~miCS

N. F. Krasnav

Fundamentals of Theory.
Aerodynamics of an
Airfoil and a Wing
Translated from the Russian by

G. Leib

Mir Publishers Moscow

First puhlished 1985

Revised {rom the 1980 Russian edition

JlaA8TeJII.CTBO .Bhlcmall ml(OJlat, t980

English translation, !'IIir Publishers. t985

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anl:~~i~I~~~m;~i~e:~~~h:~~le~fl~:11~r~~~:tt~~~ ~~ ~t~0~~~~~;11'a,~~~kd;sf:;~f

mooeru craft. The funclnmentllb of nl'rodynamics are u~ed in stu{lyinf,;' the external Dow over \"ariou~ bodies or the motion of air (a ga~l inside various objects.
Engineering success in the tields of aviation, artillery, rocketry. ~pace night,
motor vehicle tran~port. nnd so on, i.I~. [ields that perlnin to the flow of air
or a ~as in some form or other, depends 011 a lirm knowledge of aerodynamicti.
The present textbook, in ,uldition to the general law~ of ]]o\\' of a fluid,
treats the application of aerodynamics, chiefly in rocketry anll modern hi~h
,peed aviation. The book conHist.:; of tll'O parts, each forming a separlltp mlume.
fhe tirst of Lllem concerns Ihl' fUlulaml'ntal concepts and definitions of nerodynamirs and tht- th(>ory of flo\\' over all airfoil alld a wing, il\cllldin~ an unstead.I' Ilo\\' (Chapter~ 1-9), while the ~C('l)nd desfTibl'~ the aerodynamic design
of craft and their individual parts (Chapters 10-15). The tll'O p;lrts are (le~igned
for u~e in a two-s!'mester ('our~e of aerodynamics. although the first part can be
u~ec! indepcn<.lently by those intl'rested in individual problems of thporl'tical
Illro<.lynamics .
.-\ sound theort-tiral bad'l!:round is important to thl' s~udy of an~' ~ubject
bCl'ause (:featin' solutions of pructicul problems, ~cienti1ic re~earch, and <.liscovel'ies are irnpC)~sible without it. Studenl.5 should therefore del'ote special
attention to the lir~t live chapters. which deal with the run<.lamental concepts
and definitions of lwrodynamics. thp kinematics of a fluid. the fundamentals of
!luL<.l dynamks, Ill(' IIl('ory of ~hocks, and the method of ch,aracteristics used
widely in iuv!'stigatiu!!, !-uper,'onLc no\\'~. Chilpters 6 and 7, which relale to the
rlow ov{'r ail'foils, ar{' al~1) important lu II fumlamcntal ullder~talllliug of tbe
subject. Thl's!' chllptel's contain a fairly ('mnplete discussion of thr g('neral
theory of flow of a ,!l'a~ in two<.limensional space (the theory of twotlilllen5ional
now). The inrormalion on the S\lper~onic st!'ady Dow over a win~ in Chapter 8
relates directly 10 th{'se mat{'riais. The Ilerodynamic design of most modern cralt
is baser! on .<:t\l(tie,~ ot' such flow.
One of the mo~t topiral area~ of mOtlel'n aero<.lynarnic research i~ the ~t\ldy
of optimal aerodynlllllic {'ontiguralions of craft and tlu!ir sep:lratl' (isolated)
parts (the fuselagt~. wing, empcnnagl'). Therefore, ~I ~mall ~crtion ,u.5) that

~ie~\~efl~;ilt:!:};~~~ \\;~~~u~i~~ll 11~~~~HI:~1~:~t't~~or~rse~~~~:or;;:p~~t~nn:n~~~r[~:I

and methodological inform.. tion on tlw ('onversion of the llerodynamic coefficients of II wing from on!' a~pl'cl rlltio to ililother.
Th!! stully of nonstationary 'l'as floll's is a rllther well developed field of
modern thcorl,tical and practical aerodynamics. The results of this ."tudy are
widcl~' \Ised in ('alculilling the eOrcl of aerodynamic forces and moments on

Prefollce

craft whose motion is generally charaetl'riled by non-uniformity. and tbe nOllstationar~' aerodynamic characteristics tbus calcul!\ll'd afe used in the dynamics

~I~:t;~s \~lflet~eS~~~~~~~at~i~r c~~f~;i:~~ \ll~ t ~ ~sr;:f\tc~o~ .c~{~~~r)~n! ~icgd:~r~~

atives (stability derivatives) are anulysed, as is the concept of dynamic stability

~h~:~~~ ~~o~~ ~:~~ ~dWt~~1~~~~Oa{~:: ~~d~J ~ f~~Ic:~~~; ni\~~~r~~~ ~ i l~~~' t~oc~i ~

atives of a lifting surfact' of arbitrary planform, genernlly with a curved leadin!?
edge (i.e. with variable Sweep along the spaul. Both exact and approximate
methods of determining the non-stationary aerodynamic cllaracteri~tics of n
wing are given.
A special plact' in the book is devoted to the most irnl)Ortau~ theort!tical
and applied problems of high-spe(!d aerodynamic..~. including the thermodynamic
and kiuetic parameters of dissociating gases, the C!quations of motion and en('rg~',
and the theory of shocks and its relation to the IJhysicochell\ieal pro]l!rties of
gases at 1iJ.i~h temperaturE's. Considerable attention is giV>'ll Lo shock waves
(shocks), which arc a manifestation of th! specilic properties .)l supersonic flows.
The concept of the thickness of Ii shock is discu8.'!cd, and the b.)ok includes graphs
of the functioll~ characterizing changes in the parameters of it g;u.o as it pa~s('!<
through a shock.
Naturally, a textbook cannot reflect the entire diversity of problell1s facing
the science of aerodynamics. I have tried to provide the scicmtilie information
for specialists in the field of aeronautic and rocket enginCt:ring. This information, if mastered in its entirety, should be suflicient for ~oung specialists to
cope independently with other practical aerodynamic problems that may nplK.'ar.
Among these problems., not reflected in the bOOk. are magnetogasdynamic in\'est
igations, the IIpplicatlOn of thE' method of characteristics to throe-dimensional
gas flows, ant! experimental aerorlynamics. I will be hal)p~' H study of this text'
book leads student!< to a more (omprehensi\'e, independent investigation 01
modern aerodynamics.
The book is the result of my experience te<lchinl? course.' in aerod~natnics

r:r ~~ell~E~n~aju~f~~_~oil'~;! ~~5~~~~~iif 3Nlne~~ ib~ .~o\;;~~\:;i ~;J~~. s~~c~~~~et~

in rt'SC!areh institutions, design department.". llnd HHlu~trlal entcrrrises
All physical quantities are given according to the luterMtiona System of
Units (51).

edi:i~th:.~a~~!n til;a~~~~~~ ~~~i:.~ id~~tn aOc~~~~~~fkr~~\~~~~~ ~~'~~k~~e~ ~(r ~f!ih~

valuable suggestions made by the re\'iewer,
I exprt'ss m~ profound Iilratitude.

profe~sor

A.\l.

~Ikhiteryan,

to whom

Nikolai F. Krasnov

Preface
Introduction
Chapter 1
Basic Information
from Aerodynamics

1.1. }"orces Acting 00. a Moving Body

Surface Force
Property of Prl'Mures in aaldeal Fluid
Innucmcc of Visco9ity 00. the Flow
o[aF~id

1.2. Resultant Force Action

Components of Aerodynamic Forces
lind ;\1ou1('nt.'"
Conversion of Aerodynamic Forees
and .\Iaments from One Coordinate
S~Hern to Another
1.3. Determination of Aerodynamic Forces and Moments According to the
Known Distribu\ion of the Pressure
and Shear Stress. Aerodynamic CoefJicieuts
Aerodynamic Forces and ~{oments aDd
Their Coefll.clcot.9
1.4. Static Equilibdurn and Static Stability
Concept of Equilibrium and Stability
Stlttic Longitudinal Stability
SULlie Lateral Stability
1.3. Features of Gas Flow U High Speeds
Compressibility of a Gas
Heating of a Gas
Stllte of Air at High Temperatures

Chapter 2
Kinematics of

II

Fluid

2.1. Approaches to the Kinematic Investigation of a Fluid

k~Fe:i~~a:p:r~i~baCh
Streamlines and Pathlincs
.,2. Analysi!! of Fluid Pa.rticle ~1otioQ
2.3. Vortex-Free MOtiOD of a Fluid

2:)
25
2S
26

28
3(i
36

40

41

.!i1
52

52
53
57
58
58
59
65

71
71

73
74

79

g~~;~~li?'o!q~f~h~ Equation
cartesian Coordinate System
Curvilinear Coordinate System
~~t!naU~Krv~du;~~:ce of Gas Flow
Flow Rate Equation
2.5. Stream Function
2.6. Vortex Lines
2.7. Velocity Circulation
Concept
Stokes Theorem
Vortn-Induced Velocities:
2.4.

~~ ~~:t~f ~~jdn~~W3

Chapter 3
Fundamentals
of Fluid Dynamics

97
98
98
too

3. L Equations of Motion of a VlscoUJ

Fluid
Cartesian Coordinates
Vector Form of the Equations of

t06
t06

~Iotion

Spherical Coordinates

Equations of 'fwoDimenslonal Flow

of a Gas Near a Curved Surface
3.2. Equations of Energy and Dif(wion
of a GIIS
Diffusion t:quation
Energy Equation
3.3. Sys~m of Equations of Gas Dynamics. Initial and Boundary Conditions
3.4. Integrah of :'.lotion for an Ideal Fluid
3.5. Aerodynamic Similarity
Con~cpt of Similarity
Sinlliarity Cri~ria Taking Account
of the Viscosity and Heat Con
duction
3.6. Isentropic Gas Flows
Configuration of Gas let
Flow Velocity
Pressure, Dellllity, and Temperature
FI\lW
Gas from a Reservoir

or

Shock Wave Theory

82

86

88
89
90
9f
9f
92
:

Parallel Flow
Twu-Dimemlional Point Source and
Sink
TllrecDime[1Sional Source and Sink
Doublet
Circulation }<'low (Vortex)

Curvilinear Coordinates
Cylindrical COOJ'dinate!l

Chapter 4

80
80
81

100
103

US
flo!!
fi8
US
120
121

12t
124
129

134
138
138
141
149
149
150

152
154

4. t. Physical Nature of Shock Wave For-mation

159
4.2. General Equations for a Shock
162
Oblique Sh:ock
163
Normal Shock
168
4.3. Shock in &he Flow of a Gu with

Contents

Constant Specilic lleats

System of Equatioll"
Formulas for Ciliculating the Parameters of n. Ga" Behind a shock
Oblique Shock Angle
4.4. Hodograph
4.5. A Normal Shock in !.he Flow of a
Gas with Constant Specilic Heat~
/j.G.\ Shock at Hypersonic Velocitie:o
and Constant Spccilic Heats or a Gas
/j.7. A SI10ck in a I-low of a Gaswitb Var).
ingSpccificHcat~al1d with Dissoci<llion and Ionization
4.t;. Helaxation Phenomena
:\on-EquilihrililIl Flows
Equilibrium Procc~~es
Hdaxalioll E[lcct~ in Shock \raws

Chapter 5
Method
of Characteristics

;:;.1. I::quatioTl!S for tht' \"elocity I'otential

and Stream "Ul1rtion
5.2. The Caudl)" Problem
5.3. Charaeterj~tk~
COlllp.llihility Conditiuns
OelPrllliliation or Characteristics

\!;!~:~f~/.II~I~it~~nO~,rc~a:j~!~~~:~~s

Finite-Span Wing

Chapter 7
An Airfoil in a
Compressible Flow

i6()

iSS
1~3

19a

195
196
2(111

2"5
209
209
2(19

213
21 'I

5.5. A pplication of the 'lethod of Cllaract('fisties to the ::lulution 0\ tiw Problem on :-;hapinr; \lIC :\n7Jle~ 01' Super:iOnic Wind Tunnel,

AirfoilBnd

184

in a lIodograph
Equations for CIJ1ll'acteristics in a
lIol1o/l:raph for l'artiC\llllr Cll~~S of
Ga~ Flow
5.-i. Outline of ~ollilion of G~s-Dj"na!Uic
i-'r'Jblems Accurdlng to the :'Ilethod of
Characteristic~

in an Incompressible
Flow

170
176
179

ior

Characte-ri~lic~

Chapter 6

90

1fJ!'l
169

219
???

230

G.1. TIlil! .\irfoil in an Incolnpre!sible

Flow
234
6.2. Transverse Flow uH'r a Thill l'iate 24')
6.3. Thill Plate at lIli .\ngle of Attack
2~3
SA. Finite~Span Willg in an Incompres5ihle Flol\
2'19
6.;. \ring with Optimal PllUlionn
258
<:;()nV(' .. ~ioll uf Coe!Jicil'nt~ (v a"~1 (',\".I
Irom One Willg .bpe-ct [(nIIO tf)
.\nother
:!as
7_t. SUbSOllic Flow UI"('f a Thill .\IIj,)il 264
l.ine(lrization of the EqllaliulJ 101
IhC' Velocity Potellli;1I
:!G~
IlelatioD Between the l'.I1,l1l1l'tef~ oj

t'h~~rlff~~i ~~er a:(\ 1:;~:':~:~!t~iTj LI~

7.2. Khristianovkh lJethud
Content of the llethod

2tiG
269
1G!1

7.3.
7.4.
7.5.

7.6.

-Chapter 8

A Wing in
a Supersonic Flow

~.I.

Conversion of the Pressure Coefficient

for an Incompressible Fluid to the
Number M.., > 0
Conversion of the Pressure Coefficient
from M"'l > 0 to M..,~ > 0
Determination of the Critical Number M
Aerodynamic Coef6.eients
flow at Supercritical Velocity over
an Airfoil (M "" > M ..... cr)
Supersonic Flow of a Gas with Constant Specific Heats over a Thln Plate
Parameters of a Supersonic Flow over
an Airfoil with an Arbitrary Configuration
lise of the Method of Characteristics
Hypersonic .flow over a Thin Airfoil
Nearly l:niform Flow over a Thin
Airfoil
Aerudynamic Forces alld Their
Coeflicieuts
Sideslipping Wing Airfoil
Dclinition of a SideslippUl~ Wing
Aerodpwmic Charact('ril!.tlcs of Ii
Sideslipping Wing Aidoil
Suction force
Linearized Theory of Supersonic Flou'
OIW a Finite-Span Wing
Linearil.;ltioll of the Equlltion for tile
]'oteulial Fllnction
Boundar,I' Connitions

~1~;nVO~I~~f~rorp~J~u?;~:sal a~dluX~r~~

dynamic Coerticients
l"eatures or S\lprr~(llli(' Flow over
Wings
8.2. :'.ll!thod of Sourc,,~
fI..a. Wing with It S~mmelri~ Airfoil and
Triangulu l'lanforlll. (2 -u, eYa '" U)

!~~r~ o~~~~i~ih:d~:nd witb It Sub

Triangular Wing Symmetrie about
lhe 'xAxis with Subsonie Leadinl~
Edges
Scmi-Inlinill' Wing with a Supel'S(Jnic
Edge
Triangular WingSym.metrie about the
x-Axis with SupersoDlc Leading Edges
8.1i. Flow over a Tetragonal Symmetrk
Airfoil Wing with Subsonic Edges
at II Zero Angle of 'Attack
8.5. Flow over a Tetragonal Syruruetri"
Airfoil Wing with Edges~of Different
Kinds
(Subsonie and Supersonic)

271
272
273

274.

274
278
285
285
291
293
293
~

299
3(l1
3(5
308
308
310
313
3t5
317
321
321
326
328
330
331

343

Contents

11

Leading aud ~Ii,]d!e Edges are Subsonic Trailing l~lIgo: 15 .supersonic :y'J3
Le~ding Ed~e is Subsonic, .\liddle
and Trailing Edgo:s are Supersonic 345
Wing with ,\ll Supl'r~Ollic Edges
346
General I{el,llioll for Calculating
the Drag
350
8.6. l'ic!d of Applicatiun of tht Source
~Iethod
3,ll
8.i. Doublet Vi~tributio!\ ~lptLiOJ
3,l3
So!!. fo'lo\\- OH'r .:J. Triallg"lllar Wing with
SubsoniC' Lrading Eligt'~
~
fUI. Flow o\,l'r u Ill'xagOlml Wing \\'ith
:'Ilbl'uni(' LcadilJg Dild Supersoni<'
hailing I':dgc~
366
!:l.lo. Flow o\'rr II Ih'Xil!>!"onal Wing with
~npl'nllni<' Ll'ildillg and Trailing
Edgl's
3;2
Kit. l)rHIt of Wing!! with S\lb~onic Leadin~ fo:dlft!s
'
381
fI,12. :\l'rodynamir Cilaruclerislil'S or a
Hcctanl.,rular Wing
:-IE!5
fI.I:J. Ih'\'('r'"'~-t'low :\Il'lhllll
391

Chapter 9
Aerodynamic
Characteristics
01 Craft in
Unsteady Motion

!'I.I. G('ner.d Ihla\itJlls ror ll)(' ,\crtlttynalllic Ct1('rtil"il'n\s

!l.2.

!I.a.

'\nal~'si~ of :-'tabilil,\' l)erh'ulivc$

.In,] ,\l'rot! ,'u3mic C~)('lIki(lnl~
Con\"('n-ion' of ~labilily Ikri\'atin~

1I1)I,n ;1 Chall!!l' in IiiI' ro~ilion of

til(' [,'m'n' Ih'dncti!))} Centrl'
!l.Ii. l'artirulHI' C3~('$ of \lotion
LOIH>:iludinal and Lateral \Iotion~
'\lotlO]] of the C(,lltre of 'lass anll
Hot;i\ioll ahout It
l'itrhill>! \lolioll
!'I.~'.lU~lIa!ni;' ~tJ.lJilit~

395
398
1,04
1,116
4,,6
411,
,i08
!itO

Uelllll\wII
4111
Stabilil,- Cllara'-tcri"lir~
413
ItG. Ba~k l\('latiun,; for Ln>:<U'adl Flow 1iG
:\l!l'nd,\'namit" COl'fliclent.:<
41G
Caurh,I""Lu:.(rnlll!t' Inll'g-ral
4:20
Waw Equ;ltioli
423
!I.i. BU'<-i(" \Ielhod~ of Sul\'illl.l :\onShilwilafl" Problem~
425
'1('liwd (if ::;our~e.!'
4;Q

!I.a

~~~~~~i;~~~r:fhod of Caleulating tile

Stability DerivatiVe,", for a Wing in

an IncompreSsible flow
\"elucil\' Field of an Oblique Horseshoe Vorlex
\'ortt'X \lod('1 of a Wing
Calclilation of Cireliialory Flo",'
,\crod)'namic Characteristics
Ih'[ormation of a Wing Surface

428

43t
431
436
439
440
451

innuence of Compressibility (the

Number .11",,) on ~oll-StatiODary flow
9.9. l"lIsteady Supersonic Flow over II.
Wing
9.10. Properties of .l.erodynaruic Derivatives
9.11. Approximate .\iethods for Determining the ~on-Station8ry Aerodynamic
Characteristics
Hypotheses of I1armonicity and Stationarity
Tangent-Wedge :\Iethod

Referenc:es
Supplementary Reading
Name Index
Subjed Index

452
456
478
488
488
489

'93

'"
495

'"

Aerodynami.cs is a complex word originating from the Greek

words all!' (air) and 6e"a~lLa (power). This name has been given to
a scien<:'e that, being a part of mechanics-the science of the motion
of bodies in general-studies the la\\'~ of motion of air depending on
the acting forces and on their basil" establishes special laws of the
interaction between nil' and a solid bod)' mO\'ing in it.
The practical problems couia'onting mankilld in cOlilleclioll with
flightf' in heavier-than-air craft provirl(>d an impetll$ to the de\'elopment of aerodynamics as a f'cieJlce. The$e prol>letllf' were associated
with tht' determination of the forces and motllellt:-; (what we call
the aerod)'namic forces and momentf') acting Oll Itlo\'ing bodies.
The main task in investigating tile action of forr(>f' "'fl.." calculation
of tile bnoyancy, or lift. force.
At the beginning of its de\'elopment, f1erod~'llamic~ dealt with
tlte ill\'estigation of the lllot.ion of air at quit(> low speeds becalL:<CJ
aircraft at that time lwei a low flight ~peed. It if'. quite uatmal that
aerodynamics was founded theoretically on hydrodynamics-the
science dealing wHh the motion of a dropping (incompressible)
liquid. The cornerstones of this science were laid in the 18111 century
by L. Euler (1707-1783) and D. Bernoulli (1700-1782). memberf'. of
tho Russian Academy of Sciences. In his scientific treatise "The
General Principles of \Iotion of FlUids" (in Russian-1755), EHler
for the ILrst time derived the fundamental differential equations of
motion of ideal (non-viscous) fluids. The fundamental equation of
hydrodynamics establishing the relation between the pressure and
speed in a now of an incompressible fluhl was {lisco,'ered by BernOlllli. He published this equation in 1738 in his workf'. "Flnid
Mechanics" (in Rllssian).
At low night speeds. the inlluenc,e 011 the nature of Illotion of air
of such its important property a,.; compressibility is negligibly
small. But lhe developml'nt of artillery-rifle and roc!,el-and highspeefl aircraft mO\'e{1 to thp forefront the task of studying the laws

14

Introduction

of motion of air or in general of a gas at high speeds. It W,HI found

that if the forces acting on a body moving at a high speed are calculated on the basis of the laws of motion of air at low ~peeds. they
may differ greatly from the acLuBI forces. It became lle('e~~ary to
seck the explanation of this phenomenon in the nature itself of
the motion of air at high speeds. It consist!:! in a change in its Eiensity
depending on the pressure. which may be quite ('ollsiderable at such
speeds. It is exactly this change that underlies the property of COnIpressibility of a gas.
Compressibility causes ft change in the internal energy of a gas,
which must be consid('red when Cuiclllating the parameters rlNermining the motion of the fluid. The change in the internal energy
associated with the parameters of state and t.he work that a ('Olllpressed gas ('an do upon expansion is determined by the lirst law of
thermodynamics. Hence. thel'modynamic relations were tlsed in the
aerodynamirs of a compressible gas.
A liquid IHld Hir (a gas) differ from each other in their physiral
properties owing to t.heir mole(,ular structure being different. Digressing from tlH'se features. we ('1111 take into account only the hasic
difference lletween a liquid and a gas associated with the deb11'ee of
their compressibility. A('c_ordingly, ill aerohydromechanics, which
deals with tJH! motion of liquids and gases, it is customary to lise
the term fluid to (Iesignatc both a liquid and a gas, distinguishing
between an incompressible and a compressible fluid when necessary.
Aerohydromeclumics trents laws of motion common to both liquids
and gases, which made it expedient and possible to combine the
studying of these laws within the bounds of a single science of aerodynamics (or aeromechanics). In addition to the general laws ('ltal"aCterizing the motion of fluids. there are laws obeyed only by a gas or
only by a liquid.
Fluid mecha.nics :<tudies lilt' motion or fluids at a low speed at
which a gas beha"e~ practically like all incompressible liquid.
In the:=;e ('onditions, the enthalpy of a gas is large in comparison
with its kinetic energy, and one does not ha\'e to take aC('Olll1t of
the change in the enthalpy wHh a change in tho speed of the flow,
Le. with a {'hange in the kinetic energy of the fluid. This is why
there is no need to lise thermodynamic concepts and relations in
low-speed aerodynamks (hydrodynamics). The mcrhanics of a gas
differs from that of a liquid when t.he gas has a high speed. At ~l1ch
speeds, a gas flowing ovcr a craft experiences not only a chango in its
density, but also an increase in its temperature that may result in
variol1s physicochemical transformations in it. A substantial part of
the kinetic. energy associated with the speed of 8. flight is converted
into heat and chemical energy.
All these features of motion of a gas resulted in the appearance
of bigh~speed aerodynamics or gas dynamics-a special branch of

Introduction

160

aerodYllamic~

studying the laws of motion of air (a ga!ol) at high

subsonic and supersonic speed~. and also the laws of intcractioll
betweell a gas and a body trayelling in it at such speeds.
One of the founders of gas dynamics was academi<"ian S. Chaplygin
(1869-1942), who in 1902 published an olltstanding sdentific work
"On Gas Jet-OJ" (in Russian). Equations are derh'ed in this work that
form the theoretical foundation of modern gas dynamics and entered
the world's science lmder the uame of the Chaplygin equat.ions.
The development of theoretical aerodynamics was attended by
the creation of experimental aerodynamics de"oted to the experimental investigation of the intera,1-ion between a body and a gas
flow past it with the aid of nriolls tcdlllical meaJllo; slI,h as a wind
t.unnel that imil-lIl.c tlw now of ail"\I'afi.
Under the guidllnce of professor S. Zhllko\"sky (1817-Ht!1). the
first aerodynamk laboratories in Hus."'ia wcre el'e,tpd (at t.hc ]\IOSt'OW
Statc University, the Mosrow Higher Tcehnical College. and at
Ku,l!ino, lIear Moscow). In 1\118, the Central "\l'roh:-'drodynftlllic
Instit.ute (1's.'\(;'I) was organized hy Zhukovsl.:y's iuit.intive with tlte
(Iirect aid of V. L('uin. At prcselll it is olle of the major world ,enlres
fo the sciplJ('c of al'l"odYlIfllIlirs h(>ariug Ihe )Iallie of :\. Zh\lko\"~kr.
The developmcnt of adatioll, artillery, amI rocket.I'Y. and t.he
mntllring of the theoretical fllndamcntnls of aerodynamirs changed
the nature of acrodynamk instal latiolls, from the first, comparath'ely
small and low-speed wind tunnels up to lhe giant high-speed tunnels
of TsAGI (HMO) and mocil'rn hypcrsonit" installations, and also special
facilities ill whirh a snpersonir. now of a beated gas is artificially
created (what wC call high-temperature t.unnels. I-tho,k tUllnels, pJasma
instaJIatioJls, ek,).
The nature of tbe il1terartioll between a gas and a hody moving
in it may vary, At low speeds, t.he interactioll is mailll~' of a fm'('e
nature. With a growth ill the speed, the force interartion is attended
b~' heat.ing of the surface owing to heat transfer from the gas to the
body: this gives rise to thermal interaction. At YCry high spce<ll-l,
aerodynamic healing is so great that it may lead to failure of the
material of It c,raft waH becanse of its fusion or sliblimatioll alld. as
a result, to Lhe entrainment of the destroyed material (ablation)
and to a dUllige in the nature of heating of the walL AerOiIYllamk
heating may also ,ause chemical interaction b<'twcell a ,:olifl wtlll
aud t.he gas flowing OW!l' it. al-l a result of whidl the Silllle ('ffe,t of
ablation appears. High flight spl'edl-l may also (:uIH;e Ilhlntiull n!'l a
result of mecbanicallnteraction hetween the gm; and a moving hody
consisting in erosion of the material of a ' .... all and dnlllng"(' to it~
S~rll(tllre,

The inve~tiguliou of all .kind::: of intel,{\(tion hNwl'l'lI il gas and

a ('raft allows one to perform aerodynamir ,alcnlatiolls fI~so{'jatl'd
with Die evaluation of the quantitative ("riteria of thil-l interartion.

16

Introdudion

Ilamely, with determination of tile aerodynamic forces and moments,

heat transfer. and ablation. As posed at present, this problem consists not only in determining the overall aerodynamic quantities
{the total lift force or drag. the total heat flux from the gas to a surface, etc.), but also in evaluating tile tlistribution of the aerodynamic
properties-dynamic and thermal-over a surface of an aircraft
moving through a gas (the pressure and shearing stress of friction,
local heat fluxes, local ablation).
The solution of such a problem requires a deeper investigation of
the flow of a gas than is needed to determine the overall aerodynamic
action. It consists in determining the properties of the gas characterizing its flow at each point of the space it occupies and at each
instant.
The modern methods of studying the Dow of a gas are based on
a number of principles and hypotheses established in aerodynamics.
()ne of them is the continuum hypothesis-the assumption of the
continuity of a gas fiow according to which we may disregard the
intermolccular distances and molecular movemeuts and consider
the continuous changes of the basic properties of a gas in space and
in time. This hypothesis follows from the condition consisting in
that the free path of molecules and the amplitude of their vibrational
motion are suffici~ntly small in comparison with the linear dimensions characterizing flow around a body. for example the wing span
and the diameter or length of the fuselage (or body).
The introduced continuum hypothesis should not contradict the
-concept of the compressibility of a gas, although the latter should
seem to be incompressible in the absence of intermolecular distances.
The reality of a compressible continuum follows from the circumstance that the existence of intermolecular distances may be disregarded in manyinvostigations, but at the sarne time one may assume
the possibility of the concentration (density) varying as a result of
a change in the magnitude of these distances.
In aerodynamic investigations, the interaction between a gas
and a body moving in it is based on the principle of inverted Row
according to which a system consisting of a gas (air) at rest and a
moving body is replacod with a system consisting of a moving gas
and a body at rest. When one system is replaced with the otlier, the
condition must be satisfied that the free-stream speed of the gas
relativo to the body at rest equals the speed of this body in the gas
at rest. The principle of inverted motion follows from the general
principle of relati'\'ity of classical mechanics according to which
forces do not depend on which of two interacting bodies (in our case
the gas or craft) is at rest and which is performing uniform rectilinear
motion.
The systt'm of differential equations underlying the solution of
problems of flow over objects is cllstomarily treated separately in

Introduction

17

modern aerodynamics for two basic kinds o[ motion: frt'(' (in\'isrid)

flow and flow in a thin layer of the gas adjacent to a wnll or boundary-in tho boundary layer. where motion is {'onsidered with (1('('01111 t
taken o[ viscosity. This dh'ision of a nO\\' is based on the hypothesis
of the ab$encc of the I'f'v('rse innupnce of the boundary layer on the
free flow. According to this hypothesis, the parameters of IJl\'i!'icid
flow. i.e. on the outer !'iurface of the bOllndaryla~'er. are the same as
on a wall in the absence of this layrr.
.
Th.e linding of the aerodynamic parameters of craft in unsteady
motiol! dlarar\.r>ri1.cd by a ehango in the kinematic parameters with
time is usually a \'ery intricate t.a.'lk. Simplified ways of solving this
problem are used lor practical pllrposcs. Such simplification is possihle \vllen the change occllrs .~lJfJi('ienlly slowly. Thif: is chararterif:tic
of IlHlIlY craft. "'hell determining thcir aerodrnamic chn.racteristits.
w(' ran pro('('ed rl'om the hypolhe!iis o[ steadiness in accordanee
wilh which the:-;(' dl,II'(H'tcristic~ in unsleady lIlotioll nrc assumed to
be thl' ~alllC;JS ill ~teallr Illolion, ilud are determined by the kinematic
pnraml'ler.<; of Ihis ll1olioll {It 11 gh'cn inst.anl.
\rhell performing lIero(lynaml(' experiment.s ali(I cnklliations.
account must be Ilikell of \"ari01ls dl'CIIIlHllanc9S n~~ociatcd with. the
ph~'sical ~imilitllde of the llow phenomena being studi('!!. Aerodynamic C;llcuiatlOlls of fll\l-~rfllc (T11.rt (rod,;et!'. airplanc:-;) arc based on
prelinlinary wiue;;pr();ul iJ1H'sligatiolls (theoretical and experimeutal)
of flO\.... over models. The ('ouditions tll(lt ml}.~t Ill' ohsl'n'ell in such
investigations Oil models III'C fOllud in tile th('or~' of dYl1allli('. simili~
tude. allll t.ypical aud convenient paramel('I".~ dl'll'rLllillillg the basic
conditions of the proce:-;scs being studied arc f'_~[<lhlish('d. They are
called dimensionless numbers or similarity criteria. Till' modern
problems of similarit~ and also th(' theor~' or (lilll('II.~iolls widely
used ill aerodynami\!-; are ;.:et ont in a fl1ndaIllenlnl worl, of f\('ademi.cian L. Sedov titled "Similarity and Dimensional \[clhods ill \fec.h~
anies" [11.
Aerodynamics. figllratively !-;peaking, is a Illllitibranch science. In
accordan('e with tile needs of the rapidly developing aviation. rocket,
and cosmic engineering, more or less clearly expre>i;.:ed basic scientific
trends have taken shn.pe in aerodYlLamics. They are (lSSOCiflled with
the aerodynamic investigations of craft as a whole and their illdi\i~
dual structural elements, and also of the most characteristi\. kiuds
of gas flows and processes attending the flow over a body. It is qnite
natural that any classification of aerodynamics is conditional to
a certain extent becauso all these trends or part of them are interrelated. :"-Jevcrtheless, such a "branch" specializa(.ion of the aero~
dynamic science is of a practical interest.
The two main paths along which modern aerodynamics is developing can be determined. The first of them is what is called force
aerodynamics occupied in solving problems connected with the
2-017\$

18

Introduction

force action of a fluid, i.e. in iillding the distribution of the pressure

and shearing stress over the snrface of a craft. and also with the
distribution of the resultant aerodynamic forces and moments. The
data obtained are used for strength analysis of a craft as a whole
and of individual elements thereof. and also for determining its
flight characteristics. The second path includes problems of aerothermodynamics and aerodynamic heating-a science combining
aerodynamics, thermodynamics, and heat transfer alld studying
flow over bodies in connection with thermal interaction. As a result
of these investigations, we find the heat nuxes from a gas to fl wal1
and determine its temperature. These data are needed in analysing
the strength and designing the cooling of erflfl. At the Sflille time.
the taking into account of tlte changes in the properties of fl gAS
flowing over a hody under the influence of high temperatures allows
us to determine moro precise!)' the quantitative criteria of force
interaction of both the external flow and of the houndary layer.
All these problems are of a paramount importance for very high
air speeds at which the thermal processes are very illtensiv(!. Even
greater complicaliolU; are introduced into the solution of sudl problems, however, because iL is associated with t.he need to take into
consideration the chemical processes occurring in the gas, alld also
the influence of c.hemiral interaction between the gas and the material
of t.he wall.
If we have in view the range of air speeds frolll low subsonic to
very high supersonic ones. then, as already indieated, we can separate
the followillg basic regions in the science of inve~tigatilJg flow: aerodynamics of an incompressible fluid. or fluid mechanics (the Mach
number of the flow is M - 0). and high-~peed aerodynamics. The
laLLer, in tllfn, is divided into subsonic (M < 1), transonic (M ~ i),
supersonic (M> 1) and bypersonic (1)1 ~ 1) acrodynamics. It must
be noted that each of these branches studies flow processes that are
characterized by certain spedflc features of flows with the indicated
:\Iac.h nnmbers. This is why the investigation of such flows can be
hased on a different mathematical foulldation.
'Ve have already indicated that Aerodynamic investigatiolls fire
hased on a division of the [Jow ncar bodies into two kinds: free (extE'rnal) inviscid flow and the boundary layer. An independent section
of aerodynamics is devoted to each of them.
AerodynamiCS of an ideal fluid st.udies a free flow and investigates
the distribution of the parameters in inviscid now over a body t.hat
are treated as paramet.ers 011 the boundary layer edge and, cOlisequE'lI tly, arc the bOllndary conditions for solving the differential equations
of this layer. The inviscid parameters inclnde the pressure. If ,ve
know it.s distribnlion. we can find t.he relevant resultant forces and
moments. Aerodynamics of an ideal fluid is based on Euler's
fundamental equations.

Introduction

19

Aerodynamics of a boundary layer is one of the broadest and illost

dc\'e-Iopcd sect,iolls of the sden('o of a fluid in mot.iOIl, 1t. studies
\'is('ous gllS now in 1\ bOlilldal'Y laym', The 1'oluliOIl of [he problem of
flow in a boundary III:,-'cr makes it possihlc 10 lind Ih' di1'tributioll of
the shearing stresses and. ("onscIllIcully, of the resultant aerodynamic
fof("l's IIlid momcnts (',\USNI hy fl'klion. It also make::: it. possihl(> to
(",II("lIia(.r. the tra!lsfer of helll from Ihe gas nowing o\"el' a hody to a
houndary, The ('on('lusi(Jn~ of t.he bOlludarr la,..'cr theory ('illl also
ill.' used Cor corrL'('ting lhc ~ollllion 011 in\"iscicl now, pm'lklllarly for
lililling the corrert ion to tile pre!'.'1llre distrihution rlllC 10 Ille iunllen('e
of the boundm'y layer,
The modC!rll Ul(!oryof tht' hOlludary layer is hased Oil fundalllental
iln'csligat.ions of A, XIl"ier, G, Stokc!ot, 0, HeYl101ds, L. PI'andtl, and
T, "Oil Karmali, ,\ substantifll ('outribut.ioll to the de\"elopment of
the boundary Illycr theory was lUade h)' the So\'iet ~cientists A, DoI'OdnitsYII. L, Loihi,yansky, A. :'Ilelnikov, 'X, Kochin. (i, Petro,',
V, SII'llminsk~'. atlll otllrol'!-', TIIC'Y !"l'eat.ed a harmouium: theol'Y of
the boundary laycl' in a compl'e~sib)e gas, worked alit. method!! of
('alrlllilting til(') no\\' of a \"i!-'cou~ nuid o\"er "arious hodi('s (t\\"o- and
thl't'c-dimensionlll), in\"estigilted problem!> of tJle transition of a
laminill' I>oundlu'y layel' into a tlll'bulcnL one, and studied the complkalc:i pl'Ohll'llI~ of tllfhulent lIlotion.
In ilel'odYlUunil' iH\'cstigatiotls in\"olving low airspeeds, the
thermal proe(lSS(l!-t in the hOUtHlil!')' layer do not havC! to bro taken
illio ,H'('Olltll ul'('aw<e of tlwit' low iut.enllity, "'hen high !oipl'Nis arc
iuvoh-ed, howen'l', lIt'rount Illlt:-;t be taken of heat transfer and of
tite influence of the high hOlllldllry layer temperatur('!'! 011 rrktioll,
It i!'l quile natltral tbat abumlallt attention is being gi\"en to Ihe
:'!ollltion of slldl problem!;. especially recently, In t.he SO"iet L'nion,
professors L, Kalikhman, I, Kibei. V, lye\"Jev and others al'e developiug the gas-dynamic theory of Ileal. transfer, stlldying tllc ,'is('olls Row
0\'("1' ,'arious bodic!'! ot high I("mpel'ature!'! of the boundal')'layer, Similar prohlems arc also heing :o:ol\"ed by U Ilumber of foreign scienti!'!t~.

AI hypersouic flow speptls, the prohlt'ms of 1I("l'oclyuflmic heilting

liot the only on(l~, That ionization Q('t'III'S fit sneh sp('eds because
of the J1igh temperat.ures and the gas begins to ("(lIuluct ele<"lridty
('illlSell lIew probll'lIIs a~!'!ocialtd with control of till' plllllma flow with
thc ~id (If 11 magnetic. lieJd, When df'~rihillg the prOl'CI"!:.I!!' o[ inlel'a('tion of 11 moving body witlt pla!!-ma, the rcle"alli. flCl'otirunmic
111'('

('ulrulation!'l musl1.ak(, into flCCOllitt (.ll'("tromagu('1 i(' [()rc'('~ in addition

10 gas-rlynamk. one!'. The!<c pl'ohlf.'lU!; ,ue lIlllcli("d in magnC!-togasdynamics.
The motioll of fluills ill flceOI'(lnllt'l' with til(' COlllinlllUIl hypothesis !-tnt out ubove is considerCtI in n :::pccial hl'au('/t of iICt'o(IYllamic:;('flillinutlm aerodynamics. :\hny thooretical (ll'ohlems or Ihis branch

20

Introduction

of aerodynamics (tre treated ill a fundamental work of L. Sedo\':

"Continuum :\lechanirs" (ill HII~:-iall-a textbook for universities) [21It must he noted that the continuum hypothesis holds only for conditiolls of flight at low altiludes, i.e. in sufflcient.ly dense layers of
the atmo:-phcre where the mean free path of the air molecules is
small. At high altitlldes in (',ond itions of a greatly rarelied atmosphere,
the free path of molecules becomes <Illite signilicant, and the air can
no longer be considered as a continuum. This is why lhe condnsiolls
of continuum aerodynamics are nol.. \'alid for such conditions.
The interaction of a rarefied gas with a body moving in it is
studied in a spccial branch of aerodynamics-aerodynamics of
rarelied gases. The rapid development of this science during recent
years is due to the progress in space explorat.ion with the aid of
artiliciaJ satellite.'! or the Earth and rocket-pl'opellfld vehicle~. as
well as in various types of ro('ket systems (ballisLic, intercontinental,
global missiles, etc.) performing flight.s near the earth at very high
altitudes.
The conditioll!>: of flow O\'er craft 8ud. cOII~(>lluently, their aerodynamic c.hara(~teriRlics \'<lr)' depending on how the parameters of
the gas change at fixed points 011 a surface. A hroad class of flow
problems of a practical ~ignilicallce ('till he solved. as alreadynole(l,
in steadr-sLllte aerodynamicR, presuming thA~ the parameters are
independent of the time at these polntR. When studying flight !';tability. however, uc('ount must be taken of the ullsteady nature of flow
due to the lion-uniform airspeed. aml of vibration.'! or rotation of the
craft. because in those conditions the flow over a body is characterized
by a local change ill its parameters with t.ime. The investigation of
this kind of now relates 10 uDstf!'ady aerodynamics.
We have conshlel'ed a da!\.<;i1ication of modern aerodynamics by
the kinds of gas flows. It is obvious that within the courmes of each
of the~e branchos of aerodynamics, flow is studied as applied to
various configuratiolls of craft or their parts. In addition to such
a classilication, of interest are the branches of modern aerodynamics
for which the conrlguratioll of a craft or its individual elements is t.he
determining factor.
As regards its aerodynamic scheme, a modern aircraft in the
generalized form is a combination of a hull (fuselage), wings. a tail
unit (empennage). elevators, and rudders. When performing aerodynamic calculations of such combinations, one must take into
account t.he etlerts of aerodynamic illtf'rfercnce-the aerodynamic
interaction between all these clements of an aircraft. Accordingly,
in particular, the overall aerod)'namic characteristics sue.h as the
lift force. drag, or moment mus~ be evaluated as the sum of similar
characteristics of the isolated hull, wings, tail 1111it, elevators, and
rudders with corrections made for this interaction.
Hence, this scheme of aerodynamic calculations presumes a knowl-

Introduction

21

edge of the aerodynamic charaderislics of the s;eparatc constituent

parts of an aircraft.
Aerodynamic calculalions of tile> lifting plnnes of wings is the
subject of a spec'in! branch of the nerodynamic science-wing aero
dynamics. The ollt!!tlmding Russian scienlists ami mechanics)i. Zhuko\':oky (Joukowski) and S. Chap1rgin arc by right. con.!liderec1 to be
the founders of the aerodynamic 1I1eory of a wing.
The beginning of the 20th centul'r WfiS noted by the remarkable
disco\'ery by Zhuko\'sky of the natllfe of the lift force of a wing; he
derived a formula for calculating this force that bears his name.
His work on the bound \'ortices that. arc a hydrodynamic mode] of
a wing was far ahead of his time. The series of wing profiles (Zhukoysky wing pronles) he denloped w{'re widely used in d{'signing airplanes.
Academician S. Chfiplygin is the author of mfiny prominent works
on wing aerodYllnmks. In 1910 ill his work "On the Presslll'f> of a
Paranel Flow on Obstacles" (in Hussian). he laid the foundations of
the theory of an inflllite-span wing. In 1922, he published the scientific
work "The Theory 01 n Monoplane Wing" (in Ru!!'sian) that sels out
tJle Ihcol'Y of a Ilumber of \.... ing proli1es (Chnplygin wing profiles)
nnd al:oo de\"elop~ the theory of 1>tability of il monoplane wing. Chaplygin is the founder of the theory of a finite-span wing.
The fundamental ideas of Zhuko\':oky and Chaplygin were de\-cloped
in the works of Soviet scientist!!' specializing in aerodynamics. A."sociate member of Ihe USSR Al'aclemy of Sciences V. Golubev (188-1.-1954)
i1l\'estigaLed the flow past 1>hort-span wings and various kind:s of
high-lilt devices. ImportaHt rcsnlts in Lhe potential wing theory
werc obtained by aeademiciau .i\1. Keldysh (1911-1978), and also by
aeaciemic.ians 1\1. Lln'rentyev aud L. Sedo\'. Academician A. DorodlIi15yn summarized the theory of the lifting (loaded) line for a sideslipping wing.
Considerable <lehie\emenl.s ill the theory of subsonic gas flows
belong to M. Kel<lp:h aud F. Frankl, who strictly formulated the
problem or a ellInpressible flow past a wing and generalized the
Kuua-Zhukovsliy Illcorem for this casco
Arademicinll S. Khristiano\'ieh ill his work "The Flow 01 a Gas
Past a Body at High Subsonic Speeds" (in Bu.s.c:ian) 131 de\-eloped
an original and very eIfecti\'E' method for taking into account the
influence of compressibility 011 the flow over airfoils or an arhitrary
configuration.
The foreign sl'icntisls L. l'rondtl (Germany) and H. GJauert
(Great Britain) 1:ltlldied tllC problem of the influence of compressibility
on flo\\' past wing.!l. They crcaLed an approximaLe theory 01 a thin
wing ill a snb~OIlic flow at " small ftllgle or aUAck_ The rCl>ult::; they
obtained can be l:onsidered as particular C Sl'S of the general theory
of flow developed hy Khristiauo\'ich.

22

Infrodudion

A great contribution to the a('rod~{nami('s of a wing wa!> marie by

academician A. \'ekraso\' (t883-UJ:i4), WIIO de\'eloped a harmonioll!>
theory of 11 lifting plane in an ullsteady now. Keldysh and La\,rentre" !'o\"ed the important prohlem 011 the now over a \'ibrating
airfoil by generalizing Chaplygill's method for a wing with varying
circulation. Academician Sedoy estAh1i!>hec\ general formulas for
ullsteady aerodynamic forr,C!'I and moments acting on :m arbitrarily
moving wing.
Profe!'1sol'S F. Frankl. E. Kra!>ilsllchiko\"a. and S. Falko\'ich developed the theory of steady and unstead~' supersonic now O\'er tllin
wings of various conligurations.
Important results in studying unsteady aerodynamic."I of a wing
were obtained by professor S. Uclolserko\'sky, who widely used
numerical methods and computers.
The results of aerodynamic in\'estigations of wings can be applied
to the calculation of the aerodynamic characteristics of the tail unit.
and also of elevators and rudders shaped like a wing. The specifiC
features of flow over separate kinds of aerodynamic elevators and
rudders and the presence of other kinds of conlrols resulted ill the
appearance of a special branch of modern aerodynamics-the aero-

dynamics or controls.
Modern roc.ket-type craft often have the conliguration of bodies
of revolution or are close to them. Comhined rocket systems of the
type "hull-wing-tail unit" ha\'e a hull (body of revolution) as the
main componellt of Lhe aerodynamic system. This explains why the
aerodynamics of hulls (bodies of revolution), which has become one
of the important branches of today's aerodynamic science. has seen
intensive development in recent years.
A major contribution to the development of aerodynamics of hodies
of revolution was made by professors f'. Frankl and E. Karpovic.h.
who published all interesting scientific work "The Gas I)ynamir~~
of Slender Bodies" (in Russian).
Tile Soviet scientists I. Kihei alld F. Frankl. who specializefl
in aerodynamic!';. developed the method of characteristic.Oj that macie
it possihle to perform effective calculations of axisymmetric supersonic flow past pointed bodies of re"olutioll of an arbitrary thickness.
A gl'oop of scientific workers of the Institute of Mathematics of the
USSR Academy of Sciences (K. Babellko, G. Voskresensky, and
others) de"eloped a method for the numerical calculation of threedimensional supersonic now o,'er slender hodies in the general case
when c.hemical reactions in the now are taken into account. The
important problem on the supcrsonic flow over a slender COlle was
solved by the foreign specialists in aerodynamics G. Taylor (Great
Britain) and Z. Copal (uSA).
The intensivc dewllopment of mo(lern mathematics and computers
and the illlprovemeni on Ihi~ ba~is of the methods of aerodynamic

Inb-odudion

23

in\"esligations lead to greater and greater f:ucces~ in soh-ing m.my

(:omplicaled problems of aerodynamics including the determination
of till' o"eralJ aerodynamic charac.teristics of a craft. Among them
are the aerodynamic derh'atiYes at subsonic speeds, the finding of
which a work of S. Belotserko"sky and B. Skripach 14.1 is devoted to.
In addition, approximate methods came into u~e for appraising the
effecl of aerodynamic interference and calculating the releyant
corrections to aerodynamic characteristics when the latter were
oblaim'd ill the form of an addiLi"e sum or the rde"ant characteristic's
of th(' illdi\"idual (i!lolated) elements of a craft. The solution of such
prohlems is the subject. of a special brand. of til(' aerodynamic

scieurc-interferenee aerodynamics.
At low slLper!'onic speeds, aerod:'<'lIamic heating is comparatively
small and rannot. lead to destrurtion of a <'raft member. The main
prohlem ~ol\"ed in the given <,_ase is associated with the choice of the
cooling tm' nlaintllining the required boundary temperature. More
in\"ohed pro hI ems appear for "ery high airspeeds when a mO"ing
body has a trementious store of kinetic energy. For example. if a
cralt has an orhital or e~rape speed, it is suflic-ient to ron\"ert. only
25-a!.l"" of t.hi~ energy into hell! for t.he entire lllll('rial of a structural
memher (0 evaporate, The main prohlem that appears, partie-1l1arly,
in Ol'gallizing the safe> re-entry of n cl'a[l into (he delise-layers of the
atmllsphN'e rOllsist~ in di~~ipatillg this energy so that a minimum
part of iL wilt be absoi"l)cd in I-he form of heat. b~' t.he hOlly, h was
fOlllld that blunt-Ilos('d bodies have Stich a property, Tllis is exactly
what resulted in the d('\'cloprncmL or aerOd;\'IHHnie- ~t\ldics of sllch
bodiC'!';.
An important contribution to investigating the prohlems of
aerodynamics of blunt-nosed bodies was mndt' by SOl'iet scientistsarad(>nlicitlll~ A. Dorodnilsyu, G. Cherny. 0, Ue]ol'ierkovskr. and
otil('rs, Similar investigations WI!re perrorml."tl by :\1 Lighthill
(CorN\\. 13l'it,ain). P. GlU'ftbeclian (USA), and other foreign scit'ntist.s,
Ullluting of the frout surlare must be considered in n ('ertsin
seUi'e as a way of thermal protection of a craft. The blnnted nose
experiences the most iuteush'e thermal action. therefore it requires
thNlllai Pl'ot.e<'tion to even a greater extent thaH the peripheral part
of the craft. The most effecth'c protection is i\5sociatcd with the use
of v3rioull rontings whose matarial at. the relcnwt temperatures is
gradultllr del'troyed nntl ablated. Here a con:-liderable part of the
en('rgy ~\\pplied by the heated air to the craft i~ absorbed. The development of the theory and pract.ical methods of calculating ablation
rplal('s to a modern branch of the aerodynamic f:cience-aerodynamics
of ablating surfacE'S.
A broad range or aerodynamic problem!': is QRsociated with the
determination of the interartioll of a Ruid with a craft ha"ing an
arbitrary preset shape- ill the general ca!':6. The ~hape~ o[ cralt sur-

It

Introduction

faces can also be chosen for special purposes ensuring a definite aerodynamic effect. The shape of blunt bodies ensures a minimum transfer of heat to the entire body. Consequently, a blunt surface can be
considered optimal from the viewpoint of heat transfer. In designing
craft, the problem appears of ehoosing a shape with the minimum
force action. One of these problems is associated, particularly, with
determination of the shape of a craft head ensuring the smallest drag
at a given airspeed. Problems of this kind are treated in a branch of
aerodynamics called aerodynamics of optimal shapes.

1.1. Forces Acting

on a Movtng Body
SlII'face Force

Let us consider the (orces oxerted by a gaseolls \"i"cou$ continuum

on a mo\'ing body. This flclion coo;<;j;<;ts in the llniform dbtribution
over the body's surface of the forcp.s P n produced by the normal and
the forces P, produced by the shear stresses (Fig. 1.1.1). The surface'
element dS being considered is acted UpOJl by a resllltant force
called a surface one. This force P is rleterillined according to the
rule of addition of two vectors: P" Hnd P-r' The force P n in addition
to the force produced by the pressure. which does not depend all theviscosity, includes a component due to friction (Maxwell's hypothesis).
In an ideal fluid ill which visl'Osity is assumed to be abl'lcul., theaction of a force on an area consi."l:; only in that of the forces produc.ed
by the normal stress (prI'SSHre). This is ob\'iolls. because if Ihe forcedeviated from a normal to the arCH. its projccLioll onto this area would
appear, i.e. a shear !itress wOIl!d exist. Thc latter, however. is absent
in an ideal fluid.
In accordance witll tlte prillciplc of inverted' flow, the errcc.l of
the forces will be the ~allle if we consider a hod\' at rest alld a uniform flow oyer it having H \'c-locity at infinity eqllal to the speed or
the body before in\'ersiou. We shall c.aH this \'elocity the \'cloclly
at infinity or the frccstream "clocH), (Lhc \'clodty of the lIudistUl'l:!CJ
flow) and shall dcsignate it by -V,.,,, ill contrast to V (the ,"eloeity
of the body relativc to the undisturbed now), i.e. I V I -= I V < I.
A free stream is characterized by the undist.lIrbed pilramctcrsthe pressure por,. density P<x, and temperature T x differing from
their counterparts p, p, and T of the flow disLurbed by the body
(Fig. 1.1.2). The physical propel'ties of tJ gas (air) are also rharacLerizl'(i
by the following kinetic parameters: the dynamic \'iscosity )l- alld
the coeIlicient of heat COlldtu'lh'ity f.. (the tlJldis\lll'Led p;lrlHlwter."
al't' fI "" and j""", l'espE'cti\'cly). as WE'll as uy thermodYIll'llllic para-

26

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynllmtcs 01 lin Airfoil lind a Wing

Fig. t.t.t
Forces acting on a surface element or ~I moving body

__________ 1!.:!.:!_________ _

V~_::_,_T,,:

Fig. t,t,l

