slab at some locations
XIII) MBR at Patlipada
Leakages are seen from the side walls of tank
XIV) Pipeline bridge near Murda
At present, the pipeline is supported on pile caps at both ends
The encasing of concrete is completely lost
The pile caps are in distressed condition
XV) Pipeline bridge near Rai
At present, the pipeline is supported on pile caps at both ends
The encasing of concrete is completely lost
The pile caps are in distressed condition
XVI) Pipeline bridge near Morva
The existing pipe bridge is severely corroded
The pile caps are cracked
5

Recommendations
I)
Shahad intake structure
a. Shahad pumping station:
Based on the available sizes an analysis of the structure was carried out. It
is felt that the structure does not have capacity for any additional loading.
Looking to the existing distress it has suffered, it is necessary to repair the
structure so prevent further decay.
Severe distress is observed in structural steel support system for
pumps/motor which needs to be strengthened completely and coated with
anticorrosive coating.
RCC structure cracks shall be grouted and sealed
Polymer modified mortar shall be used for replacement of lost concrete
b. Electrical transformer room
The terrace slab is showing signs of corrosion of reinforcement. It is
recommended to repair the damaged slab
Cracks in beams and columns shall be repaired by grouting
Spalled concrete shall be removed and repaired with polymer modified
mortar.
c. Residential building
The columns, beams and slabs are showing heavy cracking and spalling of
concrete
Terrace slab is leaking and shows signs of heavy distress
All structural members are showing signs of heavy distress

It is recommended that the structure should not to be used

Pipeline bridge on Ulhas river
Major corrosion is observed in bottom structural steel members. These
members should be strengthened by addition of plates Truss members
and connection plates are showing different stages of corrosion-Slightly
corroded members may be thoroughly cleaned and strengthened if
required and coated with anti corrosive coating
II)
Pipeline bridge on Waldhuni Nalla
Severe corrosion is observed in many members
Access staircase is broken. Many members are severely rusted.
Considering condition of present bridge which is found to be severely
distressed and major repairs strengthening is required for proper
functioning of the system
It is not recommended to use the structure for augmentation scheme.
III)

BPT for STEM in Kalyan

Structural cracks in RCC members shall be grouted The spalled and loose
concrete shall be replaced with Polymer modified mortar
IV)

Pipeline bridge on Ulhas river near Saravali

Corrosion is observed in bottom structural steel members. These
members should be replaced with suitable new members
Truss members and connection plates are showing different stages of
corrosion-Slightly corroded members may be thoroughly cleaned and
strengthened if required and coated with anti corrosive coating.

V)

Temghar water treatment plant

Inlet channelStructural cracks in RCC members shall be grouted
Polymer modified mortar shall be used for replacement of spalled
concrete
Flash mixer
The RCC columns of flash mixer should be encased after removal of
spalled concrete and cleaning of rust of reinforcement
Channels to clarrifloculator
The supporting columns show minor spalling which should be repaired
with polymer modified mortar
Leakages are observed in the side wall of the water channel which
should be grouted
Clariflocculator
Walls are clariflocculator has leakages at some locations. These shall
be grouted the side channel wall and bottom slab is having leakages
which shall be grouted
Settled water channel

Columns concrete is spalled at few locations which should be repaired

with PMM
There are leakages in the side wall of channel which should be grouted
Filter house and filter
Walls of the filter have leakages at some locations which should be
grouted. Access walkway concrete is spalled at some locations which
should be repaired with polymer modified mortar
Pure water channel/chlorine contact tank/pure water sump
The structure is in heavily distressed condition. It may not be advisable
to use the structure
VI)

Pipeline bridge on Ulhas river near Anjur

Corrosion is observed in bottom structural steel members. These
members should be strengtherned with suitable new members/plates
Truss members and connection plates are showing different stages of
corrosion-Slightly corroded members may be thoroughly cleaned and
strengthened if required and coated with anti corrosive coating

VII)

Chairs supporting the raw water and pure water pipeline

Structural cracks in RCC members shall be grouted
Polymer modified mortar shall be used for replacement of lost concrete
The UCR masonry chairs are in distressed condition and shall be
completely replced with pile supports

VIII) MBR for STEM near Mankoli

From visual observations and NDT testing it is observed that the structure
is heavily distressed condition. There are large cracks at some locations
which are causing heavy leakages of water. The top slab has heavy
distress.
Considering all these aspects it is not recommended to use the structure.

