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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
AEROSPACE DEPARTMENT
THIRD YEAR STUDENTS
FIRST TERM
AIRPLANE
ANATOMY
COURSE OBJECTIVES
External Aerodynamics
Forces on an Airplane
ailerons: provide
roll control
elevators: pitch
control
horizontal stabilizer:
longitudinal (pitch) stability
Coordinate system
Z-axis
Y-axis
X-axis
Wing location
Dihedral
Wing plan-form
Tail arrangement
General Dynamics F-16
Wing location
high wing
mid-wing
low wing
Dihedral angle
Dihedral angle
is the angle
between a
horizontal plane
(containing the root
chord) and a plane
midway between
the upper and the
lower surfaces of
the wing
Dihedral
> 0
Flat
= 0
Anhedral
< 0
Wing planform
elliptic
rectangular
tapered
swept
delta
Tail arrangement
conventional
T-tail
triple-tail
H-tail
V-tail
X-axis
Wing Geometry
The figure shows a typical straight, tapered wing plan-form
Z-axis
X-axis
Y-axis
Sweep angle
is the angle between the quarter chord line and
the perpendicular to the root chord
Twist angle
is the angle of profile chord with the wing fixed
(x-y) plane
Dihedral angle
is the angle between a horizontal plane
(containing the root chord) and a plane midway
between the upper and the lower surfaces of the
wing
Aspect ratio, AR
wing shape
b2
AR
S
ctip
croot
2
cmac croot 1 l
3
1 l
Wing Geometry
Wing Geometry
Wing Geometry
FINITE WING
THEORY
Low pressure
High pressure
Bottom
View
Front
View
Downwash
Effect of Downwash
Effective angle of attack
eff i
The tilting backward of the lift vector induce a drag,
called induced drag Di which is a type of pressure
drag.
Di
CD cd CD ,i where CD ,i
q S
Total drag = Profile drag (2-D)+ Induce drag,
therefore
Downwash effects
Redrawing the lift vector perpendicular to the new local
flow direction gives components perpendicular and
parallel to the free stream velocity. The parallel
component is drag due to lift or induced drag.
i
Chord line
Lift
Induced Drag, D
V
Local flow
direction
eff
Parallel to
chord line
Downwash effects
The presence of this downwash has two important effects on
the local airfoil section.
1) Decrease the angle of attack eff = - i where eff is the
effective angle of attack and then decrease the lift force.
2) Create a drag called induced drag Di or drag due to
Lift
lift.
Chord line
Induced Drag, Di
V
Local flow
direction
eff
Parallel to
chord line
Effect of Downwash
Effect of downwash
Wing-tip vortices
downstream of the wing
induce a small component of
air velocity, called downwash
which is denoted by the
symbol w.
Downwash causes inclining
the local relative wind in the
downward direction.
Induced Drag
Consequences of wingtips:
Reduced lift
Increased drag
1) Vortex line
2) Vortex surface
3) Vortex tube
4) Vortex filament
Vortex surface is a
surface formed by
an arbitrary line
AB in the flow
field and the
vortex
lines
passing through
that line.
A
B
Vortex Filament
The vortex filament can be curved of finite length.
The strength of the vortex filament is defined as the
circulation taken about any path enclosing the filament and is
a constant value
A segment of the vortex filament dl induces a velocity dV at
a point P equal to
dl r
dV
4
dl r
r 3
V
4
V
4
d
A r where r sin h
B
sin d
A h 4h cos A cos B
B
dl
V
4
sin d
A h 4h cos A cos B
B
(cos 1 )
4h
A = & B =
A = & B=
A = 0 & B =
4h
2h
If the vortex
filament is of
semi infinite
length
If the vortex
filament is of
infinite length
Free trailing
vortices
2D
2
0
a0V c
2 D geom
effec geom i
where
wi
1
i tan i
V V
4 ( y )
b / 2
b/ 2
V V
4 ( y )
b / 2
b/ 2
Y-axis
Z-axis
wi
d
V
X-axis
Vortex filament
of strength d
effec geom i
2
1
geom 0
a0V c 4V
Geometric
angle of
attack
Effective
angle of
attack
b/ 2
b / 2
/ d
d
( y )
Induced
angle of
attack
(3D effect)
2
1
d
0
a0V c
4V
/ d
d
( y )
b / 2
2bV An sinn
n 1
and
the
independent
b
b
cos
&
y
cos 1
variable is related by y
2
2
or as