~~~~rlb~~li~l~d (::nJi~~~~b~~rno;.!
meter!): the specific heats at conslant pres.sure c p (c p .,,) and constant
volume c,. (c/.,.,) and their ratio (the adiabatic exponent) k = cplc(}
(k 00 ~ cl' <rolc,. ",).
Property of Preuures
In en Ieleel Flilki

To determine the property of pres!'lll'cS in an ideal fluid, Jet liS

take an elementary particle of the flnid having the shape of a tetrahedron .1foMl.lf2M3 with edge dimensions of 6o,T, tJ.y. and tJ.z
{Fig. 1.1.3) and compile eqnations of illation for the particle by
equating the product of the mas.<; of this elelllcnL and its acceleration
to the sum of the fOITes aCling on it. We .shall write these equations
in projections onto the coordinate axes. We shall limit ourselves to
the equations of motion of the tetrahedron in the projection onto the
x-axis, taking into account that the other two haye a similar form.
The product of the mass of an element and its acceleration in the
direetion of the x-axis is PIl' tJ.W dV:.Jdt, where Pay is the average
density of the fluid contained in the elementary volume tJ.W, and
dV:.;ldt is the projection of the particle's acceloration onto the x-axis,
The forces acting 011 our particle are determined as follows. As we
ha"e already pstablished. these forces include ,,,,hat we called the
surface fOI'('e. IIere it is delermined hy the action of the pressure on
the faces of our particle, and its projection onto the x-axis is
Px tJ.S x -

/'

p" 60S" cos (n,x).

Ch, I, Basic Information Irom Aerodynamics

27

Fig. t.1.3

:"i'(Jrmall>tr('~('s acting on 11 fa('('

01 an ~'Iementary fluid Jlartid~'

hllvin~

Ihe ShllPI' of a tctl'ahed-

I'on

Allotlu'[' fOl'ce nctillgon the il>olatt'd tluid nllulI[e is the mass (body)
force proportional [0 the mR~li of th' particle ill Illis \'olume, \[ass
forccs indude gravitatinnoi ones. <Iud in parliculul' the force of
gt'i\\"ity. Another example of these forces is the mass force of an
eieetromagnetic origin. 1';l1oWIl a~ 11 Jlon{\t'rol1lotiv(' foree. thai
appeal'S ill a gal> if it is lIll electric condurtor lionized) and is in an
elel'tromaguetir rteld, Hcrc we shall not consider tlte motion of a
gali !lnder the action of SUell rOn'eli (see II :"pccifll ('OIlI':"C ill magnetogasdyuHmics).
ill thc Ullie being cOll!-;idefcd. we shall writc the pl'ojection of Ihe
mass rorrr! onlo the .1-Hxis in the forUl or Xp:o" 6. IV, denoting hy X
the pl'ojPetion of tlte' ma.<.:s fOl're reillted 10 II unit or l11aliS. "'illl lIl'('onnL takl'lI of these \'alocs for the Pl'OjC'(,tions or tht, surfal'e and
OIalili [orres, we obtain an eqllalion of motioll
fl;w

~Hl~""'" X!,~,. ~W

,- fl.,' 6.S, -

P"

6.S" ('OS

(;;.i)

where 6.S,. and I~S" arc thp <1rC'as o[ [accs .lI(I.11~.11;1 and ,llIJlI~.ll:l'

resp(lrti\"clr, cos (11,,1'), is\lit'co:-;iIlC or tll(' allg-If' hetwecn a normal n

to f~cc :\JI.'ll2,ll:1 <lnd thc J-R\b. and fI, aud p" art' Ihc Pl'l'SSlU'l'S
actiug tlU [arC." .1I,. l/~.1l:J Hud .1I1.11~.1I:., l'espt,rti\"l'ly.
Diddillg tll(~ t'lillation ohtain(',1 hy I~S,. al\(I Illldllg ill dew that

!1S, -, 6.S" ("os (1I~.r). 1f't w< paliS 0\"(>1' to the lilllit \\"itll 6.,r. !!.!I. lind
j,z telldiug to zero. COllsequcutl~'. thc [('1'111:< conillilliug ~l-V/6.S,~
will 111so tend to ZPI'O b('~'1111:;(! !!.W is l\ small qllautitr or the third
()rt\C'r. while 6.S,. is a small <jlllllltity of till' :,<('("ond o!'dC't' in ('Otllpal'i:"ol1 with the lillCR!' dim(,lIsiol1:< of the sUI'[ac(' l'h-'m('lli. A.'> a rt'sult,
we ha\'(' I',,' - fl" _.- 0, alld. therdor(', p". - 1'",
\\'!I('11 cOJlliiderillg til(' I'qllfltious of mo\ioll in proj('('tiolls onto I.he
y- aun ':;;I\\('li, we lind Ihnl Py ,. PI' lind p,
p".
Sillt"l, ollr ,<.:ul'[ace ei{'OIf'nl with 1111' normal II is oriented arbitrarily.
\\'(> ('all al'l'i\'p a\ the follo\\'illg r()1\t'llision frOIll the r('sult:'l obtained.
The prel>li\lI'e at, <Illy poillt or a rio\\' or au ide;1i rtuicl is identical Oil

28

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 an Airfoil end eWing

all snrface elements passing through this point, i.e. it does not
depend on the orientation of these elements. Consequently. the
pre.'lSure can be treated 8S a scalar quantity depenliing only on the
coordinates of a point and the time.
InDu.aca 01 VIKOSHy
on th. Flow of fluid

Laminar and Turbulent "'low. Two modes of Dow are characteristic

of a "iseous fluid. The firsl of them is laminar Dow distinguished
by the orderly arrangement of the individual liIament~ that
do not mix with one another. Momentum, heat. and matter aro
transferred in a laminar Dow at the expense of molecular pro(',es..ws
of friction, heat conduction, and diffusion. Such a flow usnally
appears and remains stable at moderate speeds of a fluid.
If in given conditions of flow over a surfar.e the speed of the Dow
exceeds a certain limiting (critical) value of it, a laminar flow stops
being stable and transforms into a new Idnd of motion characterized
by lateral mixing of the fluid and. as a rc!;ult. by the vanishing of
the ordered. laminar flow. Su('h a flow is called turbulent. In a turbulent flow, thc mixing of macroscopic. particles having velodty
components perpendicular to the direction of longitudinal motion
is imposed on the molecular chaotic motion characteri!ltk. of a
laminar now. This i!l the basic distinction of a turbulent flow from
a laminar One. Another rlistin('tion is that if a laminar 110w may be
either !lteady or unsteady, a turbulent flow in its essen('c has an
unsteady nat.ure when the ,'elority and otlll~r parameters at a given
point depend on the Ume. Acrording to the notions of the kinetic
theory of gases, random (disordered, chaotic) motion i!l c.hara('teristic
of the partieles of a fluid. as of molecules.
'WIlen studying a turbulent flow. it is convenient to deal not
with the instantaneous (actual) velocity. but with its average (mean
statistical) value during a certain time interval tz_ For example. the
component of the average velocity along the x-axis is Vx =
= [1/(t 2

tt)]

.,J Vx dt, where Vx is the ('omponent of the actual

"

velocity at the given point that is a function of the time t. The components Vy and ~ along the y- and z-axes are expre~ed similarly.
using the con('ept of the average velocity. we can represent the aetua)
velocity as the sum V:t = V:t + V~ in whlcll F~ is a variable ad(litional component known as the lIuetuation velocity component (or the
velodty Ouetuation). The fluctuation components of the velocity
along the y- and z-axes are denoted by V; and V;, respectinly.
By placing a measuriDg instrument with a Jaw inertia (for example~
a hot-wire anemometer) at the reqnirtld point of a flow. we can record

Ch, 1. Basic Ill/ormation from Aerodynamics

29

or measure tne fluctuation speed, III Cl turbnlent flo\\". tile instrllment

registers the deviation of the speed from the mean \"alllC'-the fluctuation speed.
The !.:ineti<'. energr of a tllrl.l1l\enl nO\\' i:-; determined by the -"HID
of the !.:inetk. cncrgie!< \~alclllated "ccorning to the nll>an and fiuctuation speeds, For a point in ljUC'.qiOll. the I,inetk energ~' of a
fluctuatiou flow can be determined as a quantity proporlionallo the
mean "alue of the mean square tll1ctuation \'elocitie~. If we resohe
1.he nne.tuation flow along the axes of 11 coordinate .~y;,lenl, the kinetic
energy of each of the components of snch a flow will be proportional
to the rel(>,'ant mean square componpnts of the Ilu('tllution velocities,
designated lly fJ,
find 1';2 [lod determinl?d from the (Ixpr('ssion

T'"7.

V;."!",:)""

I~~II

I,

JV~~y,t)dt
I,

The concepts of <\\"C'rage and fim'!lIltling qoantities cau he ('x tended

to the pre~~\1!"C unu other phy:.it"ai IlaL'amete)'s. The existl.'))I'e of
fluctuation velocitie!i lead$ to additional normal and !'hear :;trcsses
and to the more intensh'c lransfer of heat. anti ma~s. All this has to
be taken iuto account whell running experimenl:-!' in aerodynamic
tUIlHeis. The turhulence ill the ntmosphl?rc wa.:; fouliel to 1m relatively
small and. conseq!H;~ntly, it. should be just. as :mHdl ill the working
purt of a tunnel. An inaeascd turllulencc ,,(rech Ill .., results of an
experiment adversely. The natllff' of this innllence uepentl ..:; on the
turbulencf' 1(;\'('1 (or the initial turbui('nc('). detrrlll\(n'd from the
expre!'~ion

(1.1.1)

where V is the overall ll\'erage speed of the turbulent fiow at the

point being considered.
In modern low-turbulence aerodynamic tunnels, it is possible in
practice to reach an initial turbulence close to what is observed in
the atmosphere (e ~ 0.01-0.02).
The important characteristics of turbulence include the root
mean square (rills) fluctuations V"f;?,
and V"'V;Z. These
quantities, related to the overall avera~e speed, are known as the
turbulence intcn-;ities in the corresponding directions and aro denoted as

1""17,

'. ~ V~iV. ',~ VV;"iV.

'. ~ VV;FiV

(1.1.2)

Using these characteristics, the initial turbulence (1.1.1) can be

expressed as follows:

e=V(e~+e~+S:)/3

(1.1.1')

30

pt. I. Theory.

Aerodynemics of en Airfoil end _

Wing

(0)

FI,.

t.t ...

}o"Jow of 8 vist.oll$ fluid ov('J' a body:

a-51"lIpnmlle vit'w

or

ftl>W; ,. laminar houndary lal'l.'.:

~~;:~U~~~r~1-~;~~:~~l~:?i~~~rnii~~br~sifJ:i\f::{~~~:~t~~!:

01 the boundary itlYt".

Turbulenc(' is of a \,or(e); nature, Le. mass, momentum, and

energy Arc tran1'fel'l'ed by fluid particles of a \'OI'tC:( origin. Hence
it follows that f1l1rtnaHons nre rllara('terized by a ~latislical !l!lSOdAtion. The correlation eo('tl'ieient betweell f1ucluations at points
of the region of fl disl1ll'bed flo\\' being studied is a qllantitative lll(,llS1Ife of this M:'iociatioll. In the general form. this (',oefftrient helween
two I'AmJom fluctuating qU8utities If and 1f is written as (see 151)
R-

<r/(V;p. V;p.)

(1.1.3)

If there is no statist-iral aS50dation between the quantitics If and

11'. then R .. 0; iI. (on\'ersely. these quantities arc regularly ass/)dated. the ('orrelation ('oeffldent R .,.., 1. This characteris\.i(, of
turbulence is ('alIce! a two-point correlation cOf'flicicnt. Its expression
clln he Wl'itten Wig. 1.1.4c) for two points 1 find 2 of a fluid \'olnme
with the relevllllt f1ur_tllations V~l aud V;1 in the form

R=V~tV;zi(I/'Vj l,r~)

(1.1.3')

Whell studying a tJlree-dimensional turbulent now. one usually

('onsiders fI large llumber of such coefliciellts. The ('oncept of the
turbu)('nc(' scale is introduced to characterize this now. It is delt'rmined by the expres.."ion
L-

, Rdr

(1.1.4)

The turbuleuce sCflle is a linear dimension characterizing the

length of the section of a flow on which fluid particles move "in

Ch. I, BlSic Information from Aerodynamics

91

Association", Le, ha\'e ~t8tistkally associated OU('.tulltiOIlS, By

loving together the points being eonsidel'ed in a tllroulent flow. in
the limit at r - 0 we can obtain a oDE'!-point corr>lation coefficient.
'Vith this condition, ('1.1.3') aequires the fOL'ln

(1.1.5)
This ('oefncip.llt rbat'ilctf'rizC!< Lhe I'ILntisl,ical assorialiou oetween
at a point and. as. will he showu belo\\', tlil'C'('lly determille~ the shear slre~~ ill Il tnrhulellt flow.
Turbulence will he homogeneous if its a\"('t'aged chal'actf'ristic:s
found for II point (till' len" and iutensit,:,>' of turbulence. the OIlCpoint "orrelatioll cocflil'icnl) M(> lhc ~alllc fOl' the enlire now liu\'ilrian('c of tlac rharildcristk~ of tul"lmlt!Il('" in Il'flll~f(lr~), 1I0nlogC'lIcou::
tllrhllielU'c i" isotropic if it~ ('hm'a('((,"l'i~li{'s do 1I0t depend Oil the
dil'e(,tion for whi(,h Ihey 111'0 ("llIl'lilalCld (lIn'al'ian("c of the ('hal'art.el'isti<'~ of tul'imlell("c in 1'0Ia(.io!1 and I'efl('('tion), Parti(,ularly. t.he
following ('()lldiLion ii" !,;Clli~r.l'd fOl' an i~olropic now:
fluctuation~

17-' f7 V;i
If thh; condilion i!' ~llti:.::fied foJ' all poillt:.::. Ih(' IIII'bui(,II(,(, i~
homogeneous .md isotropic. For ~uch IlII'bulellce, tile constancy
of the two-point. ("orreJalioli ('oeflil'ient is I'l't.llined willi \'tll'iolls
directions of t.he )jill' ('olllle('tiug t.he t.wo points in t.he Ililid "olume'
being considt"red_
Fol' ClII isotropiC'" now. I,he ('ol'relation ('oemdent. (1.1.5) ('an be

expre:';:';ed in t.erm~ of the tnrbulen('(' le\'el

--:

V~,.'t':

R=~/Vf=~(V;!e;!)

(l,l.!i)

The introduction of the ("ou('rpt of t!Ycl'aged pal'ameters 01' \l1'Opel'ties appreciably facilitlllCs the iu\"cstigatioll of tUl'bulent flows,
Indeed, for praetical p\lI'pO~t"S, there is no need to kno\\' t.llt~ iustantaneo\l:'; values or the velodtie~, pressures, or ~henr ~tresscs, and we
can limit 01lrse}\"cs to Iheir time-avcragcd \"all1c~, Thc lise or a\'('I'aged pal'ametcr~ simplilil's Ihe relevanl ~>IJ\li.ltiOIl!;
motiOIl (11)('
Reynolds eqllation~).
Sudl e<luation~, although they Ill'e simpl('r, indlldt1 the rml'lial
ded"OlI1\'e::: with respe('t to lime of the lWel'ag('u ,'cloC'ilr cOlllponenl:<
T-.. , 1\, Hnd T'z i)l!('aosc ill t-he gcllC'ral ease, the tllrbulent motinll i!1'
un~teady, III pl'llctical ca!:'c~, Iw\\'eH'r, lI\'erngiJlg is performed fol'
fl ~umciently long interval of time, ami 1l0W iu\'e!'tigatioll of tin
lII1~teady 110w ClUi be reduccd to tilt) im'estigation or ~Leady Ilow
(I!tlCl~i-gteady turbulent flow),
Shear Stress. Let us consider the formula for the shear sll'es:,
in a laminar flow. liNe friction appears becQu:ie of diITlIl'lioll nf the

or

32

Pt. t. Theory. Aerodynlmics of an Airfoit and a Wing

molecules attended by transfer of the momentum from one layer

to another. This leads to a change in the flow velociLy, Le. to the
appearance of the relative motion of the fluid particles in the layers.
In nccordanc:.e ,vith a hypothesis first ad\'anced by 1. Newton, the
shear slress for given conditions is proportional to the velocity of
this motion per llnit distance between layers with particles moving
Telath'e Lo one another. If the dislnnce between the layers is An.
and the relatb'c speed of the pnrtides is Au. the ratio Aul An at the
limit when An - O. Le. when the 1a)'C1'g are in contact, equals t.he
derivative (kliJn known as the normal "clocity gradient. On the basis
>of this hypothe$is. we can write N"cwton':;: friction law:
(1.1.7)

where ~ is a proportionality factor depending ou lhe properties of

a fluid. its tempeoralurc and pressure; it i1' better known as the dynamic
viscosity.
Tht' magnitude of !L [or a gas in aeeQl'dllnce with the rormula of
the .kinetic theory is
~ = O.499pcl

(1.1.8)

At a given density p, it depends on kinetic characteristics of a gas

5u('.h as the mean free path l and the Illean speed of its molecules.
Let IlS consider friction in a tmbulent flow. We shall pro(',eed from
the simplified scheme of the appearall('e of additional frictioll forces
in turbulent flow proposed llr L. Prandtl for an incompressible
fluid. and from the semi-empirical nature of the relations introduced
for these forces. Let us take two layers in a ollc-dimensional flow
-characterized by a change in the average<1 velocity only in one direction. With this in view, we shall assume that the velocity in one of
the layers is stich that Vx =f=. 0, Vy = Vz = O. For the adjacent
layer at a distance of Ay = I' from the first one, the averaged velocity
is V ~ + (dV;r;/dy) I'. According to Prandtl's hypothesis. a particle
moving from the first layer into the second one rctains its \'elocity
v:, and, consequently, at the instant when this particle appears in
the second layer, the fluctuation \'elocity V~ = (dV)dy) I' is ob-served.
The momentum transferred by the fluid mass pV; dS through the
area element dS is pV~ (V;r;
V~) dS. This momentum determines
the additional force produced by the stress originating from the
fluctuation velocities. Accordingly, the shear (friction) stress (in
magnitude) in the turbulent flow duo to fluctuations is

I'. I = pV; (V,

+ V;)

Ch. 1. Basic Information from Aerodynamics

33

An'rngiug this e;..pression, we ohtain

_

.\

12

l~tI-", t:~~1

,~

V;dt-i-

II

.\

V~V~dt~':flV);~,,;.pV~V;

"

w"~ra V:V~ \~ the a ... er:[\gNi ,-nIne ()[ till) pto(\I\C\ of

t.he [\uc\,uati.on

n~lo('jties. and V~ is Ihe averaged value of the nu('lliation velocity.

Wo shall show that this vallie of the velocity equals zero. Integrating llH' lquality I"l
~ T V~ termwise with respect to t wit.hin
the Iimils from I, to 12 and then dividing it hy 12 - II' we find
0-::

_ , _ .\" V" dl:-. - '1.--1,.'

II

'I' V" dl

'~-tl.
I,

- - '-

t!-t l

'\'~ V!; tit

II

=1'!I -:--''\'~ J"dt

'2-'1'
"
'I

Out Since, by delinition, V!I'

V~

"

.,J V~ dt

"

~ .\ 1'1/ dt, it is obvious that

"
= O. lIonee, the averaged nduc of tIm sllCar

h~' tile relation I "[ I =

= pV~V:, Illat i:; the generalize,/ Heynolll:-; rorrnlila. J ts forIn does
not d()p~_tlt! Oli any spedf'lc assumptions Oil 111(' slrllr\tlre of the
lurbulencc.
Tile shear strcss determined by this (orlmdil call I)e expressed
directly in terms of t.hc corrDlation coefficient. In ,,,'col'dance with

stress Jue to nllctlilltions can he expl'cs."{'fl

(1.1.5),

We

have

IToI~ pRVv;. VV;'

or for au isotropic now for which we have V~~,

Ittl = pRv;! ..--: pRe 2VZ

(1.1.9)

Vl';f.
(1.1.9')

According to this expression, an additional silent' stress due to

[Juctuations doos not necessarily appeal' iJl allY 110w characterized
by a certain tllrbuicnce lovel. Its magnitude depends on the measure
of the stati.::lic<ll mulual <lssocialion of the fluctuutions determined
by the correlation coefficient R.
The generalized HeYliolds formula for t-he .slrenr stress ill accordance with Prandtl's hypothesis on the proportionality oC the l1uctualiou "eJoeilies IV~ - aV~
a-i' (dV".-'dy). where a is a ("oellie-ientl

34

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

can be transformed as follows:

_

l:td=pV:cV;= tl~tl (d:u,..)2

tit

j l'1ade=Pl2( d~,..)2

(1.1.10}

"
coefficient

Here the proportionality

a has been incl uded in the
averaged value of l', designated by l.
The quantity l is called the mixing length and is, as it were, an
analogue of the mean free path of molecules in the kinetic theory of
gases. The sign of the shear stress is determined by that of the velocity
gradient. Consequently,

'. - pl' I d'V,ldy I d}'x1dy

(1.1.10')

The total value of the shear stress is obtained if to the value "t')
due to the expenditure of energy by particles on tbeir collisions
and chaotic mixing we add the shear stress occurring direc.tly because
of the viscosity and due to mixing of the molecules characteristic
of a laminar flow, Le. the vallie 'tl = ~ dV:tldy. Hence,

, ~ " + '. ~ ~ dV,ldy + pl' I av,ldy I dV,Idy (1.1.11)

Prandtl's investigations show that the mixing length l = xy,
where x is a constant. Accordingly, at a wall of the body in the
flow, we have
(1.1.12)
It follows from experimental data that in a turbulent flow in direct
proximity to a wall, where the intensity of mixing is very low. the
shellr stress remains the same as in laminar flow, and relation (1.1.12)
holds for it. Beyond the limits of this flow. the stres!! "t'l will be very
small, and we may consider that the shear stres... is determined by
the quantity (1.1.10').
Boundary Layer. It follows from relations (1.1.7) and (1.1.10)
that for the same fluid flowing over a body, the shear stress at different sections of the flow is not the same and is detel'mined by the
magnitude of the local velocity gradient.
Investigations show that the velocity gradient is the largest near
a wall because a viscous fluid experiences a retarding action owing
to ito; adhering to the surface of the body in the fluid. The velocity
of the flow is zero at the wall (sec Fig. 1.1.4) and gradually increases
with the distance from the surface. The shear stress changes accordingly-at the wall it is considerably greater than far from it. The
thin layer of fluid adjacent to the surface of the body in a flow that
is charact.erized by large velocity gradients along a normal to it
and, consequently. by considerable shear stresses is tsllt'!d it boundary layer. In t.his layer, t.he viscous fortes ha\'e a magnitude of the

Ch. I. Basic Information from Aerodynamics

3&

same order as all tho other foJ'("os (for example. t.he fOl'COS of inertia
alld prossure) governing motion and, therefore, taken int.o 3r.count
in t.he eqnations of motion.
A physical notion of the boundary layer can lie obtained if we
imngine the surface in the flow to he coat.e(1 with a pigment ~olHhl&
in the fluid. It is obvioHs that 111(' pigment diffll:-iel< inlo Uw nuid
and is simultaneously carried downstream. Con:;:eqnently. t.he colonred zone is a layer gradually t.IIid.:.t'ning downstrctlm. The coloured
region of t.he nuid approximately coincides with I.JJC bOHO!lnry Inyer.
Thi,.:; region leaves the surface in the form of n coloured wake (see
Fig. '1.1 ...~a).
A,.:; :;:howll by observations, for n turbulent flo\\" the difference of
tile coloured region from the bonlldal'~' lay!:!r is cOlllpfll'ati\'rly:;:mall,
whereas in a laminar flow this differenco may be very significant.
J\('cordillg to theoretical and rxpe-l'imental investigationf-;. with an
increase, in the velocity. the thickuess of the layer diminishes, and
the wake becomes narrower.
The nature of the velocity dil'tributiol1 over the CI'OSS ~e(':tiol1 of
.1 boundary layer depends on whether it is lnlllinor or t.urbulent.
O\ving to lateral mixing 01 the particles and also to their collb;ions,
tJlis dist.ribution of the vriocity, more exactly of its timf"-avcraged
value. will be appreciably more uniform in a turbulent flow than in
a laminar one (see Fig. 1.1.4). The distribution of the velocities
near the surface of a body in a flow also allows liS to make the conclusioll on the higher shear stre!>." ill a turbulent. houndary layer
determined by the increased value of the velocity gradient.
Beyond the limits of the boundary layer, there_ is a part of the
flllw where the velocity gradients and. consequcml.l},. thr forces of
frictiol1 arc small. This part of the flow is known as the external
free Dow. In investigation 01 ali extel'nal flow. the influence of the
viseous forces is disregarded. Therefore, such a flow is also considered
to be inviseid. '1'ho velocity in the boundary layer grows with an
increasing distance from the \.... all and asymptotically approaches
a theoretical value correspouding to the Oow over the holly of an
i"viscid nuid, Ln. to UIC \'alue of the velOCity ill the exterual flowat the boundary of the layer.
We have- already not.ed that ill direct proximity to it a wall hinders
mixing. and. consequently, we may RSSllme that the part of the
boundary layer adjacont to the waH is in conditions close to laminar
one~. Thjs thin section of a quasilaminar boundary layer is called a
viscous sublaycr (it is also sometimes called a laminar sublayer).
Later investigations show thot fluctuations are observed in the
viscous subbyer that penetrate into it from a turbulent core, but
there is 110 correlation between them (the correlation coefficient
R ~" 0). Therefore, a('.cording to formula (1.1.9), no additional shear
stresses appear.

F1g.t.t.5
Boundary layer:
I_wall or a body In lbe
B-outer edgt> or tbe layer..j

flOWI

The main part of the boundary layer outside 0;" the viscolls sublayer is called the turbulent core. The studying of the motion in
a boundary layer is associated with the simultaneous investigation
of the flow of a fluid in a turbulent core and a viscous sublayer.
The change in the velocity over the cross section of tile boundary
layer is characterized by its gradually growing with the distance
from the wall and asymptotically approaching the valne or the
velocity in the external Row. For practical purposes, however, it is
convenient to take the part of the boundary layer in which this
change occurs snIrlciently rapidly, and the velocity at the bouudary
of this layer differs only slightly from its value in the external Row.
The distance from the wall to this boundary is what is conventionally
called tile thickness of the boundary layer 6 (Fig. 1.1.5). This thickness is usually dermed as the distance from the contour of a body to
a point in the boundary layer at which the velocity differs from its
value in the external layer by not over one per cent.
The introducHon of the concept of a boundary layer made possible
effective research of tile friction and heat transfer processes because
owing to the smallness of its thickness in comparison with the climensions of a body in a Dow it became possible to simplify the differential equations describing the motion of a gas in this region of a flow,
which makes their integration easier.
I

t.l. ResuH-ant Force Action

COIIIponents of A.rocIyn.mlc Forcu
..... MOInIlnfs

The forces produced by the normal and shear stresses continuously

distributed over the surface or a body in a !low can be reduced to
a single resultant "ector RII of the aerodynamic forces and a resultant
vector M of the moment of these forces (Fig. 1.2.1) relative to a
reference point called the centre of moments. Any point of the body

Ch. 1. Basic Infonnlltion from Aerodynamics

37

FI,. U.t

Aerodynamic rorces and moments acting nn a craft in the nighl path (.Tn' Ya,
and la) and body- axis (%, y. and z) t:onrdinate systems

be this centre. Particularly, when testing craft in wind tunnels,

the moment is found about olle of the points or monnling of the
model that muy coincide with the nose o[ the body, the leading
clige of Il wing, etc. When stlld~'ing real cases of the motion of such
craft ill thc atmospherc, one call determine the aerodynamic moment
about their centre of mass or some othe-r poillt that is a ceJllre of
rotation.
In engineering practice, in!\tead of cOllsidering tlte vectors R.
and M, theil' projections onto the axe~ of a coordinate system are
usually dNl.lt wilh. Let \IS cOII.~ider the flight path lind fixed or body
axis orthogonal coordiuate I'Yl'tcm~ Wig. 1.2.1) encountcl'ed most
often ill aerodynamics. In the night path sy~t(>m. thf' aerodynamic
forces and moments are usually gh'ctI becanse the investigation of
many problems of flight dynamic!; is eonnected with the m:e of
coordinate axes of exactly !;lIch a system. Pal'ticlllHrly, it is convenient to write the eqll.atjon~ of motion of a eraft"s centre of
mass in projections onto these axes. The flight path axis Oz, of
a velocity system is always directed along the nlocily vector of
a craft's centre of mass. The axis 0Ye of the flight path system (the
lilt axis) is in tIle plane of symmetry and is direeled upward (its
positive direetion). The axis Oz. (the lateral axis) is direeted along
the span of the right (starboard) wing (0 right-handed coordinate
system). Tn inverted flow, the night path axis OZa eoincides with the
direr-li!")n of the now velocHy, while the axis OZa is directed along
CHII

38

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of on Airfoil ond 0 Wing

the span or the lell (port) wing so as to retain a right-handed coordinate syslem. The latter is called a wind coordinate system.
Aerodynamic calculations can be performed in a lixed or body
axis coordinate system. In addition, rotation of a craft is usually
investigated in this system because the relevaut equations are
written in body axes. In this system, rigidly fixed to a craft, the
longitudinal body axis Ox is directed along the principal axis of
inertia. The normal axis Oy if: in the plane of symmetry and is oriented toward Lhe upper part of the craft. The lateral body axis {)z
is directed along the span of the right wing and forms a right-handed
coordinate system. The positive dircction of the Ox axis from the
tail to the Ilose corresponds to non-inverted flow (Jo'ig. 1.2.1). The
origins of both cOOl'dinate systems-the night pHth (wind) and the
body axis systems-are at a craft's centre of mass.
The projections of the vector Ra onto the axes of a flight path
ooordinate system are called the drag force X., and lift force }'a'
and the side force Za. respectively. The corresponding projections
-of the same vector onto the axes of a body coordinate system are
<called the longitudinal X. the normal Y. and the lateral Z forces.
The projections of the vector }I onto the axes in the two coordinate systems have the same name: the components relative to the
longitudinal axis are called lhe rolling moment (the relevant sym bois
are MXa in a flight path system and Mx in a body one), the components relative to the vertical axis are called the yawing moment
(Mila or Mil)' and those relative to the lateral axis are called the
pitching moment (M'a or M,).
In accordance with the above. the vectors of the aerodynamic
forces and moment in the flight path and body axis coordinate
.systems arc:
Ra = Xa + Ya -I- Z. = X -7- Y -i- Z
(1.2.1)
M = MXa + Mila
Mz" = M:c + Mil
Ml:
(1.2.2)
We shall cOllsider a moment about an axis to be positive if it
tends to turn the craft counterclockwise (whon watching the motion
from the tip of the moment vector). In accordance with the adopted
arrangement of the coordinate axes, a positive moment in Fig. 1.2.1
increases the angle of attack, and a negative moment reduces it.
The magnitude and direction of the forcos and moments at a
given airspeed and altitude depend on the orientation of the body
relat.ive to the volocity vector V (or if inverted flow is being COIIsidered. relative to the direction of the free-stream velocity Voe ).
This orientation, in t.urn, underlies the relevant mutual arrangement
.of the coordinate systems associated with the flow and the body.
This arrangement is determined by the angle of attack a and the
sideslip angle ~ (Fig. 1.2.1). The first of them is the anglc between

Ch. 1. Basic Inrormation from Aerodynamics

39

Fig. t.U

Determining the position of a craft in space

the axis Ox and the projection of the vector V Olito the plane xOy.
and the second is the angle between the vector V and the plane xOy.
The angle of attack is considered to be positive if the projection
of the air velocity onto the normal axis is negative. The sideslip
angle is positive if this projection onto the lateral axis is positive.
When studying a Right, a normal earth-fixed coordinate system is
used relative to which the position of a body moving in space is
determined. The origin of coordinates of this 5ystem (Fig, 1.2.2)
coincides with a point on the Earth's surface, for example with the
launching point. The axis OoY, is directed upward along u local
vertical, while the axes OoXll and OOZr coincide with a horizontal
plane. The axis Oox, is usually oriented in the direction or flight,
while the direction of the axis Ooz, corresponds to a right-handed
coordinate system.
If the origin 01 an earth-fixed system of coordinates is made to
coincide with the centre of mass of a craft, we obtain a normal earthfixed coordinate system also known as a local geographical coordinate system Ox:y,Zg (Fig. 1.2.2). The position of a cralt relative to
this coordinate system is determined by three angles: the yawing
(course) angle 11'. the pitching angle tt. and the rolling (banking)
angle 'Y.
The angle W is formed by the projection 01 the longitudinal body
axis Ox onto tbe horizontal plano X;:Oyj (Ox*) and the axis Oxg;
this angle is positive if the axis OX;: coincides with the projection
of Ox* by clockwise rotation about the axis Oy~.
The anglo ~ is that between the axis Ox and the horizontal plane
and will be positioie if this plane is below the longitudinal

%toze

40

Pt. I. Theory.

Aerodyn~mks of lin Airfoil lind

II

Wing

body axis. The angle I' is formed upon the rotation (rolling) of a
craft about the longitudinal axis Ox and is measured in magnitude
as the angle between the lateral body axis and the (lxis OZr; dispillced
to a position correspolHJing to a zero yawing allgJ(> (or as the angle
between the axis Oz and its projection onto II horilOnlal planet.he axis Oz;). If displacement of the axis Oz~ with respect to the
lateral axis occurs clockwise, \.IH~ angle "r is positi\e.
The pitching angle determines the inclinalion of a cfaft to the
borizon, and the yawing angle-the rleviation of the direction of
its flight from the initial one (for an aircraft this is the deviation
from its course, for a projectile or rocket this is the deviation from
the plane of launching).
ConversIon 01 "erocfYMllllc Forces
.. nd Moments from One Coordinate System
to Another

Knowing the angles (I. and ~, we can Call vert the components of
the force and moment in one coordinate system to components in
another system ill accordance with the rules of analytical geometry.
Particularly, the components of the aerodynamicforce and moment
in a body axis system arc converted to the drag force and the rolling
moment, respectively, in a night path system of coordinates by the
formulas

X .. = X cos (~a)

+ Y cos (;;:8) ---:- z cos (~8)

1I1:<:a = M;J; cos (x"?a) T .My cos (Y;a)

(1.2.3)

M, cos (;;-8) (1.2.3')

where cos (;:;.9), cos (Y;a), cos (i?a) Bfe the cosines of the angles
between tlle axis OXa and the axes Ox, Oy, anil Oz, respectively.
The expressions for the other components of the force vector, and
also for the components of tho moment vector, are written in a
similar way. The values of the direction cosines used for converting
forces and moments from ono coordinate system to another arc
given in Tahle 1.2.1.
Table 1.2.1
FUglit path sHtl'U1
Dodyaxis
~)"'t~rn

u'a

0,.

0,.

Ox
0,

ces et cos ~
-sinacos~

sin a

-cosasin IS
BinaslnjS

0,

sin IS

""~

ros.

Ch. 1. Basie Information from Aerodynamies

In ilcrordallce willt the datil of Taule

(1.2.3') acquire the following form:

1.~.1,

Xa ....., X cos a. cos ~ - Y Sill a cos

0: cos B - .1I y sin a cos

.1/;1'8 -= ;\l~ cos

-X a -' -X cos

0:

cos ~ -

}" sill

0:

-- Z sill ~
.11, sill

~ .c.

For example. for the motion of the aircrnfl

Eq. (1.2.4.) yields. with the relevant signs:
co.s

41

fq,s. (1.2.:{) ,lilll

.~hOWll

(1.2.4)
~

(1.2.!1')

ill Fig. 1.2.1,

Il .:- Z sin fl

The force and moment componellts* arc cou\'cl'ted ill a similar

way from a flight path to a Doll y a"is coordinate sy~tem. For example.
by using the data of Tnblp; 1.2.1, we obtain the following cOllversion
formulas for thE) longitlldinal force and the rolling moment:
X --' Xacosa.cos~ .. Y~sino:-Zaeo!-\o:~illl~
.1/,,,

:-=:

.1!;.:~ cos (.( cos ~

.1/ Y;, sill a.

(1.1.5)

.l! l;, COS':L sin ~ (1.2.5')

We call go O\'er from II local geographical coordinate system (a normal system) to ;J body axis or flight path one, or vicc \'ersa, if we
know the cosinE'S of the angles he tween the corresponding axes. Their
vailit's can be delermined from Fig. 1.2.2 that shows t-he mutunl
arrangemellt of the axes of thel$e coorriinnl(' sysl(!m~.

1.1. Determination
of Aerodynamic Forces
and Moments According to
the Known Distribution
of the Pressure and Shear Sh'ess.
Aerodynamic Coefficients
Aerodynamic forces
lind Moment5 and Their CaeHicients

Assume that for a certnin angle of attack lind side;,lip IIllgle, and
also for given parameters of the free stream (tile speed V 00, si(ltic
pressure p"", density Poc:, and temperature T ...). we know the distribution of the pressure p and shear stress 't ov~r thp ~lIrfBCc of the body
in the flow. We want to determine the resultant values of the aerodynamic forces aod moments.
The isolated surface elemt'nl dS of the body experiences 1I normal
force produced by the exc(>!';s pressure (p - P dS and the tangential
Wc sllall omit the won] ,.omponents" Jx.low for bre\'ity,

it and use fonnulo3 for scalar quantities.

hu~

shall mean

Ag.U.i
ActioD of pftMurC and friction

!sr~~ar) forces on an elementary

force 't dS. The sum of the projeetions of these forces onto the xaxis
of a wind (]jgnt path) coordinate system is (Fig. 1.3.1)
/\

/\

r(p- p",,) cos (n,x a) + "tcos (t,xo) dS

(1.3 .1)
where n aud t are a normal and a tangent to the olement of area,
respectively.
The other two projections onto the axes Ya and z. are obtained by
a sirnilar formula with the corre.sponding cosines. To find the resultant forces, we have to integrate expression (1.3.1) over the entire
!.urface S . Introducing inlo lhe.sc equations the pressure cOPUlcicnt
p = (p - p"",)/q"" and the local friction 'actor Cj .:t = 'tlq "", where
q"" = p ... V!. 12 is the velocitv head. we obtain formulas for the drag
force, the IiCl force, and the side force, respectively:

x .. =

q"",Sr

~
(S)

"

y~ ,.."qocSr)

fp cos (~,~.H-c,. :tcos

(t.i.)JdSIS r
/\
r-pcos(n,y.)+c,.xcos(t,Ya)]dSISr

(1.3.3)

1fPCOS (;;,~.)+c, . %cos(r.i.)ldSISr

(1.3.4)

/\

(1.3 .2)

IS)

Za = -q"",Sr

lSi

We can choose a random surface area such as that of It wing in

plan view or the area of the largest cross section (the midsection) of
the fuselnge as the charactoristic area S t in these formulas. The
intograls in formulas (1.3.2)-(1.3.4) are dimensionless quantities
taking into account how the aerodynamic forces are aHected by the
nature of the flow over a body of a given goometric configuration and
by the distribution of the dimensionless coefficients of pressure and
jfriction due to lhis flow .
. In formulas (1.3.2) for the force X . , the dimensionless quantity
,lS usually designated by c Xa and is known as the drag coeffaclent.