IX)

X)

MBR for Bhiwandi

From visual observations and NDT testing it is observed that the
structure is heavily distressed condition. There are cracks in walls which
are causing leakages of water. The bottom slab has leakages.
Considering all these aspects it is not recommended to use the structure.

Bridges for Pipeline to Bhiwandi

Corrosion is observed in bottom structural steel members. These
members should be strengthened with suitable new members/plates
Truss members and connection plates are showing different stages of
corrosion-Slightly corroded members may be thoroughly cleaned and
strengthened if required and coated with anti corrosive coating

Elevated Sump at Patlipada Structural cracks in RCC members shall

be grouted The spalled and loose concrete shall be completely
removed
The surfaces shall be thoroughly cleaned and scrapped
The corroded reinforcement shall be cleaned of rust completely. If there
is appreciable loss of material then new reinforcement shall be welded
The reinforcement shall be coated with anticorrosive system
Bonding coat shall be applied.Polymer modified mortar shall be used
for replacement
XI)
MBR at Patlipada
Structural cracks in RCC members shall be grouted The spalled and loose
concrete shall be completely removed
The surfaces shall be thoroughly cleaned and scrapped
The corroded reinforcement shall be cleaned of rust completely. If there is
appreciable loss of material then new reinforcement shall be welded
The reinforcement shall be coated with anticorrosive system
Polymer modified mortar shall be used for replacement
XII)

Pipeline bridge near Murda

In existing condition the pipe is supported on pile caps at both ends
The encasing of concrete is completely lost
The pile caps are in distressed condition.
The pile caps should be repaired with grouting and polymer mortar
It is proposed to provide new steel box to support the pipeline

XIII) Pipeline bridge near Rai

In existing condition the pipe is supported on pile caps at both ends
The encasing of concrete is completely lost
The pile caps are in distressed condition
The pile caps should be repaired with grouting and polymer mortar
It is proposed to provide new steel box to support the pipeline
XIV)

Pipeline bridge near Morva

The existing pipe bridge is severely corroded
The pile caps are in distressed condition
The pile caps should be repaired with grouting and polymer mortar
It is proposed to provide new steel box to support the pipeline
All the structures shall be subjected to load testing to ascertain the
strengthening achieved.

6 Discussion

Reasons for distress and control techniques -All concrete in service is

subjected to loads and attack by environmental factors. In almost all cases
penetration of water and aggressive chemicals is the primary reason for the
distress. Deterioration is caused by corrosion of reinforcing bars (carbonation,
chloride ingress), sulphate attack, and alkali silica reaction

Corrosion
Once the water enters into the structure and the reaches reinforcement
corrosion starts. Concrete has a pH of approximately 12.5, and this provides a
protective environment for the steel reinforcement because a thin film of
passivating iron oxide forms over the surface of the steel. However, two
processes lead to a breakdown of the passivating film and initiation of corrosion:
An acidic environment develops when carbon dioxide from the air mixes with
water in the concrete pores (carbonation) that removes the passivating layer.
The passivating layer can become permeable due to the presence of chloride
ions that penetrate into the concrete from marine environments and chloride in
sand and aggregates.
The corrosion of reinforcements has resulted to be one of the most frequent
causes of their premature failures, which can set in, as early as 3 months
depending on the surroundings.
Carbonation
Carbonation is a process in which carbon dioxide from the atmosphere diffuses
through the porous concrete and neutralizes the alkalinity of concrete. The
carbonation process will reduce the pH to approximately 8 or 9 in which the
oxide film is no longer stable. With adequate supply of oxygen and moisture,
corrosion will start.
The reaction of Ca (OH) 2 with CO2 takes place by first forming Ca (HCO3)2 and
finally CaCO3, the product precipitates on the walls and in crevices of the pores.
This reduction in pH also leads to the eventual breakdown of the other hydration
products, such as the aluminates, C-S-H gel and sulfoaluminates.
The relative humidity with which the pore solution is in equilibrium greatly affects
the rate of carbonation.
Consequently carbonation occurs at a maximum rate between 50 and 70 percent
relative humidity. In addition to atmospheric conditions, carbonation rate is also