Using these definitions, the governing equation can be written as
4b N
1
0
An sinn
a0 c n 1
nA
n 1
cos n
d
cos cos 1
Using
The
governing
equation
can be
written as
cos n
sinn 1
d
cos cos 1
sin 1
N
4b N
sinn
0
A
sin
n
nA
n
n
a0 c n 1
sin
n 1
or
where
In general
ca 0
4b
monoplane
equation
q S
b/ 2
dy
b / 2
q S
with
2bV An sinn
Integrate and
using the
following
identities
n 1
and
b
cos
2
sinn sinm d
for
nm
for
nm
sinn sinm d
C L A1 AR where
b2
AR
S
Di L sin i L i
Chord line
with
d / d
d
( y )
b / 2
2bV An sinn
n 1
and
Induced Drag, Di
b/ 2
Lift
Local flow
direction
b
cos
2
eff
&
Parallel to
chord line
b
cos 1
2
and
cos n
i nAn
d using
cos cos 1
0
1
cos n
sinn 1
d
0 cos cos 1
sin 1
i nAn
sinn
sin
V S
b/ 2
2b 2
i dy
S
b / 2
sinn i sin d
2b 2
nA
i nAn
sinn
sin
Am sinn sinm d
0
sinn sinm d
Integrate and
using the
following
identities
for
nm
for
nm
sinn sinm d
b
S
C
2
nAn 2 AR 1
2
L
An
n
A
n 2
1
Rolling moment
M x yL where L V dy
b
b
Rolling moment
Rolling moment
coefficient
b3
4
Mx
CMx
V2 b 3
8
A2
MR
AR A2
2
0.5 V S ( b / 2 )
2
where
Di
Di L i
nA
Yawing moment
M z V2
b3
8
2 n 1A
An 1
Mz
AR 2 n 1An An 1
2
0.5 V S ( b / 2 )
2
Finite Wing
Types of problems
Design
problem
Given the load
distribution (or
circulation) along
the span of the wing
Required the
chord distribution
and the angle of
attack
(Straight forward
solution of the G.E.)
Performance
problem
Given the chord
distributions of the
wing and the angle of
attack along the span
Required the
aerodynamic
characteristics of the
wing
(Numerical solution
of the G.E.)
Optimization
problem
Minimum drag
required
Required the
geometry of the wing
to give minimum
drag
Design problem
Given the load distribution along the span (assume elliptic distribution)
0
2y
1
b
y cos
2
Then
A1 0 / 2bV
and
A2 A3 A4 .... 0
We can
prove that
A1 sin / 0 A1
ca 0
4b
Design problem
c c0 sin
2 0
0
a0V
2 bV
Then for elliptic loading and using same airfoil (same a0 and same 0)
and also keeping the same geometrical angle of attack along the
span; the required wing is an elliptic wing, with the following
aerodynamic characteristics;
2
C
2 0
a0 0
L
C L A1 AR
a \ & C Di
AR
c0V
1 a0 / AR
symmetric wing and symmetric loading
CM x CMz 0
C D ,i
C L2
AR
C L2
1
AR
An
n
A
n 2
1
N
with
This condition is satisfied when the wing has an elliptic wing shape
and for symmetrical flight has an elliptic loading
Lift Per Unit Span
-b/2
+b/2
Finite Wing
Tapered Wing
Performance problem
Example
The geometry of a
trapezoidal wing is illustrated in the
figure. The wing, which is un-swept at
the quarter chord, is composed of
NACA 65-210 airfoil sections across
the span (a0 = 2 , 0 = 1.2). Since
the wing is untwisted, the geometric
angle of attack is the same at all spanwise positions. The aspect ratio (AR) is
9. The taper ratio (i.e. ct /cr) is 0.4.
Compute the lift coefficient CL,
induced drag coefficient CDi , local lift
coefficient Cl , for = 4
ca 0
4b
Performance problem
If we divide the half span by four partitions as ( = 22.5, 45.0, 67.5, 90.0) then
the monoplane equation can be evaluated
C l a0 0
Airfoil
cl
C
a0 0
CL
1 a0 / AR
Wing
Notice the slope is decreased for the wing and the zero lift
angle of attack is unchanged.
eAR
2
2 AR 4 AR 2 (1 tan 2 t max )
Total Drag
Total drag now has two components
Profile drag (skin friction + pressure)
Induced drag
In coefficient form:
CL2
CD
cd
e AR
Total Pr ofile Induced
Total Drag
CD
Total
Induced Drag
Pressure Drag
Skin Friction Drag
CL
cl
57.3cl
eAR
C L incomp C L ( L 0 )
CL
C Lin co m p
2
1 M
C L2
C D ,i
eAR
C D c d C Di
(with
AR
CL
AR 5
AR1 15 & CD
AR
C DAR5
2
CL
AR1 15
C L
57.3cl
1
eAR
2
2 AR 4 AR 2 (1 tan 2 t max )
C Lin co mp
2
1 M
a L 0
High AR
Low AR
Typical Values
Fighters: 2-5
Transports: 6-10
Gliders:
10-15
Why Winglets?
Equivalent to span extension w/o increased wingspan
NASA B-727 Wingtip Vortex Test Flight
Reduces wingtip vortices
Reduces drag
END OF FINITE
WING THEORY