Ch. 1. gasic Information from Aerodynamics

43

III the othl'r two fOI'lnulos, the corresponding symbols cUa and c'a
<1m introduced. The l'",le'-onl quanti lies Me known as the aerodynamic lift coefficient and thE' aerodynamic side-force coefficient. \;Vith
~I view to the obo\'e. we han'

1'8

Xli = c"/lqooSr>

cllaq",ST>

Za """ cZ/lqooSr

(1.3.5)

We can oLlain generol relations for tI[(~ moments in the same way
8~ formulas (1.3.2)-(1.3.4) for the forces. Let liS consider as an example
slI('h a r('iation for !lu' pitching mom(,nt ,1[ . It is evident that the
e]('mentllry vallie of this moment d;\/zll is d~t.ermined by the sum of
thE' morrwnLs about the axis ZII of the forclls acting on an area dS in
i\ plane al right allg'ks 10 the nxi~ ZII' If the coordinat.es of t.he Ilrea
dS arc Ya <tnt! X a , the l'!cll1cnlary vallie of the moment is
dM~a =

/'

/''\

q"",Sr {(p cos In,Ya)-cr.x cos (t,Ya)lxa

/'
-!p cos (n,x a) -;- Cr.", cos (t,x
-

/'\

iI )

Ya} dSIS r

Integrating this cxpression over the surface S and introducing

the dimensionless pOrilt\lptE'l'
m!a .."

q~;;L

.~

{If cos (n,~,J

-Cr.:.: cos (~,~a)J

XII

<',

-iPcOs(~:~a)---: c,.%cos((,~)JYa} :;~

(l.:i.u)

in which L is a characteristic geometric length, we obtain a formula

for the pitching moment:
(1.3.7)

Tile parameter 1nza is called the aerodynamic pitching-moment

coefrlcient. The formulas for the other components of t.he moment
art' written similarly:

,lira =

1n~aqooSrL

and

MYa = m!laq",SrL

(1.:3.1,)

The dimensionless parameters mX~1 and mila arc call.,d the aerody118rnic rolling-moment and yawing-moment cocffieieuts, respectively.
Thp. relevant Mefticients of the aerodynamic forces and moments
call nlso he introduced in a body axis coordinate system. The use of
these coefficients allows the forces and moments to be written as
follows;
X
c:Jt.g""Sr, Mx = mAooSrL

Y = c"qooSr,
Z = cz<jooSr,

Mil = mlllooSrL
A-fz = m.q ...SrL

(\.3.9)

44

pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of lin Airfoil and a Wing

The quantities cx, cy , and Cz are called the aerodynamic longitu.

dinalforce, normalforce, and lateralforce coefficients, and the
parameters m x' my. and tr/z-the aerodynamic body axis rolling
moment, yawingmoment, and pitchingmoment coefficients, respectively.
An analysis of the expressions for the aerodynamic forces (1.3.2)
(1.3.4) allows us to arrive at the conclusion that each of these forces
can be resolved into a component due to the pressure and a component
associated with the shear stresses appearing upon the motion of a
viscous fluid. For example, the drag X II =- X a.p -I- X a.,. where
X a . p is the pressurl;' drag and X a.f is the frit'tion drag. Accordingly.
the overall coefftcient of drag equals the slim of the coefJicients of

pr~~:~~a~~'~ ~~:;t:oe~o~~~:~;;al:;/'~~'d -~i~~:'t~'rce

coefftcients, and
also the moments, can be represented as the slim of two components.
The forces, moments, and their coefficients are written in the same
way in a body axes. For example, the longitudinal-force coefficient
C x "- cx. p . C x .', where c x . p and X".r arc the coefftcients of the
longitudinal forces due to pressure and friction, respectively.
The components of the aerodynamic forces and moments depending
on friction arc not always the same as those depending on the pressure
as regards their order of magnitude. Investigations show that the
inflnence of friction is more appreciable for flow o\'er long and thin
bodies. In practice, it is good to take this influence into account
mainly when determining the drag or longitudinal force.
When a surface in a flow has a plane area at its tail part (a hottom
cnt of the fuselage or a blunt trailing edge of a wing), the pressure
drag is llsllally divided into two more components, namely, thepressure drag on a side surface (the nose drag), and the drag dlle to the
pressure on the base cul or section (the bast' drag). Hence, the overall
drag and the relevant aerodynamic coefficient arc

Xa, = Xa,n -+- Xa.b -!. X a"

and

cx~ =

c"a.1I

C:tn.b

-+-

c:t n,'

When determining the longitudinal force and its coefficient, wrobtain

X = Xn + X b -I- Xl and Cx = Cx ...

In accordance with Fig. 1.3.1, we have
Xb= -qot>

JF;,dS

s,

and

+ C:t.b ..:... C:t.f

C.~.b ~ q:~r

where Pb = (P.b - poo)/qot> (this quantity is negative because a

rarefaction appears after a bottom cut, i.e. Pb < pool.
Characteristic Geometric DimE'nsions. The absolute value of an
aerodynamic coefficient. which is arbitrary to a certain extent.

Ch. 1. Basic Information from Aerodynamics

:~~e~!':ic
I,.-c~ntr"

45

vicw of a wing:

chord, bt-till
lind b-Iocal chord

chord.

depends on the choice of the characterigtic geometric dimensions

S rand L. To facilitat.e practical calculations. however, a characterb~
tic geometric quantity is dlOsen beforehand. In aerogpace technology,
the area of the mid-section (the largest cross section) of the body
Sr = SlIllri is usually chosen ag the characteristic area, and the
length of the rocket is taken as the characteristic linear dimension L.
In aerodynamic calculations of aircraft., t.he wing plan area S r .=
= Sw, tlle wing span l (the distance between tlw wing tips) or the
wing chord b arc adopted as the clHlracteristic (Iim('nsions. By the
chord of a wing is meant a length equa! ") the distance between the
farthest points of an airfoil (section). For n wing with a rectangular
pianform, the chord equals the width of the wing. In practice, a wing
usually has a chord varying along its span. Either the mean gPOmc:tric
chord b = b m equal to b m ~ Swfl or the ml'an aerodynamic chord
b = b A is taken as the characteristic tlimengioll for such a wing. The
mean aerodynamic chorl] is determined ag the chord of the airfoil
of an equivalent rectangular wing for which with an identical wing
plan area the moment aerodynamic characleristics are approximately
the same as of tlw given wing.
The length of tile mean aerodynamic chord and the coordinate of
its leading edge are determined as followg (Fig. 1.:l.2):

bA=~
Sw

1/2

I b'l.dz,
u

When calculating forces and moments according to known aerodynamic coefficients, the geometric dimensions must be used for
which these coefficients were evnluated. Should guch calculations
have to be performed for other geometric dimensions, the aerodynamic coefficients must be preliminarily converted to the relevant
geometric dimension. For this purpose, one mnst use the relations
C1Sl = C 2 S 2 (for the force coeflicients). and TnISIL I = Tn 2S 2 {'2 (for
the moment coefficients) obtained from tilC conditions of th(' constancy

46

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynemics 01 en Air/oil end eWing

Fill. t.3.l
Constructing 8 "polar of the first kind of a craft:
a-e'l'a vs. a: /.I-Cyll. vs. a; c-polsr ot hrst kind

of the forces and moments acting on the same craft. These relations
are used to fmd the coefficients C 2 and m 2 , respectively, converted to
the new characteristic dimensions 8 2 and L 2:
c2

c1

(8 1 /8 2 ),

m 2

ml

(8 1 L I /8 2L 2)

where the pr~vious dimensions 8 1 , L] and aerodynamic coefficients

c1 ' ml , as well as the new dimensions 8 2 , L2 are known.
Polar of a Craft A very important aerodynamic characteristic

~h:;af~~i \.f:~;atl~~~~s~r~:I~tf:~ ~~t=Zea~ t~e ~?f~~~da~r~~e f:r~:: o~~

which is the same, between the lift and drag coefficients in a flight
path coordinate system. This curve, called a polar or the first kind
(Fig. 1.3.3c) is the locus of the tips of the resultant aerodynamic force
vectors Ro acting on a craft at various angles of attack lor of the
vectors of the coefficient ella of this force determined in accordance
with the relation en~ = RII./(S rq (m)1.
A polar of the first kind is constructed with the aid of graphs of
C!f A versus ct and cVa versus ct so that the values of C!fa and cJlll Me
laid off along the axes of abscissas and ordinates, respecthely. The
relevant angle of attack ct, which is a parameter of the polar in the
given case, is written at each point of the curye.
A polar of the first kind is convenient for practical use because it
allows one to readily flDd for any angle of attack such a very important aerodynamic characteristic of a craft as its lift-to-drag ratio
(1.3.10)

(or Y a) and C!fa (or X.) are the same, the quantity K equals the slope of a vector drawn from the origin of Coor(JiIf the scales of

eVA

Ch. I. Basic Information from Aerodynamics

47'

.'

~
"

'.

Flg.UA

'x

))rag polar or the second kind

nates (the pole) to the point of the polar diagram corresponding to the
chosen angle of attack.
We can usc a polar to determine tbe optimal angle of attack "oPt
corresponding to the maximum liftlo-drag ratio:
K maz = tan "oPt

(CUO')

if we draw a tangent to the polar from the origin of coordinates.

The characteristic poinls of a polar include the point cllamaz
corresponding to the maximum Jifl force th.d is achieved nl. tIle
critical angle of attack Ct cT ' We can mark n point on the- curve determining the minimllm drag coefficient cX.amlll and tht' corresponding
values of the angle of all lick and the lift coeflicient.
A polar is symroetl'k llbout the axis of ah::cissas if a craft has
horizontal symmetry. For .such n craft, the vattIC of ex min ('orresponds to a zero lift force, c lla = O.
' .
In addition to a polar of the flrst kind. a polar or the second kind
is sometimes used. It dWers in that it is plolLecl iii a bo(ly axis
coordinate system along \.... bose axis of abscissas the \"alues of the
longitudinal-force coefficient COl' arc laid off. and along the axis of
ordinates-the normal-force coefficients cy (Fig. Ut4). This curv6
is used, particularly, in the strength analysis of craft.
Theoretical anel experimental investigation~ show that in the
most general case, the aerodynamic coefficients depclul ror a given
body configuration and angle of attack on dimensionless variables
such as the Mach number Moo = V oolaoo and the Rernolds number
Beoo = V ooLPoo/p,oo. In these expressions, a_ is the speed of sound
in the oncoming Dow, poo and ~oo arc the density and dynamic viscosity of the gas, respectively, and L is the length of the body.
Hence. a multitude of polar curves exists for each gh'cn craft. For
example, for a definite number Be oo we can construct a family of
such curves ench of which corrC!>ponds to a definit.e value of the

48

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil arKt a Wing

Fig. U.S
Determination of the centre of pressure (a) and aerodynamic centre (b)

velocity Moo. The curves in Figs. 1.3.3 and 1.3.4 corrospond to a fixed
value of Re"", and determine the relation between cYa and cra. for
low-speed nights (of the order of 100 mis) when the aerodynamic
coeflicients do not depend on Moo.
Centre of Pressure and Aerodynamic Centre. The centre of pressure
(CP) of a craft is the point through which the resultant of thc
aerodynamic forces passes. The centre of pressure is a conditional
poinL because actually the action of fluid results not in a concentrated force, but in forces distributed over the surface of the moving
body. It is customarily assumed that for symmetric bodies or ones
close to them this conditional point is on one of the following axesthe longitudinal axis of the craft passing through the centre of mass,
the axis of symmetry of a body of revolution, or on the chord of an
airfoil.
Accordingly, the longitudinal force X is arranged along this axis,
while the centre of pressure when motion occurs in the pitching
plane is considered as the point of application of the normal force Y.
The position of this centre of pressure is usually determined by the
coordinate xp moasured from the front point 011 the contour of the
body in a [Jow. If the pitching moment ill: about this point and the
normal force Yare known (Fig. 1.3.5a), tho coordinate of the centre
of pressure
(1.3.11)
A moment Mz tending to reduce the angle of attack is considered
to be negative (Fig. 1.3.5a); hence the coordinate xp is positive.
Taking into account that

M:=mzqooSrb
we obLain

and

Y=cyqooSr

Ch, 1. Buic In/ormation from Aerodynamics

49

wheuce

(LUI')
The dimensionless quantity Cp dermed as the ratio belwcell the
distance to the centre of pressure and the characLerisLic length of a
body (in the gi ....en case the wing chord b) is called tlte centre-ofpl'e~ure coefficient. With small angles of attack, wlten the lift
and nOl'mal-force coefficients are approximately equal (c Ya ~ c y ),
we have
(1,3.12)

In the case heing considered of a two-dimensional fio\\' past a

body, Lh(' pitcldng-molllent cocfflcieuts in wint.l (Right path) and
body axis coordinate sy.<.;Lcms are the same, i.e, ntza
moll.
Fol' a symmetric airfoil whclI at 0: _ 0 1110 quantHies C,I ant.l m z
simliitatll'ollsly takE:> all zero Y[llnes in accordance with the expressions

Cy

= (iJc,/oa) a,

lnz

= (ilmz.:aa.)

IX

holding at small angles of attack (llCl'e the (leri\'llti\'es (jcl/.'O(l. and

omz'da are COJlstant qU<llltities 1.It"l Cim be delermiued for an angle
of attack of a ~ 0), the cot!fJidetlt c p equtlls a constlHlt ,'all1e not
(Iependiug Oil the angle of ;lu.u;k:
(1,3,13)
Th~ ndue of the co(!rlicicnt
of III~ centre 01' 1ll<\$S -:;c)[ -,
pitclilng-momenl ('ol'ftirients

f.'p

and of the dillll'lI~i()1l1l''''~ cnordinflle

I, can 1)(' II~pd to {Iplc'rmilll' the
tllis c<,rlll'\'

:1'(')[

id)O'l1

11,;:1.14.)
In\'esligation.~ ~how

Lllat in real c()t1diLiollS of nuw, :\11 appreciable

di~pla('eUlent of the centre of preSSllfC (:an he oh.~{'l'yc{1 in craft even
upon a .slight change in lhe angle~ of atlnd, Thi~ i~ c::;peciuJly lIoliceable in craft with all asymmetric conflgllration or upon deflection of
an elevator, which di::;l.urbs the existing symmetry, III these ronditions, the celltl'e of pressure is not cOllvenient for llSC' as a cha1'acteristic point in e"timat.ing the position of Lhe resultant of the Ilcrod.\'1l8mic foree" and the tlppearin~ pitching Illoment ahoul the ('entre
of lIlass. In these condHions, it is more cOll\'enient to a.o:;sess the
flight pl'operl.ie,~ of a ('raft a(:cording to the aerodynamic c('JllI'e
location. To reveal the meaning of this concept, let U~ t'oll.!'idcr an
asymmetric airfoil and e,[lluate the moment J/zl! about all al'hill'iU'r
poillt F" with thl' coordinate :t'Jl 011 \.Iw (",hortl of the airfoil, II follows
from Fig', '1,3,50 HUtt

C.

1.1

....
...,
1.0

~~a!i~ between the moment

coefficient mz and normalforee
coefficient ell lor an uymmet
ric aircraft

-or

0.2 mz

or, since -Yxp = ..lf z is the moment ahout the front point 0, we
have
Jl zlI = YX n + Mz
Going over to aerodynamic coefficients, we obtain
mzn

= cil (x,/b) + m%

(1.3.15)

For small angles of attack when there is a linear dependence of

m; on cil of the form
m~ = m;()";' (iJmzIiJc Il ) Cv
(t.3.16)
we obtain

or
(1.3.17)

where m t () is the coeffident of the moment about a point

011

the

leT'~~g s:~~da~~':n=i~ ~~~f:1~j3:~termines

the increment of the

moment associated with a change in the normal-force coefficient.
If we choose the point Fa, on a chord whose coordinate XII = XF.
is determined by the condition (see Fig. 1.3.5b)
(1.3.18)

the coefficient of the moment abont this point will not depend on

1ti;i:n;~i'::t ~~l ~:~:~I)t~~J!~~:~~:~~~; ::n7~1 (~C) ~?~~~a;[V~~ab~iJ;:

The aerodynamic centre is evidently the point of application of the
additional normal foree pl'oduced by the angle of attack (the coef.
licient of this for(,e is (Oc,/OCt.) a = cial. The pitching moment
about an axis paS$ing through this pOint does not depond on the

e1

Ch. 1. Basic Information from Aerodynamics

augle of attack. Sudl a point is called the angle~of~attackaerodynaDlie

('Clltre or a craft. 'rhe centre of pressure and the aerodynamic centre
are reIn ted by the expression
Cp

m,
-c;-=

(1.3.19)

~~~d~l'co~r;eq~e;t'ii.U/~he ~:I~tr~ ~r~:~!~irCe ~~~I:~d:t~~~tlt '71~~ ;;r~

dynamic centre.
Expression (1.3.19) holds, however, for a spl101etric configuration
provided with all elevator deflected through a certain angle Be (see
Figs. 1.2.2 and 1.:-:1.5). In this case, the moment coefficient is

(1.:1.20)
and the

normal~rol'ce

coefficient is
(1.3.11)

where

mf _.

i)m~.:a':./.,

c~;,...: iJc/rJa,

m~~'

umz:dB".

illlll

c!e

'-- (lcy,'dB".

If a conJigHl"Mioll

j:;
III 1

liot

~rllll\lell"ic,

= m:o -:-

ell = cyo

lhen

1n1a ...!... m~f"Be

c:a: c~e(\

(1.:J.22)
(1.3.23)

The point of applicalioll of th(> normal force dm' to the cle ...atol
defit;'('U(}TI angle nud proportional to this angle is known as the
t'lcutordt'11ection aerodynamic ct'ntre. The moment of the forces
about. a lateral axi~ pa~sing through lhis centre is e"ideutly indL"pendent of the anglo be' In the geJleral ense for nil o:-;ymmelric. configuration, its centre of pressure coincides with none of the aero~
d~lul.mic centres (based on a or B,,). In a particular case, in a sym~
melrk crnft at --; D. the centre of pressure coincides with the aerod~"Tlamir centre based on Bel'silll! the definition of the aerodynamic centres hased 011 the
angle of attack "lid the elevator deflection angle and introducing the
corr~pollding coordinates XFa, and X"'II' we find the ("oelflciellt of the
moment ahout tile centre of mass. This ('oemcienl is evaluated by
formula (L:l.22), iu which
(1.3.24)

where XF~ = x,/b and X-;6 =

the aerodynamic centres.

xF/b

are the relathe coordinat~s- of

1!i2

PI. I. 1I':eory.

Aeroclyn~mics

of en Airfoil end I Wing

t .... Static Equilibrium

and Static Stability
CDncept of Equilibrium and Sfilllility

The stllte of static equilibrium is determined by the flight conditiol\;:; and the corresponding force action at which the overall aerodynllluic moment abont the centre of mass in the absence of rotation
and wHh the angle of attack and the sideslip angle remaining constant is zel'O (l'1 = 0). Such equilibrium lorresponds to conditions of
steady rectilinear motion of a craft, when the palamete!s of this
motion do IIOt depend 011 the time.
It is eddelll that for axisymmetric configuration!' over ,,"!lich the
fluid 110w:; in Ok longitudinal dil'ection, the equality)1 .= 0 is arhie\ed
,vith IIlIIlenel'te ",le,'ators and l'ndder~ and wilh zero angles of aLta.k
and :::id~1ip, Hence, ill this rnse, equilibrium, ('allcrllhe trim equilibrium of a craH. sets in tlt the balanc(' angl(' of aHat:k and sidtslip
angle (cz.blll' ~blll) equal to zero. The Med to halallce Ilight al olher
angles (0: =F ablll aud ~ =F ~I>III) requil'es the cOl'respouding turniug
of Ihe elevators.
EquilibriullI of a. craft (pal'licuhu'ly. with the elevators I'xed in
place) may be stahle or Ilnstable, Equilibrium of a Cl'I1ft b; considel'ed
t.o he stable if arter lhe introduction of a random r;horl-Lil11c (I\."turhance it retnrns to its initial pO!'lition. If these distlll'bnlLcc" cal1se it
to delleI'I ~lill more from the initial position, eqllilibrium is said
to he l.IIIstabl('.
The nature of t.he equilihrium of a. cl'aft is dctcnnirwtl hy its
static stability Ol' instability. To rcycal the l'sscnce of slat ic stahility,
we call consider the Oow of ail' in a wiud tunnel PMt a c.raft lixed
at its ceutre of lDass and capable of turning abottt it (Fig, 1.4.1).
For a given elevator angle 6"" a definite value of the aerodynamic
nloment :1l z ('orresponds to each value of lhe ungle or del1ectioll of
tile craft Ct (the angle o[ attnck). A pos."ible relation between Ct and
:Ifz for n c,erLAi .. angle 6(" is showu iu Fig. 1.4.1, where points 1, 2,
and 3 det('rmiuillg t.he balance angles Ctlbtll, Ct~bal' and a;3b~1 at
which tile aerodynamic moment equal:,; zero correspond to the equilibrium positiolls. The ligure also ~hows two other moment clIr,'cs for
the Gh~','alor angle." li,: and a;.
Let HS ,'oll."idor equilibrium at floint 1. If UtC craft is de\'iated
tbrough nil 1111~k' smaller or lat'ger than a.'bal' the iuduced momenls,
positivI) 01' !Lpnnth'c, l'esp('!~thol:t', will result ill tm incrensc (reduction) of this mlg-Io to it.;; previolls ,'aille alh,al' i.e. these momonts nrc
stahilizin.e; on('.-=. Con~equ(lntlr, lhe po~itioll of eflniliill'ium at point 1
is stahle (thf' ('!':lft is sLatknlly sllIhle). It can he showll !'imilarly
that sneh a po~itit)1I of stable c'luilibduln also (,_ol'l'esponds to point 3.

Ch. 1. Basic Information from Aerodynamics

1!13

Fig. tA.t

Dependence of the aerodynamic

~~~~~n~ ~y ~ :'~ftt~~d~~e u~~

rRection of the eh!\'alorl:l lie:

2, 3, ,,_.polnls or inlel'lH't'tion of

In the Ii!':.;t C!l!"C, fl'cc rot.ation or lhc l'l'nh rOlltilllle:o; IIlIlil it o('('lIpie:;
the clplilibrimn po~i!ioli ai, point 1. /In(1 ill the sel'ontl ('il~e-at
poiut 3,
At. point 2 (a 21'nl) the equilihrium i:-; lJIlst;lbll'. I IHlcpd , eXiuuiu
.. Iloll of I"ig, 1..1.1 1'(>\'(,.. 1:-1 Ihnl at nllues of 111(' angle a lilrgN or
slllall(,I' than ct 2La l' momellt~ al'(' iJ1(illl't,tI, po~iti\'e or negatiH'. re
sperlively. thai lend 10 illrl'l~fl~e (01' I'et!ul'e) ct. IIt'nre. these mmnents

arC' destabilizing, flnd tlw !'raft. will be

~Iilti<'ally 1l1l~lablc.

Slatil' sl,allilily is I<CiLclllfllil'all;r tlh"ided illto longitudinal and

lnlNal ~labilit~" For slalk JOlIgilLltlillll1 stability, il i~ m:~lIl11ed
thllt all tile di.<;!IlI'bing fOI"('('1< mill lllollU'nll< a('\. ilL till' IOllgitwlillal
piauI.' of the body 11,\"e!' JOy, IIt'I\('e, only ~11fh llIo\enwnt:< o( a l'I"<lft

arc ill\"C~tignle(ilhnl (JC('l1r ill it~ plilnl' of l'yJILJIlf!II'Y in I lit' I\h::;(>II("C' of

roll flIHI I'lip. Wltt'll Ilnill~'I<[ng ~Ialk lateral !lIhilily. the (I il'tIII'IIed
Jllo\"('menl~ of 1\ ('I'afl are (,oH~i<I('rt'd lllll! are a!'~()ri'lted wilh n fhauge
in the rolling mul sili(,l<1ip nnglC's .11 11 ('on~!ant llug}e of alt'h"I,. Su('h
uHlY('lllenl!o= arc a}wn~!< IIlUIUlIlly ,'('Ialcd. J)C'fI('('ti(l1l of the 1Ii1C'l'OIlS
call!'el" 1101. only 1'011, hut ail'lIl'Jip. ,\1 Iill' MlIlH' tilll(>. Ilirniug of the
rmldel'!' .. 1:<0 lead!' 10 rolling" Ther('hu'f' illVel'ti:!atioll fir 1"!I'ral
lltllhility i~ Ill"l'orintC'd wilh lIlI alllllpci~ of holh I'olling- allli yawing
fIloment:.;:.
stallc Longitudinal Stability

"'hell I'llI'll !'tllbilily ('~i~tl", an illtillcc(l longitudinal 1110111('111

abont the cell Ire of ma!':!' will bp stahilizing, In this ('II!'(', the dir('c
tion of thc ('hlluge in tllC' mOlllent .11 z (nnd accordingly of the coef
licienl rtl z) is oppol"it(' to the change ill the angle Ct. Consl'C]ucntl:,!'. tho
(':ondition III slnlic 10llgitudillll) stability clm hl' expre~..ed ill llnordan('(' wilh OIl(' of the Cllr\'c!o= !;hoWIi in Fig, 1.4.1 hr ihc in(,lpllIlilies
(}JJ z."urx < (J ot' c)m:.'orx :-. m~ < 0 (thc derl\'l\th"(':< arc e\'lllml\((1
for thc halnllcc 1I11g1e of nllack r.t. ."" ct:!'al)'

84

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

Flg.l.U

Action of a force and moment in analysing the static stability of a craft:

.-stallc stabilil)': b-stalic Instability: c-neutrlliity relath'c to statiC stability

With static longitudinal instability. fI dcstlluilizing (tilting)

moment appears that tends to increase the nllgle of attack in comparison with its balance \'nlue. Conscqm'ully. tbe inequalities
aM zlfkt. > 0 or mf > 0 arc the rondilion lor 8tati<' longiludillal
instability.
A rraft will be neutral relati .... e to statir longitudinal stability if
upon n small deflection from the balanrc angle of attack neither a
stabilizing nor a destahili:dng momen! il'! illdllret!' This angle of
atta('k IX =- ahal in Fig. 1.4.1 rorre!<polld~ to point 4 at whirh the
moment r.urvt' is tangent to the borilontal axis. It is obviow; that
hert' the coefficient of the restoring moment Am~ -,. ma. 61X --: O.
,a.lu.1
Criteria of Static Stability. The derivative mf' on which the magnitude of the !'!tabilizing or destabilizing momrml dependli i~ clllled
the coeflleieut (degree) of static longitudinal stability_ This ~labil
ity criterion reilltes to configurationl'! both with and wHhout axial
symmetry.
For axisymmetric craft. we can assume that the criterion of static
stability equals the difference betweell tbe distances from the no~e of
a crart to its ('entre of mass and centre of preSSlll'e. Le. the quantity
y = ,l(.M - xp. or in the dimensionless form
Y = XCli/b - xplb = XC~1 - c p
If the coefficient of the centre of pre~re cp is larger than the
l'elative coordinate of the centre of mass XCM' Le_ if the centre of
pressure is behind the centre of ma~s, the craft is statically stable;
when the centre of pressure is ill front (the difference XCli - ep is
positive), the craft is statically unstahle; when both centrcl'l coindde,
the craft. is neutral.
The action of the relevant pitching moments abOllt a lateral In:1S
passing through the cenlre of IlHlSS is shown ill Fig. 1.4.2.

e.!!I

Ch. 1. Basic Information from Aerodynllmics

The criterion Y = XcM - cp determines the margin of static

stabilit~. It may be negative (static stability). positive (static
instability). and zero (neutrality relative to longitudinal stability).
The quantity Y is determined by the formula Y = mzlclI in which
the pitching moment coefficient is eyaluated about the centre of
mass. For small \'alues of ct, the coefficients m z and cy can be written
in the form Tn: = mr;ct, and cy = ~ct. With this taken into account,
wc haye
Y = mr;/i{ = amzlacy = XCII - Cp
(1.4.1)
Hence it follow~ that the deriyati\'c amzlac" = m~1I may be
consiripred as n criterion determining the qualitative and quantitative
characteristics of longitudinal stability. If m~1I < 0, we have static
longitudinal stability, if m~" > 0, we baye instability, and if
~~.4 = O. we have neutrality. The parameter m~Y is also called the
coefficient (degree) of static longitudinal stabilit~.
To appraise the static stability of asymmetric craft or of .:;ym~
metric craft with denerted elevators, t.he concept of the aerodynamic
centre is used. The dimensionless coordinate of this point with
respect to the angle of attack is determined by the formula IF", =
Taking this into accouut and assuming in (1.3.17) that
=
the quantity .1.'11 equals thE' coonJinatc :reM of the centre of mass, we
obtain

-In>.

mz = Inzo -

CII

(XFa -

XeM)

Differ(,lltiation of this expres.<;ioll with respect to

m~Y = -(IF", - XCM)

CII

yields
(1.4.2)

Accordingly, the longitudinal stability is determined by the mutual

arrangement of the aerodynamic centre and centre of mass of a craft.
When the aerodynamic centre is behind the centre of mass (the dif(er~
ence XFa. - XC!! is positive), the relevant craft is statically stable,
and when it is in front of the centre of mass (the difference "iF,." - XCM
is negative), the craft is unstable.
By correspondingly choosing the centre of mass (or by centering),
we can ensure the required margin of static stability. Centering
(trimming) is central if the centre of mass coincides with the aero~
dynamic centre of the craft.
When the centering is changed, the degree of longitudinal stability
is
m~1I = (m>),

+ Xell - XCl'tI

(1.4.2')

where the primed parameters correspond to the previous centering

of the craft.

156

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

Inlluence of Elevator Deflection. Investigations show (:-,ee

Fig. 1.4.1) that when the moment curw Mz = t (0:) is not linear.
its slope at the points of intersection with the horizontal axis is
not the same for different elevator angles. This indicates a difference
in the value of the coefficients of static longitudinal stability.
A glance at Fig. 1.4.1, for example, shows thnt Ilpon a certain deflection of the elevator (6r.), stability at low angles of attack (0: ~ O:lba))
may change to instability at larger \"alues of them (0: ~ f.tZ ba1 ) and
may be restored at still larger angles (0:. ~ 0:3La')' To avoid this
phenomenon, it is necessary to limit the range of the angles of attack
to low values at which a linear dependence of t.he pitching moment
coefficient on the angle of attack and etentor angle is retained. In
this case, the degree of stahility docs not change because at all
possible (small) ele\"fl.tor lIugl('s the inclination of the moment r.urve
to the axis of abscissas is the ~ame.
The condition of a linear nature of the mOlllent chal'ar.teristic
makes it possible to use concepts stich as the ael'odynamic. centre or
neutral centering (XFo: c-:- x, -'1) whell studying the flying properties
of Cfflft. These cOl\~epts lo~e their sense when the linear nature is
violated.
Longitudinal Balancing. Let us considm' a flight at a uniform
speed in a longitudinal plane along a curvilinear trajectory with a
constant radius of ~urYatllrc. SHrh a flight is rharacterized by a
constant angular velocity Q r ahout a lateral (lxis po~sing through
the centre of mass. This velocity can exist provided that the inclination of the trajectory chang.:>s insignificantly.
The constancy of the angular velocity is dl1e to the eqllilibriulll of
the pitching moments about the lateral axis, i.e. to longitudinal
baloncing of the craft at which the ('qnoli!y JI z :...:' 0 hold.", i.e.
m: o -:" m~O::bal

+ m~1!6~ -j- m?,Qz =

This equation allows us to find the elevator angle needed to

balanced flight at the given values of o:.onl and Qz;
6c .bal = -(1Im~.) (mto

+ m~o;Lal

..:..

m;:Q%)

eJ\~ure

(1.4.3)

For conditions of a high static stability, we have m~'Qz -%:: mfa: bal ;
consequently
6~.bal = (-1/m~e) (mzo ..!- m~abal)
(1.4.3')
For a craft with an axisymmetric configuration, mzo = 0, therefore
6~.bal = -(m~/m~e) abal
(1.4.4)
The normal (lift) force coefficient corresponds to the balance nugle
of attack and elevator angle, namely,
cV bal = cvo

+ (c: + c:e6e.bal/abal) abal

(1.4.5)

Ch. I. Basic Information from Aerodynamics

5T

The "alues of c yo are usually very small even for as~'mmetri('. COIJfigurations (at low be and a) and equal zero exaet1~' for craft wilh
axial symmetry. lIellce, with a sllffIcient degree of nccurary, we can
write

Static Lateral Shlbliity

To analyse the lateral stability of a craft. one mus!. con.<:ider joilltly

the nature of the change in the rolling and sideslip angles upun thesinHiltaneou~ llction oj the pertnrbing rolling .lI.,. ami yawing M If
momellts. If after the stoppillg of sHch action these allgJes diminish,
tending to their inilial vallle~. we il[l\'C .<:tatic lateral stahility.
Hence, when in\'cstigaling lateral ~tnbilitr. one lllll~l con.o:;;idel' ~illllll
taneollsly the change iu the aerudynamic {'ocrficients mx and my.
In most praclical casE'S. however, lateral stability cfln be divitled
into t\\"o simpler kinds-rollillg !'hlhility alld dil'c('tiollal stabilityand can be !itudif'd .<:eparatl'ly hy cOIl~iderillg tile challge ill the
rele\'ant moment ('o('fJirient~ m~ (1') ilnd my (~).
Let liS consider static rolling stability. Assllme lhat ill ~1('Ii(]y
motion at the allgJc of al Lack ad the cl"lIft is tllrlHd IIbout the axis (h
through a certain rolling [lliglC! y. This tm'll willi [I ('Oll~tflllt Oril'lltat ion oj the axis 0.1." rel[llh'e to Ille velndlY \"('clor V (,flU'<:(>!' the
appearance of the allgie nf attllck a ~ ad r().~ l' and the !-;id('siip
angle ~ ;::::; ad sill y. The !<lip. ill tllfl). ("all~('s ,I rnlJing' mOlll('hl 10
appeal' who!'l' coefficient m,. - /IIi;!);::::; rn~~r.t<l ~ill1" DiHl'reutiatiug
with respect to 1'. we oblaill mI -, IIIf~(.
The derhathc m) is a ll1('a~lIl'(' of the stalk foiling ;-;tahility. If
< 0 (the momellt tpllds 10 l'lilllillate ruJlillg). lil(' (Taft ha!< .<:latk
rolling stability; at m.r> 0, II dislurhing mOIll('lIt i~ rOl"rlll'd. ami

mx

~,~~ttl~c r~~~J~~tg t~srt:m!:~YS~~~~ili/:~,.\\hl'll m~: ,...

1I. 11](' cmrt

i~

11l'IIt.ral

Since a night lIsually OC('llr": at posilin' [lllgJe~ oj" iltlad.:. the ~igll.~
of the derivativ(>s Ill} lind III~ coincide. li0n('c. ill 1\1I,,1~'~ilJg roJlilig
motion. we ran lise the derivativc m~ kno\\'1l as the ('o('rfll'h'nt (df'gred
of static rolling stabiJHy.
Static directional stability is eiJaractNi1.C'd hy 11 cO('i"fIdl'Il1 (dl'gTl'e)
dl;ltermincd by the derivative il.lIy/i.i~ {or (/fII!liuf1 .. 11I~:). If Lhe
CIuantity //IV < 0, the craft has statir directional ."tabilitr: al /liD>
> o. il has static instability. and when
=-- O. l1('utrality.
The {'oncept of directional stability is af':soriated with the pl"Opertr of a ('fflet to eliminate an appearing side!'Jip unglll~. .At lhe
same time. a crail doe,.: not maintain the .<:taiJili{v of it,.: own night.
(li"ectioll hecaJIse afte!' ('hanging its direclion of 'motioll lIll(I('r Ihe
artilill of v[lrio\I.<: disturbances. it does not retlll"n to its pn'\"iom'

me

ti8

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 an Airfoil and a Wing

direction, hilt like a weathercock. turns with its nose part in the
direction of the new vleocity vector V.
Similar to the aerodynamic centre based on the angle of attack,
we can introduce the concept of the aerodynamic centre based on
the Sideslip angle \.... hos,e coordinate we shall designate by IFII'
'L'sing Ihis COllccpt, we can represent the degree of static directional
-stahility ill the form
m~% = -(IFt! -xc",;)
(1.4.7)

where F1l '-' IF/l and IeM = ;I."eMIl (l is a characteristic geometric

dimension that can determine the wing span, fuselage length, etc.).
Hence, the static directional stability or instability depends on
the mutual position of the centre of mass and the aerodynamic centre.
A rear arrangement of the aerodynamic centre (IFII > .reM) determines statk directional stability (m;, < 0), while its front arrang&ment (IF11 < XClII) determincs static illstabiliLy (m~: > 0). When
the two centres coincide (x FfI = XCM), the craft is neutral as regards
static directional Rtability (m~. = 0).
A particlliar case of motion of a crafl iu thc plauc of the angle of

~~t~~~~~)na:de sC;at~~f::~:~~d \\~)irh\~:)~l;ct~nt~ ~l~fl:~ll~ ~.r~~c~~;~ ~~~ ~

an automatic pilot (Q x ~ 0). The condition for such steady motion
is iat('l'al trim of the craft when Ihe yf\wing: moment vanisli('.'i, i.e.

my = myO _L me~ ~ m~fbr

'n~y ~2y = 0
All rraft customarily have longitudinal symmetry, tlwrcfure
myo :-:: O. When this condition holds, thl' rqllntion obtaincd allows
us to determine the balancc rudder angle b r .= <'lr.bal corresponding
to the given values of the balance sideslip angle ~bnl and the angular
velocity QIoP Most craft have a sufflcicntly higb degree of static
directional stability at which the term m;.!lQ y i:; negligible. Thcrefore
br.bal = (-rne/mBr ) ~bal
(1.4.8)
This relation, like (1.4.4), will be accurate for conditions of rectilinear mol iun.
t.5. Features of Gas Flow
at High Speeds
compresslbllHy 01 ill GillS

One or the important properties of a gas is its compressibility"its ability to change its density under the action of a pressure. All
thc proce,,~('s associalcd with the now of a gas are characterized by

Ch, 1. Basic Information from Aerodynamics

lS9

a change in the pr(''';~:llrc Hnd, con."cquenlly, hr the innuence of com

preSo.<liilility on lite!le proce...."es 10 ."ome extent. IlIn)stigatioll~ show
thai Mi iOllg liS the speed!' un" low, thl" {'hilllgC in the dellsity owing
10 in."igniflC'llnt ('haligeR in tlte prt>."surc is nol lilrge, Ilnd the {lITerl of
('ornprc."sihiJity mlly 1m ignorcd, To study 10w-sJlt>ell now o\'er ho(lies,
one mar U~C tin' l'qllaliolls of hydro(IYllmni<'." that stlldies the laws
of motioll of till illl'omprt>s."ihl(' nllid,
In IW/lctite. the innllencc of COIllI}l'l'S."ihility lIlay hc igllnred ill lhe
range of air ."pecri." fa'om 11 few nWlro!" por !"(>('on(i 10 JOO-t50 Ill!!",
III I'Plll ("ondilioll.", Ihis ('orl'c."pond." 10 :'.ill('h IIlIlIIbt'r1! fa'om M ... -x -'(I x
() 10 M '"
o.a-!U~) (I'Nl' 1I co' is III(' ."peed or sound in
Sill ul\fl[sluriH,d now), Idealizatioll of 11,(' Pl"f)('t'l'." c'om,i."t." in m;."lImilig
the :'.Iadl III1111hl'r to l'(pu~1 ZN'O within this !'I'gion of !'p(>l'ds b('('tllIse
sm;!]1 distulbllll("C'." (."OIlllci o."l"illillioll:<) Pl'ojJlIgillt' ill 1111 illcompl'(>g
sible nHil1 at
illlillih'l~' hi!!h l'p('('(1 IIncl, ('nll!'l'cllIl'nlly, thc I'atio
of the night ~p('t'd to thai of !'ol1lul t('lId!' to 7.t'I'O,
:\1odel'Jl ('I";\ft lli!\'t' high llirl'p('('(I:< at whi<"h rIow O,'CI' 11U'1II is ollond('II h~' II cOII.~id('rllh\(' dHllIg(' in Ih(' pr(>.":<III'(I nnd, C"Ol1.".(lqllcllllr. b~"
a slIh."llllitillJ rhnll~W ill tll(' (1!'II:<itr a1H1 1(>llIfJPl'allll'e, ]n Iho ('011ditioll!' of a !light III high spf'('(I!'. Olll' Illtl~t Ink(' inln ;lC("Olillt the
influ('m'(' of rOlllprl'l'."ihilily" whi!'!1 liMY Ill' WIT :<ignili("llllt. nn the
4!tli'l'I!' (If inl('I'11('lioll of Ih(' l1uitl llIui a IlCItir. Thi!' I!' OUf.' of Iht' IIlO."t
impOI'!illll f(>lltlll'!'!' of Ilil!i1-!'Jl('('d ;ll'l'flIl~,t1;l111ic:<,

= \'

,Ill

Heaffng of ill GillS

Th(> ilppr(!ciahICl illtl'PH!<C in Illl' :<p,'('cI!< of ('filft 11\1\(11' il. llf.'l'es:<lIr~"

to tnl.:(' inlo m'l'Ollnl IiiI.' fea\lIl"c,, of gll:< :<1l'N11ll." (hit' to the ("!lunge
in lilt' phy:<ieochl'mi<'al Jll"flp(>l'ti('~ uf iil,' Iliriu ;I('ro(lrIll11lli<" in\'(':<tignlion!", III "C'1Il\'(llllinll/ll"'l'I1P(,I",~Olli(" il('l'ndrllllllli<"~, Ihp. ("olllprc)l."ihilit~' Wit." takell jllio ('olll'idpl"alioll n" 11i(' 1110:-1 hliporlilll~ manifestCllion
or a fe;1II1I"C uf !low 1\1 high !'jll'('(k \\'hil(l Ih(l inflll('II("(' of the tNnp(,l"allll"('oll tile Ih(>l'lllo(IYIlClIlli<' par;-Il11l'I('I'S al'll Iduelit' ("oefftdcmts
of IIiI', illid also Oil 1111' phr:-ll'odll'mirnl prm'(>:-H':: Ihal Illll)' lJl'oceed
[II il wa~ di~I'I'g'm,.ll'd, 1'",11' \'OQ' high (hYP(lI'soliid ."r(>{'(I.", ho\\,c\'t,I'.
thl' fpallll'ps Ilsf<odi\l(>d with til(' illnu('n('(1 of high ICIllP(,I'iltllrc~ ('Ollie
to Ih(> forefront.
([igh tCIllPPI'illlll'(lS il\lPNll' owing 10 dl'('(li(ll'atioli of the gas Sh'l'lUll
w!ll'lI Iho kinetic (>1lt'rJrr of ol'dt're<i mol ion of tho Jlartkle~ Il'an~forms
iuto thl' illternliI ('ll('l'g~' of 111(' gill',
AI il 1(>IlIJWl'atlll'c of till! ol'{h.'I nf I;JlJ(J I" ('xcitalion of th(' \'ibra
tional It\'l'is I)f till' inlf'I'llill (,Il(lrgr of Ih(> O:.:~gt'll nud llitl'Og('U
mole("ul('s ill th(' I~ir hl"collll'~ noticl'ilhle. AI a Ipmpl'I'llhll'l' of I\bnut.
3(100 K illlli a prl'~~\Il'l' of IO~ Pa, llit' yibrational degrl'l'l' of freedom
of the oxrgl'll moit,t"I1I(',. m'(' f'ompll'tl'\r ('will'd, and further e(e\'atioll of til(' it'llIJlt'l"atlll'(' allow." llil' atolll." to SlIl'TllOlUl1 th(' m'lion

eo

Pt. I. Theory. AerodynlmiCs 01 In Airfoil lind II Wing

of the intramolecular forres. As a re.~tJlt, f01" example, a dilllomic

molecule breaks up into two individual atoms. This proress is
known as dh_socialion. The latter is attended by J"('combination-the
formation of a Ilew molecule when two atoms collide (0 2 ~ 20),
This heat-producillg reaction is 8('companied b)' the collision of
t.wo I'Itoms with a t.hird partide that carries on part of the released
energy and t.hus ensures the creation of a stable molecule. In addition, ('.hemical reactions occur ill the air that result in the appearam',eof a ('ertain amonnt of nitrogen Illonoxide ~O. The latter also di5.<;ociates upon fU1"ther heating with the formation of atomic nitrogen
and oxygen by thc eqllations

At 1\ temperAtllre of 5000GOOO K and a pressure of 10~ Pa, the

oxygen moll'culcs dh:sociate almost completely. In addiUon. at
such a temp(>ratul"e, the majol' part of the lIitrogen llloieclllt's dissociate with simultaneous l'ecombination of the aloms into molecules.
This prore:;:s lollows the (''Iuatioll ;\! .t 2~. The intensity of dis.<:odation is determined by the dt'q:n"{~ of dis,'!Iocialion. It equals t.lle
ratio of the Ilumber of (lir pal'tides broken up in <lissociation t.o the
total llumber of <ltoms alld molecule.'l. The degree of dissociation
depcll{I.'l on the tl'mpcl'allll'e and pre~sul"e.
Elcvation or tile temp(']'nture i;o; attended by an illc]'enl'e in the
degl"('e of dissodatiou iJecaUl'tl the speed and energy of the moving
molcn.les grow. and this increuses the probability of their collision
and derompof'lilioll. The iulensily of dis:<ocialion grows wilh ]mvering of the pressure (density) beclllI~e of the iellscl" probability of
triple collisiolls of the particJl's that Jead to Ihe formation of molecule:;: from atoms. For example. oxygen begins to dissociate III ready
at. T ,..., 2000 K if the pn'ssurt' is 10;) Pa. whereas at slandaL'd Htmospheric pr(lSSUl'e (approximately 1O~ Pal o! begiJls to dissociale at
T -,.. 3000 K. The t(llllpel'ature at whiell nitrogen begins to dis!-!oriate
Jowcrs from 600U K at n presslll'e of 10" Pa to 40UO K at IU Pa.
At 5000(jOUO K. still Hnother prorcss begills 10 de\"elop. It cousists in that berause of the large influx or energy, first t.he el('("tron
degrees of fl"('rc1om are excited, and then eie('trons break away from
the nitrogen and oxygen atoms and also from t.he nit.rogen monoxidemolecules. This process is called ionizaLion. It occurs mainly becam:e
of collision of thl' air particle:>: in their tbermal motion. which explains why it i~ also called thermal ionization. Ionizalion is more intcnsh'e with elevat.ion of the tcmperalure aud is attended by a growth
in the cOll{'entratioll of the h'ee ele(:trons. The intensity of this process
i$ charac.terized by the degrct' or ioni?ation. II equals the rat.io of
the Humber or ionized atoms (rnoleclllc8) to their total number.
Investigations ~no\V that nitrogen. for example. is fully ionized

Ch, I. Basic Information from Aerodynami,s

tlll'flllally (l11l! d(,~Tt'(' uf iOIJil_alioli i:-; unily) III II h'lIlp('('I\IlU'C

61

Qf

1'j !JIJO 1\ aud tI pl'~'.'<.'<l1re of Woo, PII,

Change- ill Spedll(' lIeats. \\'IH'II Idl' i~ hf'all"1, lin' In'al !"lIppliNI
goe;; lIot ()lll~ 10 illl'I'l',l!:ie the elH'l'gr of tilt' Irall"ialiollill ilIlIl 1'01/1tiollol 1ll()lion of 111(' lllOi(!c III C':'< , 11111 ah;o h) inCl"I'il:>-l' lin' ('1It'I't;y of
yilJl';ltioll of the iltOlll" in a TllolN'qh', to tlo Iht' w(ld, llwdC'11 10 O\,C'!'('ome 111(' fol'c(>~ oi intt'raclioll helw(>('u al()nl~ lI[lnll lite di~.'<Ol'i'llioli
of a llloleclti(', ,11111 ,,1."') 10 ,I"'nt'll lilt, ('h'cll'U/I~ from altH .. ,:: in iouiz.llion, Tilt, result i.~ Illl int'rca~(' in 111(' :-p(',-ifiC IIt',d-,
i3efore dis,"orilllitm hegin,::, Ih(' cll,lnw' in HIP
is deterillined olily by the IClfllJ(>ratll!'(J, Till'
atul'c on the spf'ritk IWllt nl il ,'011"(,1111 pl'('_-~II1'1' ("Ill i,\'

the

(01'01111.1

where Ille e,'ipf)llelit 'f'

ill IU1'n. ,11'PC'lIli.-< <lll

(Fig, /.5,1), For
1000 I\., Ihi~ \'.\11I1IH'1I1 ,',111
COrl!lI(lnl and etlllnlio 0,1. For T", - ~S~ 1\. the ,"pt'ciii( 11\),11
= JOIIO J/(I'g'l\.) lUI' 1000 m~/(~~-1\)1. Fnl'lllldn !I,_~).I) IiLl~'

r>

for \',11111-:-; o( l' lip 10

:2:!O()-~;)(JtI K, ill

\I-hidl Iltp yihralilillill

of f{,N'Ilolil (lI'C rio,"c 10 III(' ~1;llc ()f :o!lIplctC' ('\('i{ntiOIl,

When di~'soril1liol1 :,(>1,; ill, Ihe .'-:pc(ilic Ilrat d('pelHb 1I0t oaly 011

thc Icm"('I'III11n~_ IJlII ;11.~0 on tlu! p.'t':;SIII'C, Thc ~I)f'dfll' hCill~ and
thc adi<lblllk e:-,:pol1('llI." k - t';,:/',. \\"el"e I'nkui!1I1'/1 (01' t~onditiOlls
of tlrt'rmodynlllHi,' C(lldlihrillrH nl higll lenlJ)('t'ahu'e!l \)11 cOlllpHIf'f."
h:-,-' il !!I'Olip o[ SO\ il't :.:rif'IlU",'" hf'ad('d hy A.!l~oria'(l, llw1I}h('t' of tit('
CSSll. :\radp.ll1r (If Sl'icllcl''''; ,\, l'I'cd;-orlilcl,!\' It3, ii, The~(' calculatiOll." \\'pre n('rforlll('d ror I C'Hl[)l'l'aLIIl'('.'< fro/ll 100010 1i000 K without,
nr('O(;l1t ll('iJl!~ lal,ell of iOlli?_aliol! h('I'ilUS(' it!" iIlI1UOII('f' in Lhis lontpern!lll'(' iIlIN'\';)1 i~ ll('gli,~"'lr', "'Ok' hil!h('l' 1(,J1lI}el'/ltIlTOl<, 1111' ini1l1cure
of c(j\liliitrillill :.:il1!.,!'l(' iOlliy.;tli(),1 I\'M Inkl'lI il1l('> nl'{'(llIul. II \\'n~ l'OIl-

62

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodyn.mics of an Airfoil and a Wing

fl,. S.U
Change in the specific heat cp of air at high temperntures

~~an~!'~n

the ratio of th@ specific heats k = cp!cp for air at high temp@ratur@1

sidered to be completed I'll T =, "12000 K and p "-.- 102 Pa. Curves

plot.ted according to the data ill 16, 71 and characterizing the change
in cp and k at high temperatures are given in Figs. 1.5.2. and '1.5.3
(see (81). The data ohtained indicate Lhat at a temperature up to
2000 K and a pressure of 10:' Pa and above, t.he \'alnes of el' and
k - c,'/c,. arc determined by the temperature and do not virtually
depend on the pressure.
The general trend observed upon a eIJange ill the specific heats
and their ratio is such that when the pressure drops and the degrees
of dissocialion and ionization. consequently, grow, the value 01 cp
increases, and lhat of the ralio k ::.= cT,!c p diminishes, although not
monotonically.