influenced by the permeability of the concrete, and the cement content of the
concrete. Cement content of approximately 15 percent produces a concrete
relatively resistant to carbonation.
The two most common causes of reinforcement corrosion are (i) localized
breakdown of the passive film on the steel by chloride ions and (ii) general
breakdown of passivity by neutralization of the concrete, predominantly by
reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Sulphate attack- The sulphate attack on concrete on concrete manifests itself in
the form of expansion, cracking, loss of mass and disintegration. Expansion and
cracking is generally associated with the product ettringite formed due to
reaction between sulphate ions and the hydration products C3A present in
Portland cement paste.
Future precautions
Corrosion of the reinforcement steel bars is one of the main reasons for
deterioration of concrete structures. In high corrosion risk areas, it is
important to use a corrosion control system for long term durability and
provide effective cathodic protection to the reinforcement steel in projects.
This includes sacrificial coatings, sacrificial anodes, bulk anodes, etc.
The selection of an appropriate cathodic protection system requires expert
knowledge, and depends on the existing condition of the steel, surrounding
environmental conditions, the type of structure, and the durability required.
For example, very critical structures in an aggressive climatic zone require far
better and robust techniques to arrest the progress of corrosion.
For improved resistance to sulphate attack a reduction in porosity is
important. Addition of mineral admixtures, such as fly ash, ground blast
furnace slag and silica fume is beneficial.

7 References
IS 13311 (Part 1): 1992, Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete Methods of
Test, Part 1, Ultra Sound Pulse Velocity, Bureau of India Standards.

IS 13311 (Part 2): 1992, Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete Methods of

Test, Part 2, Rebound Hammer, Bureau of India Standards.

CPWD Handbook on Repair and Rehabilitation of RCC Structures, Central

Public Works Department (CPWD), Government of India, New Delhi, 2002.

IS 456 2000 Plain and reinforced concrete- code of practice(fourth

revision)

IS 516-1959 Method of test for strength of concrete

8 Appendix A-Repair methods

There are various of strengthening and repairs . A brief description of various
methods is as follows

Polymer modified mortar-used for old hardened concrete for repairing

defects on exposed concrete surface only. For large repair areas with
thickness more than 50 mm it is desirable to use appropriate reinforcing
mesh fixed with U nails.
Epoxy mortar-These mortars consist of resing ,hardener and silica sand
and are applied over an epoxy bonding coat. These mortars attain
strength in few hours.They have very high strength and abrasion
resistance, water resistance and can be used in few milimeter thick
overlays
Shot crete-it is pneumatically applied concrete or mortar placed directly
on to a surface. If required reinforcing mesh is used.
Plate bonding MS plates and connected to the concrete sections by
using epoxy adhesives. Bolts used for holding the plates in position also
act as shear connectors.
RCC Jacketing- reinforced concrete jacket increased the member size. It
increases the member stiffness.

Fibre wrap technique-Woven fabric pre-soaked in specially formulated

epoxy and applied over prepared surface after application of epoxy primer.
Crack filling with cement grout-cracks in concrete members are
grouted using cementitious grouts by pumping
Crack filling with epoxy grout-small structural cracks in concrete are
grouted by pumping epoxy in to the crack.
Preplaced aggregate concrete-It is concrete made by forcing grout into
the mass of aggregate densely prepacked.
Dry packing It consists of cement and sand (1:2.5) with just enough
water to be able to form a ball by hand. It is immediately packed into
place, before bond coat has dried ,and shaped by hammer
Foundation rehabilitation-It is done by shoring the underpinning the
work . piles , micropiles or jacked pile are used for strengthening. Injection
with cement or chemicals to strengthen the surrounding soils may be
done.
Cathodic protection-It is provided by having a sacrificial anode to
protect the steel .

9 Appendix B -Necessity of strengthening

It is recommended to do the strengthening of the civil structures
Load test of structure pre and post strengthening is recommended
Post strengthening the life of the structures will be 7-10 years with normal
routine maintenance .
It is suggested to do structural audit yearly and based on it required
maintenance should be done. This will he helpful in further enhancement of life
of structures
There are two typical categories
Structures in highly distressed condition
structures showing progressive deterioration

1) Highly distressed structures-There are structures which are showing heavy

distress and may lead to failure. This may lead to disruption of normal
functioning of the system leading to emergency.
Some of the structures which seem to be in very critical condition are as follows
Shahad pumping station The steel support structure on which pumps are
erected is in highly corroded condition.
The thickness of steel members is greatly reduced. The strength of supporting
system for pumps is greatly reduced.
This may lead to failure of support system of collapse of the pumps. This will lead
to stoppage of the pumping and emergency repairs will have to be taken for
restoration of raw water pumping
Waldhuni pipe line bridgeAccess staircase is already collapsed
There is heavy corrosion in all members of the bridge. The thickness of the
members is greatly reduced.
If not immediately attended, there may be partial or complete failure of the
bridge which may lead to failure of the raw water pipeline causing disruption in
supply of raw water to the treatment plant at Temghar
Mankoli MBRIt is not being filled to full level because of heavy leakages and hence, full
capacity is not utilised. There is heavy distress in side walls.
There are chances of side wall failure which may cause the MBR to be nonfunctional.
Bhiwandi MBRIt is showing leakages from bottom slab. There is heavy distress in side walls.
The top slab of MBR is showing signs of distress.
There are chances of side wall failure which may cause the MBR to be nonfunctional.
The leakages at bottom may cause instability of the stone masonry platform
foundation leading to total failure of tank and its foundation
Bridges at Morva, Rai, Murda
At all these locations, the pipe was simply spanned across nalla. The pipe was
encased in concrete. In the present situation, the encasing is completely lost.
The bridge is in very dilapidated condition. The failure of supporting structure will
result in disruption of pure water supply to MBMC.

Temghar water treatment plant

Chlorine contact tank and pure water sump are in heavily distressed condition.
The top slab of CCT has already started collapsing. There can be major accident
and disruption of water supply if the matter is not attended immediately
2) Structures showing progressive deterioration-Other structures like Ulhas
Bridge, Saravali, Anjur and Bhiwandi bridges have signs of partial distress but
showing signs of progressive deterioration due to corrosion. If not attended
immediately, they may become highly distressed.
The roof slab of transformer room at Shahad is having leakages and corrosion of
reinforcement is observed. If not attended, it may lead to increased leakage over
electrical transformers, which is risky. Increased corrosion of reinforcement may
also lead to collapse of slab.
Flash mixer columns for monorail and connection beams are showing corrosion
cracks and if unattended may lead to disruption of functioning of the mixer
Chairs supporting the pipe line are in varying degree of distress. If kept
unattended, there is chance of failure leading to damage to pipeline.

10 Appendix C-Load Test Procedures

All the structures shall be subjected to load testing to ascertain the
strengthening achieved. A brief guideline is given below .

Load test report should contain the following information

Table

of Contents
Introduction
Description of Structure
Instrumentation Procedures
Load Test Procedures
Preliminary Investigation of Test Results
Modeling, Analysis, and Data Correlation
Results
Conclusions and Recommendations
References

Introduction
Information in brief about the structure
Description of Structure
Location
Structure Type
Span Length(s)
Skew if any
Roadway/Structure Widths
Connections
Stringer
Deck type
Abutments
bearings. .
Structural materials.
Comments
Instrumentation Procedures
The primary goal of the instrumentation plan is to measure the live-load
response behavior of the main truss members and to determine the load
distribution
characteristics of the floor system.
Based on the construction details of the superstructure
obtain the stiffness parameters. Evaluation of these parameters is necessary to
accurately assess the load effect on each component due to an applied load
condition.
Load Test Method
Description of the vehicle including the load, positions of load, no of lanes, path
of travel etc shall be given
Preliminary Investigation of Test Results
A visual examination of the field data shall be performed to assess the quality of
the data and to make a qualitative assessment of the bridges live-load response.
Modeling, Analysis, and Data Correlation
A 3 D finite element model of superstructure should be defined based on realistic
conditions of site. Loading of the model should be of test vehicle. Comparision of
computed and measured strains shall be made. Various stiffness terms shall be
modified through a parameter identification process until best fit correlation the
measured and computed strain is obtained. This way the model is calibrated to
the field measurements and further evaluation is done.
Dynamic Load testing of Bridges