Ch. 1. Basic Information from Aerodynamics

63

Fig. U.A
Change in 'he dynamic visco-

sity of air at high temperatures

Kinetic Coefficients. TJIC procelises of friction and heat transfel'
occurring in a \"is<'olis heat-conduct.ing gas depend on kinetic parameters of the gas such as the dynml1ic visrosity ~I and the thermal
conducthity A. It Wits I!stablished Ulat in the IlbseliCe of dil'sociation. the eocfJicient It depends ollly on the temperature and i8 clptermined by the formula
(1 ..;.2)
in which the expollOm" depcnds all Ute tempel'ilture (sec Fig. 1.5.0.
In approximate caklilatiolls, tbe mean value "m ::::::: O.i lIlay be u:;Ied
for a sufficiently large temperature iutcl'val; hf'l'c the initial \'aille'
of !.I. may be takcn equal to ~~"" . .., 1.in X 10-& Pas, which corresponds to l' 00 - 2R8 K. Formula (1.;j.2) i8 1I1'cd fOl' temperatures Up"
to 2000-2500 K. WitJI elevatioll of the temperature, this formula
gives apprecialJle crrors. Illve.sligatiolls show that for high temperatures up to 9000 K the dYnamic vil'('osity of nir in ('onditiont'l- of
equilibrium dissociation {'an he determined with an 9rC'Lll'acr up t.o10% by Suthcrland's~ formula
f,/i'~ ~ (TIT ~)" (1

+ 1111T ~)/(t

-'- 1111T)

(1.5.3)

This formliia yields better results for temperatl1res under 1500 K

than (1.5.2). It lUll' been established by accurate ralc-ulations IIlat
the dynamic viscosity at high temperatures also depend~ on Iht'
pres..<;ure. Figure 1.5.4 presents a graph (sec (81) chara('terizillg tllechange in the coefficient ~t at t.emperatllres up to 12000 K withiu
the pressure interval from 109. to 107 Pa.
Like the viscosity, tbe thermal ('onductivity at temperature!! up
to about 2000I( is indepcndent of the preSl>ure Rnd is determined
by the power formula
All... ~ (TIT ~).
(1.5.4)

064

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynemics of an Airfoil and a Wing

Fl!. U.S

Change !n the thermal conductivity ot air at high temperatures

in which the exponeul x depends, as eM be ~een h'om Fig. '1.5.1,

on the temperature. For nPPl'Oximate calculation!!. one may take
the OW::Il! \'all1e Xfll l'l}ual to 0.85. and the value of A_ corresponding
to T", .c' 261 J": equal to 2;5.2 W:'(III' K). Di!-lsoriating air is characterilert by a depelutcJI(:e of tbe thermal conduclivity 011 the temperature
<llId p1'essurc. The corresponding piot is showll in Fig. 1.5.5.
The origin of viscolls forces iHlll the appcarance of the process of
therl1lal conduction in i.\ gas are assodated wllh the molecular structnre of i\ substance. Gas molccules upon their prope!, motion tran;;fer
mass. euerg~. and momentum {!'Om OlH: pl<we to another. A rE'''lllt of
the change ill the rnomentum is the appearan(,e of \'i~cous forces.
while the transfet' of energ}' gives risc to the property of tlwrrnal
conduction. Therefore. ele\"aUoll o[ the temperature is attended by
an increase in the thermal condudivitr and the dynamic \"iscosity
in a gas. When di&:odation sets in, the nature of the change in t.
auu)l is quite ilwohed. At a low degrce' of rlissociation, the yalltes
of i. drop, which is causeu by the expellditlll'tJ of illterllal energy on
breaking of the molecl1lar honds nuu, as a \'onseqnellce, by lowering
of tIl{' temperature of the gas. When the degree of dissociation grows,
the more intensive breaking up of the molecules into atoms leads to
a growth in the number of pal'ticles participating itl the transport
procc:;~es, which results in an increase in the coefficient }.
When a gas is heated strongly, the expenditure of its internal
ellergy on ionization substantially grows, which lowers the thermal
condl1ction. The dynamic viscosity in a gas grow:i monotonically
with lhe temperatllre because with the onset of dissociation and
ionization more and more particles are formed that participate in
the transport of momentum, and this gives rise to an increaso in
the "iscotls (friction) forces.

Ch. t. Bnic Information from Aerodynamict

66

state 01 Air at High Temperatures

Equation of State. Im'e:;UgaLion of the flow of air oycr bodies

sho\\'s that the relations of con"entional aerodynamics based on the
constancy of the thermodynamic characteristics and of the physicochemical structure are sumciently reliable as long as the air remains
comparatively "cold", its specific heats change insignificantly, and,
consequenUy, we may apply the thermal equation of slate of a perfect
gas
p = RpT or p -= RopTI()lm)o
(1.5.5)
where Rand Ro are the individual and universal (molar) gas constants. respectively (Ro = 8.314 X 1()8 J/(kmolK}l. p is the density, T is the temperature, and (ftm}o is the mean molar mass of air
ha"ing a constant composition.
A gas satisfying Eq. (1.5.5) is said to be thermally perfect. The
caloric equation of state i ~ pc,,!(pR), which determines a relation
for the enthalpy, corresponds to Eq. (1.5.5). If we take into account
that cplR = kl(k - 1), we h8"e
i ~ [k/(k - 1)[ pip

(1.5.6)

A gas whose 1:Itate is determined by Eq. (1.5.6) corresponding to

the condition at which Cp and cl> arc constant and independent of
the temperature is said to be calorically perfect.
It must be taken into account that the need to consider the change
in the specific heats with the temperature sets in before the Ileed to
use an equation of stale differing from that for a perfect gas. For
example. calculations show thnt the rhange in the specific heats
with the temperature when passing through a normal shock ,..-ave
begins from froe-stream Mach numbers of .41. .... = 3-4. At M"" = 6-7,
the equation of state for a perfect gas retains its significance, as does
the equation for the speed of sound
a' - kRT
(1.5.7)
hecause the composition of the gas heated behind the shock waYe
does not change.
Hence, in this case a gas is not calorically perfect, but does have
the properties of a thermally perfect gas.
For a gas with a varying heat capac.ity, the caloric equation of
state (1.5.6) gives a large error. The actual relation between the
enthalpy and temperature is determined by the function h(T} that
is more complicated than (1.5.6).
The following equation holds for dissociating air, for which the
specific beats aud molar mass are functions of its state:
p = (R,/~m) pT
(1.5.8)
in which IlIII = 1'2. (p, T).

"r---t-:T":
Fig. t.S.6

All i-S diagram for dissociating air

FI,. t.S.7
Change in the mean molar mass of air at higb temperatures

The caloric equation of a dissociating gaseous medium also acquires a more complicated nature, and in the general form it can be
written as i =
(P. T). Such a fluid no longer has the properties of
a perfect gas for which the enthalpy depends only OIl the temperature.
The thermal and caloric equations of state of a dissociating (real)
gas are still more complicated because they additionally take account of the forces of interaction hetween the molecules, and also
the proper volume of the latter. These equations are solved by numerical methods with the aid of computers and are usually presented
in the form of tables or phase diagrams.
The results of calculating the parameters of state of air in conditions of thermodynamic equilibrium for elevated temperatures at
pressure intervals from 10 2 to 107 Pa are given in [6, 7]. These results

'3

Ch. 1. B..sie Inlormalion from Aerodynamics

67

of calculations were usell to compile an atlas of phase diagrams (81.

The mogt wide::;pread u::;e for thermal calculations in aerodynamics
has been found by the i-S diagram (enthalpy-entropy diagram) of
dissociating air shown in Fig. 1.5.6. This diagram, which presents
the caloric equation of 1';tate in a graphic form. contains curves of
p = const (isobars), T -: const (isotherms), and r = const (i50chors-dashed lines).
Sometimes the caloric phase diagram depicting i against p with
curves of T = con-"t, p = ('onst, and S '-- const may be more convenient for calculations_ Such a diagram constructed according to
the data of an i-S one is given in [8]. It graphically depicts the thermal equation of state in different variants.
Graphs allowing one to determine the mean molar mass ~lln of
dissociated and ionized air (Fig. 1.5.i) and also the speed of souud
(Fig. 1.5.8) a~ a function of p IIml T [7] or of i and S [8l are important for practical calculations. Examination of these graphs reveals
that the speed of sound changes noticeably \vith the temperature
and to a smaller extent depends on the pressure, which is explained
by the insigllilicant influence of til{' structure of air on the nature of
propagation of small disturbances. At the same time, the change in
the structure of air upon its dissociation appreciably affC('t~ the
molar mass, which is expressed in the strong influence of the pressure
on the value of ,",m. Three characteristic sections on which ~lm diminishes wi til increasing temperature can be noted in Fig. 1.S.i. The
first of them is due to dissociation of oxygen, the second-of nitrogen, and the third-to ionization of the components of the air. The
general trend of a decrease in the mean molar mass of a gas that dis..,ociates and becomes ionized is due to the breaking up of the molecules
into atoms, and also to the detachment of electrons. An increase in
the pret'sure leads to more illtenshe recombinations. This results ill
a certain growth in 11m.
Diatomic Model of Air. A moupl of thr air i;: sometimes u::;ed in
aerodynamie inw!;tigalions that is a diatomi<: gas consisting of
a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen in accordance wilh their ma!<s
composition. Such a mix lure is treated as a single perfect gas if
the mixtnre components are inert and no r('acliong occur ])t'tween
them.
At elevated temperatures, the mixture of gases reacts chemically
becnu-"e the diatomic gas dissociates and the atoms formed participate
in recombinatiou. The dissociation is assumed to be in equilibrium.
This means that in the chemical reaction determined for the pure
dissociating diatomic gas by the simplest equation of a binary process
(1.5.9)

Fig. 1.5.1

Speed of sound in nir at high temperatures:

o-""Irat the umperltUl'e and pfUSwe; /)_""llIIt the entha py and entropy

Ch. I. Basic Information from Aerodynamics

69

the rates of the direct reaction Tn and of the reverse one TR (the
fates of dissociation and recombination respecti\'ely) are identical.
Investigations of a dissociating flow are connected with the determination of the degree of eqlliliurium dissociation IX. Its value for
the diatomic model of the air being considered is given in chemical
thermodYIlamics by the expre~sion
a'/(1 - a) ~ (Pd/P) exp (-T,iT)
(1.5.10)
where
(1.5.11)
Pd and T dare 111(' characleristic density and tcmpt"raturc ror di.!'sociation, respecthely, n ..\ is the number of atoms of the element A in
a certain \'olume, and n.\, is the Illlmber of molecules of the gas A2
in the same \'olume.
The characteristic temperature Td = Dlk, where D is the dissociation energy of one molecule of A2 and k is a gas constant related
to one molecule (the Boltzmann constant). I nyestigations show that
for the temperature interval from 1000 to 7000 K. the values of Td
and Pd can be as~umed to be approximately ("onstant and equal to
Td = 50000 K. Pd - 150 g/cm 3 for oxygen, and to T~ ....., 11;{ uao K.
Pd = 130 g/cm 3 for nitrogen.
To obtain an equation of state for the gas mixture appearing as
a result of dissociation of diatomic molecules. we must use the expressions for determining the pressure P and molar gas constant R for
the mixtllfe of gases ami the partial presi'illfe Pi of a component:

P~~P'.
;

R~2:."R;;
j

(1.5.12)

Pi'-" PITH j = PIT (klm l) = (XlIV) T (klmi)

where Pi is the dem~ity of n compouent. lIli is the mass of an atom

or molecule, Ri is the gas constant for a component, and V is the
volume of the gas mixture.
Equations (1.5.12) are knO\vn under the general name of Dalton's
law.
'Ve shall use the subscript A to designate ali atomic compoHent
(t = 1) and the subscript l\l-a 1Il0iecuiar one (i = 2). Since the
concentration of 11 component i~ Ci _., l'i,'P. where fl is the density of
the mixture, then C1 - c..\ - IX '"' PA/p and c~ - C)I
P)I/P =
=l-ct.
If mM
2mA. and the relation hetweell the 1l1aS-"'e~ .l:; of the
components Pi and the (IUantities p and ct is established from the
expressions fJA ,...- pa .= :t..,,'V, all(1 1')1 .. - P (1 - ~) = XM/l". from
(1.5.12) we obtain an equation of state in the following form:
P = pTk Ip,\/(rmA) --!- p)l/(pmA)l -.= 11.:.(2m.,dJ p1" (1 -j- a)
(1.5.13)
C

70

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynllmics 01 lin Airfoil lind II Wing

where "'(2m,,) is the gas constant for 1 g of tlle component A2. in

the mixture; \yhen multiplied by 1 + a, it yields the gas constant R
(the inrliYidual gas constant) for 1 g of a mixture of the components
A and A',!. whose masses are in the ratio of 0./(1 - a).
IL is knmvn from thermodynamics that the mean molar mass of
a mixture of gases is
(1.5.14)
where C; is the mass concentration of a component, Jl; is its molar
mass, Rnd the symbol ~ determines the number of moles in the
mixture.
For a diatomic gas, we have ~ c, = c1 + C2.
CA + eM = 1.
0-

Since

CA

.....: a, c),[

Jlm

of

=:

.=

1 - a, and

(cA/IlA

2~A

+ CW').lM)-l

= 11M = (i1m)o, then

.-=:"

(j.l-m)o/(l

+ a)

(1.5.15)

This expre.c;sion may be used for tile transformation of the equation

~Latl;' (1.5.8) for a dissociating gas of an arbitrary ('om position:
p~ [R,!(~m),[

pT(1 +a)

(1.5.16)

2
Kinematics
ofa Fluid

2. i. Approaches to the Kinematic

Investigation of a Fluid

Determination of the for('o interaction and heat transfer between

.a fluid and a body aboHt which it flows is the main task of aerodynamic invest.igations. The solntioll of this problem is associated with
studying of the motion of a fluid near a body. As a result, properties
arc found at each point of a flow that determine this molion. Among
them arc the "clocilr. pressure, density, and temp('ralure. 'Vith

delinitc prerequisites, this investigation can be reduced to determination of the velocity Ileld. which is a set of yeloC'itics of the fluid
particles. i.e. La solution of a kinematic problem . .:-Jcxt the known
vC'iocity distribution is Ilsed to determine the other properties,
<lnd al:=<o the re:=<ultant forres, mOlUpnts, and 1Ie.tt fluxes.
There arc Iwo approa{'hes to Ihe kinemati('. investigation of a
fluid, known as the Lagl',\IIgian mul the Elll('rian approaches.
LagrangIan Approach
This approadl considers the motion of individual flllid particles
and for each of tllem determines its pathline, i.e. the coordinates
of the particles as a fllllction of time. nut since there is an illflllite
Ilumber of partides, to sot a pathlille one must identify the particles
which this pathline relates to. The c.oordinatcs a. b, and c at a certain im:tant t --, t g al'e selected as the chara(~teristic. of a particle.
This fit'allS that froUl among an infInite set of pathlines, the olle
passing through lito point whose ('oordinatos are a, b, fllld c will
helong to the gh'ell particle. Accol'dingly, we shall write the equalion of the patlLline in the parametric form:
:r

-I.

(a, b, c, I);

y -

iz

(a. b, c, I);

z.,.., fa (a, b. c, t) (2.1.1)

where a. b, c, and tare t-lw Lagrangian variables. The quantities

a. b, and care Yarinhll's determining Ihe pathline.

72

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynlmics of In Airfoil lind II Wing

The components of the velocity vector at eadl point of the pathline

equal the partial derivath'c.<; lr"x
axlat, Fy --= aylat, and V z =
= az.lat, while the components ot the acceleratioIl vee,tor equal the
relevant second partial derivatives Wx
a~xliJt2, Wy :- iJ2yfat 2, and
W z = a2z/iJt 2
Eulerian Approach

The Eulerian approach is in great.er favour in aerodynamic investigations. Unlike the Lagrangian approach, it fixe:; not a particle of
a fluid, but a point of space wit.h the coordinates x, y, and z and
studies the change in tile velocity at this point. with time. Hence,
tho Eulerian approach consists in expressing the velocities of particles as a function of the time t and the (,_oordinate.., x, y, and z of
points ill space, Le. in setting the fIeld of velocities determined by
the vector V -: l'xi + Vlfi -J- V:k. wherei, i, and kareunit'\'ectors
along the coordinat.e axes, while V;T
drldt, Vg ,--: dyldt, and
V z = dzldt are the velocity vector ('omponents given in the form of
the equations

V.

t, (x, y, z, t),

V,

t, (x, y, z, t),

V,"

t, (x, y, Z, t)

(2.1.2)

The quantities x, y, Z, and t arc called the Eulerian variables.

By solving the simultaneous differential equation!:!

*=/d:C. y, z, t);

-f=f2{:C' y, z,

t);

*=fs{x, u, z,

t)

(2.1.3)
we call obtain Aquatiolls of 8 family of pat.hlines in t.he parametric
form coinciding with Eqs. (2.1.1) in which a, b. and c are integration const.ants.
Hence, in the Eulerian approach, we can go ovor from a description of the kinemat.ics to representat.ion of a now by t.he Lagrangian
approach. The roverse problem associated with the transition from
the Lagrangian approach [Eq. {2.1.1)1 to the Eulerian one [Eq.
(2.1.3)] consists in differontiation ot Eqs. (2_1.1) with respect
to time and the following exclusion of tho constants a, b, and c by
means of qs_ (2.1.1).
By calculating the total derivat.ive of tlte velocity vector with
rospect. to time, we obtain the acceleratioll vector

w= ~~ = ~~ +V~

:: +Vg :: +V% ::

(2.1.4)

Projection of tbo vector W onto tho axos of coordinates yields the

components of the resultant acceleration. In tho oxpanded form.

Ch. 2. Kinematic5 of II Fluid

7a

these components are as follows:

Wx =

lJ!:x

-i

ar/l.

WY=at

Wz=

r'

VI<: d~;'t ...:.Vy iJ~~;'t .:.1'~ a~~:\, }

aV/I,
"1'"
. aI'"

V." ii:i""" :-V""""FiJ-:.1'!---;J;"""

(2.1.5)

a::! ; l' x ~~T .;l'" ~~: '7- V; i1~~!

RclntiOlls (2.1.:") for the U('('(llm'nLions rlll'respond to 1.\ now characteriz(l(l hy a chunge in thc vc)odty at a gin'll point with time
and, cOI1~eqncnLIYT by the inf!(lnaJity iJV/iJt '=fo 0. Snch a flow of
a nuid is ('alled unsteady. A now of a flllid in whirh t.he velocity
and other properties at a givcn point ,Iro independent of t.he Lime(fJV/ol
0) is ('alice! st('ady,
Streamlines lind Palhllnes

A.I any in~ln11\' we ('all inHlgine a (',urvc in a now huviug the property !.llnl, cvery pill'tidc of tire nuid Oil it has A ,elority tangent
to the C1\l\~. 811('h a C\ll'\'~ is (~tllled a sllpamlinc.
To obtain fI 1'.trcamline, one mnst pro('ced til- fnllnws. Tnh a point,
A 1 (Fig. 2.1.1a) ill the flow at. tilt! instant t "" tn and express the velor.ity of tire partide tit this point by tile vettor VI' :'\exl take a point
A2 aoja('ent t.o At on the voct.or VI' As:mnl(' that. at. the in!;t.tlnt
t = to. the velodty \'ector at this point. is V 2' -"ext consider a point
A3 on the vedor V 2. t.he velocity at whirh is del ermined at the sameiUI>t.ant by the vect.or V3' ami f'0 on. Such a construt'liOll yields a
broken line consisting of .segments of velocity vectors. By shrill!dng
the size of these segments 10 zero alld simlllt.uneollsly in('rcasing
their number to infmity. at the limit we obtain a CUI'V(, cliveloping
the entire family of velocity vectors. This is exactly n streamline.
It is obvious that a defmit.e streamline corre...poudf' to each inst.ant.
To obtain an equation of II ~treamlinc. let. liS tal,a advantage of
tI property 8c.cording to which at earh point. of this line the (lirec!iOlls of the velodty veetor Vane! of the "ector ds =- i cL: -i- j dy
k dz. where dx, dy. and dz are the projection:<; of the st.reamlinearc clement. ds. must eoincidf!. Conseqnenllr. the ('ross product
ds X V - O. Le.

I d~

V%

dy :ZI=i(Vzdy.-VydZ)-jWzdX-VxdZ)
VII V:z:
+k(Vlldx- V:rdy)

~.O

'74

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodyn.mlc5 of .n Airfoil .nd a WIng

(4J

"1",loU

COD.3truction of a sirl'amline (a) and a stream tube (b):

l-stn!amllnps: 2-cnntnllr

Ilence sinre, for example, V, dy - Vy dz = O. and so on, we

obtain fI system of differential equations

dx/V.

dy/V,

d::/V.

(2.1.6)

The soliltion of the problem on determining streamlines thus

(;onsists in integration of the system of equations (2.1.6). Each of
the integrals
of
these equations
FI (x, y. Z, G1) -= 0 and
F'l. (3', y, Z, G2) = 0 is a family of surfaces depending on one of
the parameters, C1 or C2 while the intersection of these surfaces
forms a family of streamlines.
Uuliko streamlines, which aro constructed at a fIxed instant, the
<concept of a pathline is allsociated with a certain time interval dur~
ing which a partide covers a definite distarH'e. It thus follows that
a streamline and a palhUne (or trajectory), which is the tract' of
motion of a single particle, coincide in a steady now. If the flow
is unsteady. a streamline and pathline in it do not coin(:idc.
The concepts of a stream tube and a stream lilament are con~idered
in aerodynamics. If we dra\.... strearnlines through the points of an
elementary closed contour (Fig. 2, L tv), they form a surface called
the surface of a stream tube. The part of the fluid conli.ned within
this surfaee is called a strum tube. If we draw pathlines through
the point.; of an elementary closed contour. they form a surface
<confining a part of the flllid called a !'ltn"am filampnt. A stream tube
and a stream f\iameat drawn through the points of the same closed
<contoul' in a st.eady flow coindde.
2.2. A.nalysis of Fluid
Particle Motion

Unlike a ~olid hody whose motioll is determined by its translational motion together with its centre of mass and by rotation about
an instantan('ous axis passing through the centre, the motion of a

Y;.~

Y"

,-------'
, \I.

~:

VI:

"

v..

V,

"v..

flg.I.U

!\fotiOll of a Duid particle

fluid particle is characterized. in addition, by the presence o( strain
-changing the shape of the particle.
Let us consider a fluid particle in the (orm of all elementary parallelepiped with edges or dx. dy, and th. and analyse the motion of
face ABeD (Fig, 2.2.1). Sillce tile coordinates of the \'ertires of the
foc.e arc different. the ,"clorities detcrmined at 1\ certain instant
t -- to are also different:

V. A - V. (.<, y), V.B ~ V., (x'" rho y)

}
VyA ~ Vy (x, y). VyB :"": VII (x .1-. dr. y)
V."l:C .= V;r (x -t- dr, y , dy). l'.rD = V;,; (x. y --;. dy)
V vc = Vy (x, dJ.. y,dy). "V YD = Vy(x, y,dy)

(2.2.1)

where x and yare the coordinates of point A.

Let us expand the expression!'! for the velocities ililo n Taylor
series, leaving only small qnantities of the nrst order in them. i.e.
tel'ms contnining d:c. dy, and dz to a power not higher than the first
one. Assuming that nt point..1 the velodty V;,;A
V, and V"A ..: V y we obtain
.

V'\'B~~V;,; ... (~~."I:/i).r) d.l'~'".,

Vyn-Vy-(iHl/liJx)d.r r ....

~"D:v;r--:--(OV:'J~Y)dY-_"'''1
1I/D,V,+(iJVI//(ly)dy....

(2.2.2)

Vx<:=Vx " (aVxlOx) dx T (aVxhJy) dy -t- ...

Vile' '-VI/ --:. (Dill/lax) d:c ,. (ov/ay) dg ;-- ...

Examination of these expressions re\"eals that. for cxample, at

point /J the velocit.y ('.omponenl along tile xaxis diffcrs Crom t.he
value o( tile velocity at point ~1 by the quantity (av/ax) d:c. This
signifies that point 11, while participating in translational motion
at the velocit~ Vx in the direction of the .raxis together with point A,
simultaneously mo\'('s relative 1.0 it in the same direction at the

76

PI. I. Theory. Ae,odynamics 01 an Ai,foil and

FI.. l.2.l

Angular strain
particle

of

II.

<II

Wing

Ouid

velocity (cJV,/cJx) rh. The result is a linear strain of segment AB.

'fhe rate of this strain is 9 x = iJV;cliJr.
Point B moves in the direction of the y-axis at the velocity V"
together with point A and simultaneously moves relative to this
point at the linear velocity (aVylax) dx determined by the angular
velocity of segment AB.
Considering point D, we cau by allalogy with point B determine
that the relaLhe linear velocity of this point in the direction of the
y-axis is (iJVy!ay) dy and, consequently, the rate of linear strain of

::~e~~~~p p~:II.lt ~e ~Y -=a~~!:~tl~~h~i~~r;u~~:nv~!~~~trn~~ ~~~o~~~;

that point D rotates abollt point A ill a direction opposite to that of

rotation of point 8). Hotation of segments AD and AH causes distortion of the angle DA 8 (Fig. 2.2.2), i.e. angular strain of the particleis produced. Similltaneoll!:'ly, bisector AM 01 angle DAB may turn,
the result being the appearance of an angle d~ between it and bisector AN 01 the distorted angle D'AR'. Hence, the particle rotates
additionally.
The angle of rotation of the bisector (Fig. 2.2.2) is
d~~l-<

where y ---' 0.5 1:t/2 - (da~ + da l )] and "t --:: :t/4 - da 2

The angles da. z and dell shown in Fig. 2.2.2 equal (av,/{)x) dt and
(av,Jay) dl, respectively. Consequently
d~ ~ 0.5 (cia, - cia,) = 0.5 (OV,IO. - aV,IOy) dt
Hence we can find the angular velocity d~/dt of a fluid particle
about the z-axis. Denoting it by fil z, we have
.. , = d~/dt = 0.5 (av,/a. - avJay)
(2.2.3)

Ii we consider the motion of edge AD relative to segment AB.

the angular velocity of this edge will evidently be
2e,

= fJv,iax

-7- aV:c1ay

(2.2.4)

Ch. 2. Kineme!ics of e Fluid

77

The quantity
(2.2.4')
is called the semi-rate of downwash of the right angle DAB.
Let liS apply this reasoning to three-dimensional flow and consider
point C belonging 10 a particle in the form of an elementary parallelepiped with edge lengths of dx, dg, and dz. The \'elocity at this
point at the instant I = to is a function of the coordinates % -i- dx,
y ...- dy, and z ..- dz. Writing the velocity components in tnc form of
a Taylor series in whifh only small terms of the lin::t order are retained, we have
V,c = 1'., .,- (aI',18r) dx -'- (W,18y) dy T (aI',18,)
(2.2.5)
Vue ""1'. V" -I- (al'"lax) d:x + (aVlllay) dy + (aVylaz) dz
V,c = V, .,- (W,18x) dx.L (8V,liiy) dy -;- (8V,I8,)
Let lI~ introduce a notation similar to that adopted when analysing
the motion of a two-dimensional particle. We shall assume that
e~ = aV 2 laz. This quantity determines the rale of linear strain of
a three-dimensional particlt, in the direction of the z-axis. Let us
also introduce the notation

dz}
dz

Wx

= 0.5 (i)ViDy

aI-'ulilz),

wu::""::

0.5

(aV~.IrJz -

aV:ld..c)

(2.2.6)

Tht' quantities Wx and Wv are the componenls or the angular \'elocity of a particle along the x- and y-axes, respectively. The components
of the angular velocity of a particle (Un WII' and 00: arc considered
to be positive upon rotation from the x-axis to the y-axis, from the
y-axis to the z-axis, and from t.he z-axis to the x-axis. respectively.
Accordingly, the signs of the dcrhal.ivcs aVllliJx, avz/ay, and arxfi)z
coincide with those of the angular velocity, while the sign!'! of the
deriva.tives aVxlay, aVulaz, and aVzhJx arc opposite 10 thosE' of the
angular velocity.
By analogy with (2.2..1,'), we have the value.</.
::<

= 0.5 (aV:lay + aVlllaz),

Ell

0..:::

0.5 ({)VxlfJz

+ aViiJx)

(2.2.7)

that equal the semi-rate of downwasll of the two right angles of

the parallelepiped in planes yOz and xOz, respectively.
By performing simple transformations, we can see that
al'zlay =
lH'vlaz

:.:

-r-

= Ex -

Cil:.:;

lJv:r/az =

ell -:- 0011 ;

w:.:i aViax = Ell -

00 11 ;

aVlll1h:

= E: + Wz

aV,,/ay = ~

Wz

With account taken of these expressions, the velocity components

a.t point C can be represented in the following form:
~-~+~dx~~dz+~.T~dz-~.}
+ e z (];x; :.: dz -1- 00: dx - Wx dz (2.2.8)

Vile :..., VII -i-- 0Il dy

~=~+~dz+~.+~dx+~.-~dx

78

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of In Airfoil and a Win;:

Hence. the motion of point C can be considered as the result of

addition of three kinds of motion: translational along a pathline
together with point A at a velocity of V (V.n V". VJ:), rotation
about it at the angular velocity
0) = O):ti + O)lIj + O)J:k
(2.2.9)
and pure strain. This conclusion forms the content of the Helmholtz
theorem. Strain. in turn, consists of linear strain characterized by
the coefficients e:t. e,l' and au and of the angular strain determined
by the quantities elt , til' and 8:.
The linear strain of the element's edges causes a change in its
volume 't' = dx dy ch, which is determined by the difference
d't = dxl dYI chI - dx dy dz
where dx 1, dYI' and dz i are the lengths of the edges at the instant
t
dt.
Introducing the values of the lengths, we find

*-~+~*~~+~.~~+~.~-*

Disregarding in this expression infinitesimal terms higher than

the fourth order. we obtain
d. - (ex + 0, + 0,)
dy dt
Hence we can determine the rate of change of the relative volume.
or the rate of the speeific volume strain 0 = (1h)d'tldt, which at
each point of a flow equals the sum of the rates of linear strain along
any three mutually perpendicular directions:
e - 0. + 0, + 0,
(2.2.10)
The quantity a is also known as the divergence of the velocity
vector at a given point:
div V 0. + 0, + e,
(2.2.11)
Hence. the motion of a fluid particle has been shown to have
a complicated nature and to be the result of summation of three
kinds of motion: translational and rotational motion and strain.
A flow in wllich the particles experience rotation is called a vortex
one, and the angular velocity components 0)=. (I)", and wI-the vorta
components. To characterize rotation, the concept of the \"elocity
curl is introduced. It is expressed in the form curl V = 21\). The
velocity curl is a vector
(2.2.12)
curl V = (curl V):r i + (curl V)" l + (curl V)z k

whose components equal the corresponding double values of a vortex

component:
(curl V)x '"'" 2(1):t, (curl V)" = 26>11' and (curl V)z = 2wJ:

Ch. 2. Kinematics of ,. Fluid

79

U. VOIteIFree

MotIon of Fluid

When investigating the motion of a fluid, we may often take nl)

account of rotation because of the negligibly small angular velocities
of the particles. Such molion is called vortex-free (01' irrotational).
For a vortex-free flow, (0 = 0 (or curl V = 0), and, consequently,
the vortex components 00;.;, OO Ut and 00: equal zero. Accordingly, from
formulas (2.2.3) and (2.2.6) we obtain
aVxliJy = aVuJax. aVz1iJy = aVulaz, 8V x!{)z = dV:,'8z
(2.3.1)
These equations arc a necessary and sufficient condition for the

~i~e~~~t}~~~~~~~~lil~~:Cte~z~g ~ft:Kot :r:ad~l;i~ I;~ :h~o::~~i,~:~e~;

th~e:~:;~:lngC~~;of~~nc~~o~:Ci~ ~~~ :~r~ ~z'(x, y, z, t) and considering the time t as a parameter, we can write the expression
dq> = Vxdx

+-

l!.,dy

+ l':dz

On the other hand, the same differelltial is

d~ ~ (8~Jax) dx -i- (8~J8y) dy + (a~,a,) dz
Comparing the last two expressions, we fmd
Vx
o'fiiJz, VII = oqJJag, V: = {)cp/iJz

(2.3.2)

The function qJ is called a velocity potential or a potential function,

and the "ortex-free flow characterized by lhis function is called
a potential ftow. Examination of relations (2.3.2) reveals that the
partial derivath'c of thc potential <p with respect to a coordinate
cquals the projection of the velocity onto the relevant coordinate
axis. This property of the potential function also holds for an arbitrary dircction. Particularly, the tangential component of the velocity
at a point on an arbitrary Cllrve s equals the partial derivative l!~ =
= oq;los, while the Ilormal component Vn = iJq;,'{)n., where n is a
normal to the arc s at the point being considered. For the polar
coordinates rand 0, the projections of the velocity vee Lor V of a
point onto the direction or a polar position veclor and onto a direction perpendicular to this ve<:tor equal, respecth'cly, the partial
derivatives
l'r
Off/or and F~ = Off/aS = (1/r) orplOO
It can be seen that the magnitude of the velocity in a certaiD
direction is determined by the rapidity of the change in the pot.ential
qJ in the same direction. If we consider the direction s, the rapidity
of the change in the potential equals the partial derivath'c with

80

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of In Airfoil and a Wing

respect. Lo this direction Off/OS. The quantity OCf/oS can be considered as the projection onto the direction s of a vector known as the
gradIent of the function <p and coinciding with the direction of the
most rapid increase in this function. It is evident that this vector
equals the ,"clocity vector V. Denoting the gradient of a function
in the form grad If. we have
V ~ grad ~
(2.3.3)

or
V

grad <f

(grad

~).

-+-

(grad

~), j

+ (grad ~), k

(2.3.4)

where the caetrldents in parentheses on the right-hand side are the

projections of the vector of the velocity gradient onto the coordinate
axes:
(grad <p)x = V~ = oeplox, (grad <p) 1/ = VI/ =-= o<ploy,
(grad ~), ~ V, ~ O<flo,
(2.3.5)
The use of the poLenlial function appreciably
vestigation of a fluid's motion because instead of
unknowns. t.he velocity componenLs Vx VI/' and
to fmd one unknown function Cf. which makes it
pletetr calculate the velocit.y ncld.

Simplifies the indetermining three

V" it is sufficient
possible to com-

2,4. Continuity Equation

G ...... Form of the Equation

The cquation of continuity of motion in the mathematical form

is the law of mass conservation-one of the most general laws of
physics. This equation is one of the fundamental equations of aerodynamics used to nnd the parameters determining the molion of agas.
'1'0 obtain the continuity equation, let us consider a moving volume of a fluid. This volume, varying with time, consists of the same
particles. The mass m of this volume in accordance with the law of
mass conservation remains constant, therefore pm"t = const, where
Pm is the mean density wHhin the limits of the volume "to Conse.quently, the derivative d (pro"t)/dt = 0, or, wit.h a view to the density
and volume being variables, we have
(1/Pm) dpmldt + (11,) d,ldt = 0
This volume relates to an arbitrary finite volume. To obtain a
relation characterizing the motion of a fluid at each point. let liS go
over to the limit with "t _ 0 in the last equation, which signifies
contraction of this volume to aD internal point. If the condition is
observed that the moving fluid completely lills the space being stud-

Ch. 2. Kinematics of Fluid

81

ied and, consequenlly, no voids or discontinuities are formed. the

density at a given point is a quite determinate qnantity p. and we
obtain the equation
(2.4.1)
(1/p) dpldt + div V '-'" 0
in which the value of

;i!

I(ilt) d./dt! has been replaced according

to (2.2.10) and (2.2.11) wHh the divergellce of the velocity.

Relation (2.4.1) is a continuity equation. It bas been obtained
in a general form and can therefore be used for any chosen coordinate
system.
Cartesian Coordlnaht 5yshrll

Let liS consider the continuity equation in the Cartesian coordinate

system. For this purpose, we calculate the derinLivc dp (x. y. i. t)/dt
in (2.4.1) in accordance with (2.2.11). As a result. we obtain the
continuity cquation
op/at
0 (pvJ;.)/ax -:-- a (pVy)/OY T () (pVr)/oz '-' 0
(2.4.2)

-r

Introducing the concept of the divergence or the veclor pV

div (pY) = iJ (pVx)/iJx .j- fJ (pVy)'uy -1- iJ (pVz)/Oz
we obtain
up/iJt .!. di\' (rV)

(2.4.a)

instead of (2.4.2).
Continuity equation (2.1.2) dcscrihl~s all UlI~I{'atl~' flow. For a steady
flow. aplat = 0 and. consequent I.'" ,
iJ (PV.~ViJ.r
a (pVy)iiJy .!- II (PV1)''B,;:;'~ 0
(2.4.4)

IIi\' (IV) ."" 0

(2..1.4')

For a two-dimensional flow. the continuity C'qunlion is

o(p V:r)/iJ.J: 'r a (I v u)/(Iy

For an incompressible flow, f'

iJVJiJx

'-~ con~l.

"VyiiJy

(2..1.5)

h('II(:('

i- iJl'l"h

div V :;.." 0

(2.4.6)

(2.4.7)

For potontial motion, lhe (:oulinuily ('lllIillioJl i~ transIorml.'ll with

account taken or (2.:1.2) to IiiI' fldlowing form:
(1/p) dp/dt .L rJ'!lr/ax~ "p{r'r7!1~ M!_ {j2(("ZZ . IJ
(:lA.8)

For an incomprN!siblc fluid. /' - I:onsl. tilC'l'lforC'

rJ2(r-'().T~ i iJ~{1 ii1!J~
(I'!/,. 'rJ Z2
(l

(2.-'1.8')

82

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamic5 of an Airfoil and a Wing

The expression obtained is called the Laplace equation. The solution of this equation is known to be a harmonic function. Consequently, the velocity potential of an incompressible Row lP is sucb
a harmonic function.
Cumll.." Coordinate Systein

Conversion Formulas. It is more convenient to solve some problems

in aerodynamics by using a curvilinear orthogonal coordinate system.
Such systems include, particularly, the cylindrical and spherical
coordina te systems.
In a cylindrical coordinate system, the position of a point P in
space (Fig. 2.4.1) is determined by the angle "i made by the coordinate plane and a plane passing through point P and the coordinate
axis Ox, and by the rectangular coordinates :r and r in this plane.
The formulas for transition from a Cartesian coordinate system to
a cylindrical one have the following form:

x = x. y = r cos "i.

= r sin "i

(2.4.9)

In a spherical coordinate system, the position oC point P (Figure 2.4.2) is determined by the angular coordinates a (the polar angle)
and 'IJl (the longitude), as well as by the polar radius r. The relation
between rectangular and spherical coordinates is determined 8(1
follows:
x = r cos e, y = r sin 0 cos'lJl, z = rsin e sin 'IJl (2.4.10)
The rele\'ant transCormations of the equations of aerodynamics
obtained in Cartesian coordinates to a curvilinear orthogonal system
can be performed in two ways: either by direct substitution of (2.4.9)
and (2.4.10) into these equations or by employing a more general
approach based on the concept of generalized coordinate curves
(see (91). Let us consider tbis approach.
We shall represent the elementary lengths of arcs of the coordinate
curves in the vicinity of point P in the general form:

cis1 = ht dq1' ds,

= h2 dq2,

d't3 = h, dqa

(2.4.11)

where qn (n = 1, 2, 3) are the curvilinear coordinates. and hi are

coefficients known as Lame's coefficients.
For cylindrical and spherical coordinates, respectively. we have

ql = Z, q2 = r, qa = "i,
q, ~ r. q, ~ e. q, ~ 'i>

(2.4.t2)
(2.4.13)

It follows directly from Fig. 2.4.1 that Cor cylindrical coordinates

dB,

tho dB,

dr. dB,

~ r

dy

(2.4.14)

Ch. 2. Kinematics of a Fluid

83

Fig.l.U
An elementary nuid particle in
a cylindrical coordinate systcm

Fig. 1.4.2
An elementary noil! particle in
.1 !'pberic1l1 coordinate system

Figure 2.4.2 allows us to de{f!rmine the length of the arcs of the

relcvant coorrlinate lines in a sphcrical system'
dS I = dr,

dS 2 = rdO,

(b3

= r sill I d1jJ

(2.4.15)

Consequently. tor cylindricnl coordinates, Lame's coefficients

ha vc the form
(2.4.16)
hi = 1, h',l= 1, hs=r
and for spherical ones
hi

= 1,

h',l = r, h3 = r sin I

(2.4.17)

Let us consilier some expressions for vector and scalar quantities

in curvilinear coordinates that are needed to transform the continuity equation to these coordinatE's. The gradient of a scalsr function <J> is

where fl , f2' and ia arc unit vectors along the relevant coordinate
lines.

84

PI. I. Theory. Aerodyn..mics of .. n Airfoil .. nd .. Wing

Having in view formulas (2.4.11), we obtain

grad4l=.*.

:~

it

+*". ::; +*-. :~

12

is

(2.4.18)

For further transformations, we shall use information from the

-course of mathematics dealing with vector analysis. Let us find the

divergence of the velocity vector, writing it as the sum of the components along the coordinate lines:
3

V =Vti,

+ VIi: + V,i,= ",.-.1

~ V",i n

(2.4.19)

Performing the divergence operation for both sides of this equation, we obtain

divV=

(Vndivin;'-i .. gradV",)

(2.4.20)

n=1

To determine div in. we shall use a known relation of vector analysis

(2.4.21)
where n takes on consecutively the values of n = 1, .2, 3 which the
values of m =-= 2. 3. 1 and j = 3, 1. 2 correspond to. This relation
includes the vectors curl im or curl i, to be determined. for which
we shall introduce the common symbol curl in. Using (2.4.18) and
the general methods of transforming vector quantities, we nnd
(2.4.22)
Let us introduce (2.4.22) into (2.4.21). For this purpose we shall
first replace the subscript n in curl in with m and j . and also correspondingly arrange the subscripts on the right-hand side of (2.4.22).
As a result, we have
(2.4.23)

Let us inlroduce these values into (2.4.20). Having in view that

in this formula. in ar,cordance with (2.4.18), we have
in .grl\d Vn ,--= (1/kn) aVn/Oqn
we find the fonowing expression for the div('rgence:
divV:.-: h)ihS'[ a(~:~2h3)

-r

a(~~:h,) +.~~~::~hl)]

(2.4.24)

Ha.ving thiS expression. we cnn transform the contiuuity equation

(2.4.1) to various forms of cllrvilincar orthogoll<li coordinates.

Ch. 2. Kinematics of a Fluid

8~

Cylindrical Coordinates. In cyJindriral coordinates, Lame's

coefficients are given by expressions (2.4.16), and the values of
qn (n -'" 1, 2, 3) hy relations (2.4.12). The velocity components
along the axes of cylindrical coordinates are

Vi

c,,",

V:t

dx/dt, V 2

~,

V, -_ drldt, V3

V ... ,.".., r dy/dt (2.4.25)

Taking this iuto Recount, the di\'ergence of the velocity (2.4.24)

becomes
di\'V,., d.!:,:t

_I.

Q;;~

++.

f~,~'" _l.~

(2.1..26)

To transform the deri\'8th'e dp'dt in the continuity equation

(2.4.1) to cyJindrical coonlinates. we use the transformation formula

in which

'*

::. ~~I

-%- -+

-;- ::2 .

-~

d;t

::3 .

ddqt

(2.1.27)

(x, y, z, t) is a function of Cartesian coordinates aO(l

time. We obtain

-1i-

*+*.*:4tf-.*r-*.*
.*.

:.--%t.~-Vx"*-:

Vr* 7-

l~Y

(2.t,.28)

Suhstituting their values for cli ... V lind dp.'dt in E/}. (2..1.1), wc
lind

4/i-+ (J(~:'x) +- fJ(~!'r)

~+. a(~~:;) +~'--.O

(2.t..2\))

Let us write this equation in a somcwhat tlHfcrcnt form:

1'"* + 8(r;

zl'x)

++.
++.

+ a(~~1!r)

r)(r;~'~) =0

(2.4.30)

For the perlicular ease of steady motion

a(~:rx)

+ a(e;rVrl

iJ('8t~)

.. 0

(2A.31)

For potential motion, substitutions may be made in the continuity

equation:
V. ~ a~/ax, V,., a~/ar, V, c, (11r) (a~/iJy)
(2.".25')
If the motion of a gas is simultaneously axisymmetric as, for
example, if it flows about a body of revolution at a zero angle of
attack, the Row parameters do not depend on the angular coordinate y. and the continuity equation has a simpler form:

a (prV.)18x

+ a (prV,)/ar ~ 0

(2.4,32)

86

Pt.

r.

Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a WIng

Spherical Coordinates. Using relation (2.4.24), having in view

formulas (2.4.13) for spherical coordinates, and also relations
(2.4.17) for Lame's coefl\cients and the expressions for the velocity
components

VI=Vr=4t-. Vz=Vo=+~.
(2.1.33)

V,=VIJ:=r 13 inS!!J!.

we obtain the following expression for the divergence of the velocity:

diVV=;-.

D(;:r~) + r8~n9' "(V~inO) + r8:nl:l' ~'"

(2.4.34)

We shall write the total derivativo for tho density dpldt in accol'd
anee with (2.4.27) in the following form:

!!-~-;~+{-'-r-+~'*+ ~~ . ::
=*".!.Vr~+ 1:0
r::9' :~

.*"+

(2.4.35)

Iintroducing the values of div " from (2.4.34) and the derivative
dpldt from (2.4.35) into (2.4.1) and grouping terms, we have

*'i-*.

-i- rs:no'

8(P;/2)

"(P~saSin8) +

rS11no .

8(PJrr r 2)

=0

(2.4.36)

.For steady motion, the parLinl derivative iJpliJt

+.

.,~;q.)

+~.

8(P Vas/inO)

+ Si!9

= 0, hence

. 8~;ot) =0 (2.4.37)

In the particular case of an incompressible fluid (p "'"" const)

+. i/<!';r2) +

Si~(I' 8(V~~inO) +~. ~~'f

=0

(2.4.38)

The following substitutions must be performed to transform the

continuity equation for potential motion:

Vr = ~~

Vo=+' ~:

V.=" rs:nlj . ::

(2.4.39)

Contfnulty Equation 01 Gas flow

.1.,. Curved Surt.ce

Let us consider a particular form of the continuity equation in

.curvilinear orthogonal coordinates that is used in studying flow over
a curved wall. The x-axis in this system of coordiuates coincides with
the contour of the wall, and the y-axis with a normal to this wall at

Ch. 2. Kinematics of

/I

Fluid

B7

Fig.l.U

To the derivation of the

COli

tinuily equation in curvilinl'.1r

coordinalA's

the point being considered. The coordinates of point P 011 the plane
(Fig. 2.4.3) equal the length x measllred ~dong the wall and the
distance y measured along a normal to it.. respectively. Assume
that the wall is a surfRce of revolut.ion in an Rxisymmetric flow of
a gas. The curvilinear coor(linates of point. Pare:

ql = X, q2 = y, q, = )'

(2.4.40)

The elementary lengths of the coordinate line arcs are

ds1 = (t

+ ylH) dx,

ds z = dy, ds a = r d)'

where r is the radial coordinate of point P measured along a normal

to the axis of the surface of reyoilltion, and R is the radius of curvature of the surface in the section being considered.
ConsequenLly, Lame's coefficients are
hi = t -I- y/ll, h z = I, h3 .= r
(2.4.42)
Let us llSC formula (2.4.21t)Jor div V in which the velocity components arc
VI = V:r = ds1idt = (t .:" y/ll) dx/dt. tt"2 = Vy = dy/dt. V3 = 0
(2.4.43)
Substitution yields
divV=

(1+~_R)r {8(;;"r)

+ iJll'-yr~:7U!R)I}

(2.4.44)

Let us calculate tile total derivathe for the densit.y:

*-0'=*+*-.*+-*.*

=-"*"1- 1;=/ll ."*-7- Vy"*

(2.4.45)

88

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynllmic$ of !In Airfoil and a Wing

Introducing expre!;sions (2.4.14) and (2.4,45) into (2.4.1), after

!;imple transformations we obtain the continuily C'quat.ion
*r(t....!...y/R) + iJ(r;xv -,\,) ~ arpr(I-~-:!R)Y'l/1

(2.4..46)

When studying the motion of a gas ncar a wall with a small curvature or in a thin layer adjacent to a surface (for example, in a houndary layer). the coord in ale y R. Consequently
(Op/ot) r

-+

iJ (prV3C)/OX

+ iJ (prVy)/oy

'""- 0

(2.4.47)

The form of the obtained equation is the same as for a surface

with a straight generatrix. For steady now
d (prV.,JIOx

+ a (prVy)/OY

= 0

(2..1.48)

For two-dimensional flow near a curved wall (a cylindrical

surface), the continuity equation has the form
*(1-:-yJR)+

For y

R.

a(~:.\.)

arpV'/~y-i

ViR)!

-.0

(2.4.49)

we approximately have
op/ot -t- u (p V;c)/ux -/. u (p V y)/uy --. 0

(2.4.50)

Hence, for flow near a wall, the continuity equation in curvilinear cootdinates has the same form as in Cartesian coordinates.
For steady flow, aplat -= 0; in thi!; case the continuity equation is
D (pV.)IDx + D (pV,)18y _ 0
(2.4.50')
Equations (2..1..18) and (2.4.50') can he combine(1 into a single one:
d/(pv,..r8)Jax
a (pVyr8)/ay
0
(2.4.48')

0....

where E = 0 for a two-dimensional plane flow and e = 1 for a threedimensional axisymmetric flow.
Flow bte Equation

Let us consider a particular form of the continuity equation for

a steady fluid flow having the shape of a !;tream filament. The mass
of the fluid in a fixed volume confllled within the surface of the filament and the end plAnE" ('.ross sections docs not change in time because
the condition that up/at
0 is observed at every point. Hence the
mass of the fluid entering the volume in unit time via the end cross
section with an area of 8 1 and equal to PI VIS 1 is the same as the
mass of the fluid P2 V 28 2 leaving through the opposite cross seclion
willi an area of S2 (Pt and P2 are the densities, Vl and T'2 are the
speeds in the firsl and second cross seclions of the lilamenl, respectivE'!0-

Ch. 2. Kinematics of a Fluid

89

Iy). We thus have PIV1St ., P2V2Sl. Since this equation can be

related to any cross secLion, in Lhe general form we have
p VS = const
(2.4..51)
This is the flow rale equation.
1.5. Stream Function

The studying of II ,ortex-rree gas flow is simplilied because it

can be reduced to the fmding of one unknown potential fUllction
completely determining the flow. We shall show that for certain
kinds of a vortex flow there is also a function determining its killemath: characteristics.
Let 115 cOllsider a two-dimensional (plane or spatial axisymmetric)
steady vortex now of II fluid. It call be established lrom continuity
equation (2.4.32') that there is a lunction 'If; of the coordinates x
and y determined by the relations
alax c -PII'V,; 8lay ~ PY'V.
(2.5.1)
Indeed, introriucing these relations inlo (2.4.32'), we ohtllin
ax) ,- 82/(8x ay), i.e. an identity. Substituting (2.5.1)
into t.he equation of slr('amliu('s Vyl8y .. , V:Jlldx wriLten in the form

8~1J;/(ay

pytVy dx - flytV:Jl dy '""" 0

(2.;").2)

we obtain the expression

(a'i'iax) dx -i. (alay) dy = 0

from which it follows that (2.5.2) is a dWerelltial of the fUllcliol! '"

and, consequently,
Integrating (2.5.3), we find an equation of stream lilies in the form
1f (or, y) """ const
(2.;JA,)
The function1p, called the stream function, completely determines
the velocity of a vortex flow in accordance with the relations
V.
(l/py') 8lay, V, - - (1/py') Oiaz
(2.;'.0)
We remind our reader that for a two-dimensional flow, we hav~
to assume in these expressions that e ,. . ,. , 0, while for a threc-diml'lIsional axisymmetric flow e = 1 and y = r.
A lamily of streamlines of a potential flow can also be charact('rized
by the function '" "'- const that is aSSOciated with the velocity
potential by the relations
a'Piax ~ (lil'lI') 8lay,

a<play ~ -

(lIpy') O:ax

(UdS)

"90

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynllmics

or

lin Airfoil lind II Wing

Assuming in (2.5.5) and (2.5.6) that p = const, we obtain the

relevant expressions for an incompressible flow:
(2.5.7)
V, ~ (1Iy') Inplay, V, ~ - (1Iy') a~/ax
a~/ax ~ (1Iy') a'Play, a~/ay ~ - (1Iy') a'Plax
(2.5.8)
Assuming in Eqs. (2.5.8) that e = 0, we obtain the following
equations for an incompressible two~dimensional flow;
a~/ax ~

a'Play,

a~/ay ~

-a'Plax

(2.5.9)

Knowing the velocity potential, we can use these equations to

.determine the stream function with an accuracy to within an arbitrary
constant, and vice versa.
In addition to streamlines, we call construct a family of equipoten~
tial curves (on a plane) or of equipotential surfaces (in an axisymmetric flow) in a potential flow that is determined by the equation
'Q" = const.
Let us consider the vectors
g"d 'P ~ (a~/ax) I + (a~/ay) j and grad 'P ~ (a'Plax) I + (a'Play)j
whose directions coincide with those of normals to the curves <p =
= const and ~ = const , respectively. The scalar (dot) product of
these vectors is
grad 'P grad 'P ~ (a~/ax) a'Plax + (a~lay) a'Play
With a view to formulas (2.3.2) and (2.5.5), we can establish
that this product equals zero. Hence it follows that streamlines are
orthogonal to equipotential lines (on a plane) or to equipotential
.surfaces (in an axisymmetric flow).
1.6. Vortex Lines

A vortex line is defined to be a curve s constructed at a defmite

instant ill a fluid flow and having the property that at each point
of it the angular velocity vector 0) coincides with the direction of
a tangent.
A vortex line is constructed Similarly to a streamline (see
Fig. 2.1.1). The only difference is that the angular velocities of rotation of the particles 0) (0)1' 0)2' etc.) are taken instead of the linear
velocities. In accordance with this delinition, the cross product
.00 X dS = 0, Le.

I :~

w~ ~z l=i((o)~dZ-WZdY)-j ((o),;dz-wzdx)

dx dy dz

+k (w%dy-w~dx) =0

Cn. 2. Kinemlltics of II Fluid

l-Ience, taking into account that, for example, COy dz = 0, and so on, we ohtain an equation of a vortex line:
dxlw;r;

dylw y = dzlw z

91

U1 z

dy =

(2.6.1)

13y consl-tucting vortex lines through the points of an elementary

-contour wilh a cross-sectional area of 0, we obtain a vortex tube.
The product wo is called the i.ntensity or strength of a vortex tube.
Ot simply the vorticit~.
We shall prove that the vorticity is coustant for all the sections
of a vortex tube. For this purpose. we shall use the analogy with
the flow of an incompressible fluid for which div V = O. A corollarr
is Hle flow rate equation for a stream filament VIS I = V 2 S 2 :-::
. . . -= VS = const.
Let us consider vortex motion (lnd the expression for the divergence
or the angular yclocity
div

(r)

= QOl;r;IIJx -i- IJUlyfIJy

+ Qooz//)z

Substituting for the componenls of w their values from (2.2.3)

and (2.2.fi), we oblain. provided that the second derivatives of
l'x, V y , and V z arc continuous, the expression tii, w ,..." O. using
the analogy with the flow rale equation VS = const, we obtain an
cClnatioll for the flow of the vector w along a vortex tube in the form
00 1 0"1

U1 2(J2

= ... = wo = canst

(2.6.2)

This equation expresses the IIelmholt~ theorem on the constancy

of the vorticity along a vortex tube. The properly of a vortex tube
consisting in that it cannot break oD suddenly or terminate in a sharp
point follows from this theorem. The termination in a sharp point
is impossible because at a cross-sectional area of the tube of 0" _ 0,
the angular velocity w would tend to infmity according to the IIelmholtz theorem, and this is not real physically.

1.7. Velocity Circulation

Coneepl

Velocity circulation is of mAjor Significance in aerodynamics.

This concept is lIsecl when studying the flow over craft and, particularly, when determiniug the lift force acting on a wing.
L(>t us consider in a fluid flow a fixed closed contour K at each
point of which the velocity V is known, and ent\lIate the integral
-over this contour:
(2.7.1)

92

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and

<II

Wing

where Vds is the dot product of the vectors V and cis. The quantity r
determined in this way is known as the circulation of the velocity
around a closed contour. Since
V=V:J'I-Vllj-j-Vzkandds=dxi+dyj
dzk
we have

r,.

I V.dx".V,dy'-V,dz

(2.7.2)

("'

Taking also into account that the dot product Vds """
-- V cos (V........ds) as '-' Vs ds, where Vs is the projection of the velocity
onto a tangent, we obtain

r.~

\ V,ds

(2.7.3)

(K)

II the contour coincides with a streamline in the form of a circle

of radius r at each point of which the velocity V. is identical in
magnitude and direction. \,,,'C have
(2.7.4)
r .-= 2nrVs
in

The circulation of the vclocity in a vortcx-frec flow can bc cxpressed

lerms of the vclocity polential. Assnming that V", dx "I.:~ V: dz =-: dqJ. we obtain for an open contour

-i- VII dy

l'-= ) dq.-='f!A-lJ"n

(2.7.5)

(Ll

wherc <fA and cP D are the values of the potential function at the
ends of the contour. For a closed contour, 'f!A and <illS are the vallles
of the velocity potential at points A and B of the contour coinciding
with each other. If the potential function is unambiguolls, then
'f!A = 'f! D' and the velocity circulation around the closed contour is
zeroj ambiguity of the velocity potcutial ('PA ::;I: CPB) determines
a non-zero value of the circulation.
Stokes

n.......

Let us consider elementary contonr ABeD (see Fig. 2.2.1) and

evaluate the circulation around this contour. We shall assume that
the velocities are constant along each edge and are equal to the
following values:

V.(AB). V,+ ';" dx(8C). V.+ ';'" dy(CD). V,(AD)

ConSidering the counterclockwise direction of circumventing the
contour (from the x~axis toward the y-axis) to be positive, we obtain

Ch. 2. Kinemllti<:;s of II Fluid

93

for the circulation

d;;, dX)dY-(V

dr:=V:rdx~-(Vv+

dr. =

;"

(dVyldx --uV.,)uy)

d~r

",;y'" dy)dx--V"dy
dy

According to (2,2.3), the quantity in p<lrenlllt'ses eqllals the dOllllie

value of the angnlar velocity componcllt :!w,. Consc(j\wntly,

dr,

200, dx dy

(2.7.6)

We can prove similarly that

dr", ,.--, 2w", dy dz and dry"'''' 2w g d:c dz

In these expressions, the products of the dilterentials arc the
areas confmed by the relevallt elementary contours. With Ii view
to the rcsults obtained, for the area clement do oriented in space
arbitrarily and confmed within an elementary contonr, the circulation is
(2,7,i)
where Wn is the component of the angular velocity 1I10ng the direction
of the normal n to the surface clemen!. du. In accordance with (2.7.7),
the "elocity circulation aronnd an elemcHtary closed ('o\tlollr eq\lals
the double strength of ,\ vortex in~ide the
Helation (2.7.7) can be used for II conlOHr
I-tnile
conlining a surface S lIt each poilll of whkh thc
(If (')" is
H(!r<' the veloCity circulation around !itl' \'ontultr i:-:

r-211 '.'.,

d"

(Ii)

Formula (2.7.8) expresses the Sloi;:C'!" titc-Mc-m: the

lation arollnd the closed contour 11 equals tlte .]ouhle
strt1ngtll or the vOrL ices passing lhrOltg-ll !he slIrface
contoul'. The quantity determined hy tlli...; rormu!;)
(vol'l('.'( sll'ell~lh) and i:> ,iesignalC'll hy
x_

2~ ,

(')n

(2.i .R')

{ia

'(8i

Comhining formulas (2.i.:\) ;lilt! (2.i.X) I'O!' 1'. We' ohlailll\ relalion
expn'ssing the integral oyet the contour f( ill 1f'I'ms of lilt' inli'g'I'I\\
lhe surface S COllflll{'II within this coulollr A':
\ V, ds - 2 .\
(i.:)

IS)

<0"

du

(2.7.8")

94

PI. I. Theory. Aerodyn.mics 01 an Airfoil and a Wing

Flg.2.7.t

Simply and triply connected regions on a plane:

.. -~imply co~n(>cled r('gion (rK _ circulation ov~r th(> conto\lr K); b-triply connected region 0'1, = cJrcula Hon of tbe eJ:tem a J contour, rK, and r x , - clrculatlon~ over the In_
t~ma J conloul':!l X, and X., respectively)

The above expressions relate to 0. simply connected contour (the

region being considered is confIDed within a single contour, Fig.
2.7.1a), But the Stokes theorem can also be extended to multiply
connected contours (a region confIDed by one external and several
internal contours). Equation (2.7 .8~) is used provided that the
external contour is connected to the internal ones by auxiliary Jines
(cuts) so as to obtain a simply connected region. Now t.he double
integral in (2. 7 .8~) is used for the hatched region (Fig. 2.7 .1 b) , while
the contour integral is taken for the obtained simply connected
region, i.e. around the external contour, along all the cuts, and also
around all the internal contours. In accordance with this, by formula (2.7.8"), and also with a view to Fig. 2.7,1b showinJ! 8 triply
connected region, we obtain

Jwnda

r K-rK1 -rK.=2 J

(8)

whence the circulation over the contour K of the region being considered is

r K=rKI+ r X.+2

JJ

wnda

(8)

Using this formula when we have n internal contours, we lind

I-

rK =

hr
;

Kt -/-

Jj

Ctl n

do

(5)

VortexlncilieM V.loeHl..

Appearing vortices produce additional velocities in the Ouidfilled space surrounding them. This effect is similar to the electromagnetic influence of a conductor carrying an electric current. In

Ch. 2. Kinemetics ot

110

Fluid

95

d[

accordance with this analogy, the velocities produced hr a vortex

arc said to be induced.
This electromagnetic analogy is expre5seu ill that Lo determine
the vortex-induced "elocity, a Biot-Savart relation i.!' used similar
to the one expressing the known law of eleclronwgnelic induction.
Let us consider a curvilinear vorlex of all arbitrary shape (Fig.
2.7.2). The velocity vector dw induce(] by the vortex clement dL
at point A whose location is rletermiue(\ by the position vector r
coincides in direction with the cro."s prodnct r X dL, i.('. the ,"N'.tor
dw is perpendicular to the plane containing the \'ectol'S rand dL.
The value of dw is determined with the aid of the Biol-Savart rormula, which in the vector form is as follows:
dw = (r/4n)

I'

X dL r3

(2.7.n)

where f is the velocity circulation. The derivation of formula (2.7.9)'

is given in [101.
Since the magnitude of the cross product I r X dL I = r sin 0: dL.
where 0: is the angle hetween the direction of a ,'ortex element and
the position vector r, the magnitude of the velocity induced at
point A is
(2.7.10)
dw = (f/4n) sin a dLr z
Let us use the Biot-Savart relation to calculate the velocily induced
by a section of a liue vortex (Fig. 2.7.3). Since r = h/sin 0:.
dL = r da:/sin 0: = h do:/sin z 0:, then
U)=

4~h

''>

.,

sinada=

4~h

(cosa l -coso:Z)

(2.7.11)

For a vortex hoth of whose ends extend to infinity (an inlinite

vortex), 0:1 = 0, 0:2 = n, aud. therefore,

1'/(2nh)

(2.7.12)

96

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of

r~~'u!:~

a nuid

of a line vortex on
p<!rliclc ... t point A

.n Airfoil .nd

Wing

"

"

fig. 1.1."

Interaction of \'orliccs:
o_vorlicrs wilh (In idpntlcat dirPl"

1;011 of mlalion; b \"rUc(~ with

opposite dir,.~tiun~ of motion

For a vortex, one end of which extends to inrmity, and the other
has its origin at point A (a semi-infinite vortex), we have a l -::: 0
and a. t . n/2. Consequently
w ~ r / (bh)
(2.7.1:1)
If a nuid accommodates two or more vortices, they interact with
one another, and as a result the vortex system is in motion. The velocity of this motion is determined wilh the aid of the Biot-Savart
relation. Let liS tnke liS an example two infmite vortices with the
same strength nnd direction of rotation (Fig. 2.7 .4a). These vortices
impnrt to each other the velocities V ~ :-:: - l'/(2nh) and VI -:--:
= r /(2nh) that <Ire equal in magnitude and opposite ill direction.
As a result, both vorticCl~ rotate ahout an axis passing through the
middle of the distance bNween them. If of two vortices onC' hus
III strength of the opposite sign (Fig. 2.7.4b), the induced velocities
are of the sume direction and, consequently, the system of vortices
moves translationally at the velocity V -:: 1'/(2nh) in a dirf'clion
perpendicl1lal' to the straight liue counecting the vortices.
2.8. Complex Potential
The motion of a vortex-free incompressible now can be determined
completely if we know the potential function q:: or tlte ~Iream function 1p, the relation he tween which is gh'(~11 by Eqs. (~.5.n), which

Ch. 2, Kinem.tics of Fluid

97

in the theory of the functions of a complex variable are known as the

Cauch:,r-Riemann eqltations. They express the necessary and sufficient
conditions needed for a (',ombinatioll of the two functions cp .L- i'\f.l
to be an analytical function of the complex variable cr .= x
iy.
Le. to be differentiable at all point~ of a certain region.
Let us introduce a symbol fOl" this fune.tian:

W(cr) -= <f

+ i'\f.l

(2.8.1)

The function W (0) that is determined if the fUllction of two real

variables If ::-; If (x, y) and W=: W(x, y) satisfies differential equations (2.5.9) is called a complex potential. If we recall that the values
of the functions If (x, y) or~ (x, y) allow one to determine the velocity field in a moving fluid unambiguously, then, (',onsequently,
any two-dimensional flow can be set by a complex potential. Hence,
the problem on calculating such a flow can be reduced to finding
the function W (0). Let us ('alculate the derivative of the function
W (0) with respect to the complex variable cr:
dWId<r = a~18x

+ iil-f18x

(2.8.2)

Since iJlffiJx = 1':n 8/Ox .= - Vy tlten

dWldo = Vo; - iV"

(2.8.3)

This expression is called the complex velocity. Its magnitude

gives the value of the ,reiodty itself, I dWfdo I -= VV~ -;- V~ = v.
It is evident that the l'eai velOCity vector V = V.., -j- iVy is thp
mirror image relative to the x-axis of the vector of the complex
velocity. Let us denote by 9 the angle between the vector dWldo
and the x-axis and determine the velocities V % = V cos 9 and VII =
= V sin O. Using the Euler formula
cos 9 -

i sin 9 = e- fi

we obtain
dWfda

= Ve- f8

(2.8.4)

2.9. Kinds of Fluid Flows

Let us consider the characteristic kinds of flows of an incompressible fluid, their geometric configuration (aerodynamic spectrum),
expressions for the complex potentials, and also the relevant potential functions and st.ream functions,
1-01715

98

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 an Airfoil lind II Wing

'.r.II_1 Flow

Assume that the flow of a fluid is given by the complex potential

W (0) - V (cos 9 - i sin 9) 0

(2.9.1)

where V and e are constants for the given conditions.

According to (2.8.1)
(J) + i1p = V (cos e - i sin 9) (x + iy)
whence we find the velocity potential and the stream function:
<p=V(xcos9+ysin9)

(2.9.2)
(2.9.3)

1p= V(ucos9-xsine)

Examination of the expressions for <p or 1p reveals that the flow

being considered is plane and steady because they do not contain
the time explicitly. In such a flow. the streamlines and pathlines
coincide.
From (2.9.2), we can find the components of the flow velocity:
Off/OX

= V ~ = V cos e,

O!.fJ/8y = VII

V sin e, O(J)/8z

= Vz

= 0
(2.9.4)

Here V is the resultant velocity of the flow, and e is the angle

between its direction and the x~axis. Assuming the stream function
"p in (2.9.3) to be constant and including V in it, we obtain the

equa~

tion
y cos e - x sin e = const

(2.9.5)

A glance at this equation shows that the streamlines are parallel

straight lines inclined to the x~axis at the angle 9 (Fig. 2.9.1). Since
the velocity components V~ and VII are positive, tIte flow will be
directed as shown in Fig. 2.9.1. This flow is called a forward plane~
parallel one.
In the particular case when the flow is parallel to the x~axis (9 =
= 0, VOl: = V, VII ...;; 0), the complex potential is
W (0) -

Vo

Two~DlmenslollllJ

_Sink

(2.9.6)
Point Source

Let us consider the complex potential

(2.9.7)
W (0) - (qI2") In 0
where q is a constant. We can write this equation in the form
~ + i'i - (qI2,,) In (,,>0) ~ (qI2,,) (111 r + tel

en. 2. Kinem!ltics of II Fluid

99

v,

Flg.l.9.t

General view of II forward

plane-parallel now

Flg.l.9.l

A two-dimeDSional point source

where r is the distance to a point with the coordinates x and y (the

polar radins), anti 0 is the polar angle.
It follows [rom the obtained equation that
~ ~ (qI20)

In r

~ (q/2n)

'" ~ (qI20)

In V x' -\- y'

(~.U.8)
(~.9.9)

'Ve find from (2.9.8) that the radial velocity ('omponent (in the
direction of the radius r) is
iJcp/iJr = V~ = q/(21(r)

(~.9.!O)

and the componellt along a normal to this radius is Vs = O.

We thus obtain a flow whose streamlines (pathlines) are a family
o[ straight lines passing through the origin of coordinates (this also
follows from the equation of a streamline 1j> = const). Such a radial
flow issuing from the origin of ('oordinates is called a two-dimensional point source (Fig. 2.9.2).
The rate of flow of a fluid through a contour of radius r is 2:nrl'r =
= Q. Introducing into this eqllat.ion the value of V~ from (2.9.10),

100

pt. I. Theory. Aerodyn~mi(;$ of ~n Airfoil ~nd ~ Wing

we fmd Q = q. The constant. q is thus determined by the rate of

flow of t.he fluid from the source. This quantity q is known as the
intensity or strengtb of tbe source.
In addition to a source, there is a kind of motion of a Ouid called
a two-dimensional point sink. The complex potential of a sink is
W (0) = - (qI2~) In 0
(2.9.11)
The minus sign indicates that unlike a source, motion occurs
toward the centre. A sink, like a source, is characterized by its
intensity, or strengt.h, q (the rate of flow).
!hreem.enslon.r Source and Sink

In addition to two-dimensional ones, there also exist three-dimen

sional point sources (sinks). The flux from them is set by the following conditions:

V~= 4~

'7;

Vu= ,~ . ~:;

v=

4~' ~

(2.9.12)

whore R = V Xl + y2 + z.2 aud q is the strength of the source (plus

sign) or sink (minus sign). The strengl.h of a source (sink) equals
the quantity q defined as the flow rate (per second) through the surface
of a sphere of radius R. The resultant velocity is
V=VV~+V:+V:=q/(4nR')

(2.9.13)

and coincides with the direction of the position vector R. Conseqnentl~. the velocity potential depends only on R and. therefore.

8<p18R = q/(4nR')
Integration

~'ields

'I' = 'F q/(4nR)

(2.9.14)

where the minus sign relates to a source. and the plus sign to a sink.

_lot
Let us consider a flow whose complex potential is
W (0) = (MI2n) (1/0)

(2.9.15)

where M is a constant. In accordance with this equation, we have

<p +
= (MI2n) (lire;')

I"

Let us transform the right-hand side of this equation. Taking

into account that

r:.8 = r(e08ij~UiD8)

+(cos9-iSin9)

Ch. 2. Kinemlltics of II Fluid

101

FJI.:a.U
To the definition of a doublet:
B-doubll't streamlines: b-Ionnatlon ut a doublet

we obtain

'P

+ ilP = (l"fl2~r) (cos 9 -

i sin 9)

Hence
(2.9.16)
(2.9.17)

'P = (MI2:n) cos 9/r

lP = - (:rfl2n) sin aIr

Assuming that til ~~ const and having in view that r = V x'J.

y'l
and sin f) "-- ylr ...., Y/V .rt + y'1,. we obtain an equation for a family
of streamlines of the flow being ('.onsidered:
y (x'

+ y2)

= const

(2.9.18)

The family of streamlines is an infmite set of circles passing through

the origin of coordinates and having centres on they-axis (Fig. 2.9.3a).
To comprehend the physical essence of this flow, let us consider
the Dow that is obtained by !!ummation of the flows produced by a
souree and a sink of the same strength located on the x-axis at a
small distance e from the origin of (',oordinates (Fig. 2.9.3b). For
point M (x. y). Lhe velocity potential due to a sOllrce at the distance
of r 1 is 'Ps = (q/2n) In rl and due to a sink at a distance of r2 from
this point is <PSK = (-q/2n) In r2.
To determino the resultant flow produced by the SOUl"(',e and the
sink. let us use the method of superposition of incompressible flows.
According to this method. the velocity potential of the resultant
flow is fp "= <P,
'Psk' Indeed. owing to the continuity equation
(the Laplace eqnation) obtained from (2.4.8'). we bave

:~

::~ = al(~~~IfRk)

al(~~:'Ip~k) =0

Since the functions fpa and 'PBk satisfy the equations

{)'Cf.lfJx"

+ O'Cf81{Jy' = 0

alld O"CfSk/or

+ o'lf98);.I{Jy'l. = 0

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of lin Airfoil lind II Wing

102

then {j2.tf/{jx2. .;- {j2q;/{jy2 identically equals 'zero. Consequently, the

resultant function cp satisfies the contihuity equation. The resultant
potential from the source and the sink is

<r

= (qI2n})n (r/r2)

Since r l =V(x+e)2+ y2, r2=V(x-l::)2i-Y\ then

In*={ln

~;~:~:~:: .0rln~=+ln[1+ (I-~:+Y"J.

The value of e can be chosen so that tile second term in the brackets
will he small in comparison with unity. Using the formula for expansion of a logarithm into a series and disregarding the small terms of
the second and higher orders, we obtain

<r=f (X_::z+u~

(2.9.19)

Assume that the source and sink approac.il each other (e __ 0)

and simultaneously their strengths increase so that the product
q2e at the limit upon coincidence of the source and sink tends to
a finite value J!. The complicated Row formed is called a doublet.
the quantity M characterizing this Dow is called the moment of tbe
doublet and the x-axis-the axis of tbe doublet. Going o\'er to the
limit in (2.9.19) for cp at e __ 0 and 2qe -- M, we obtain the following expression for a doublet
M
x
({l=2i". x3+yt

cos6

=zn'-,-

It coincides with (2.9.16).

Henre. the Dow being considered. characterized by the complex
potentlal (2.9.15), is a doublet. This can also he shown if we consider
the stream function of such a combined flow tllat will coincide with
(2.9.17).
Differentiation of (2.9.16) yields the doublet velocity components:

~~

= V/"= _

c~~6

+.-;-

= Va = _

~~

s~~O

(2.9.20)

Let us consider the three-dimensional ease. For a flow produced by

a source and a sink of the identical strength q located along the axis
Ox at a small distance s from the origin of coordinates. the potentlal
function in accordance with (2.9.14) is
cp=

where

4~

(*-

r2 = y2 -:- Z2.

~l)= 4~ [J/(~-:)I+rl

Jf~]
(2.9.20')

Ch. 2. Kinemlltlc~ of " Fluid

103

For small valuesof e, we have

If = (ql'm) 2XE./(x!

+ r~)3/t

Henct' in a limit pro("ess with E __ 0, cOlls](iering that the prodnct

q2e tends to the fmite limit .'\1, we obtain [or the !low produced by
a doublet with tht' moment .11 the v"locity potential

cr : . .:;

(.11/1:1) xl(x2

-;... r'!)~/Z

(2.9.21)

or
(2.9.21')

Circulation Flow IVortew..

Let

11S

consider a now

~et

by the complox potential

-= -ai In cr

HI (cr)

(2.9.22)

where a is a constant. We can write this equation in the form

qJ + i't
-ai In (rei8 ) .,.-, a (9 - i In r)
Hence
~ =

11'

aB
-a l.n r

(2.9.23)
(2.9.2/1)

It follows from (2.!1.23) th(lt the rallial ,"elocHy component Fr =

= iJ'i,/iJr c"", 0, while the component V, normal to tll" radins equ<ll.s
the derivative of q, with respc('.t to the ar(' s of a streamline, i.e.
Qq.JrJs -= (1/1') Q<fldO -= V" ."" air

(2.9.25)

'Ve obtain lhe equation of streamlines (pathlines) from the condition" ",-. canst, from which in accordance with (2.8.24.) we nnd the
equation r . .,. (,OLlSt.. This eqnation represents a family of streamlines
in the fOfm of l'.oneenlric. cil'cles. Flow along them is positi\"e if it
occurs (,Ollnlerclockwise (from the x-axis to thl' y-axi.s); ill this case
the coeflicient a in (2.9.25) has the sign pIllS.
A flow in which the particles move (circulate) along concentric
circles is said to be a circulation Row (Fig. 2.9.4).
The ('ircnlation of the Yeiocity in the flow being considered i~ r =
= 2",,. d\f!{)s. Since Bifid.\"
air, we have r .... 2:1:a, whence a =
= r/(2:t). Hence, the pitysi('.al meaning of the constaut a is that it..."1
value is determinl'd by the circulation of the flow which. as we have
alread:\' I'stablishcd, equals the vorticity in turn. The flow produced
by a vortex located at the origin of coordinates where V.t = aIr __ co
is also called a two~dimensional vortex source or a vortex.
'0

FII1....

A circulation flow (point vortex)

We have treated the simplest cases of flow for which we have

exaetly determined the velocity potentials and stream functions.
By combining these flows, we can. in definite condition!'!, obtain
more complicated potential flows equivalent to tbe ones that appear
over bodie!'! or a given configuration.
Let tI!'! take as an example a flow formed by the superposition or
a plane-parallel now moving in the direction or the x-axis onto the
flow due to a doublet. The complex potential or the resultant twodimensional incompressible now is obviously
W (a) ~ W, (a)

+ W, (0)

Va

+ (M/2n) (1/0)

In accordance with this expression

~ + i1jl ~ V (x + ig) + (MI2n)/(x + iy)
whence
~ ~ Vx + (MI2n) x/(:i' + g'),
1jl ~ Vy - (MI2n) g/(x'
g')

(2.9.26)

(2.9.27)

(2.9.28)

To find the ramily of streamlines, we equate the stream function

to a eonstant:
(2.9.29)
~ Vg - (MI2n) g/(x' + g')

According to this equation, the streamlines are cubic curves.

0 corresponds to one of the streamA value of the constant or C
lines. ByEq. (2.9.29), we obtain two eqllationsforslu.b a zero streamline:
(2.9.30)
y ~ 0, :i' + g' ~ M/(2"V)
Hence. the obtained streamline is either a horizontal axis or a
drcle of radius To = fM/(2,nV)J1/2 with its centre at the origin of
coordinates. Assnming that the velocity V = 1, and the doublet
moment M =- 2n, we obtain a streamline in the form of a circle

Ch. 2. KiMmlllics of II Fluid

1O~.

with a unit radins. If: we assume that this cirde is a ~olid Doundary
surface, we can consider an incompr{'ssible now Ilear this surface
as one flowing in a lateral direction over a rylinder of infinite length
with a unit radius. The velocity potential of sllrh an ineompressible
disturbed flow is determined by the first of Eqs. (2.fL2S) having the
form
lp :-'

11 -\-

11(x2

+ y2)]

Introducing the polar (',oordillates 8 and r

we obtain
~ ~ ,(1 ~ II,') cos 0

(2.\.1.31)
x;ro.~

0 - (x 2 -I-

y2)1/2,

(2.9.3q.

Differentiation yields the components of the ,'cJocity at a point.

on an arbitrary streamline along the directionH of the radius rand
of a normal .~ to it:
V~
ocr/or = (1 - lIr 2) r,os e,
V, ~ (II,) a~Ia9 = - (1 + II,') sin 9
(2.9.32)On a cylindrical sHrface in a now (a zero streamline) for which
r .; 1. we flJld F r - 0 and y.,
-2 sin e. The above example illustrates the application of tile princ.iple of now superposition and
the concept of a complex potential to the solution of a very simple
problem on the now of an incompre.'lsible nuid over a hOlly,

3
Fundamentals

of Fluid Dynamics

3.t. Equations of Motion

of a Viscous Fluid
The fundamental equations of aerodynamics include equations of
motion. forming its theoretical foundation. They relate quantities
.determining motion such as the velocity, normal, and sh.ear stresses.
The solution of the equations of motion allows oue to determine these
unknown quantities.
Let us consider the various kinds of equations of motion used in
'Studying gas flows.
CIIrtesran Coordinates

We 511311 treat the motion of a fluid partida having the shape of

an elemelliary parallelepiped with the dimensions dx, dy. and dz
~onstructed near point A with the coordinates x, y,
and z. Let
the velocity componenL<; at this point be Vx , Vv ' and Vr A fluid
particle of mass flT (here .. "'""" d.r dy dz is the elementary \'olume)
moves under the action of the mass (body) and surface forces. We
shall denote the projections of the mass force by Xp"t, Yp"t, and Zp"t,
.and those of the surface force by PxT, Py"t, and P:"t. The quantities
Po;, P y' and P z arc the projections of the surface force vector related
to unit volume.
The equation of particle motion in the projection onto the x-axis
has the form

whence
dVxldl '" X

+ (lip) P,

(3.1.1)

where dV,/dt is tile total acceleration in the direction of the x-axis.

We obtain similar eqnations in projections onto the y- and z-axes:
dV,ldl ~ Y + (lip) P,
(3.1.2)
dV,ldl ~ Z + (lip) P,
(3.1.3)

Ch. 3. Fundamental5 of Fluid Dvnamics

107

FI.3.U

Surface forces acting on a Buill particle

The surface force can he expressed in terms of the stresses acting

011 the faces of an elementary parallelepiped. The difference in the
surfar,e forces in romparison witll an ideal (ill\'i~dd) now r.onsists
in that not only narmnl. hilt al."o shear strcs.<;{'~ act 011 the fares of
a partide.
.
Every surface forre a(tiug on a face has three projeclions onto
the coordinate axes (Fig. 3.1. t). A unit of snrface area of the leflhand face experiences a surfare fOI'('o \vllO~e projl'('.tirms will be de!lignated hy PU' 'lx:' and Txy. The quantity P.>:", is the normal stress,
while T.u and 'l.\'y are the she;tr stresses. It cau be seen thl\t t.he lirst
subscripl indicates the axis p4"rpendicuiar to Ihe face being con!:lidered. and the second one indir_ates t.he axis auto which the given
stress is projected. The rear face perpendicular to lhe z-axis expel'iencO.<; the ~tress comlJOuenl.. PZf' 'l :_~. and '('z,,: the boUom fare perpelldicular to the Y-Ilxis expl"rien('cs the components Puu' '('y.>:. anci
'(',f'

We shall consider normal stresses to be positive if they are lIiteded

out of the clement being studied and. consequently, subject it to
omnidirecLional tension as shown in Fig. 3.1.1. Pot'Jitivc shear stresses arc present if for the three faces interseding at initial point A
these stresses arc oriented along directions opposite to the positivc
directions of the coordinate axes, and for the other three facesin the positive direction of these axes. With this in view. let us can
sider the projerliolls of the surface forces onto the x-Ilxis. The lefthand face experienc.es tnc force dne to the normal stress -P:u: dy dz.
and the right-hand one-the force Ip.>:", + (iJP",:rJi).E) drl dy tlz. 'fhe
ret;ultant of these forces is therefore (iJP;x./iJ:r) d:r dy dz. The components of the forres produced by thl" sheal' stresses actiug on these
faces are zero.

108

Pt.

r.

Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

Account must be taken, h9W-e",erj of the shear stresses 'lzx and 'lyx'
The rear face experiences the force- -Tzx dx dy, and the front onethe force ['In: + (i1T:z:Jaz) dzJ dx dy. The resultant of these forces is
(iTrzx/az) dx dy dz. In a similar way. we find the resultant of the
forces acting on the bottom and top faces. It is (a'llIx/ay) dx dy dz.
Bence. the projection onto the x-axis of the surface force related
to unit volume is
Px :- apxx/()x

+ 8TlIx /8y

-I- 8'lzx/az

(3.1.4)

Similarly, the projections onto the other coordinate axes of the

sllrfaee force related to unit volume are
P y = 8'l:.:y/ax..!. apl/y/ay...;. iJTzy/aZ
P z = a'lrz/ax+ rJTyz/ay -I- iJpzz/8z

(3.1.4')

A(',eording to the property of reciprocity of shear stresses, the

values of those stresses acting along orthogonal faces equal each
other. i. e. 'lz:" -= 'lxz. 'lZIl c-::: 'llI l and 'llI r
T rll
llence. of six shear stresses, three are independent.
To determine the values of the shear stresses, we shall lise the
hypothesis that stresses are proportional to the strains they produce.
The application of this hypothesis is illustrated by Newton's formula
for the shear stress appearing in the motion of a vise,Otls fluid relative
to a solid wall. Dy this formula, 'ly.'I' -= Il (aVyf8x). Le. the stress
is proportional to the half-speed E z """ 0.5 (av II/ax) of angle distortion in the direction of the z-axis, whence 'llIr =-: 21lEz (here Il is
the dynamic. viscosity). This relation covers the general case of threedimensional motion when tho angular deformation in the direction
of the z-axis is determined by the half-speed of distortion E z =
'-,- 0.5 (8Vy/ax + aVr/ay). We shall write the other two values of
the shear stress in the form T IIZ ----= 21lEx and Tzx -:: 21lEII'
Consequently.
-,---0

Tyo;;

'llIz

'In

21lEz =].1- (8VII /ax

+- avx/ay)}

= 2.u:%:-.=].I- (~VII/8Z: avz/ay)

= 21lEII ~-=].I- (ovz/ax, av x/a:)

(3.1.5)

We shall use the ahove-mentioned proportionality hypothesis to

establish relations for the normal stresses Pn, PIIII' and PZZ' Under the
action of the stress Px.n a fluid particle experiences linear slrain or
deformation in the direction of the x-axis. If the relative linear deformation is a;, then Prx -~ E~. where E is a proportionality factor
or the modulus of longitudinal elasticity of the fluid. The normal
stresses PIIII and Pzz cause the particlo to deform also in the directions
of the y- and z-axes, which diminishes the deformation in the direction of the x-axis.

Ch. 3. Fundamentals 01 Fluid Oynemics

109

It is known from the course in the strength of materials that the

decrease in the relative magnitude 6.G:T of this deformation for
elastic bodies is proportional to the slim of the relative deformations
in the directions of .II and Z lInder the action of the indicated stresses.
Ac("'ordingly,

6.0x

,= -(11m) (Pu/E

+ PalE)

where m is a constant known as the coefficient of lateral Hnear defor

maUon.
The total relative deformation in the direc-tion of tho x-axis is

e;

~ 8~ -1- &8,"" 1',.,1 - 111m) (p"IE -1- p"IE)

(3.1.6)

a.

We can calculate the relative deformations y and

along the y.
:and zaxes in a similar way. The obtained expressions give us the
normal st.resses:

Pn~E~.,(p,,+ p,,)/m
PY!I """ E6 y + (Pu -+ pxx)/m
PH =

(3.1.i)

Ea. + (Pu + P!lu)/m

The relative linear deformations of a particle along the directions

Qf the coordinate axes determine its relative volume deformation.