1. Introduction
Dynamic load testing is an important part of the acceptance process for new
bridges complement to static load tests, dynamic tests yield useful information
about the actual behavior of the bridge
under traffic. This information is usually difficult to obtain analytically, because of
the complexity of the actual structure. The effect of pavement deterioration on
the dynamic response of the bridge is of particular importance for the
management of the structure. This information can be easily and realistically
obtained from a dynamic test, and thereafter used by the highway authorities to
organize the pavement maintenance.
2. Dynamic Load Testing
The purpose of the dynamic load test is to determine the controlling parameters
of the dynamic behavior of the bridges. The main dynamic characteristics of the
structure are the fundamental vibration frequency, the dynamic amplification
factor and the logarithmic decrement. These properties are usually not analyzed
in detail in the design phase of small and middle sized structures. Some
parameters, such as the logarithmic decrement or the dynamic amplification
factor, can only be roughly estimated at the time of the design. However, these
quantities are relatively easy to obtain experimentally, and can give valuable
information for the exploitation and maintenance of the bridge.
3. Methodology
Dynamic load testing is performed by exciting the vibration of the bridge and by
measuring its properties after the excitation has ceased. Several methods are
available for the excitation of the bridge, in particular: eccentric rotating masses,
impact of a heavy weight and passage of a loaded truck. This last method is
often preferred for the dynamic load testing of bridges because it gives, along
with reasonably accurate values of the above mentioned quantities, a good
approximation of the effect of the actual traffic on the structure. By varying the
speed of the truck on the bridge, the full range of traffic speeds can be
investigated. Furthermore, this method is easily implemented while some of the
other ones necessitate more complicated installation procedures. The
measurements are taken and recorded by a dynamic data acquisition system
with integrated Fast-Fourier Transform (FFT) analyzer, allowing an immediate
interpretation of the results during the test. Absolute
displacement sensors are used for the measurements, and therefore only
components with a relatively high frequency (larger than 0.2 Hz) are recorded.
The static influence line of the truck passing on the bridge is then added to
obtain the complete dynamic influence line.
4. Results
Because a lot of information is gathered in the course of dynamic load testing,
the results are usually presented graphically. First, the dynamic influence line of
the bridge subjected to the passage of a
truck is drawn for all travel speeds, with and without plank. This allows a simple
visual determination of the dynamic amplification factor . The natural
frequency of the bridge is obtained from acceleration spectra performed by the
FFT analyzer. The logarithmic decrement is obtained from the decay of the bridge
free oscillations, after the truck has left the bridge, or at least when it is far
enough from the instruments.
For testing of bridges following code should be followedGuidelines for Load Testing of Bridges (IRC:SP-51) Author : Indian Roads Congress
(IRC), Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MORTH, formerly MOST)

Strain gauges for strain measurement during load testing

Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More
specifically, strain (e) is defined as the fractional change in length.
Definition of Strain
Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Although
dimensionless, strain is sometimes expressed in units such as in/in or mm/mm.
In practice, the magnitude of measured strain is very small. Therefore, strain is
often expressed as microstrain ( ), which is E x 10-6.
When you strain a bar with a uniaxial force, as depicted in the figure defining
strain gauge above, a phenomenon known as Poisson strain causes the girth of
the bar, D, to contract in the transverse, or perpendicular, direction. The
magnitude of this transverse contraction is a material property indicated by its
Poisson's ratio. The Poisson's ratio (v) of a material is defined as the negative
ratio of the strain in the transverse direction (perpendicular to the force) to the
strain in the axial direction (parallel to the force), or
. For example,
Poisson's ratio for steel ranges from 0.25 to 0.3.
The Strain Gauge
While there are several methods of measuring strain, the most common is with a
strain gauge. A strain gauge's electrical resistance varies in proportion to the
amount of strain placed on it. The most widely used gauge is the bonded metallic
strain gauge.
The metallic strain gauge consists of a very fine wire or, more commonly,
metallic foil arranged in a grid pattern. The grid pattern maximizes the amount of
metallic wire or foil subject to strain in the parallel direction (shown as the
"active grid length" in the Bonded Metallic Strain Gauge figure). The cross
sectional area of the grid is minimized to reduce the effect of shear strain and
Poisson strain.