Designating the- magnitude of this deformation by

0,

we obtain

(3.1.8)
Summating Eqs. (:t1.7) and taking into account the expression
for 0: we have
PX.T -:- PUJI

Determining tho sum PUy

ing it into (3.1.6), we find

+ PH

= mEfi/(m -

2)

(3.1.9)

+ PH from this expression and introduc(3.t.tO)

For our following transformations, we shall use the known relation between the shear modulus G, the modulus of longitudinal
elasticity E, and the coefficient of lateral deformation m that is
valid for elastic. media including a compres..<;ible fluid:

mE/12(m

+ I)]

(3.1.11)

Substituting this rolation into (3.1..1.0)J we obtain

Pxx= 2G8:c+

m~2 8

(3.1.12)

110

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

Let us introduce the symbol

(3.1.13)
"7r = (Pxx + PIIY + Pu)/3
Adding and subtracting on the right-hand side of (3.1.1Z), we
have
p:x:x=a+ZG6 x + m.2~2 e-(px';+PlIy-!-pu)/3

Transformations involving Eqs. (3.1.9) and (3.1.11) yield

p" - cr + G (28, - 28/3)
(3.1.14)
Similarly,
p" _
+ G (28,- 28/3); Pu - +G (28, - 2il/3) (3.1.14')
It has heen established for an inviscid fluid that the pressure p
at any point of the flow is identical for all the areas including this
point, i.e. with a view to the adopted notation, in the case being
considered we have p""" = PIIII = Pn = -p; consequently, P =
- - (p" + P" + Pu)/3.
Hence, when studying the motion of a viscous fluid, the pressure
can be determined as the arithmetical mean, taken with the minus
sign, of the three normal stresses r.orresponding to three mutually
perpendicular areas. Accordingly,
:= -p.
The theory of elasticity establishes t.he following relations for the
shear stresses acting in a solid body:
'til'; = Gy yX '
't IlZ = GYIIZ>
't zx = G'V:,;
(3.1.15)
where 'VIIX' yy:. and 'Vu are the angles of shear in the directions
of the axes z, x, and y, respectively.
A comparison of formulas (3.1.15) with the corresponding relations (3.1.5) for a viscous fluid reveals that these formulas can be
obtained from one another if the shear modulus G is replaced by
the dynamic viscosity Il, and the angles of shear y by the relevant
values of the speeds of distortion e of the angles. In accordance with
this analogy, when substituting Il for G in formulas (3.1.14) and
have to
(3.1.14'), the strains (relative elongations) e,;.6 11 , and
be replaced with the relevant values of the rates of strain 9" =
by
= lJV,;llJx, 9 11 = lJVyllJy. 9: = aV:llJz, and the volume strain
the rate of the volume strain 9=fJV:/lJx+lJV ll lay + lJVz/Jz =div V.
The relevant substitutions in (3.1.14) and (3.1.14') yield:

e:.

P,;:r:=-p+v.(Z 0:Xx --}divV)

pyy=-p+.v.(2 0:VY --}divV)
PZI= -P+1l

(z

O~' --}div V)

(3.1.16)

Ch. 3, Fundlimenfliis 01 Fluid Dynllmics

111

The second terms on the right-hand sides of expressions ,(3.1.t6}

determine the additional stresses due to viscositv.
By using relations (3.1.4), (3.1.4'), (3.1.5), and (3.1.16), we can
evaluate the quantities P x , PilI find Pl' For example, for P x from
(3.1.4) we obtain

Px=-*+*[~(2 8Jxx -{-divV)J+*[~l( &::11 + a~x)J

+*[~ (a~z + a:z%)]= -*+~liV. +t-~ div V
+ :~

(2 aJ.x --}diV v)

where

li

+*

(a:ux + 8:: ) +~ (a:sx +8;;)

is the Laplacian operator:

li
iP/ax'J. + a'J./ay1.

+ 82/az"

Particularly,
liV.~

-eo

a2VxiaX~

+ iPVx /{Jy2 + a2v.",'oz'J.

In a similar way, we ran lind the expressions for P II and Pz'

The relations for the stresses due to the surface forces in a fluid
have been obtained here by generalizing the laws relating stressesand strains in solids for a fhlid having the property of elasticity
and viscosity. We shall obtain the same relations proceeding from
a number of hypothetic notions on the molecular forces acting in
fluid (see [9, 1\1).
By compiling projections or the total accelef<ltion in an expanded
form according to the rule of calculating the deriv<lti\'e of a composite function f (x, y, z, t) in which, in turn, x, lj, and z arc functions.
of the time t. and taking into consideration th(> expressions found
for P"" P y , and P r , we can obtain the equations of motion (3.1.1)(3.1.3) in the following form:

8~x+Vx 8:;~ +Vy a;/ .. it: a;;",

-~.vdVx+f.+XdiVV-:+[~~

(2

==-x-+.-;;-

a;~x

+% ( a:;~ + Q;~, )+ ;~ (8:;T

-+diVV)

)J
a;;" -r-Vr a~" =Y-f.*
+vliVy-l"Y.*divv+f[*{2 8:; --}diVV)
T

a;:~

a;~y ~,v,t a:~y +Vy

+*( a;:u + ~:")+ ~~I (iJ~y -[- iJ:Vx)J

(3.1.17)

~.

I. Theory. Aerodynamics of

q~Z +V"

aa:. +Vy a:u.

til"

Airfoil lind II Wing

+Vr a::~

=z-+.

~~

+\I~V:+i.~divV++r ~~ (2 a:~. -fdivV)

+ :~ ( :: + a:;" ) + :~ ( ~~. + a~u )]

t

where " ~-:: J.l/p is the kinematic viscosity.

The dillerelltial equations (3.1.17) form the theoroticalfoundation
-of the gas d ),oamics of a viscous compressible fluid and are known
as the Navier-Stokes f'qu8tions. I t is assumed in the equations that
the dynamic viscosity 11 is a function of the coordinates x, y. and
%, i.e. 11 = t (x, y, z). Presuming that /..L = const, the NavierStokes equations acquire the following form:

d:r x =x=+.*+'V~V",-!-f*diVV

d:!J '=Y-*'*7v~Vu+T.*divV

a:r =Z--f,.. ~~
z

+\'~V~+~.~diV

(3.1.18)

When studying gas nows, the mass forces may be left out of ac~ount, and, therefore, we as..'iume that X = Y = Z -= O. In this
-case, we ha\e

~=-...!..~+v~V
-C..~.~divVl
dt
p
ih
>: ' 3
QX
dVy

=-.!..
. .it.+vl'.VII ..L~
........divV
p ay
. 3
iJy

d:'r

dt

-t'*+V~Vr+-i-''*

divV

(3.1.19)

For two-dimensional plane motion characterized by a varying

-dynamic viscosity I' =F const, equations are obtained from (3.1.17)
.as a result of simple transformations:

.!!i.
at ~ _L.!'.E.
p f J x+L...'C..
p f J x [~(2 ~-~diVV)]
fJx3

+f-;;(J.lez)
fjf

fJ

fJ

8V

~~-..L+_._[~(2-2__3 divV)]
fJt
p iJll
P 811
811

+f-:X (I'ez)

1(3.1.20)

Ch. l. Fundamentals of Fluid Dynamics

113

When div V = 0, and 1.1. = canst, these equations are reduced

to equations of motion of a viscous incompressible fluid.
Let us consider the equation of motion of an ideal (in viscid)
compressible Ouid. Assuming the coefficients ~ and v in (3.1.17)
to be zero, we obtain:

8~x +Vx 8~x +V"iJ~:J:

-I' V"

8::

+V"

8:'11

+V:x;

~fI

8J,z ..i- V:x; 8'fzz

+V"

a: =x-f* 1
z'"

8;'Y

+ Vy 8Ju' + V, 8~"

=Y-f*
=Z-f*

t (3.1.17')
J

These equations were first obtained by Leonard Euler, which

is why they are called Euler equations. They arB the theoretical
cornerstone of the science dealing with the motion of an ideal gas
whose hypothetic properties are determined by the absence or
negligibly small influence of viscosity.
Vector Form

01 the Equations of Motion

By multiplying Eqs. (3.1.18) by the ullit vectors i, i, and k.

respectively. and then summating them. we obtain an equation of
motion in the vector form:
liVid.

=G-

(lip) grad p

+ v f1 V + (v/3) grad div V

(3.1.21)

where the vector of the mass forces in Cartesian coordinates is

G = XI + Yj +Zk
the pressure gradien t is
grad p = (liplliz) I -I- (liplliy) j + (liplilz) k
the vectors

av = aV;oi + aVyj + aVzk

grad div V
(Ii div VlOz) I + (Ii div V/liy)j + (Ii div V/Ii,)k
II a fluid is incompressible, div V = 0, and. consequently,
dVld, = G - (lip) grad p + v f1V
(3.1.21')
In the absence of mass forces, G = O. therefore
dVld, = - (lip) grad p + vf1V + (v/3) grad dlv V

(3.1.21")

The vector of the total acceleration can also be expressed as

dV/d. _ liViIi. + grad (V'12\ + curl V X V
(3.1.22)
8-011U

114

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynllmics of 111'1 Airfoil lind II Wing

With account taken of (3.1.21") and (3.1.22), we can write the

equation of motion as

~: +grad ~-+ curl V xV= -fgrad p+ v6V +igrnd divV

(3.1.22')

For an inviscid compressible nnid, the equation of motion is

~~ +grad'::;;" + curl V X V = --/;-grad P

(3.1.22")

Curvilinear C_rdlnates

Let us transform Eq. (3.1.22') using the concept ot generalized

curvilinear coordinates qn' This allows us to go over r,omparatively
simply to eqnations of motion containing a specific form of curvilinear orthogonal coordinates, as was done with respect to the continuityequation.
Let us consider the transformation of separate terms in (3.1.22').
:For the second term on the left-hand side, and also for the first and
third terms on the right-hand sides, with a view to (2.1..18), W(J
have the following expressions:
,

grad

~=

(grad';:

n-I

Li

n=

~ ~. a~~~2)

in

(3.1.23)

n=1

g"dp~."2; (gradp),i,~2; -hI '-.'P i,

,,~I

,,=1
3

,,=1

n-.I

graddivV=~ (graddivV)"i,,=h

-&-.

(3.1.24)

q"

a~~:v

in

(3.1.25)

For transformation of the vector product curl V )( V, it is necessary to Hnd the form of the exprc;.;sion of the vector eurl V in generalized coordinates. For this purpose, let us calculate the curl of
both sides of Eq. (2.1.19):
3

curl V = L~ (V n curl i" + grad V nXin)

(3.1.26)

n=1

where
(3.1.27)
grad V" )( ill ,.. (grad Vn)Ji m - (grad V,,)mij
Here the projections of the vectol' grad Vn onto the relevant
eoordinate directions are determined from expres'ion (2.1.18) with
V" substituted for <\'>. Introducing (3.1.27), and also the expressions
for curi in from (2.1.22) into (3.1.26), we obtain the following ex pres-

Ch. 3. Fundllmental$ of Fluid Dynllmics

sion for the curl of the velocity:

curlV:.-= hzlh3

>:

[1l(:;~3)

[a(;;:l) _ a(!~:'3) ]i2-! h:"2

11~

"I:;:.) }I-T-~
.- ()(:;~:\) :1 i3

[J(~~:")

(3.1.28}

Consequently. the erosr- pl'Oduri

3

cud V)(V=

n=t

(cud VXV)" '"

(31.29)

where the projection of tllis veetOI' 011 to a tangent to the corresponding coordinate curve is
(curl VXV)n"'"

h~hi" [(IU~~")

iJ~;~J)

J
(3.1.30)

Rerall that the reialioH

as follows'

U('I\\'C{,H

(he subscript!! m, j, and n is

3
1

1
2

The left-hand side of Eq. (:i.1.:!2) is the vcctor or the total

alion W . dVldt thnt has t.he form

acceler~

\V="~l W"i"

(3.1.31)

where W" is the projcction of the fll'celE'l'atio!l Hctor onto the direction of a tangent to the coordinntc line q".
Each quantity W" ean be eonsidered as the slim of the relevant
projections of tile vectol's aVld/, amI also of the vcctor~ (3.1.23)
and (3.1.29) onto the indicated directions. Aerordillgly,

Wn~~ iJ~"

+ h:~n

iJ

+ ~: . ~~';, + h~;m

(~~~n)

h:;m

~::

a(;;::n)

h~t :;~

(3.1.32}

Let u>; apply the Lap/adall operator to the vector V, and use
the expression

.6,V= ~ l!Vnin=graddivV-cllrlcllriV
,,=1

(3.1.33)

where dF n arc the projeetions of Ihe vector along the coordinatelines qn'

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynam!c$ of lin Airfoil and a Wing

116

The first vector on the right-hand side of (3.1.33) has been determined in the form of (3.1.25), while for calculating the second one
Eq. (3.1.28) should be used. Taking the curl of both sidos of this
equation. we obtain

,
,

curl curl V = ~ (curl curl V)"i n

._1

=~ "~hJ{<'I"J~:IVlJl

a[hm(~:;lV)ml}i"

(3.1.34)

.~I

where the corresponding projections of the vector curl V are found

from (3.1.28).
Having these data at hand, we can consider the transformation
of the equations of motion as applied to specific forms of curvilinear
orthogonal coordinates.
C,IIJMlrle.' CooJCIIMfes

In accordance with (2.4.12), (2.4.16), and (2.4.25), we have

ql = Z, q'l. = r, qs = y, hi = t, h'l. = t, ha = r,
VI
V~, Vz = Vrt Vs = V,.
Consequently,

W = 8:t '+,Vs
1

8~s

+v,"8:rr +~.

a:"\~;

(grad

P)l =

ClplClx

Next we find
(grad div Vh = CI diY V/ax
Since div V is determined by formula (2.4.26), we have

8d:;V =i; ("~s + a;; ++. a:; +.!f)

From (3.1.28), we have
(curl Vh =

8Jzr - "::

(curl V)'I. =

+(0:V:c - r

~)

Introducing these expressions into (3,1.34), we obtain

(curl

,.urIV)I-+{'H~-~)] '[W;:-.~)]}

iJy

::ir - o;~: ++ Uat- ':: )_+.- (O;~: -r ::~;)

Ch. 3. Fund.mentals 01 Fluid Dynamics

117

Since (grad div V)l ~ iJ div Vlox in accordance with (3.1.33)

we have
(dVh = (grad div Vh - (curl curl Vh
j

-7- aa2~:c +~.a;;z~++_

_ a;;.'C

a;;

\Vc tIm:! compile an equation or motiou in a projeetion onto th'

x~axis

of a cylindrical coordinate system:

8~; '~-V:'~''Vr~':~' D;y' ~=

-to ::
(3.1.35)

We obtain the oLher two C(luat.iolls in projections onto the coordinate lines ramI y in a similar way:

~+ V:c D;: +Vr

=

a;; -7-~' a:,: -

_.!. !.1.....1...\-. (.1.V

p

Dr

'

~~

_.!..~_.:r..)-l_":::'. ddivV
r

iiy

1'2

1'2

'3

Ii

or

.!2.+V
!!!..1...V av? L.!:L.~+ r,vy
8t
~a:r8rrfh'
I'

(3.1.35')

= -f,:.*+v (flVyi_~. ai)~ -;r) + ir Dt~~VV J

In these equations, we have introduced a symbol for the Laplacian
operator in cylindrical coordinates:
.1.

=;;-t :,22+..!,. ~: ++-fr

We determine the divergence of t.he velocity by formula (2.4.26).

For an axisymmctric Row. the equations of motion are simplified:
aV:':.i-V
iJt

:.:

DV~_:...V 8V:I::=_.-!._~-t--'\-'.1.V
(Jz

(Jr

iJx.

+....!... (JdivV
.

3.%

r -i' V:. ~"";'Vr~:":'~ -..!....-~-:...vflVr

ov
iJt
0:':
Dr
p
Dr'
I

+-i-' adi: v

:.:

I
II

(3.1.36)

where div V :.= iJV"liJx + iJVr/{Jr + Vrlr; fl = iJ 21iJ:x;'! + lPliJr"

+ (1Ir) alar.
For a steady Row. one must assume in the equations that
aV"Iat - aV,lat - av,tat _ 0

118

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

Spherice' Coordinates

The spherical coordinates, Lame coefficients, and the projections

of the velocity vector onLo the directions of the coordinate lines
are related by formulas (2.4.13), (2.4.17), and (2.4.33):
ql =-: r, (/2, ~ e, q3 .-" tp, hi -= 1. h z = r, h g ""=' r sin e.
VI

. Vn V z

Vo, V 3

0...

According to these data, from (3.1.32) we find the projection of

the acceleration onto the direction of the coordinate line r;

WI =

a~r + Vr

a;r

.l-..!! .~+r~;~a'~- ve~v; (3.1.37)

The projection of the pressure gradient is

(3.1.38)
(grad ph = 8pl8r
Wilh a view to the expression for div V (2.4.34), we lilld the
relation
(grad djv V). ':=:
v

ad;;

+, [~.a(V;:2) +rs:nu.~+rs:ntl. a~wJ (3.1.39)

We shall lise this relation for determining the projections (11 Vh
of the vector 11 V. To do this, we shall calculate the valne or (curl
.curl Vh in (3.1.33). Flom (3.1.28), we have
(curl

Vh =

+ (!:r) - a: J'
[a

11

(curl

Vh =

rs:n

0 [~_

a(V~:in 0) ]

lntroducing these relations into (3.1.34), we obtain

'"

(3.1.40)

With a view to expres5ions (3.1.39) and (3.1.40), we find

(I1V)j = (grad div Vh -(curl curl V)j =I1V r _ 2~':

(3.1.41)
where

I1Vr=~-:r (r2 a;r) + rls~lle'~ (sinS a:a')

+ Si~2 O. ~2::
ri

(3.1.42)

Ch. 3. Fund.!lment.!lls of Fluid Dynemic$

119

Taking into al'Coulit (3.1.37)-(3.1.3H) and (:U.!J1), we find the

eqnation of motion ill a projeclion onto lhe toorriinal(' line r:

iJ;/~"J',u~;'i-~'
_ r~~ rJ
-- r!

:0+

f.* + v

s~n U J~~~.

2:: _

r:;~o' JJI~~

--h-. J~~o

(AVr

2Vllr~OlO) ~_

T' a d~; \.

(3.1.43)

We obtain the olher two equations in a similar' way:

iI,:ro ..; ~. d~;~

;- V r

J1rl'o-:'~COlfl
-

r2

__

+,.~

~~ n . o;~~

(AYo+-#r. o;j

~';~2 t! - r~ ~~~~AU' ~JI~~') + -1-.

O!';r ':-Yra~>

I'~. J;'~'

l'",(!r- '"0 ("otO)

:v

-;-V

-+-.

1
'""' -pr sin

(AV~--r~~;~tu~ r2$~n9' ~I;

{J

(~~ \'

r!;~e'~

(3. t.43')

iJp

f)'

aif

r;~~:}~ iJnl~~)

,.
ildiv \'
...,- 3r sin 0 '----aij:""

where tl](> Lapiaciull opel'alor in spherical coo['dinalc-s is

11

-~ ~ . .;.;. (r~

-:r) + r~

$:11 t:I

-to (sin 0 -k) . r! ,'1111" o ~ (a.1.4,'f)

For lwo-dimellsiollal l-lpatial gas nO\\'5 charal"terizNI uy a change

in the parameters (\'elodty, pressUI'e, density. e\c.) in the riirection
of only two {~oordilJale lines, let liS write the eqllation of motioll
- a simpler form:

aV r

dt~~-

+v

--.;..~ _

~-

au .

21'; _ 21'ge~)tO)
r
r

-I-...!..... &div V

~-i ~.~+ VrVO ...

.~ ~-.-V
at
r ar
r
ali
r -

+v

' \'(1
in',
\"~
l"p
ra, r-;:-'&o--,=-p'o,

V ar r

(CiV r _

_..!....21I

br

rp

(CiVo -:--'}. a~j -r2~~20) +*.bd~;\"

bO

(3_t.45)

HIO

Pt. I, Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

where

Il=-J,.f, (r2

-!r) +

r<si1nll

.-:0 (sin e ~)

diVV"""~. U{~;r2) i ~.a(\'9a~inO)

(3.1.46)
(3.1.47)

Equations of TwoDlmenslonal Flow

of a Gas Hellr II Curved Surface

For the Case I eing ton..,idereu, the curvilinear coordinates. Lame

coefficients, 311d Yelo('ily ("omponents are determined by formulas
(2.4.40), (2.4.12), and (2.4.43), respeC'thely. We shall adopt the
further condition that motion occurs near II. wall. and. consequently.
y R. Accordingly,
q1 = X, 12 = y, q3 = y. hI = 1, h, = 1. h$ = r
VI = dx/dt = V=, V, = V r, V, = 0
With a view to these data, the acceleration component is

W,

OV,lal

+ V, OV';O$ + V, aV,;ay

and the projection of the preSfmre gradient is

(grad ph = fJplfJx

(3.1.48)
(3.1.49)

In addition,
(grad div Vh

(3.1.50)

iJ div V/iJx

where the divergence of the velocity has been determined by relation (2.4.44).
Consequently,
(graddiVV)I=-1;{+[O(:x"r),.

O(;r

l ]}

(3.1.51)

We use (3.1.28) to calculate the projections 01 the velocity curl

vector:
(3.1.52)
(curl V), = fJV/fJx - iJV,,/fJy, (curl Vh = 0
Introducing these expressions into (3.1.34), we obtain

(curl curl V),=+.fu-[r (~_

U;y=)]

(3.1.53)

With a view to relations (3.1.51) and (3.1.53lt we have

(.6.V), = (grad divV)I- (curl curl V),

=fz{+ [u(::r)
(3.1.54)

Ch. 3. Fundamentals of Fluid Dynamics

Similarly, when considering the coordinate line

Q2,

+ v x aVylax + l'y av /ay

= aplay

W z = aV,,,at

(3.1.55)
(3.1.56)
(:U.57)

(grad ph
(~Vh

(grad div Vh --: a div v/ay

= (grad eli\' Vh - (nl1'l curl

12t

we have

vh

(::r) ]}-+.:z [r (a:: _":;T) J(3.1.58)

= -i;-{+ [8<:t) + a

Using the obtained relations, we ha\'e:

a~:t + Va:

"!: + V" a:V:t ~:~ -f'"*--: v(L\V).

V:t~+Vy~=- -+.*-:'v(~Vh

I
J

7T'~

a~~

-t

a div \'

'Y

,.

8,1 vV

-:'T'---ay

} (3.1.59)

where (~Vh and (~Vh are determined by formulas (3.1.54) and

(3.1.58), respectively,
We have thus obtained various forms of the equations of Iliotion
for a viscous liquid. Experience shows that this is needed because
in some cases, when studying thc laws of interaction of gas flows
with bodies in them, it is com'cuicnt to use one form of the equation, and in others, a different form.
l.l. Equations of Energy
and Diffusion of a Gas
Diffusion Equation

The motion of a dissociating viscous fluid can be ill\'estigated

with account taken of tIle influence of gas diffusion on this mot.ion.
This is expressed. particularly, ill that diffusion i~ taken into consideration when deriving the equation of energy-one of the fundamental equations of gas dynamics.
By dlft'usion is meant the levelling outoftheconcentration because
of the molecular transfer of a substance. This is a thermodynamically irreversible process, and it is one of the reasons why a gas
in motion loses mechanical energy.
The diffusion oquation is an equation of the transfer of the i-th
component in a gas mixture (it is a continuity equation for t.he
same component).

122

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynollmics of an Airfoil oIInd

011

Wing

To simplify onr investigation, we can assume that the intem,ity

of thermal and pressure diffusion is negligibly small and determine
the diffusion flux of the i-th component ill a direction n by the
equation
(3.2.1)
where Ci is the concentration of the i-tll component, and Di is the
diffusivity \.hat determines the diffusion flux when a concentration
gradient is present.
For a mixturo of gas components, we mnst take into eOllsideratioll the binary diffusivities corresponding to each pair of components, for example, to oxygen atoms and molecules, or to nitrogen
atoms and molocules in the air. In approximate calculations, we
can proceed from a certain value of the binary difiusivity TJ that
is the same for all the pairs of component.s. Taking this into account,
we have Qi.rI.n...." -pD oc;lon. Considering the directiOlls x, y,
and z along which diffusion occurs, we have
Qi.d.x = -pD oc;J(}.r, Qi.d.U .; -pD (}c;l(}y, Qi,d . -: -pD (}c;loz
(3.2.2)
or in the vector form
(3.2.3)
Qi.d -, -pD grad Ci
The diffusion of a substance is directed into a region with a reduced concentration, thorefore (}CiJiJn has a negative sign. Since the
-right-hand side of (3.2.3) contains a minns sign, the quantitr Qi.d
is positive.
Let liS eOllsider the derivation of the diffusion equation in a erlindrical c,oordinate system assuming the motion to be steady. ,"Ve shall
assume the flow to be three-dimensional and symmetric ahout the
x-axis, i.e. such in which the velocity component Vl' .....:: O. Let liS
separate an elementary volume of tho gas in the form of a ring
with dimensions of dr and dx (Fig. 3.2.1) constructed near point P
whose coordinates aro x and r and whose velocit}' components are
V", and V r . \Ve shall assume that the substance diHusos only in
a radial direction. ConsequenLly, the nux of the i-th component
through the internal surface of tlle element is mr -= 2nrflV.ci dx ~
+ QI.d2nr dx, where Ci and Qi.d are the c.oncentration and the
diffusion flux of the i-th component, respectively, ovaluated per
unit area.
The flux of the i-tll component through the outer surface is
m r ';' a;;r dr = mr -:- a (p~;rcil2n dr dx -\- a (~I;rlr) 2n dr dx

Consequently, the flow of the component into the volume being

considered is
10 (pV,rc,)lad 2n dr dx +110 (Q',dr)lod 2" dr dx

v,

Fig. l.l.1
An elementary gas particle in
an a:dsymmetric thr<'c-dim('nsional flow

DisregRrding the clirtll~ion nux of the suhslam'(' <lloHg the x-axis,

we fmd the I'ate of now of Ihe gas through the l'ft-il11ll{j face of the
elomen\. normal to this llXis:

mx

--co

2:trV~c;rdr

and through the right-hand one

m~ -:- (dm.,./(Ix) d.r
m~

+ Ii) (p V~rc;)ldJl 2:1 dr dx

lIenco, the flow of til(' component inl_o t.he vol1lme is

2:t la (p V.,(cf)iO.rl dr d:r

Since the amount of ga~ in the voilime does 1I0t change, tllC total
flow of the component into the volume equals its outflow because of
chemical reactions. If the rRte of formation of the i-th eomponent
in a unit volume caused hy chemiC-al reaetions is (W ~h)" the consumption of the component in the elementary volume is 2:t (W dl);r >:
X r dr dJ.:. Therefor', the balance of mass of tllC i-th component
in the volume being considered is

8 (pl'."rcJ/aJ.: -:.

a (pV rrc;).'8r

-= -8 (Q;.dr)i8r:.... (W~hLr (3.2.4)

This equation is known as the diffusion equatiun ill a cylindricnl

coordinAte !"ystem. In A similar Wily, we can obt.ain a diffusion
equation in the Cartesian coordinates x alld y for u pi nne flow:

rJ (pV"c;)/8x + rJ (pV vc;)J8y "'"' -8Q,.dJ8y

(Welt); (3.2.5)
where Qi.d is found from (3.2.3).
If we consider a binary mixture of atoms and molecules. then
L C; ,...., CA +- CM ..--' 1 and, consequently, QA.d .~ -QM.d . We determine the value of (Weh ); for a given reaction in a dissocialing
gas by the formulas of chemical kinetics.

124

Pt, I, Theory, AerodynllmiC5 of lin Airfoil lind II Wing

Energy EqueHon

Together with the equations of state, motion. and continuity,

the energy equation belongs to the system of fundamental differential equations as a result of whose solution we completely determine
the motion of a gas.
Let us consider a system of rectangular Cartesian c.oordinates
and compile an energy equation for a fluid particle in the form of
an elementary parallelepiped. This equation expresses the law of
energy c.onservation, according to which the change in the total
energy of a particle, consisting of its kinetic. Rnd internal energy.
during the time dt equals the work of the external forces applied
to the particle plus the influx of heat from the surroundings.
The kinetic energy of a particle of volume 't - dx dy ch is (p VI/2) 't,
and its internal onergy is up't (u is the internal energy of a unit
mass of the gas). Consequently. the change in the total energy
during the time dt is

1t [( p;1 'r- pu) '(] dt

p't

(.x;.;. u ) dt

The work of the external mass (volume) forces in the displacement

of the particle during the time dt can be represented in the form
of the dot product G V multiplied by the mass of the particle p't"
and the time dt. The mass force vector is G
Xi + Yj -:. Zk,
consequen tly,
-0":

(GV) P' dt

~ (XV, -

YV, -;. ZV,) P' dt

Let us calculate the work of the surfac(' forces. First we shall

consider the work done during the time dt by the forces induc.ed
by the stresses acting on the right-hand and left-hand faces. The
work done by the forces acting on the lelt-hand face equals the dot
product 0,,' V multiplied by the area dy dz and the time dt. In the
dot product, the vector of the surface forces is
0" =-= p,%,%i -,- 't.q,j + 't:uk
The work done by the surface forces acting on the right-hand [ace is

[O.zV + 8

<:;V) dz] dy dz dt

Having in view that the forces fOT the left-hand and right-hand
faces are directed oppositely, we must assume that the work done
by these forces is opposite in sign, for example, positive for the
right-hand and negative for the left-hand face. Accordingly, the
work of all tbe surface forces applied to tbe left-hand and right-hand
faces is

8<:t)-Cdt=[-!;(Puv,,+t:ruVu-i-'t"IV:] tdt

(3.2.6)

Ch. 3. Fundamentals 01 Fluid Dynamics

125

We obtain expressions for the work done by Lhe ~mrface forces

acting on the lower and upper, and also on t.he front and rear fates,
in a similar way:
[a (au V)/fJyJ dt and [a (a,V)/fJzl

'C

dt

Considering that the vectors of the surface rorces acting on the

lower and rear faces are, respectively,

obtain tlte following expressions for LllC work:

a

(::V)

Q(~;")

1:

dt =

['*

.dt= [-;;:

('C~ .Y lI:'r PUyV ~ + 'ty~Vz)] .. dt

(3.2.6')

J -rdt

(3.2.6~)

('CuV.o:+'t~yV!l+PuVz)

In expressions (3.2.6), (3.2.6'), and (3.2.6"), the stre~ses arc determined by relations (3.1.5) and (3.1.16), respectively.
The inl1ux of heat to the particle occurs owing to hea\. conduction,
diffusion, and radiation. Let q", dy dz (where q", is the specific hent
flow) be the amount of heat due to heat conduction or diffusion
transferrer! to the particle through the left-hand face in nnit time.
During the time dt, the heat flux qo: dy dz dt is supplied to the particle. The heat nux through the right-hand face is - Iqx ...l.
+ (dq."ld.r) dxl dy dz dt. The amount of heat transferred to the
partic]" tnrough both. faces is - (fJq,,/fJx) 'C dl. We oMain similar
expressions for tile faces perpendir.1I1ar to the y- and z-axes. Hence,
the total heat flux transferred t.o the particle is - (aq:Jdx + fJq~/fJy '';-

+ agz/az) dt.

If we consider the supply of heat caused by conduction, the specific heat nows, equal to the heat fluxes along the relevant coordinate
directions through a unit area, are expressed by the Fourier law
qT ..>: = -A. aT/ax, qT.u = -A. aTlfJy, qT"

= -A. fJTlfJz

(3.2.7)

With this taken into account, we have

-(fJqT.x/aX

+ fJqT.ifJy + aqTjfJZ) 'C dt

= div (). grad T)

'f

dt (3.2.8)

where gcad T ~ (aT/ax)i + (aT/ay); + (aT/Oz)k.

The energy supplied to a gAS particle at the expense of diRusion is
qd.,.,=

f Qt,

rI. xiI>

qd. U=

f Qt.

d,

~i" qd, z = ~ Qf. rI. zit

where ii is the generalized enthalpy component of the gas mixture.

126

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

Hence.
_ ( uqa; .\'

+ a~d; y + aq: / ) 't dt

=" _

(~

it

lJQ~zd. x

+h

aQ~!ld.1J

if

+ hit iJQ1at;) "dt= (- ~ i,divQ"d) "dt

Introducing into this equation the value of Qi,d from (3.2.3),

we obtain
- (Oqd. :iox iiJqo. gloV+ Oqd. z/oz) 'rdt
= ~ it div (pD grad e,)

't

dt

(3.2.9)

In addition to the energy transferred to a particle by conduction

and diftusioll, il also receives heat owing to radiation, equal te>
n dt (e is the heat flux due to radiation absorbed by unit volume).
By equating the change in the energy of a particle during the
time dt to the sum of the work done by the mass and surface forces
and the influx of heat ber3use of c:ondllction, diffusion, and radiation, we oblain the energy equation:

PTt (~+ u)
+ "zgl' v-I

'----"p (XV;,: ,!. YVy +ZV1 )

+-tr (PnV;,:

'rXZ V2 ) -1'-;'; ("!I~V;,:+ PnVv + "VIV,)

+.;;. ('r;:tVx..L "zVVy+ pzzVz);- div (A grad T)

+ ~ i,dh'(pDgraric,l+e

(3.2.10)

Upon the motion of a chemically reacting mixture of gases, the

energy equation expresses the condition of the heat balance including the heat that may appear as a result of chemical rcacLions.
If we take into account, however, that upon the proceeding of reactions the generalized enthalpy of the gas mixture LCJii does not
change, then upon int.roducing the generalized enthnlpy inte>
Eq. (3.2.10), we cnn no longer take into account separately the
release or absorption of heat because of chemical reactions.
Introducing into (3.2.10) the expressions for the st.resses (3.1.5)
and (3.1.16) and excluding the term taking into account the work
done by the mass forces, after transformations we obt.ain an energy
equation for a gas:
p

1t (~-!. u)

= -

div (pV)_.. -} div (jlV div V)

+-f; (~~) +fu- (~

u:;) +-i; (~ u:!)

Ch. 3. Fund"mentals of Fluid Dyn"mics

-tx

f,!{VyCt7 Vzcy)I-i- 2

127

IfL (V."l ;. V.f x)]

:- 2 "';;'I~ (V.~ey -; Vllc:rl/;...div (Agraa T)

+~ ijdiv(pDgradc/)+

(3.2.11)'

Equation (3.2.11) sl10ws what causes the kinetic energy of a nuid

to change. III addilion to conduction, {Jifrllsion, alld nuliatiotl. this
energy changes at the expense of the work of comprC'ssion di, (pV)
and tho work of tho friction forces (the tcrJII~ of t.ho eqllation ("ontaining the dynamie viscosity pl. The di!'sipatioll of ell('I'gy i.'" 1ISSOciated with the losses of mechani(:l1I en('rgy ror on'('{'ollling the
friction forces. j':nergy dissipation {'onsists in that the mcehanica\
energy in part tram;forms il'l'eYersihJy into heat. Accordingly. the
friction forces arc ('alled dissipathe. The terms on till' right-hand
side of (3.2.11) ('ontaining 11 form the dissipative fUllction.
For two-dimellsiollal plnllC' molioll of a \'i!'colls nuid. thC'
energy equation is
p

~ (~-;. u) =

-div (pV)-i- div

(~lV div V)

+fx(~l~)~*(~W)
2 -if; (~lVllez) ._- 2

i; (fLV ",ell.1- div (Agrad T)

+ ~ i l div (pDgl'ad ci ) -:
where
grad T

V "'" V.ti
(oT/B.d i

(0.2.12)1

+ V"/L di\' V '"'" iJV)iJx + (}r"ldy,

+ (oT/uy)j, grad C; -" (8c;:(h)i ~- (IJc;lay)j

Let us transform the energy eqllation (:~.2.12). To do this, we'

multiply the first equation (3.1.20) hy V", the second olle hy V",
and sum up the results. \Ve obtain

_ Vx~[~(2

-t- (~).~ - (V"~'.Vy*)

u:~~-+diVV)]'i-Vyi;[~(2 U~',_~ di\"V)].

-: 2

[l"o~ ~ (j.lz) -I VII

-;;. (Il.) ]

We can show by simple tran.!'fol'mations thnt

l'" up/ax
VII iJp/ay = di" (pV) - P (Jiv V

(3.2.13)-

128

Pt. l. Theory. Aerodynemics 01 en Airfoil end eWing

where we find p div V by using the continuity equation

p div V ~ -(pip) dpld" or p d'v V ~ P (dldt) (pip) -

dpldt

We transform the sum of the other two terms on the right-hand

side of the equation to the form

V%.:x[~ (2 ;t--}diV v)] +V.. ';; [~

(2 ~ --} div V) J

~ -h (~~) +.:,- (~W)-2~[( '::)' +( '::

-{-diV (~V div V) ++~(divV)t

For the last term in (3.2.13), we have the expression
2

[v" ;;'(fJo!,;z) l V y ';;

(!-LBz)]

=2* (I-'V"e

l )

+~ (",V:t:ez) - 4",e~

Let us make the relevant substitution in (3.2.13) and subtract

the obtained equation from (3.2.12). Having in view that i =
= It + pIp, we obtain

p~=*+21-'{[(~r

+ea;y" r]-i- (divV)2+4e~}

-I- div ().grad T) + h i, div (pDgrad cI ) + e

(3.2.14)

In the absence of heat transfer by diffusion and radiation. we can

write the energy equation in the form

p~

=%+21-'{[( 0;; r + ( 0;,;1 rJ --} (div V)Z+!ie~}

+div{).gradT)

(3.2.15)

At low gas velocities. when the work of the friction forces is

not great. we may disregard the dissipative terms. In addition.
the work done by the pressure forces is also insignificant (dp/dt 1::J
~ 0). In the given case, instead of (3.2.15), we have
dTld'

(Alpc,) d'v (grad T)

(3.2.16)

The quantity A/(pC p ) = a, called the thermal dillusivity,characterizes the intensity of mol ocular heat transfer.

Ch. 3. Fundllmenlotls or Fluid Dynllmics

129

3.3. System 01 Equations

of Gas Dynamics.
Initial and Boundary Conditions

The investigation of the motion of a gas, Le. the determination

of the para.meters characterizing this motion for each point of space,
con~ists in soiYing the relevant eqnations that relate these parameters to one another. All these equations are independent and
form a system of equations of gas dynamies. We determine the
number of independent equations by the number of unknown parameters of the gas being sought.
Let us consider the motion of an ideal compressible gas. If the
velocities of the Row are not high. we may ignore the change in
the specific.' heats with the temperature and take 110 account of
radiation. In this case. the gas How is a thermodynamically isolated system and is adiabatic. The unknown quantities for the now
being considered arc the three "elocity component$ l'x, VII' and
V z and also the pressure p, dl>Jlsitr p, nnd temperilture T. Consequently. the system of equations of gas dynamics must include six
independent- onc.'i. Among them arc the eqllation~ of motion, continllity. slate, IIlld ell(>rgr. which art' ('USlomllrily called the fundamental equations of gas dynamics,
B(>fore compiling this s-y:-;(ern of equations, let us cOIl~idel' separately the energy eq1lation. III ac('onlnncc willi ollr m':-;umption on
the nrliabatif: nature of (he Ilo\\", we \I'Hn:-;fol'lll til(' ('1I('rgy equation (:1.:!,14) tI!! follows:
di

= dp/p

(3.3.1)

If we take into cOII$lideralioli the cquatiorl di -, c/ dT, aud also

the ('xpressions el' - C p ..." Rand p -'" RpT. from which we can
nnd

then (3.3.1) is reduced to the form dp/p = k drIp.

Hence
(3.3.2)

where A is a constant characteristic of the given conditions 01 gas

flow.
Equation (3.3.2), is known as the equation of an ndiabat (isentrope). Hence. in the case being considered, the energy equation coin('ides with that of an adiabat. Having the energy equatioll in t.his

130

Pt, I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 an Airfoil and" Wing

form, we shall write all the equations of the system:

1

dV:\, _

8p

-p'Tz'

---cit-

dV lI
~=

ay

-p'Tu

~~:=-+,~, -*+pdivV=O
p=RpT.

(3.3.3)

Aph-I=RT

Let 11S ('.onsider the system of equations for the more general
case of the motion of an inviscid gas at high speeds when the specific heats change with the temperature, and dissoC'-iation and ionization may orcur in the gas. For generality, we shall retain the possibility of the heated gas radiating energy. ~ow the thermodynamic
process in the gas flow will not be adiabatic. Accordingly, the quantity determining the radiation heat flllx remains on the right-hand
side of energy equation (3.2.14). We shan note that the equation
of state must be adopted in the form of (1.5.8) taking into ft(',count
the change in the mean molar mass Ilm with the temperature and
pressure. In accordance with the above. and also taking into ar,r.ount
that the equations of motion and continuit.y do not change in form.
we shall give the fundamental equations of the system:
dV."\"

8p

8V"

8p,

(ii"'=--p'&%' d't-:'-p'Ty

d!'t%

:;;~

-+'*: ~+pdiVV=O

p=!;-pT,

f
(3.3.4)

p-:-=*+e

We can see that in the given system in addition to the six unknown
quantities indicated above (V", V y V z p, p, and T) three more
have appeared: the enthalpy i, mean molar mass of the gas 11ru.
and the heat flux e: produced by radiation. Besides these quantities.
when studying the flow of a gas, we must also determine the entropy
S and the speed of sound a. Hence. the total number of unknown
parameters characterizing a gas flow and being additional1y sought
is five. Therefore. we must add this number of independent relations
for the additional unknowns to the system of hlndamental equations.
These expressions can be written in the form of general relations
determining the unknown quantities as functions of t.he pressure
and temperature:
i ~ /, (p, T)
(3.:1.5)
(3.3.6)
S = t. (p, T)
(3.3.7)
~m = t. (p, T)
(3.3.8)
=t.(P, T)
(3.3.9)
= t. (p, T)

Ch. 3. Fund~ment~l$ of Fluid Dynllmics

131

The linding of these functions is tlte subject of special branches

of physics and thermodynamics.
The solution of Eqs. (:1.3.1)-(3.3.0) determines the parameters of
flow of an inviscid dissociating and ionizing gas with account taken
of the radiation effect. Snch flow is studied by the uerodynamics of
a radiating gas.
Let us consider a more general clIse of flow chara(tcrized hy the
action of friction forces and heat transfer. \Ve shall assume that
chemical reactions occur ill the gas. Therefore. Llw fllndamental
equations of th(' sYiitcm (for simplirlcation we shall ("onsider twodimensional plane flow) will include two differential equations
(3.1.20) of motiou of a yisrous compressible fluid \vith a varying
dynamir viscosity (Il =t= cOllsI), and also l'ontinuity e(Iuation (2.4.1).
These equations mUl'it be l'iupplcmented \vail equation of slate (1.5.8)
relating to the general cuse of a dis~ociated and ionized gas, and
with expression (3.2.11) that iii the ('nergy equation for a two-dimensional compressible gas rlow in which heat transfer by diffusion
anc1 radiation occur. These equations describe the gelleral case of
unsteady motioll and characterize the unsteady thermal processes
orcufring ill a ga~ now. !fence, we have

~== _+.~++'~['I (2

iI;;. --}diV v)J

++~(Ile:)

-+.* r+'+v [~(2 a{~;1 ._+ div v)]

+4*(~eJ

(3.3.10)

47-, pdivV=O;
fJ%=~

-'-2M

{[(~r .L(~r]-+{clh'VP 4e~}

+div ("-grad T)+ ~ i, div (pD~rad cJ) :.

This system mllst be slIpplelllelltf'd with relations n.3.5)-(:I.~Ul),

and: also with tbe gener,]} relations for the thermal conductivit.y

).

~!. (p, T)

"

(3.3.11)

the dynamic viscosity

!,

(3.3.12)

(p, T)

.md the specific heats

c,.

= /,

(p, T),

C1'

'-'

/9

(p, T)

(3.3.13)

182

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

The last t\\'o quantities are not contained explicitly in Eqs. (3.a.10).
but they fire RCvertheless used in solving them because when studying the flow of a gas its th(>rmociynamic characteristics are determined. Since the energy equation also t.akes into account heat
transfer by diffusion. equation (3.2.5) has to be included additionally. It must be taken into accollnt simultaneollsly that the COIlcentration Cj in the energy and diffusion equations is a function
of the pressure and temperature, and it can be written in the form
of the general relation

c,

/" (p, T)

(3.3.14)

The abo\'e system of equations including the fundamental equations of gas dynamics and the corresponding number (according
to the number of unknowns being sought) of additional relations
is considered in the aerodynamics of a viscous gas and allows one
to fmd the dist-ribution of the normal and shear streiises, and also
the aerouynamic heat nnXeii from the heated gas to the wall over
which it Hows. In spedflc ("aRCS, for which a definite schematization
of the now process is possible, the above system is simplifled, and
this facilitates the solution of the differential equations.
When soh'jng the equations, it becomes necessary to in\'olve
additional relations used for determining the characteristic parameters of motion. Among them are. for example, relations for determining the ~pE"cinc heats and the degree of dissociation depending
on the pressure and tcmpcrature, 0.11(1 formulas for calculating the
shear stress depcnding on lhc \'clocity.
The solution of a system of gaswdynamic equations describing
the flow onr a given snrfarc mustsatis[y defInite initial ami boundary conditions of this now.
The initial conditions al'e determined by Lhe values of the
gas parametcl'!'! for a certain instant and ha\'e sense, evidently, for
unsteady motion.
The boundary conditions arc superposed on Lhe solution of the
problem both for steady and [or unsteady motion and must be
obsen'ed at eury ins/ant of this motion. According to one of them,
the solution must be SUeil that the parameters determined by it
equal the values of the parameters for the undisturbed Dow at the
boundary separating the disturbed and undisturbed now regions.
The second boundary c.onditioll is determined by the nature of
gas flow oyer the rele\'sllt :"urfnce. If the gas is in viscid and does
not penetrate through such II surface. the flow is said to be without
separation (a fre{' streamliop. now). In accordance with this condition, the normal velocity component at each point of the surface is
zero, while the vect.or of the total velocity coincides with the direction of a tangent to the surface.

Ch. 3. Fundamel'ltals of Fluid DYl'Wllmics

133

It is general knowledge that-the "ector grad F [nerc F (qt. q'J' q3) =

= 0 i,!l the equation of the sllrfaC'c in the 00\..... and qh q'J' q3 are
the generalizcII C'urvilinear C'ool'(linat~l coincides in dircction with
a normal to the snrlaC'e. lIen(,f-, ror conditions of Row without sep
aralion. the dot prodnel of 111i~ vcC'tor and the "clority vector V
is zero.
Conseqllcmtly. the condition of Row withont separation can be
written in a mathematical form ,IS follows:
VgradF 0
Taking into account that
gradF

""-&. :~ i

l -/;;.

;~

i'J

~-*. :~

13

(3.3.15)

the ('ondition of Row without separation can be wl'iUcn as

-&' :~ VI+i :~ V2~-*' :~ V =O

3

(3.3.16)

For Cartcsian coorninate."', we haye

grad F , . (iJF.'iJ,r) i l + (;)F.'iJy) i'J -:- (iJpiiJz) i.1
COII!lt'qllcntly. r.r (3.3.16)
i'.,. ilFliJx ~- 1'" OFhJy --:- 1": flF/i)z ,... ()

(:1.3.17)

For two-dimensional plane flow

1""

V;"". -

aF/iJ.r;
aFlog

(3.3.17')

If the equation of lhc surface is gh'en in q;lindrical ('oordiIl8tes.

we haye

gradF-:-~il+*j'J-:-

+.*i

thererm'f', the ('omlilion of flow wilholll scpal"ulioll has Illc rorm

(3.3.18)
In a particulllr case. whNI a :'lUl'face of rc\'olnt.ioli is ill the flow,
we obtain the equation
Fx OF/O:r -;...
{)F/i)r - 0
(:3.:3.18')

'r

froll1 whieh we find the condition for the vclo('itr ratio:

f.; - ~~~:;

(3.3. "19)

Other bOlilldal'Y cOlldilioll~ ('an also he rormulated. They are

determined for each spccinc problem, the boundary conditions ror

1.34

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

a viscous gas differing from the cOlHlitions for an ideal fluid. ParliClllarIy, witli'll studying the flo,v of a viscolls gas in a boundary layer,
the solutions of the pertinent equations must satisfy the conditions
on the sllrface of the body and at the edge of the boundary layer.
According Lo experimental data, the gas partides adhere, as it
were, to the sllrface, and therefore the velocity on it is zero. At
the boundary layer edge, the velocity be{'~omcs the sallie as in free
(inviscid) flow, and the shear stress equals zero.

3.4. Integrals of Motion

for an Ideal Fluid
The differential equations deriver! for the general case of motion
of a gas are non-integrable ,in the finite form. Integrals of these
equations can be obtained only for Lhe particular case of an ideal
(inviscid) gas flow.
The equation of motion of an ideal gas ill the vector form is
8V/fJt + grad (V2/2) + cud V x V = -(tip) grad p
(3.4.1)
This equation can be obtained from vector relation (3.1.22') in
which the terms on the right-hand side taking into acconnt the
influence of the viscosity should he taken equal to zero.
In its form (3.4.1), the equation of motion was first obtained by
the Rmisian scientist prof. I. Gromeka. With a view to the mass
forces, Gromeka's equation becomes
8V/8t -;- grad (V2/2)
eurI V X V ~ G - (lIp) grad p
(3.4.2)

Let us assume that the unsteady now will he potential, hence

curl V = 0 and V = grad 'P. In addition. let us assume that the
mass forces have the potential U, therefore the vector
G = -grad U

where grad U = (8U/ax)1

(aU/uyH --1_ (uUliIz)k.
If a fluid has the property of barotropy characterited by an unambiguous relation between the pressure and density (this occurs, for
example, in an adiabatic flow, for which p -:-:: Ar"), then the ratio
dp/p equals the differential of a certain function P and, therefore,
(lIp) grad p = grad P
\Vith a view to this equation, expression (3.4..2) becomes
8 (grad rp)18t
grad (1'1/2) = -grad L: - grad P

Substituting the quantity grad (8(r/8t) for the deri"ali\"e

,ve obtain
grad (8rpI8t)
grad (V212) = -grad U - grad P
(3.4.~)

u (grad <r)/8t,

Ch. 3. Fundementels 01 Fluid Dynemics

13~

Going o\'er from the relation for the gradients to one hetween
the corre~pollding scalar fnne.tions. we rlild
df{'ldt

+ V~/2 + P

where

-i- C -= C (t)

(:{.4.4)

Jdpip

p.=

(3.4.5)

Expression (3.4.4) is known as the Lagrange equation or integral.

The right-hand side of (3.4.4) is i\ function that depends on the time,
but docs not depend on the coordillates, i.e. is identical tor any point
of t1 potential flow. The term:: on the left-hand sic/' of (3.1.4) have
a ~imple physical meaning: 1'2/2 is the kinelic energy, P "-:: ) dplp
is tlle potential energy d\le to the pressure for a unit mass, and U
is the potential energy due to tlte position of the fluid particles and
related to their mass.
To re\'eal the physical meaning of t.he Iirst term, let liS lise the
expression for the potenlial function rJ(rlas -:-: T"s. where V" is the
projection of the velocity "eclor onto a certain direction s. We can
dctermine the function (f from the cOlUlition (f
So and s are the coordinates of a

lix~d

-1

V..ds (where

and an arbitrarr point. respect-

i\ely). The deriyathe lh(dl .~ .~ (dFs'r)l) d.~.

,.

Thl' local acccleration aV,,/at cau be considered as the projection

of tllc inl'rtia force due to the presence of local acceleration and
related to unit ma~s, and the product (iH's/dl) ds as the work done
by this force on the se('tioll d.'1. Accordingly, the derivative a<fJlat
equals the work done by the inertia for(,e 011 the :;ection between
points So and .~ and ('an be eonsidered as the energy of unit mass
due to the change in time of the velocity and the pressure associated
with it at the given point.
\\'itll a view to tile above, the expression on the left-hand side
of (3.4.1) is tllC tolal encrgy of a unit mass of the gas. Hence, the
Lagrange equation establishes the fact. that the toLal cncrgy of unit
mass at a given instant is a ql1antity identical for all points of
thc poten tial flow.
For an incompressible fluid whose motion occurs Illlder the action
of mass and pl'essure forces, integral (3.4.4) has the form
a~/Ot -i- V'/2
pip
C ~ C (/)
(3.4.6)

If, parti('ularly, the y-axis is directed \'('rt.ically upward, then

L' = gy, alld
(3.4.6')
Qlf'dt + ~rll/2
pIp
gy =-= C (t)

136

PI. I. Theory. Aerodyn!!mics 01 lin Airfoil lind

II

Wing

Of major practical significance is the particular case of a steady

potential [low for which aqJliJt = 0 and the function C (t) = tonst,
Le. is independent of the time. In this case, Eq. (3.4.4) is reduced
to t.he form

V 2 /2+

Jdplp--!U=const

(3.4.7)

This partial form of the Lagrange equation is called the Euler equatiOD. It expresses the law according to which the total energy of
a unit mass is a constant quantity for all pOints of the steady potential
flow. Hence. the constant in the Euler equation is the same not only
for t.he entire region of a flow, but also, unlike the function C (t)
of the Lagrange integral, is independent of the time.
The Euler equation for an incompressible fluid (p = canst) has
the same form as (3.4.7), the only difference being that instead of
dp/p it includes the ratio pip.
Let us considC'T the more general case of a non-potential steady
flow of a gas. The equation of this motion has the form
curl V X V = -grad P - grad U
(3.4.8)
grad (V2/2)

or
grad (V2/2

+ ) dplp +

U) "'... -curl V X V

(3.4.8')

The right-hand side of (3.4.8') equals zero if the vectors curl V

and V are parallel, Le. provided that a vortex line and streamline
coincide. In this case, we have

V'/2

Jdp/p

+U~

C,

(3.4.9)

This equation was ftrst obtained by I. Gromeka. The constant C1

is the same for the entire region where the condition of the coincidence
Of the vortex lines and streamlines is observed. Such regions, to study
which the Gromeka equation is used, appear, for example, in a flow
past a finite-span wing. This flow is characterized by the formation
of vortices virtually coinciding in direction near the wing with the
streamlines. A flow does not always contain such regions, however.
A flow is customarily characterized by the presence of vortex lines
and streamlines not coinciding with one another. The family of
vortex lines is given by Eq. (2.6.1), and that of the streamlines
(pathlines), by Eq. (2.1.6). The flow being considered is described
by Eq. (3k8').
Let liS take the vector of the arc in the form as -:--= dxi + dyj -++ dzk. belonging to a streamline or vortex line, and determine the
dot product
dsgrad (V2/2 + dplp + U) = -cis-(eurl V X V)

Ch. 3. Fundamentals 01 Fluid Dynamics

137

The left-hand side ill this equalion is tlJ(' 101,1\ differenlial of the
trinomial ill pl'lrcntheses, consequently.

d CV2/2

+ ) dp/p

-:- L') = -ds (curl V X V)

(3.4.10)

The product (Ourl V X V is A. veclor perpendicular to the \'f'('tors

curl V and V. The dot product of this y('ctOI' aTld the \,prlor d'3 is
zero in two cases: when the ('ector d~ COiIlCidl'S wi/It. 11'1' directioll oj
a streamline (pathlinc) 01' {",hen (hi,) reef 01' coilleides Il"ilh the direction
of a vortex. III these two ca,<:e~. the following '<:o\l1tion of tile equation
of motion is valid:

P/~ -.:. \ dpip

C ....: C 2

(3.-1.11)

where the vallle of tlte cOI1..-\.alll C z clepc/HII< 011 what palhJine or

vortex line is beillg considered,
Relation (3.4.11) is known as the Bernoulli equation. It is obvious
that for yariolls \'ortex lines passing through points on a given
streamline, the conslaut is lhe :;iUlie as fOl' tile streamline. III eXfletly
the same way, Ihe ('onsl.ants fire id~ntical for II rllllliiy of ~tr(>amlincs
(pathlines) find the vortex through whose points a slrenmline pfl~~(lS.
One must deflrly understand Ihe distinction between the Grollleka
and Bernoulli equations con~idcred abo\'(. TIley nrc both derived
for a vortex (non-potential) nO\\', howen~r the iiI'S!. of them reJ1p(,\.f'.
the fact that the totfll energy of a IIllit llli1~S 01' the
IS
in the entire region where the \'orlex liHl'S and
while the second equation ('."'tabl [ghes Ihe law
this energy is constant along fI giH'n streamline lIr Lor/c.!
ingly. in the Gromeka equation. tlw COll;.:talll, is thp ."amp
entire flow region being consi(ll:'red. wllere<l" ill lill:' Bernolilli ('llllfltion it relates to a given streamline
/iIle. \alllrall~. ill
the general ca."'e, the two conslanh
,1ft' Ilul tIl(' ."<lme.
From the above. there also follow~ a
lIll lite one hand.
between those equations, and, on lhc
lhe Lilgl'illlg'f.'
and guler eqllfllions relating to all
s/eady IN/e,f-free
(potential) flow, re~pe('ti\'cly. alll1
earh of the COI1sidered equations,
When studying the flow of a fluid. iJl\'C~tigalor:, gin' \IIt' gl,("lle:<\
favour to the Bernoulli equation related to the ("onditions 011 the
streamlines (pathline.s). It i:< Iwown that the ('on~t.ilnt C2 ill this
eqtHltion (3.4.11) is determined for every streamlin(l heing l'OllSi(\ered. If, however, a steady now is also vortex-free (potential),
the Bernoulli equation coincides with the Buler e(lliation. nIH!.
therefore, the constant is identical for all the streamline.'i, i.e. for
the eJllin! now region.
Let liS rOll.~ider some specific forms of the Bernoulli eqUAtion,
For an incol11pressible nuid and pro\'ided that the fllnclioll U _. gy.

138

Pt. 1. Theory. Aerodynllmics of lin Airfoil and a Wing

we shall write this equation ill the form

V 2 /2

+ pip + yg =

C"

(3.4.12)

When studying the motion of a gas. we may disregard the [nflu

ence of the mass forces. Consequently, we mllst assume that L' ,,= 0
in Eq. (3.4.11) and the other int.egrals. Particularly, instead of
(3.4.12). we haye
(3.4.13)
Lel \lS consider the motion of an ideal compressible gas. In such
a gas. heat transfer processes due to viscosity (heat conduction,
diffusion) are absent. Assuming also that the gas does not radiate
energy. we shall consider its adiabatic (isentropic) molion. Exam
ination of energy eq\lation (a,2.14) reveaL-, that Eq. (3.3.1) holds
for s\lch fill inviscid gas in the ahsence of radia\io[] ( - 0). Consequently. the Bernoulli integral is
(3.4.14)
In this form, the Bernoulli integral is an ene!'gy eqnation for
an isentropic now. According La this rqlLalion. the slim of the kinetic energy and enthalpy of a gas partide is COlLstanL Assuming that
i 0' cl,T
cl,p/(pR), cp - CD c- R, and k - c1>'"c(., we lilld
i ~ lk/(k - 1)1 pip
(3.1,.15)
Con~equently,

V'/2
V 2/2

+ [k/(k -

1)[ pip ~ C

+ kRT/(k -

1) --" C

(H.16)
(3.4.16')

The Bernoulli equation for an ideal compressihle gas is the theoretical foundation for investigating the laws of isentropic flows of
a gas.
3.5. Aerodynamic Similarity
Concept 01 SlmUlrHy

The aerodynamic characteristics of craft or their individual

elements can be determined twlh theoretically and experimentally.
The theoretical approaches are hased on t.he llse of a system of equations of gas dyuamics that is solved as applied to a hody in a flow,
the hody ha\Oing a given configuration and arhitrary absolute dimensious.
\Vhen rUllning experiments intended for obtaining aerodynamic
parameters that can he used directly for further ballistic calculations
or for verifyiug the resnlts of theoretical investigations. it is not
always possible to use a fnll-scale body because of its large size,
and a smaller-size mod "I of the body has to be used. In tlds con-

Ch, 3, Fundamentals 01 Fluid Dynamics

139

Jl('ction, Ihe question appem's on Ihe poss.ihility of trans.fel'fing

the l'xpl'rimental 1'('''-lIitS obtained 10 full-scllle ])o<li(';::, Tile answer
to this (jllestion is ginn Ilf lhe dimensional analysis and similarit~
method. Thl' hlt!CI' ('slal,li!<he..- the cOJHlilinns tlllli Illust he ohsel"wd
in ..-eale-model experiJll(>llts and indicates dU'lracit'ri!<lic find COII\'eni('nl parameter..- determining the liMit' l'fccls uno tlow (,(lHditions.
Let liS as!>UTnll that measurl.'Olent!< in a wind tUJlIl(>1 :riel(led II drag
fo\"t'e which ill a('('ol'(lance with (1.:1.5) is Xm"~
c,,',modQmodSmnd'
l\OW let us s('e wilen we ('all use the l'e,'-'11l1 ohlaillcd to determine
the dl'flg rorre of a full-!>cal(' bod~' in a('('o\"llallre witll the formula
Xf,; ..., (,..t~qtsSts in whid\ the Ilrag- ('oel1i('il'Jlt c.\',fs ror this hody
is an unknown qlHlIItitr, while tile \"elocitr hl'afl qt~ and the rererence or dHiraeterislic Mea SfS an' gi\'(,Jl. FI'OIll the Iwo rormulHs
for Xt~ lind X,"od' we oblain
X,s '-' X mod (cx.fs:C.,.'HOd) (lJ,sSf~'lJn'''dS'''''d)
(3.5.1)
A glance at this (!xpl'ession r('\'('als thai tlte experimental \"lIlue
X mCld ran be used to e\"aluate the fllll-,"('il.le force X", only upou the
('quality of the aerodynamic {"oeffidput~ (,.lIIool Hnd (\'.Is because
the qUlIlIlities q"'(ldSmod and qtsSr~ are detCl'lIlined ullamhiguously
by the given yaillt's of the wlo('ity h('uris and tILL' referellce areas.
lIere both flows-the model and fl\ll-~cale on('s-haw the property
of dynamic similarity. It consisls. in thi~ ('lISC ill Ihflt the preset fOt'ee
characted~lic or one flow (the drag X ,urld) i!< lIsed to rInd the rhllr(lr leristi(' of till' olher flo\\" (thc force .Yr.) by simple cOHYersion, similar
to tit(' IransitiOH from olle systf'm or units of mea~lll'emeHt to anoLher.
The re(ll1irements whose satisraclion in the gin'll ('ase (,IlSlll'es
the equality C.\"."".d - c.\"'~' ,11\(1 in Ihe gPlleral ra~e of other OilllC'llsiOllless aerodynamic coet"iicil'nls 100, are eslabli..-lted in the dimellsiOHal analysis allfl s.imilarity method pro(('pding eilllCr from the
physicAl natlll'c of the phenomenon bping stlldi('d or from the corresponding differential equation!> of aerodynamil's.
Con..-iderLng the expression rOt' the ll(']'()(lyuamic coefiieiellt

(fx,,)1*

C'\8= ) [iJeos(Il.T D );(',."cos

(3 ..'5.2)
<s,
Qhtnined from (1.3.2), we can !':'CE.' Ihat this coefficienl depends on
dim('n~ionless gcomet!'ir parllnlell'I's. and also on (limensionless
qlllllltities sudL as th(' pl'eSSlll'(' rQPllidont 11IIt! Jocal fricLion facioI'.
Hellc(' it follows Ihat thc aerO(IYllllmic co('ffirienl..- fol' a fuJl-sclIle
ohjed [lIHI an eXpl'fillll'lltal onl' with diffNent ahsolute dimell!<iolls
remain constallt if these hodi('.'-' are g('ol\ll'lrically similar Hiltl HII
ideulirat Ilbitl'ibution of Ihl' {"oefficiellts j, and Cr;o,. 0\"('1' their surface
is l'IlS1U,('d.
If \\"1' ron.sidl'r a steady uniform flo\\" o\'er 11 IlOtly ill the absence
of heat Iransfer, the coefficicnls and Ct.:>: with 11 gi\'en configuration

140

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynllmics of an Airfoil and a Wing

of the body in the flow

known \"alues of the angle of attack lind
the sideslip ,mgle.
as of the rudder and elevator angles, will
be functiolls of the
stream velocity l' the pressure poc, the
density p "', lIH: dynamic yj~co!>ity .~oe. the specilic heats c" "" and
C,,(IO of the gas, as \I'cll as of a certain characteristic (reference) linrar
dimension of thf' hody L ConsequenLly. the drag coefficient will
also depend all tltese parameters, and we can compile a functional
relation for it in the form ex:...: t (V"',, p"", p"" fl=, c)lx" C,._. L).
Since this coefficient is a dimensionless quantity, it mnsl also be
a function of dimensionless parameters. From the general considerations or the dimensional method. it follows thnt the seven different
argnments of the funclion C x call be reduced to three. The latter are
dimensionless combhHltiolls compiled from V.", p"", poo, fix-, cl''''''
c,_ ,." and L because there arc fOllr independent units of measnrement,
namely, mass, lcngth, time, ancl temperaturE'. These dimensionless
combinations h,,\'E' the following form: II "" Vk~p<:.Jp"" '- V ",,/a ~ =
= Moo-the :vrnch numiler for an Hlldisturbcd flow; lloop""LifLoo =
= Reoo-thc Reynolds number bi\~ed on t.he parametl'rs of an
undisturhed flow and the cilflracleristic linear dimension L; cp ...,Ie,."."
= koc-the adiabatir exponent.
In the expression for Jl,,,,, it is assumed that Vk""p""."p", = am
is the spet'd of sOllnd in Lhe undisturbed flow. Indeed, in accordance
with the gt'l)pral t'.\pre~sion for the speed of sOlmd a? ""'" dp.dp. and
also with a dew to the adiflhatic nature of propagation of sonic
disturbances in a gas, according to which p ==- Apk, we have 0 2 =
= d (Ar~)/dp '----' kp'p. Ac('ordingly, the square of the spepd of
sound in an l1udislurbed flow is a;' ".., k ...poo.p"". Hence, the ratio
V .../Vk~p"",p= '----'
All other dimcnsionlcss combinlltions
except for M"", Re"",
k"", formed from the seven paramet.ers
indicated aho\e or in general hom any quantities that can he determilled by them are fllnctiou!'; of the combination!'; Moe, Re"", and
k,.,. Consequcntly, the drag coefficient is
ex --= t (Moe, Re".., /c",,)
(3.:i.;{}
Similar expressions can he obtained for the olher IIcrodYll1l1nic
coefIidents. It follows from these expressiolls that when tile nllm~
her." M "'" Re.., and the parAmeter k"", for a model and a flll1~scalc
flows are equal, the aerodynamic coefficients for geometrically
similar bodies arc the same. Hence, an important concillsion can
he made in the dimensional analysis and ~imilarity method in
accordance with which the necessary and sufficient condition for
aeroclynamic similarity is I.hr constancy of the numerical \'alues
of the clim(>nsionie:o;s comLinntion~ forming what is called a bns(>,
i.e. a system of dimellsionless ql1antilies determining all the other
parametPfs of a flow The~e (lirnensionless combinations are ("died
Similarity eritNia.
(10,

Ch, 3, FUfldamentab 01 Fluid Dynamics

141

The ~imilaritr critt'ria gi\'t~n above have a delillite phrsical

meaning, In accordance with the e:o.:pression a:! = dp/dp, the speed
of sound can be considered as a criteriou tlcpeuding 011 the property
of compressibility, i.e. on the ability of a gas to change its densit}'
with a change ill the pressure. Consequently, the Mach number
is the similarity criterion that is used to characterize the influence
oj compressibility 011 the flow of a gas, The Heynolds number is a parameter used to appraise the influence of ~'I$C'osily Oil a gas ill motion,
while Lhe parameter k _ = cp ""fc r "" determines the features of
a flow due to the thermodynamic properties of Q gas.
Similarity (rU.ria Taking Account of

the VIKGsU, and Heat Conduction

In the more genernl conditions of flow characterized by the influence of a number of other physical and thermodynamic parametel's
on the aerodYllamic properties of craft, the drnamic similm'ily
criteriA are more complicated and diverse. To establish these criteria, we can usc a different approach of the dimensional analysis
and similarity method based on lh(> use of the eqUAtion of motion
of a "bcons Iwnl-conducting ga~,
Lel us wrile these (!qtUltioll~ in the dimclI:-:iolli(>ss form, i.e, in
a form such that the paramett'fs (vciociLr, presslIre, temperature.
etc,) in the equations arc rclal('d to I'd('rt'llco panUl1l'lt'I'S. The illtter
arc constants for f\ gh'en flo\\' alHl dl'lt'rmillt' iLs scal(>. \\'e shall take
as references the paramnlers of lhl' (1'(>(' stream: it,;; Yeioci~y r ... ,
pressure p_, dCllsitr p_. lempf.'l'al1ll'C T...,. f[YIl<lmic \'i~cosily ~\_
(or, respectively, the Idllemalic yisco!';U .... "",), ami so Oil, It mm!t
be remembercd that of the three parameters p"", poo, and Too, two
may be set arbitrarilr, while the 1hiI'd olle is determined from the
first two with the aid of an equal ion of slate, The quantity t"" is
the reference lime characterizing IIllstencir rIow conditions, while
a characteristic linear dimension L (for example, lhe length of the
body in the 110w) is the reference length, The acceleration of free
fall g can be cho!'icn as the reference acceleration of the mass forces.
The dimensionle!'ls variables for the length and tiane have the form

;; ~ .IL. Y ~ yiL. Z ~ ,no t

tit.

(3.5.4)

while those for the velocity, pressure, density, viscosity, and mass
forces have the following form:

V.~VJV

V,~I'~v.

V.~V.IV . p~plp }

p ~ pip.

;="'/""'"

v==v/""'"

X=XIH. Y=Ylg.

(~.5.5)

Z=Z/g

1+2

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

Let us introduce dimensionless variables into the equation of

motion (3.1.17) and the continuity equation (2.4.2). We shall use
only the first equation of system (3.1.17) for trallsformation becau.sc
the other two equations are compiled in a similar way. Let us write
the indicated equations using dimensionless variables:

~.'iV.T+
t~

dl

V!(v
/,

~+V cti\.
"'c1l:
U

iJfx),,~gX
au'.;..y'iJi

_~ . ..!...~+ \'~v~
poeL

it c)x

+-'-[.i(2
P iJx

L~

{".1V +...!.3 ...!..

ax div V
;r.

iJT!"_..!..diVV)+~( av,:. +~)

+*

og

fJ.t;j

((l~;T

-+-

b~,

iJ,I

lJr

)]}

~.~+p""roe [(l{P~'Tl +iJ(P~ul +a(p~l)]=O

h"

"l

()x

ag

bz

where div V '- afix/ax -I- aVuMi' aV,/aJ.

From the reference quantities in these equations, we can form
dimensionless numbers charaeteriling the similarity of gas flows.
These numbers, named after the scientists who were the first to
obtain them, are given in the following form:

Sh .,--, V oot~/ L - the Strouhal number;

Fr - V~/(gL) - the Fronde number;

M = V""la~-the Mach number;

He = V ""p""L/~"" = V""U""" - the Reynolds number
(the subscript "00" on M and Re has been omitted).

(3.5.6)

Here a .... = 'Vk ....RT"" is the speed of sound in an undisturbed

now (k .... and T .... are the adiabatic exponent and the temperature of
gas in the undisturbed flow, respectively). IntrodUCing these numbers into the equation of motion and the continuity equation. we
obtain:

Sh-I u~~ _V%U~T+VJl u.~:r

in

ux

II

+V:

uV.:r =_p'

uz"

-k",,1M'+'~ +~ {VAV:r+4-.fz-diV V

Ch. 3. Fundilmilnillis of Fluid Dynllmics

143

...:..~[~ (2 8~~ -~div V) +.i (8~x -+- J~!I '1

P

ax

ax

ay

8y

a,x

+*( 8~~", ~ a:r~ )J}

(3.;J./)

Sh~+a(p~x) _1_a(p~!I) +ii(p~.) ,-,,0

,1/
ux
(ly
,h

(:{.;l.8)

Let us transform the energy equation (:1.2.14) in which we shall

exclude terms taking into account radiation and diffusioll. \tVe
introduce the dimcllsionless variablcs

'.i' '-"

TiT <>0,

p ': "'"-' C"ICI' ""

"'l -

A A",

(3.5.9)

where cp~ and A~ are the specilic heat and the heat conductivity
of a gas in the 1Indisturbed flow, respectively.
Having in view that di -_ c p dT and expanding tllt! total derivative dTJdt, we obtain after the corresponding substitutions:

P<>oC:~"'T~PCp*,

P.... C1JOO;.'<>oToo

pCp (Vx-f

l-VY~-i-Vz ~~ ).~ ~': .*+fl~,~~~

x {[(

U~[)'..;- (":n'J-fi'ldivV)" 4i',:)

...!.-

Let

liS

~"" div (i'grad T)

(3.5.10)-

introduce the dimensionless Prundtl nllmber

Pr ,-= J.I. oocp ""iA<>o

(3.5.11)

by means of which we I>hall compare the relatiu eoect of the riscosity

and heat conduction, or, in other words, appraise tlle relation he tween
the heat flux due to skin friction and the molecular transfer of heal.
Hence, taking into account that pooJp<>o= ilT.., = c,.,., (1 -1.k..,
X T <>0, we have:

:r -*)

PCp(Sh-'*~_V:<*-7-V" -r Vz
koo - ' .<0.
_, ,\1'(1'00-"
{[( a~,)"
(al:,
)']
dt
Ife
rJ,x
iJy

~Sh-'

1100

- {- ~ (eliv V)2 + 4~e~} + Ife'lpr div (Kgrad

T)

(3.5.10')

144

Pf. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of .!In Airfoil and a Wing

Let us converl several additional reilltions of the system of equa

:tions of gas u}'lIamics (see Sec. ::l.:~) to the dimensionless form:

p = pT
ii"" = t. (p~p, T "'1) (1;"m~)
i: = t. (p~p, T.T) (1J).~)
~=

'p

(3.5.12)
(3.5.13)
(3.5.14)

t, (p~p, T .1') (1t"~)

(3.5.15)

I. (p~i,

(3.5.16)

T ~1'i (l/cp~)

Assume that we are investigating two flows over geometrically

similar surfaces. For such surfaces, the dimensionless coordinates
of analogous points are identical, wbich is a necessary condition
for the aerodynamic similarity of flows. To observe the sufficient
condition for such similarity, we must ensure equality of the dimensionless values of the gas-dynamic parameters (velocity, pressure,
density, etc.) at analogous points. Since the dimensionless variables
are simnltaneotlsly sol1ltions of the system or equations (3.5.7),
(3.5.8), (:1.5.10'), and (3.5.12)-(3.5.16), the indicated equality is
evidentJ~' ohserved provided that the systems of dimensionless
equations, allli also the dimeu.e:ioniess boundary and initial conditions for each flow are the same.
''''hell considering syst.ems of dimel1~ionless eqllations for two
flows, we see that both these systems are identical if:
(1) the similarity criteria are eljllfll:

1<'r l = Fr 2 , ReI = Re z , M 1 = M z. Sill

Sh 2

(3.5.17)

(2) the equality of the Prandtl numbers Pr l = Pr 2 is observed, i.e.

(cp~"~/)'~), =

(cp~~"j),~),

(3.5.18)

and also the equality of the specific heat ratios for the t,,o gas Io\,'s
(3.5.19)

(3) each of the equations (3.5.13)-(3.5.16) determines the depend.ences for the dimensionless variables -;:im, I, ~, or p on the relative quantities p and f. and also on the variables (3.5.17)-(3.5.19).
Such relations do not exist for a dissociated gas because similarity
criteria of the form of (3.5.17)-(3.5.19) or of some other form cannot
be found. This is why the corresponding dimensionless equations
(3.5.13)-(3.5.16) are not the same for a full-scale and a model flows,
and complete dynamic similarity cannot be ensured.
Two particular cases can be indicated when this similarity is
ensured. The first is the flow of an undissociated gas for which the
mean molar mass remains constant (f!ml = P-ma). while the specific

en.

3. FundallUlntals of Fluid Dvnamics

148

heals. heat conductivity, and viscosiLy var)' depending on the temperature according to a power law of the kind y = aTr.. In this
case, Eqs. (3.5.14).(3.5.16) for the quantities 1. "ii. and p are
replaced by the corresponding dependences only on the dhnension)rss
temperature T = TIT .... The second case is the Do\\' of a gas at.
low speeds when the parameters A., "', and c p do not depend on the
temperat.ure. The corresponding values of these parameters are
identical for the full-scale and model flows. For this case, the system
of equations includes the dimensionless equations of Kavier-Stokes.
continuity, energy, and also an equation of state.
The boulldary conditions imposed on the solutions of the dimensionless equations gi\'e rise to additional similarity criteria. This
does not relate to the condition of flow without separation. which
does not introduce new similarity criteria. Indeed, this condition
in the dimensionless (orm is

V. 8Flar + Y, aFiay + i', aF,a: = 0

and is the same both for a full-scale and for a model flow because
of the geometrical similarit.y of the surfaces. Bul the temperature
boundary condition according 10 which the solution for the temperature mu~t satisry the cquality T .... Til' (hcl'e T" is the temperature
of the waUl introduce~ IlJl ndtlitional ~imilnl'ity criterion. In reality,
it follows from the hOlindillT ('ourlilions for a fllllwscale and model
sUl'faccs haYing the forlll T1 (1',,"h Mltl 1"~ "" (1'w)~. rt'spccth-ely,
lhnt the dimcn~ionle~s tt'lllpNatllr(lS arc TJ "'"' (T1,h and 1'2 =
= (TW)2' From tht' cOIHlilion or ~illlilal"ilr. 1") '" 12, Iht'refore the
equality (Twh ..... (Twh musi IJ~! nhsencl!. ifl'lIcl'. tiH:' boundary
condition for the wuJlIC'lllpel'1lLlII'c 1:~'Hls to nu 1I11diliOilHi ~imilarity
criterion:
(3.5.20)
Tho dimensionless gas-d:mamic yariablcs on the surface of a body
in a Dow, as can he seen Crolll the sy~tem of dimen"ionl(>ss equations
[provided that Eqs. (3.5.13)-(;~.3.Hi) determine il'm, [, ~, and Cp
as a function of 11 depend on the dimensionless cool'dinates anu the
time. and also on the similarity criteria (3.5.17)-(3.5.10). Particu
Jarly, the dimensionless pressure can he represent~d a~ the (ulldion
pip. = CJll (F,., Re, M, Sk, p,., k.,

Tw ,

XI

y, Z, t)

(:~.5.21)

We can \l.SC the known pressure distrihuLion to dctC'l'lIIine the

dimensionless drag force coerrident for a gh'ell inslanl:
c:C" = X./(q_S) = <Pi (F,., lle. M, SIl, 1',., k"", Til')
p.;).:!:.!)
10-01715

146

Pt. I. Theory. A.rodynMnies of .n Airfoil end a Wing

This expression determines the dependence of the aerodynamic

drag coefficient on the dimensionless similarity criterion more
completely than (3.5.3). But relation (3.5.22) does not reOeet all
the features of fiow of a dissociated gas because it was obtained from
the simplified equations (3.5.13)-(3.5.16). Consequently. formula
(3.5.22) is less accurate for such a Row than for that of an uudissociated gas. and determines only partial similarity.
The similarit.y criteria on which a dimensionless aerodynamic
variable depends havo a definite physical meaning and characterize
the real factors aRecting Lhe aerodynamic force.
The Froude number Fr is a similarity criLerion taking into account.
the infiuence of the mass force (force of gravity) on the drag. It can
be seen from the equation of motion given in the dimensionless
form t.hat the number Fr equals the ratio of the quant.ity V!oIL
due to the infiuence of t.he inertia forces t.o the scaling of t.he mass
forces g. The equality of the Frollde numbers Fr for a full-scale
body and its geometrically similar model signifies that they have
identical drag coefficients due t.o the influence of the force of gravity
of the fluid. This similnrit.y criterion is of no siguirlcance when
studying gas flows because the influence of the force of gravity of
a gas on motion is negligibly small. But the importance of this
criterion may be appreciable in hydrodynamics, particularly in
the experimental investigation of the wave resistance of various
navigable ves.c;els.
When a body moves in n real fluid. the aerodynamic forces dt'pcnd
on thE! viscosity. The viscous force is characterized by the Reynolds
number Be that can be obtained as the ratio of the quantity V~/L
describing the influence of inertia forces to the parameter v"" V "",IV'
determining the influence of the viscosity. If the equality of the
Reynolds numbers for two geometrically similar flows is observed.
the condition of partial aerodynamic Similarity with account taken
of the influence of viscosity is satisfied. In this condition. the friction
factors for a full-scale and a model bodies are equal.
The similariLy with respect to the Mach number is obtained from
the ratio of the quantity V:"IL to the parameter p,,"/(p,,"L) that
takes into account the influence of the pressure forces depending on
the compressibility of tho gas. The partial similarity of two flows
of a compressible gas flowing over geometrically similar hodi(>$ is
observed when the Mach numbers are equal.
When investigating unsteady flow, similarity with respect to
tho 5trollhal nllm her is signilicant. It is obtained by comparing
the iU('rtia forces and the forces due to the influence of tbe unstt'adiness, I.e. from the ratio of the quantities v:.,n and Veo.t"". Two.
unsteady flows around n full-scale body and a model have partial
aerodynamic Similarity with identical values or the Strollhal number.
The similarity criteria with respect to the Prandtl number P,.

Ch. 3. Fund!lmenlals of Fluid Dynamics

147

and the ratio of the specific heals are due to dclinill' I'cquirements
to the physical properties of the gases in the full-scale and model
nows. Tho gases may differ, but their physical properties mllst
k00 2 The Praucltl
observe the equalities Pr l = Pr2 and k""l
number depeuds on the dynamic viscosity and tit(' heat conductivity, The d}'namic viscosity reflects the properties of II gas which
the molecular lran~fer of the momenlum depends Oil, while the
heat conducth'i!y chnracterizts the intensity of the molecular
transfer of heaL. Consequently, the Prandtl Jlumber Pr "-, I1c poo A<D
is the measure of the trlUl:::formation of Ihe energy Ilf molecular
transfer inlo heat. For a gas, Pr < I,
A (limclI:::ioliless variable of the aE'rmlynamic force or heat transfer i::: a composite runclion or a nllllll)('r of similarity crit('ria, each
of which rent'cls the iufluence of a dC'liuill' physkal pr{Jc(':::~, Complete
similarity of Il full-scale IIlId Il model flows clln be pusured only
",11('11 tlquality of 1111 the similarity criteria is ob~f\'ed, In practice,
tld~ call1lot be dOlI(! h(,cllu~(' !lome of these rrit<>rin nrc contradictory,
Lt,t II~ consider, for t'xampl<>, the R<'YllOlc[s, Froudt', all(1 Mach
1l11llllwrs, 1"01' th(' ohserv!lllce of simililrily with rN,pecL to the skin
frirtioll f()i'(~es, ii, is pss('nti,,1 thut F 1 L" \"I::..o V/L~ \'2' If we a:::sume
thal for 1\ fllll-~calt 1111(1 mo(lel nows the coefficients \'1 . , \'2' then
Ill(' spN'd of tll(' III {)(I I' I now 1"2
1'1 (LliL2)' Lt'. il is greater than
the !lpI'('d of the full,scnl(' flo\\' the same llumlwr of times that the
mod('l of the hocl~' ill th(' flo\\' is l('ss than the full-scale 011(',
To enSllr<> similarity with r('specl to the forc('s of gra\'i[.y, it is
necessary to ellsme I'quality of [,he Frolldc nllmber!l, i.e, V~ (LICI) '-"
,.- I'i (/J3g~), wlu:"'nce it follows that if experimt'lIls were rlln at
idE'ntical values of g. tll('n tlw speed of the 1I101lei flow is 1-'2 =
= F, V /,/1. 1 , We can see Lhat in the given case the speed V 2 for
t.he smAlI-sizc model must be smaller lhan \/1 instead of grcater as
in the previous eXllmple,
lipoll equillity of the ,Mach numhers, we havc 'V,."a l :..~ 1"2.02'
Assuming for simplilicatioll that a 2 ,.... a l , we oht.ain the condition
for ('qnality of the speeds of the l1loc1('1 all(1 fulJ-selllc flows,
II is n8tural that all these conditions for t1l(' speed CallIlot be
ohser\'ed simultaneously, th<>refore we cao (ollsi<i('l' onl~' incomplete
similarit~, We mllst note, ho\\"e\'(r. that in praclicI' there is no
need to satisfy 1111 the similarity criteri<l h('cflus(' their illnU(,IlC(' in
a spec.ific cnse of motion is not the sornt', For e:o.'alllpl(', til(' forces
of skin friction alld pressure have .a 1lI0re signilicant innuence on
the flo\\' of a gas over 11 body thall the forel"s of gra\'Hy, and accordingly the numbers Re and M arc more signifIcant thllll Fr. In this
('.ollnection, the Fronde Illlmber is not tak('n into cOIl:-;ideralion as
II similarity criterion in such case.!'.

148

PI. I. Theory. Aerodyntlmics of tin Airfoil tlnd a Wing

If at the same time the speeds are not great, then the influence

of the pressure forces due to compressibility of the gas is negligibly

small, and, consequently, no account may he taken of the similarity
criterion with respect to the Moch number. assuming Olat the aerodynamic coefIicient depends on the Reynolds number.
The aerodynamic force. moment, or hoat flux from a gas to a surface is the result of the actiou of a moving gas on a body. Various
processes occur simultaneously in the gas: skin friction. compression
(or expansion), heating, a change in the physical properties, etc.
Therefore, one must try to satisfy the maximum number of similarity criteria. Itor example. it is expedient that the equality of thfl
Reynolds and Mach numbers for a full-scale and model flows be
retained simultaneously, i.e. Rei = Re'l and Ml = M'l' This is
especially important when studying aerodynamic forces, which for
bodies with a large surface may consist of equivalent components
depending on the friction and pressure due to compressibility.
This condition can be ensured wheu running experiments ill variable
density wind tunnels.
If tests are boing performed in a gas flow in ..... llich the speed of
sound is the same as in the full-scale flow (a 2 = a l ). it follows from
the equality of the Mach numbers that V t = 1'1' Having this in
view and using the equality Rei = Re 2 or, which is the same,
VtP2L2/[.L'l = VIPILI/IlI' we obtain L2P2i!l-2 = L1Pl'f11' Assuming
that 112 = !l-l' we lind that the density of the gas in the wiud tunnel
Dow is P2 = Pl(L 1IL 2). Assuming that t.he temperature of the fullscale and model flows is the same (T2 = TI ) and using an equation
of state. we obtain the condilion P2 = PI (LIIL,). Hence. to simultaneously ensure similarity with rcspecl to t.he {Ol'ces of skin friction and of pressure with account taken of compressibility, i.e. to
observe the equalities Re l = Re 2 and Ml = M 2 it is essential
that the static pressure in the flow of a gas produced by a wind
tunnel be greater than the pressure in the full-scale flow by the
same number or times by which the model is smaller than the fullscale body. The design o{ a wind tunnel makes it possible within
known limits Lo control tile static pressure in the model flow of a gas
depending on tile sizc of the model.
With a known approximation, the influence of heat transfer
may noL be t.aken into account when determining the force interaction. lIere the aerodynamic coefficients will depend on the numbers
Re V. and Sh. l{ in addition the tests are conducted in a gas for
which k""2 -" 1.:- 1' we ha,-e
c. ~

(Re, M, SI.)

(3.5.23)

f (//e,

(3.5.24)

For a steadr flow

c.

M)

Ch. 3. Fundamentals 01 Fluid Dynamics

149

3.6. Isentropic Gas Flows

Conflgur~on

01 Gas Jet

Let us consider the steady motion of an ideal (in viscid) gas in

a stream or jet with a small expansion and a slight curvlIture.
Motion in such a jet can 1lC studied as one-dimensional, cha.racterized by the change in tbe parameters depending on one linear coordinate measured along the axis of the jet. For a steady flo\\', the
parameters determining this now :lrc iclentical in each cross section
at any instant. If the width of the jet is small in comparison with
tJu.- radius of curvature of the ('('ntrl' line, Lhe lateral prc~lIre gradient may he disregarded. and one mar consider that the prC!ssure
nt ench poiut of the jet cro~., section is til(' same.
Thl' consideration of slIch olle-dimensional sl,elldy now of 1I ('Olllpr('ssiblp gflS IN\(ls to the simplest approximate solution of the equatiolls of gas dynamics. Condition (2.4.51) of n constant mass flow
is retained along the jet, i.e. PIVISI = P2'V2S~ "-' PaVaS., ~ ... ,
or pFS = canst, where th(' subscripts 1, 2, 3 signify the COl're~
sp~nding paramcters of the gns at the control surfaces. Cross .!'lections
of lhe channel with an area of SI> S2' ant} S3 have been chOSl'n as
these slIrfflceg. Taking logarithms, wc obtain In p
In V :- In S =
= const. Differentiation of this l'xprl'ssion yields

,I

dpip

-;~

dvrV -;- dSIS

= 0

whence

(J.G.I)
Le~

us use relation (3..1.11), by dilTcrentiation of which we have

IT. dV = -di

(3.6.:.!)

Substituting dp r for di. we fmd

VdV ,-' -dp/p

(3.6.3)

Taking the speed of sount! fl :-..= V dpldp into accollut 1IIul llsing
r~lalioll (3.0.3). we transform (;{.6.1) to the form
dS;dV
\\'hel'(' M

'-~

(Sir) (M' -

1)

(3.0..1)

V,'a is the }Iach Ilumber in the given cross section of

the jet.
LeL lIS IlSS11lnC! (hot l.hl' vclocity along the jet grows (dV> 0),
1mt, remains subsonic and. CO[]~lq1Lent.ly, M < 1. A glance at (:':1.0.4)
rcyeals that for Illis caSt' the derivative dS/dV < O. This indicntes
that the jet couverges downstream. COIl\'('rsciy, for a subsonic

1~O

Pt. I. Theory. Aarodynolllmics of an Airfoil and

0lil

Wing

V.p.~

p.r.d

v,;

''Fig. U.t

Parameters of

p~

to

Po '.

gas flowing over a body

Dow with a diminishing velocit.y (M < 1. dY < 0). the cross section
increases. which is indicated br the inequality dS > 0 following
from (3.6.4).
Let us consider a supersonic Row (M> 1). If the velocity decreases,
then. as can be seen from (3.6.4). the differential dS < 0, and.
consequently. the jet converges. Conversely, when the velocity
grows. the value of dS > O. Le. the jet diverges.
Let us take a nozzle that first has the shape of a converging. and
then of a diverging channel. In defmite conditions in the converging
part of the nozzle. a subsonic now is accelerated, reaching the speed
of sound in the narrowest cross section [here dS """ 0 and, as follows
from (3.6.4), M = 1J, and then becomes supersonic. This is how
nozzles are designed in rocket engines, gas turbines, and wind
tunnels intended for obtaining supersonic flows.
Flow V.locHy

Let us consider a gas jet Rowing oyer a surface (Fig. 3.6.1). We

shall denote the free-stream parameters by Y .... P 00. P 00, T ,." L.,.
and a .... and the parameters for the part of the jet in the disturbed
region by the same symbols without subscripts. To lind the \'elocity
in an arbitrary cross section of the jet. we shall lise Eq. (3.4.14) in
which we shall determine the constant C according to the preset
parameters of the frce stream:
C = Y!.12
1~
(3.6.5)

Wit.h this in view. we have

yIl2
i = V!./2 .:. too
whence

V-VV:.-,.2(1~

I)

(3.6.G)

At the stagnation point. V:....: 0, consequently the enthalpy is

t = io = V!..:2 -:- i...
(3.0.7)

Ch. 1. fynd~m.,nt.ls of Fluid Dyn~mics

151

Hence. t.he constant C as regards its physical meaning lcan be

considE!red as the stagnation enthalpy. With a "iew to this valne
of C. the "elocit r in t he jet is
V~V2(i,-i)

(3.6.8)

The stagnation pressure Po and density Po correspond to the

enthalpy i o They are determined from the condition
i o"'""

k:1'~'=- ~~~~. i ..

=.x;.+ k~l

~:

(3.6.9)

We can rewrite Eq. (3.6.9) as follows:

';:+ k~1 f:

k~l .~

Sillce the flow is isentropic, we have

pip' .~ p,lp\

(3.6.10)
(3.6. \I)

consequently
(3.6.12)
Seeing that for conditions of stagnation the speed of sound is
ao = VkPo/po. we fmd
(3.6.13)
Examination of (3.6.8) reveals that the velocitylalong the jet
grows with diminishing of the enthalpy, and therefore more and
morc or the heat is convcrted into kinetic energy. The maximum
velocity is reached pro\'ided that the entbalpy i = 0, i.e. all the
heat is spent to accelerate the gas. The \'alue of this velocitr is
Vmu:= V2i;,

(3.6.14J

or with a view to (3.6.9):

VIPU=Vk~1~=ao l/k~l

(3.6.15)

Accordingly, the velocity in an arbitrary section is

V~Vm .. VI-iii,

(3.6.16)

V=Vmu. 'Vi_(pIPo)(II.-t)ill.