Bonded Metallic Strain Guage

It is very important to properly mount the strain gauge onto the test specimen.
This ensures the strain accurately transfers from the test specimen through the
adhesive and strain gauge backing to the foil.
A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain,
expressed quantitatively as the gauge factor (GF). Gauge factor is the ratio of

fractional change in electrical resistance to the fractional change in length

(strain):

The gauge factor for metallic strain gauges is typically around two.
Ideally, the resistance of the strain gauge would change only in response to
applied strain. However, strain gauge material, as well as the specimen material
to which the gage is attached, will also respond to changes in temperature.
Strain gauge manufacturers attempt to minimize sensitivity to temperature by
processing the gauge material to compensate for the thermal expansion of the
specimen material intended for the gauge. While compensated gauges reduce
the thermal sensitivity, they do not remove it completely. For example, consider
a gauge compensated for aluminum that has a temperature coefficient of 23
ppm/C. With a nominal resistance of 1000 GF = 2, the equivalent strain error is
still 11.5
/C. Therefore, additional temperature compensation is important.
Measuring Strain
In practice, the strain measurements rarely involve quantities larger than a few
millistrain ( x 10-3). Therefore, measuring strain requires accurate measurement
of very small changes in resistance. For example, suppose a test specimen
undergoes a substantial strain of 500
. A strain gauge with a gauge factor GF
= 2 will exhibit a change in electrical resistance of only 2(500 x 10 -6) = 0.1%. For
a 120 gauge, this is a change of only 0.12 .

Quarter-Bridge Circut
Alternatively, you can double the sensitivity of the bridge to strain by making
both gauges active, although in different directions. For example, the Half-Bridge
Circuit figure illustrates a bending beam application with one bridge mounted in
tension (RG + R) and the other mounted in compression (RG - R). This halfbridge configurati
on, whose circuit diagram is also illustrated in the Half-Bridge Circuit figure,
yields an output voltage that is linear and approximately double that of the
quarter-bridge circuit.

Half-Bridge Circuit
Finally, you can further increase the sensitivity of the circuit by making all four of
the arms of the bridge active strain gauges and mounting two gauges in tension
and two gauges in compression. The full-bridge circuit is shown in the Full-Bridge
Circuit figure below.

Full-Bridge Circuit
The equations given here for the Wheatstone bridge circuits assume an initially
balanced bridge that generates zero output when you do not apply strain. In
practice however, resistance tolerances and strain induced by gauge application
will generate some initial offset voltage. This initial offset voltage is typically
handled in two ways. First, you can use a special offset-nulling, or balancing,
circuit to adjust the resistance in the bridge to rebalance the bridge to zero
output. Alternatively, you can measure the initial unstrained output of the circuit
and compensate in software.
With this in mind, there are several types of commonly measured strain (in order
of relative popularity):

Bending Strain -- resulting from a linear force (F V) exerted in the vertical

direction.

Axial Strain -- resulting from a linear force (Fa) exerted in the horizontal direction.

Shear Strain -- resulting from a linear force (F S) with components in both the
vertical and horizontal direction.

Torsional Strain -- resulting from a circular force (F T) with components in both the
vertical and horizontal direction.
Choosing the Right Type of Strain Gauge
The two primary criteria for selecting the right type of strain gauge are
sensitivity and precision. In general, if you use more strain gauges, (a full-bridge
circuit rather than a quarter-bridge) your measurement will respond more quickly
and be more precise. On the other hand, cost will also play a large part in
determining the type of strain gauge you select. Typically, full-bridge strain
gauges are significantly more expensive than half-bridge and quarter-bridge
gauges. For a summary of the various types of strain and strain gauges, please
refer to the Strain Gauge Summary table below.