(3.6.17)

or
In the narro'.... est. critical, cross section of the jet, the ,elocity
equals the local speed of sound. The latter is caUed critical nnd is

162

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynillmics of ilIn Airfoil lind II Wing

designated by a*. The critical pressure p* and density p* correspond to the critical speed. It follows from the Bernoulli equation
that for the critical section we have
a 2 , k

p.

-y -.- k=T' p* =

Po

-r=T 'P;-

Having in view that kp*/p* = a*z, the critical speed is

a*=

V k~1 '*=00l / k!l

(3.6.18)

or, taking into account (3.6.15),

a* ~ Vron Y"(k:---C1")!"'(k"~c"1)

(3.6.19)

To determine the local ~ound speed a, we shall use Eq. (3.6.10).

Performing thc substitutions a2 = kp/p and ~ = kpo/Po in it, we
obtain
(3.6.20)
or
a'1=

k-;i

a*'1_

k"2l

V2

(3.6.21)
(3.6.22)

a2= k-;l (vfullJ.- V2)

Let us introduce the velocity ratio (relatiw ,'elocity) '}. = Via"'.

Dividing Eq. (3.6.21) by VZ and having ill view that the ratio Via =
= M, we can establish the relation between'}. and M:
1.' ~ I(k

+ 1)/2IM'/{1 + I(k -

1)/2IM')

(3.6.23)

Hence it follows that in the cross section of the jet where Vmu
is reached, the number M = 00. We find the corresponding value
of '}. = Amal< from (3.6.23) provided that i.V -+ 00:
1.ruu~ Y(k '1)/(k

1)

(3.6.24)

Evidently, in the critical section where M = 1, we <llso have

A = 1. In an arbitrary section characterized by the values 1 ~
~ M ~ 00, the velocity ratio is

1<;;; 1.<;;; Y;;;(k"+--'1"')/"'(k:--"1)

(3.6.2:,)

Pr.....,.., DensIty. lind , emp.rature

It follows from (3.6.17) that the pressure ill an arbitral'Y cross
section of the jet is
(:1.6.26)

Ch. 3. Fundamentals of Fluid Dynamics

1~3

By (3.6.22), the difierence

1- l'I:x = (1 -- "-;-1 M~ f'

(3.6.27)

consequent! y,
p=Po(1.-

k;1

;lf~)-II/(II-I)=Po . (.b/)

(3.6.28)

where the function it of the arguDlPllt M is d~termined by the prt'SSure ratio plPo.
For the conditions of the rT(,Il-~tream no\\", fOl'mula (3.G.2:8) yields:
Po=poo

(1..:...-YM';,)II.lk-ll,./;.,..

(3.G.29}

Consequently I

p=poo {

~~',i::.~)).;',~~ f.-III-I) =p,~ ;~..~~)

{3.6.30}

From the equation of an acliabat p ph ,... PO'P:' in which P isreplaced in accordancll wilh formulas (3.fS.2:G) And (3.6.28), we find
a relation for the density
p = Po ( '1 _. r~:J 1,lk-1) .-, Po ( 1 _;' "'-;- I 'l/~) - I;I/!_ I) ~ POE (;it') (3,G.3'1}

where the function e of the argument ,If is determined hy the fntiq.

of the densities pIpo.
Using the equation of slate
pipo = (p.po) T, T L)
(;-\.1).:-\2)
and also Eqs. (3.6.26) and (3.6.28) fol' the pressure and l3.G.31)
for the density. we have

T=To

(1-

r~:x) ~~-]'o

(1+ k;-I

.1lrl.~roT(.,,) (3Ji.~J3)

where the function 't of the argullll'llt .11 is rll"'t('rmineci by the mtio
oC the temperatures TIT o.
Tables of the gas-dynamic fnnctions :t (,It). e (.1I), ilud t (.U) for
values of Lhe exponent k from 1.1 to 1.67 fll'C given ill 11:!!.
We shall determine the corresponding fl'tations for llU' dlmsity P&and temperature To by means of expressions (:{.6.:~1) and (a.fi.:i3).
For the conditions of a free-sLrNun now, lh('.o;c expl'('~~ion.s yield:

Po=p""

(1 + k;1

,"':or/{k-I)'--f:~~~"")

O.tl.34.)
(3.G.o;,)

184

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and II Wing

III the critical cross section of the stream, M = 1. Consequently.

f~om (a.(}.28), (3.6.31), and (3.6.33), we obtain the following formulas fo~ the c~itical yslues of the pressure p*, density p*. and
tempe>rature 1'*:
P* = Po ( k~t )"/{h_l)
P*=Po

(k!t

= Port (1)

(3.636)

)t/(Il-t)=P08(l)

(3.6.37)

T~T.( k~1

)=T.T(I)

(3.6.38)

where n (1). e (1), and 1" (1) are the yalues of the gas-dynamic functions at M = 1.
The above formulas, suitable for ally speeds, can give us approximate relations for cases when the numbers M arc very large.
A glance at (3.6.30) reveals that when M>- 1 a.nd M <10 >- 1. we
have
(3.6.39)
Similar relations for the density and temperature have the form
plp_ = (M .IM),,,h-.)
(3.6.40)
TiT _ - (M .IM)'
(3.6.41)
Using relation (3.6.27) for the velocity of the free-stream flo ...... ,

(3.6.27')
for the conditions Moo >- t and M >- 1, we obtain the following
.approximate formula for the local velocity:

(3.6.42)
Flow of O.s from Reservoir

Formula (3.6.12) allows us to determine the velocity of a gas

.flowing out through a noule from a reservoir (Fig. 3.6.2) in which
the parameters arc determined by the conditions of st.agnation
corresponding to a velocity of the gas in the reservoir of V ~ O.
Such conditions are ensured in practice if the critical cross section
of the nozzle is suffiCiently small in comparison with the cross:iectional dimension of the reservoir. In the critical section of the
nozzle, which the value of the derivative dS!d~' = 0 corresponds

Ch. 3. Fund.ment.1s of Fluid DyMmic'

Fig. 3.6.1

Paramett'fs of

It

1I!1f~

gas nowiog from a res('noir

to, the Ma ch H1Imber, as can be seen from (a.!i.4), equals unity.

i.e. Lit' \'elocity in this section equals the local speed of sound:

V=a*=

k::J

~:

"-'no

l/I"-~ 1 'l /" 2:~~o

Such n speed is ensllred providc(1 t hat the pressure in t he reservoi r

accordiug to (~.(l.3G) is not lower than thc vaillc

Po . p*()I,(I'-I)

(3.6.103)

If the nozzle communicatt>s with the utmospheric air whose prelSSure is p,. ,-: 1O~ Pa (this pressu.e is call1'd the backpressure), now
through the uonlc is possible whcll p* ;;;;:, 1O~ 1',1. Assuming that
p* =- 10:' Pa and k = 1.1, we obtain the pre5sIIre needed to ensure
the sp('('d of sound at the ant let of a eO[l\-erging nozzle:

1'0 = 10"( 1.4;-1 )1 ."(t.'-t)~".fI :-: J(lS Pa

When the critical partuncters are re-uelle-d in the throat of a nozzle,
a further reduction of thl' bnckpressure (pa < p*) no longer nfleets
the \;IIIIt'S of a* und 1'*, whi el. Ilepclld on the stAte of the gas in the
reservoir. But Ill're conciitiolls (\fl' crl:'ated fot' the nppearance of
a s uprrsonic specil of th e gAS in the diYergillg port of the TlO1.zil'.
In Fig. ;Uj.2 . tllt'se c()J\d iHo[1~ of iscutropic motion are charaet('rhed br l' IIt'VPS 1 d(termilling thr cilaugc ill tlt~ ralio " lpo and in
the lIumber M <lI ang the \louie. Such conditions are rea lizt'd wltrll
the hackp[rssllre Pa CqllAls the prt'~sllrc pip At the exit of tile expanding no :a lt' 01" is less thall it. A chAnge in the bAckp.cssllte does
not atTe~t till' pnralll'tl'rs uf tilt, gllS in the olllleL cross section.

1156

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynllmics 01 lin Airfoil lind II Wing

Let us consider another set of possible condilions of isentropic

now along a nozzle. Let us assume that the backpressHrc grows
to the value p(:l > p(~l at ,,,hlCh the pressure p~~' at the exit reaches
the same value as pi:). The subsonic flo,,, formed in thill case is
characterized by curves 2 shown in Fig. 3.6.2. We find the veloci\.y
ratio').. (M) of this flow by Eq. (3.6.23), choosing from the two solutions for').. the one that is less than unity.
Upon a further increase ill the ll1lckpressure to the value pl~),
conditions appear in which the pressllre p(~) at the exit will equal
the backpressure, i.e. p(:) = p(~>, while the pre~sure in tl1('. throat
will exceed the critical pressure p*; the rel~'vant speed in this croSs
section is subsonic (1" < a*). Consequently, in the diverging part
of the nozzle, the speed lowers, remaining suhsonic (curve 3 in
Fig. 3.G,2).
At pressHrf's at the ('xil smaller tILall p(~) and larger then p(~l,
the isentropic uature of the flow is disturbed. At a certllin cross
section of the !lolzle. a jump (di~contill\lily of the parmncters)
occurs, the trnm;ition thl'ougl, which is attended by sharp deceleration of the flow. As a result of Ihis ciece\('atioll, having an irreLwsible
adiabatic /lature, the supersonic. flow trallsjorms abruptly into a subsonic one. Till' change in the prcssure and in the number .}1 along
the nozzle in these flow cOlulilions is characterized by curves 4
(Fig, 3,G.2). The surface of discontinuity of the parameters (shock)
must be in a cross section with a 1Iach number M sucl) tltllt would
correspond to the pressurc ps past this surface ensuring a gas pressnre
of p~l' (p(Jl < plJ> < p<P) at the exit as a re~nlt of further expansion
of the gas. lIence. ill the given case, tlH' now of the gas Illust he
analysed with the aid of the shock-\"llve theory whose fundamelltals
arc treated ill Chap. 4.
In an arbitrary cross seetioll of the llol,:(.le. including its outlet
section, we (letermine the supt'rsollic specc\ by (:"~.(j.12). At Me "'-= M,..
anti a pressure of Pe ,.; p"" in the outlet section, the reqllired pressure Po in the reservoir is determined by (3.6.29).
Tlte mass flow rate equation has the form
pSl' = p*S*a*
(3,(j.44)
from "'llich we find that the ratio of the mass velocity (the speciftc
mass now rate) q = pF through the cross section S being considered
to the mass velocity q* = p*a* through the critical section S* is
= q:q* = pV/(p*a*) = S*18
(3.6.4,=)

With a view to relations (iLG.19) and (3,(UH), we ftllt\

p: Po (1 -

VI~;:JI/(h-l)= Po (1- ;~!

Po (1 _ ~=~

')..2)l!(1t-1i

. :':t

r/(l'-I)

Ch. 3. Fundamenteb of Fluid Dynamics

1a7

':~----i
i

o.!

,~o

1.D~

Afler now det.ermining t.he rat.io Po i' from (3.6.37),

relation (3.6.45) in the following form:

q(1. )~:)..( 1-

!~:

we obtain

A;1)'1(1t-1)( i.'~1 r:{II-Il=T

(3.6.46)

The function (A) is called till' reduced mas:; density. Taking

formula (3.6.23) into account, WI' can determine this function of
the argulnl."nt M:
q{.t1}"",,~J[~(I-

k.;1

jJf~)J-(l';'I):[~tlt-:)J=~7

(3.6.46')

Tflhulated values of the function ~ withill till.' l'unge of "alues of k

from 1.1 to 1.67 ill'e given in Ii:!]. Il foUo,,"s ft'om 111(>:;0 "elations
t.hat the number A (or itI) in i\ cerl<dll section S of" mm:ie is a function of only thc rat.io of the ,\l'ellS S*iS a\H1 .tnt's Jlot df'pPlId on the
parametcrs of the gas in tlu.' l'l'sel'\-oil'.
The depcudence of the nHt:;$ ,-elocity t'atio (01' of the l'ill io S* S
of the areas) on A is shown ill Fi~. :HL3.. H il !{in'll critical !louie
section in thc subsonic rcgion (i. < 1), tlw spepr] ~ro\\''''' at till' ('xp('lIse
of the rcrluctiOIl ill lite l\ren S, whilp in the !'l1P(!t'~OIdc telIiotl. COli
verselYt it grows at the expcn!'e of th(' incl'P(ls(' in the area. In aCl.'ordance with the above, a decrcasc in thc pressure itt tlte t'cs('n'oir
does nol affcct tha vallie of J. or .ill 1.\t the llozzl(' cxit. In the case
bcin~ cousidored, as follow:; rrom (:3.6.2tl). a chnllgl! ill th(' pressure
Po is 3Uended by a pl'oportionnl change in the pressure at thc exit
PI: = p"".
Thc mass Row rale of a gas from a reservoir call be lietermiued br
the rormula
Gsec = p*a*S*
E"i\lualion of p* and a* by formula!' 0.6.37) and (3.0,18), rcspeclivcly, yieliis

Gscc=S*

(k~.'

f/(/-I)

l / k:~1

poro

where Pn i ... the density of Ihe golS in the reservoir.

(3.G.Ii7)

HIS

pt.

I. Theory. Aerodynemics of en Airfoil end eWing

Upon the motion of an incompressible fluid. the mass flow rate

equation in accordance with (2.4.51) and provided that p = const
'
becomes
VS = const
(3.6.48)
Kinematic equation (3.6.48) completely characterizes the OIlCdimensional now of an incompressible fluid. It shows that the flow
velocity is inversely proport.ional to the cross-sectional area of the
channel. The pressure ill steady flow is calc\tlated by the Bernoulli
equation (:J.4.12) or (3.4.13).

4
Shock Wave Theory

4.1. Physical Nature

of Shock Wave Formation

A fealure of ::;lljJN.'<ouic

g<l;

flows is that deceleration is attcutled

by the formaLio!! of discontilluity !;urfaces ill them. When a gas

passes through thest' slll'far('s, its parameters cilang{' abruptly: the
\'clority ShOl'ply dimitli:-:hrs, [Iud the rll"('ssnre, temperature, nlld
density grow. SUcil COlllillHily :-udaccs muviog 1'('lative to a gas arc
often referred 10 flS shock W8\'PS, while the imnuJ\"flbJc discontinuity

surfaces arc ealled stationar)' shock waves oi' simply shocks. fit'low
we cOllsider the condilioll:-: of gas nllw flfler stationary shock W8\"CS.

and we shall usc the term "shock",

(IS

r11iC'.

In the most general ca~, a shock 11<1$ a CHl'y('(1 sbapC', Figlll'C' ~.I.la
shows schematically an attached curved shock fornH'd in a flow past
a sharp-noscd hod~', and Fig. 4.1.1b-'1 detached cuned shock flPfll'al"
ing ill front of a blunt smfil('(' in a ~upel'~onic flo\\,. LjlOn the supersonic flow past <t shal'}l-nos(>tI hody with ~t['aighl walls. an altached
straight shock may appear (Fig. 1.4.1c).
A glance at Fig. 4.1.1b reveals Illal the surfilce~ of sho('ks llIa~
ol'icnte(\ along a Ilorlllal to t.he free-stream velocity (the sho('k
8.
n/2) or inclined at. an angle olllf'r than a rig-II! Olll' (8, <
III the first case, Ihe shock is said 10 be normal, in Ihe
oblique. An attached c1ll'\'cd shock ('.an ('viilf'nt 1\ bo
a set of oblique shocks, and <I d(>tariH'd shuck H'" ('onsisling
mal shock ann a system of obliqw! ~11O('b.
The form[llion of sltocks is (1m' 10 the ~pecille nature of propftgatiou
of dist.llrbances in 11 sllpersonic gas now. B) a di!<tllrbance is llH'iUlt
a local comprcs:oion cansing a pressurc incrNlsc. TJle hitter appl'ar~
in " flow passing arolJnd fin obstacle tailed a source of disturbanc('!=.
Let. 1I!'l cOllsi(ler a sOllrce of infinitt'lr SIlHlIl clil"tHrha.nc(>~ at point ()
0)
(Fig. 4.1.~), 811('h di:oLurbanc(>s propagate ill a gal" at re!'lL
in all (jir(>ctions at tlJC I"peC'd of sonnd a ill Ihe form of sphl'ricaJ
waws in space or circnlM waves ill fI plane (Fig. 4.1.20). AI the
instant I. thr. rndbls of a wave is r = (It. If fl. suhsonic glls fiow is

n-;--

160

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of ~n Airfoil and a Wing

fig..U.t

,shocks;
a-attaCMd curved shock;

b-d~!aclled

cur~d

sboC'k: e-attacMd straight .hock

(6)

(aJ

'fi,.4.t.l

Propaga tion of disturbance. in a gaB:

a.-g.s at rest;

b-!lub~onll!

OOWI e-supt'rsonlc flow

incident on a source (V < a, Fig. 4.1.2b), the waves are carried

downstream: the centre of a wavc travels at a speed of V < a.
while tile wave propagates at the speed of sound. During a certain
time t, the centre of tile ",,,ve tra\'els tile distance Vt, wlLilc the
radius of the wave r = at, here at > Vt. Hellce, in a subsonic !low,
disturbances also propagate up!;tream.
In the particular case of a sOllic velocity (V = al, the front of
spherical or circular disturbance waves is limited by a flAt vertical
surFace or straight line tangent to a sphere or circle, respectively,
and passing through point 0 because in this case the distance over
which the centre of the wave travels dnring the time t equals its
radiu!; at the same instant t.
Let 11S assume that the free-stream velocity is supersonic (V> a).
During' the time t. the centre of the wave travels the distance Vt,
while a sound wave covers the distance at. Since at < Vt, [or all
the spherical sound waves we can draw an enveloping conical snr[ace
(Fig. 4.t.2c), Le. a disturbance cone (or !tfach con~). On a plane,
disturbance lines (or Mach lint's) are envelopes of the family of
circular waves. Tho di!'t\lrhancc~ arc the densest on the disturbance

Ch. 4. Shock Wave Theory

161

Fitl U 1

OriglnatioD of a shock

cone or lines that are boundaries of a disturbed ann uodisturbed

region because all the sound waves on this cone are in the same
phase of oscillation-the compression phase. Such disturbed regionsr.onica. or plane waves confined within straight Mach lines, are
called simple pressure waves or Maeb waves.
The angle Il formed by the generatrix of a conical wave or line
of disturbances i~ determined from the cond ition (Fig. 4.1.2c) that
sin Il = at/(Vt), whence
sin J.1

1/lW

(1,.1 .1)

The angle J.1 is called the Mach angle. A ~mpersonic flow carries
all the sound disturbances downstream, limiting their propagation
by the Mach cone or lines inclined at the angle ~L The front of a pres~
ure wave propagates at the same speed of ~o\lnd as Lhe front of
a spherical (or circular) wave. This is why the projection of the freestream velocity onto a normal to the WII.\'C' front equals the speed of
sound (Fig. 4.1.2c).
In a simple pres~ure wave, a~ in a soun(1 one, the gas parameters
(pressure, density, etc.) change by an infinitely small magnitude,
which is indicated, particularly, by the relaLioli for the speed of
sound a = 11 dp/dp known from physic~ . In the disturbed region.
the velocity remains virtually the same a~ in the undislurbed flow.
Therefore, a simple pressure wa ve can be con ~ idered as a shock (or
shock wave) of all infinitely small strength, and we can assume for
practkal purposes that the paramelers do not change when traversing it. This is why such a simple pressure wa.ve is al so called a weak
sboek wave, while its front (Mach line) is called a. line of weak
disturbances or a wavelet.
It is natural to assume that the formation of a shock of a finite
strength is associated with the superposition of simple pressure
waves and, as a result, with their mutual amplification. Let us
consider the process of formation of such a shock taking an oblique
shock as an example. Let us assume that a supersonic flow initially
travels along a level and smooth surface (Fig'. 4.1.3). We create
artiflcially a 10rnl pressure increment at point A hy turning the flow
through the inrlllitely small angle d~. This prodll r e~ a simple pres.q-

162

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

ure wa"e AR emerging from point A as from the source of clisturbam'c and inclined to the surface at the angle }1. If we again tUrn
th(' flow slightly through the angle 6~, a new simple wav" AC is
fOI'llH'd that emerges from the same point A. but iii higher tllfln the
Jirst wave, But in II. supersonic flow, as shown above, waves ('an not
propagate upstream. therefore the wave AC will drift downslream
until it coincides with the first one, A more intensive wave is formed
that if; considerably amplifled upon a furt.her turning of the flow.
The shock of a finit.e strength formed in this way hali a speed of
propagation higher than the speed of sound at whkh the simple
prelisure wave travels. Therefore, the lihock of fmite strength nllliit
deviate from the liimple wave AD to the }t'ft and occupy the new
pOliition AD. Here it is kept in equilibrinm because the speed of its
propagation equals the component of the free-stream "elocity along
a normal to the shock front V sin a" where as is the angle of inclination of tht' shoc_k. It follows that the angle of inclination of a f;hock
of finite strength is larger than that of the Mach line (cone), Le.
9s !.

".1.

Genera. Equations

'or. Shock

We shall consider the more general rase when the ga.~ behind
a shock, owing to substantial heating, experienr.es physicochemical
transformations and changes its specific heat. Of major signific,anco
whell f;tudying shockli behind which oscillations are generated and
dissociation, ionization, and chemical reactions occur are the rates
of the physicochemical transformations.
Proref;ses hehind shock waves arc characterized by a fraction of
the kinetic. energy of the moving gas virtually instantaneously
transforming into the internal energy of the gas. In these conditions,
we cannot ignore the fact that thermodynamic equilibrium is achieved after a certain time elapses only in conditions of such equilibrium do all the parameters experiencing discontinuities (the pressure,
density, temperature) become time-independent. The analysis of
these phenomena is a more involved problem and is associated
primarily with studying of the mechanism of non-equilibrium processes, and with a knowledge, particularly, of the rates of c,hemical
rear"tions in the air,
The simplelit case is characterit.ed by an infinitely high rate of
the physicochemical transformations and, consequently, by the
inst.antaneous setting in of thermodynamic equilibrium. Such processes behind shock waves are pOlisible physically, which is confirmed
by experimental studies.
Let llS ronsider the basic theoretical relations allowing one to
evaluate the equilibrium parameters behind a shock wave.

Ch.... Shock Wive Theory

169

Obll... Shock

A J;hock formed ill real conditions is charact('rized by a certain

The parameters of t.he gas in sllch 1I ~hock change not
inshntflllconsly. but during a certain time intel'\'ul. As .c:hown by
theoretical alld C!xperimentlll in\'estigations, howe\'er, the thickness
of a shock is \'ery small and i.e: of the order of the mean free path
of the lllolerulct:.
Fot IItlllosphel'i(' condilions, calculations yielded the following
vallle:-: of the thickness of a shock measured in the direction of the
frce-l:::tl'enm .... t'locity:
thid,:ues~.

:\Iach nnmb('r Moo . . . , ' .

Thicklll's!!. nun

t.5
. . . . . , . 4.5xtO-

1.2xH\'"~

to'
l).7xto-' 1I.2xt()-&

For M oc- = 2. t.he thickness of a shock equals about four molecular

free pnth:-:, and for M co .... 3-about three. Therefore, when studying
a shocl< in an ideal fluid, this thickness may be disregarded and the
shock represented in the form of a geometric discontinuity surface
for the gnJ; paramcters. assuming these parameters to change inst.ant:meously.
0111' t.ask con~~ts in determining the unknown parameters of a gas
hehind II shock aecording to the preset parameters c,harartflrizing
1he now of Ihe gas ahead of the ,c:hock.
For lin oblique shock formed in a dis~ocitlting and ionizing gas,
there tire nine lInknown parameters: the pres~ure Pz, density Pz.
tempt"l'fl.lnr' T:?" nlocity V'l , enthalpy f z. ('ntrop~' S2' .c:peed of
.e:oulHl 1I2' the mean molar mas.<; ~ln\2' and the l!hock angle Us (or the
flow de\'illiioll angle ~s). Consequently, it is lIecessary to compile
ninc simultaneolls equntions. The parameters ahead of a shock wilt
btl the known olle.<: in these equations. nam('ly. the pressure Pu
density PI' \'Clarity V l' etc. Instead of the velocity V'2 behind a shock.
wc ran dt"termine itl! eomponents along a normal V n'l and fl. tangent.
1'12 to 1.11(' !liloc}.;. This will in('rea~e the number of equatious needed
to ten. Th~e (>qualiom; include the fundamentnl equations. of gas
dYJlamir~ (of motion. continuity. energy, and state), a number of
kinematic relations for the \'elodties, and also thermodynamic
relations. t'haractcrizing the properties of a gas. Let us consider each
equation of this system.
Figlll'c 4.2.1 S}IOWS triangles of the flow velocities ahead of a shock
(the parametcrs with the subscript 1) and behind it (the subscript 2),
We flhall use Ih(' Jignrc to determine the following relAtions for
these components:
Vd = 1/ 2 COS (Os - 13.), Vn'l = Vl! sin (9. - 13,)
(4.2.1)
This yields the first equation of the system of simultaneous ones:
Vn2IV'1'2 = tan (9, - 13,)
(4.2.2).

164

pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil lind II Wing

The continuity equation (or the mass flow equation) is the second
one. It determines the amount of fluid passing through unit surface
of a shock in unit time:
(4.2.3)
here VD1 = VI sin 9. is the normal component of the velocity ahead
of tho shock (Fig. 4.2.1).
Let us use the equation of motion reduced to the form of an equation of momentum for the conditions of the passage through a shock.
This is the third equation of the system. We shall obtain it by assuming that the change in the momentum of the fluid passing in unit
time through unit surface area of the shock in the direction of a
normal to this surface equals the impulse of the pressure forces:
(4.2.4)
Pl'VAt - P2VAI = pz - PI
With a view to Eq. (4.2.3), we can write this equation in the form
P1VD1 (V.I -

Vnz) = pz - PI

(4.2.4')

Equation (4.2.4) can also be written as

(4.2.4')
In this form, the equation expresses the law of momentum conservation when passing through a shock. If we consider the change in
the momentum in a direction tangent to the shock surface, then,
taking into account that the pressure gradient in this direction is
zero, wo obtain the following relation:
P1 VD1 Vn - PZVuZVd = 0
whence, when P1Vnl = PIIVnll, we have
V'I"l = V"z
(4.2.5)
Equation (4.2.5) is the fourt.h one of the system. It indicates that
the tangential components of the velocity when passing through

16~

Ch. 4. Shock Wave Theory

a shock do not change. A glance at Fig. 4.2.1 re\'eals that

= VI cos at> therefore we can write (4.2.5) in the form

V'!:l

(10.2.5')
We can write the equation of energy conservation in the form
il

+ V: 12 =

i2

+ V!/2

Provided that

= V~I +

Vii' V: = ~2 + Vh. and V'l ,,.... 1'1'2

the equation of energy conservation can be tran~formed:
+ V~1/2 = i2 + ViJ2
(4.2.6)
Dy combining the equations of state for the conditions ahead of
the shock and behind it. we obtain the relation
V~

'I

Pa - PI = R 2 P"T a - R 1P1 T1
or, taking into account that R = Ro./fJ.m. we ha\'e
Pa - PI = Ro. (p2Ta/~m2 - pIT1/~lml)
(4.2.7)
We can write four equations of the system being considered that
allow us to determine the enthalpy, entropy, mean molar mass,
and speed of sound in a di~sociating gas in the form of general depl"ndences of these parameters on the pre~511re and temperature:

fa = II (Pt. T'J')
S,
(p" TiJ

(4.2.8)
(4.2.9)
(4.2.10)
(4.2.11)

="

Vm2 = 13 (Pa. T 2)
Q" = /, (Pa, T 2)

These functions are not expressed analytically in the explicit

form and are determined by means of experimental in\'estigations or
with the aid of rather involved c.alculations based on the solution
of the relevant thermodynamic equations. The relations for these
fnnctions are usually constructed in the form of graphs, and their
values arc tabulated in special tables of thermodynamic functions
for air at high temperatures (see [6. 7. 131).
Let us express the basic parameters behind a shork wave in terms
of the relative cbange in tbe normal components of the velocity,
i.e. in terms of the quantity
6. Yn = 6.V n /V nl = (Vnl -

Vn2)1V nl

(4.2.12)

From (4.2.3), we find the ratio of the densities:

p,lp, = 11(1 -

61'.)

(4.2.13)

pt. J. Theory. Aerodynamic~ of an Airfoil and a Wing

166

and from (lJ..2.4'). the ratio of the pressures:

P2/Pl =-" 1

+ (flIV~/pJl

(4.2.14)

6.f'n

Introdudng the concept of the "normal component" of the number

Ml as the ratio Mnl = Vn1/al or Mnl = iJIl sin 8s, and assumillg' that
ahead of a shock the gas is not dissociated and the speed of sonnd
for it is at :-::: Vk1P1/Pl' we obtain
pzlpl = 1 + I.\M~1 6.Vn
instead of (4.2.11.).
We nnd the ratio of the enthalpies iz/i 1 from (4.2.6):
i 2/i l = 1 + (1I2i 1) (V~l - V~I)

(4.2.15)

Let us write the diiIsrence of the velocity squares in the form

V~l

V~z =

V~l

(1 -

Vnz/Vn1) (1

+ Vn:JV

n1)

= V:ll 6.Vn (2 - 6.Vn)

Hence
i,li, -

+ (~,/2) (<l.V.Ii,) (2 -

<l.V.)

(4.2.16)

To cietermine the ratio of the temperatures T 21T1 , we shall use

the equations of state for the cOltditions ahead of a shock and behind
it, from which
Substituting for the ratio of the densities
equation their values from Eqs. (4.2.13) and
we .obtain
TJTl = (1 + klM~I6.Vn) (1 - 6.Vn)

j.1m2j.1ml

(4.2.17')

To determine the velocity behind a shock, we shall use the relations

V: = Vi
V~2 and V: = Vi + V~l
-lrom which we find

V;/~ = 1 -

(V~l/V;)

6.Vn

(2 -

6.Vn )

(4.2.18)

Since
then
(4.2.18')

Let us find a relation for the flow deviation angle behind a shock.
fly (4.2.2) and (4.2.5'), we have
6.Vn = 1 - tan (8, - ~8)/tan 9s

(4.2.19)

Ch. 4. Shock Wave Theory

167

Hence, having in view that

~s) =

tan (Ss -

(tan as - tan ~1I)!(1

+ tan Ss tan ~.)

we obtain

tan~s=tanas 6V~ (~+tan:te~)-I

i-6Vn

i-Vu

(4.2.20)

The relative change in the velocity .1.Vn is determined in accordan('e with (4.2.13) by the dimensionless density

<1.1',

=1-

p,/p,

(4.2.21)

This shows that the ratios of the pressures, temperatures, and

enthalpies, and also the now deviation angle ~s can be written as
functions of the relative den.<;ity P:a/Pl' In addition, we can introduce
the values rill = VI siu a" and Mnl '-= MI sin 0, into tho formulas
instead of the quantities Vnl and MOl' respectively.
Iience, the solution of the problem on an oblique shock when its
angle of inclination 0$ is known consists in flllding the ratio of the
densitil'>s P2/Pl' or. whirh is the same, in determining the function
.1. Vn' Tllis ftlllction is determined with the aid of expressions (~.2.16)
and (4.3.17'), earll of which can be written in the form of a quadratic
equatioll in .1.I'n. From the first quadratic equation, wo have

.1.Vn -,
and from the second

i-Vi

2(t'&

il)/V~1

(4.2.22)

(4.2.23)

where

A=

k;:I~~1

B ... k'~~1

(*. :::

-i)

(4.2.24)

The 5:igns of the square roots-minus in (4.2.22) and plus in

(4.2.23)-were rhosen with a view to the fact that the velocity
behind a shock i$ always lower than ahead of it, and, consequently,
41Vn < 1. The plus sign in (4.2.2.,) also indicaLes that physically
the largl'>r of the two values of .1.Vn < 1 is real.
Equations (1.2.22) and (4.2,23) are solved by the method of successive approximatioIl!'!. The problem of an oblique shock can be
solved if the angle ~$ is given. Here the angle as is calculated with
the aid of relation (il.:!.20), in accordance with which
tan:!9 _ lanOI
"

tan Ps

6j7~
1-6Vn

+_'___ =0
1-6Vo

168

pt. I. Theory. Aerodynolllmjes of en Airfoil end

Tho solution 01
tan 8s =cotf3s

thi~

oil

Wing

equation yields

V~--.--:""'r~:-_-_-,,-",-~-.]

[.!..

AV:

I-LW n

4 (1-6.Vn)~

(4.2.25)

t-6.V"

One of the l'(olutions (t.he plus sign before the root) del ermines
the larger value of the angle as realized in a detached clln-ed sIwek.
and the other (Lhe minus sign) determine~ the .'Illlallcr VahH!' realized
in an attached shock with a lower strength.
To fadli1.ate calculations, we can evaluate the angles as beforehand
from the given ,'alues of ~s' and compile a corresponding table or
plot a graph. With their aid. for a value of dVn which previoll.'\ly
calculated values of the ratios PZIPl' P2./P1' etc. correspond to. we
can find one of the angles es or ~s from the other known one.
The velocity VI and the number HI of the free stream at which
the parameters are realized in a shock with the gi\'en values of the
angle O. (or ~s). and also ]-'111 (or Mill) are calculated by the formulas
V l = "Vnl/sin e., MI = Mnl/sin Os
(4.2.26)
Norm.. Shock

The formulas for rakulating a normal shock can be obtained

from the aho"e relations for an oblique one if we assume that as =
= n/'2 and f3. '-'-' O. Accordingly, the \'elocity VIII = VI' and the
number Mhl = MI' ~ow the basic relations acquire the following
form:
(4.2.27)
Pa1Pl = 1 + kl~dV
(4.2.28)
izli l ,..- 1 -:- (V:12) (d ViiI) (2 - d V)
(4.2.28)
T.;.IT 1 ,-- (1 + k l M!4V) (1 - dV') ).lma~ml
(4.2.30)
l':Il': = t - dV(2 - dV)
where the change in the relative velocity
(4.2.31)
av ~ aVIV, ~ (V, - V,)/V,
i~ determined with the aid of expressions (4.2.22)-(4.2.2-1):
llV=t-V1

2(i z

il)IV:

aV-A+VA'-B
in which

A=

kl~:;-/

B-.

kl~Y

(if, ~:~ -1)

The relation between dV and tile relative

by the formula

(4.2.32)
(4.2.33)
(4.2.34)

density is determined
(10.2.35)

Ch. 4. Shock W"ve Theory

169

We have given the general relation::; for ~hork:-;. \"ow let 115 use
them to analyse the nature of flow and the W,lyS of rakul<1tillg the
parameters of a gas behind sllOck!> for constant specific heatg <Inri til(:Tl
consider in greater detail practkal ways of c"lclllatlng simibr
parameters for a dissociating fluid, i.e. for the more general C8C:f' of

varying specifte Mats.

4.3. Shock in the Flow 01 a Gas
with Constant Specific Heats

Of major theoretical and practi(oal interest i..; till' problem 011 the
flo,," of a gas behind a shock when t.he spedli<' hEllits c , and Cc are
Cotl!->lnllt. Although such ;1 flow is considered to be a particular
(idealized) case of the flow of a gas whose physi<'odlemical properties
change to a greater or smaller extent when passing" through a shock,
nevertheless t}le results obtained in solving thb problem make it
possihle to comprehend the geHeral qualitafin: nature or a shock
transition. The relations characterizing the change in the parameters
of a gas when passing throngh a shock LIre obtained here in the expli("it form. They can al~o be used ror an approximate quanWatit-e
C',,\imation of these parameters when the more. generill ("ase of varying
~pCtir.c heats is being treated. Tlll~ prohl!'1H bring considered also
has an indcpcndellL signifIcance hC("ilHse ils :<oliltioll can he ll.,,(!(i
dire("tly for determining the parameters of a g;lS hehind n sho('k ill
/I flow aLcomparatively low suporsonic \'elodtic~ aL \\hieh till' change
iu tile spedfic heats in the compre"."ed gao.: I" llf'gligilily .~tnall. Tht'se
\"(11ociLics. which are determined for the most int'nsiw (normal)
~hock, correspond approximately to Mach !lumbers Jij.,., < :14.
System of Equations

The method of calculating an oblique shoek treated below is

on the usc of II system of equations that is a particular case
system (4.2.2)-(4.2.11).
If in a shock transition the specific heats do nut change, it stHluld
also be assumed that the meaH molar mass remains const.ant, Illld
the speed of sound and the enthalpy depend only 011 tbe temperature.
Equations (4.2.8), (4.2.10), and (4.2.11) aCl'ording}y ucquirc the
following form:
i2

Cp T2

(4.3.1)

)lm2 = )lml = )lm = COlist

(4.3.2}

a: '-'-' kRT2

(U.3}

110

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

Instead of Eq. (4.2.9), it is necessary to wse tbe tbermodynamic

eqllation for tbe entropy of a non-dissociating perfect gas:
dS ~ di/T - dp/(pT)
Having in view the equations di = cp dT and dp = d (RpT) =
R T dp, we obtain
dS = Cp d In T ....., R d In T - R d In p

= Rp dT

Uut
CI - R =
Consequently,

and Rlcu ---= (c p

CD

dS =

Cc

(d In T -

(k -

cu)lcD --= k - 1
1) d In pI

Integrating this equation at k ..., const, we find

S = Cu In (TlpLI) + const

(4.3.4)

It follows from the equation of state p = RpT that

Tlp"'_l = p/(pAR), and In Ip/(pIlR)I

-----0

In (p/pA) -In R

Introducing the quantity In R into the constant on the righthand side of (4.:3.4), we obtain II relation for the entropy in the
form
(4.3.5)
By applying this equation to the conditions ahead of a shock
and behind it, and then determining the difference between the
-entropies, we obtain instead of (1.2.9) the equation for the entropy
used in the theory of an oblique shock:
S2 - SI -'= CD In [(P2lpd (p~/p:)1
(4.3.6)
Equation of st.ate (4.2.7) for the case of constant specific heats
being considered is simplified:
pz -

PI

(p ZT 2 -

P1Td

(4.3.7)

Equations (4.2.2)-(4.2.6) of the system are retained with no alterations.

Formulas for Calcuilltfnt the Parameters
of II Gas Behind II Shock

To calculaLe the density. pressure, and enthalpy, the formulas

needed are (4.2.13), (4.2.t5) and (11.2.16), respectively. To determine the temperature, the formula needed is (4.2.17') with the assumption made that !lmz ---'--' !lm':
TJTl -= (1

+ kM~laVn)

(1 -

aVn )

(4.3.8)

Ch. 4. Shock Weve Theory

171

The ullknowlI quantity in all these expres~iotls is the change in

the relotive velocity 6.Vn . Let us uetermine it hy assuming that
the shock angle 8 s and the free-slream Mach numher Ml ure known.
We :::hall use Eq. (1.2.4') for this purpose. After didding it by
PIV nl = P2Vnz, we obtain
pz/(pzVnz ) - P1i(Pl/ j 'nl)
rill f"z
(1.:n))
Inserting a;,k and ai/It here instead of P Zip2 and PIIPI' respectively,
and using Eq. (3.6.21) for the specr\ of sound, W(l nnd

~(k-~-l a*z_.k;-t l';)-~(~a*:!-~V;)

~-Vnl-Vn2

Introducing the WI.1HCS of V; -"""' l'n~ -i- V: alHI V;' Vnf -7- Vi
and multiplying both sides of tile equation hy r"l V n2 . we obtain
after simple transformations

~';~1 a*2(V"I-V nz )-- {;;~1 l'i(V'll--Vr~)

k;;/ lfnIVnz(Vnl- VIIZ)

Vnll'nz(V,'l-'" V"z)

Excluding the trivi<ll solution 1'111 = V"2

to the absence of a shock, we obtain

V'lIVnz"'-a*Z-

:.=

0 corresponding

~:;~ Vi

(4.3.10)

This equation is used to determine the velocity behind a shock.

It is called the basic equation of an oblique Shock, and allows us
to fwd the relative change in the velocity 6V n = (Vnl- Vnz)/Vnl .
For this pnrpose, let HS write Vnl V n2 =-= V~I (V,,2/Vnl) and usc the
relations VOl = VI sin Bs and V"t = VI cos AS. After the relevant
substitutions in (4.3.10), we obtain
sinz 9s(1-

6i'n)=*- :~~

(1-sin Z 05)

where Al = l\!a*.
Substituting Eq. (3.G.23) for Al and performing transformations,
we lind

AVIl = k~1 (1- Misi1n1oJ

Let

llS

introduce the symbol

6 ~ (k -

I)/(k

+ I)

with a view to which formula (4.3.11) becomes

6 Vn = (1 - 6) [1 - 1/(M: sin 2 89 )1

(4.3.11)

(4.3.12)
(4.3.11')

172

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynllmic5 of an Airfoil and a Wing

By inserting this quantity into (4.2.13). we can determine the

density ratio:
pJPt = M: sin 2 66 /(1 - is
iSM: sin2 ( 5)
(4.3.13)

To determine the pressure ratio Pilpl. we shall.use formula (4.2.15).

We shall assume in it that MDt = MI sin 6... substitute expression
(4.3.11') for AVD and replace the quantity k in accordance with
(4.3.12) by the value
k ~ (1
0)1(1 - 6)
(4.3.14)

The result is the parameter

pJPt = (1

+ 6) M: sint: 6~ -

(4.3.1n)

that characterizes the shock strength. We may also use the following
relation for this purpose:
(p, - p,)/p,

iJ.p/p,

(I

+ 0) (M: sin' e, -

(4.3.15')

I)

Formula (4.3.15') can be used to obtain another parameter characterizing the shock strength. namely, the pressure coefficient Pt: =
= (Pi - pt)lgt where ql = [(1
6)1(1 - 6}1 PIM;12. By subtracting unity from both the left-hand and right-hand sides of (4.3.15')
and relating the ex.pression obtained to gl' we have

p, ~ 12 (I

- O)IM:I (M: sin'

e. -

I)

(4.3.15")

Eliminating the quantity M~ sin 2 6s from Eqs. (4.3.15) and (4.3.13),

we find the relation for the pressure-to-density ratios-the Hugoniot
equation:
(4.3.13')
p,/p, ~ (p,lp, - 0)/(1 - Op,/p,)
This relation is also known as the shock adiabal. Unlike the conventional equation of an adiabat (isentrope) of the form p = AI'''.
it shows bow the parameters change in a transition through a shock
wave. This transition process is attended by a growth in the entropy
determined from Eq. (4.3.6).
Hence, the process of the transition through a shock is non-isentropic. ]n accordance with the change in the indicated parameters,
the temperature behind a shock grows. Its value is calculated by the
equation of state

-k....: *."*!-= i+ll) MfSiDI8j;-:!]S;:1l+llMf sin Osl

l

(4.3.16)

The dependences of the ratios of the gas parameters behind a shock

and ahead of it (PJpl' P2IPl' T"ITt ) on the quantity Mnt =
= M _ sin as for k = 1.4 (6 = 1/6) are shown graphically in
Fig. 4.3.1. and the Hugoniot equation (4.3.13'), in Fig. 4.3.2.

Ch. 4. Shock Wave Theory

113

'~LTl-_1--;. _

-'

-<--; -r

I/- -

,f

. -.:- : -,-

-.

,--'

-~;-I1.

"

.- '

--:

5 sMr.1

~I:pe~~':nces of the ratios of the gas parameters behind a shock and ahead of it
on the value of Mnl = Moo sin 9$ for k = 1.4 (6 = t/8):
~-denslty

Fig.

ratlo P./P,; b_prcssurc raiio P./PI; c-leonperatUf(' ratio TilT.

,u.l

Shock adiabat (t) and

trope (2)

isen

Ch'=t,lt, II =1/6)

Tile special Corm of Lhe transition Lhrotlgh a ::;11ock, tliITering from

an isentropic process, manifests ilsC'if in the different nature of the
change in t.he gas parameters. It follows from (4.:\.15) and (4.3.1G)
that at .iJf, __ 00, the pressure and temperature grow without a limit.
It also follows from (4.3.13) that for t.lle same condition lUI __ 0;)
the density tends to a certain dcflOitc value equal to (P2lp,).11 ,.. 00 =
= 116. When Ie ,..." 1.1, this yields t.he value of 1/6 ....::: 6. It. follows
from the formula p = ApI< or T = Bpk-' (A nnd R are constants)
that in an isentropic process an infmite increaso in the Ilcnsit), and
temperatllre corresponds to an infinite pressllI'c iocl'eilsn. A comparison allows us to Mrivc at the conclusion that wilh nn identical change
in the pressure in bo~h a 5hock and isontropic proc(>.'!ses, the former
is attenderl by greater heating of the gas, and this is just. what facilitates a certain drop in the density.

174

PI. 1. Theory. Aerodynemics of en Airfoil and eWing

Formula (4.:i.16) determines the raLio of t.he squares of the sound

speed in accordance with t.he relation
a!la~ = TzlT l
(4.3.17)
Using tllis relaLion, and also Eq. (4.2.18'), we can determine the
number M2 behind a shock. Inserting expression (4.2.21) for LlVn
into (/1.2.18'), we find
V:/V~ = cos 2 as + (P l/p2)Z sin z 6s
(4.3.18)
Dividing Eq. (4.3.18) by (4.3.17), we obtain an expression for
the ratio of the squares of the Mach numbers:
M!/~ = (TIIT z ) [cosZas + (P l/p2)2 sin 2 as]
(4.3.19)
where TIlT'). and Pl/pz are found from formulas (4.3.113) and (4.3.13),
respectively.
The formula for calculating M 2 can be obtained in a sOme\Vllat
different form with the aid of momentum equation (4.2.4"). Let liS
writo it in the form

("1 + ~ VisinZas) =

1+

1;- V;sin2 (as-i-f}s)

Taking into account that kplp = [(1 + 6)/(1 - 6)] pIp, and determining P21Pl by the Hugoniot equation (4.3.13'), we obtain

1-;;2~~~~~J)

(1 -I- :~~ M; SioZ6s) = 1+ !~~ Misin2(9s-f}~)

After sub5tituting for

we obtain the relation

M~

sin'). 6s its value found from (4.3.13),

(4.3.19')

Let us determine the stagnation pressure for the conditions of

a flow behind a shock. Considering the Dow of a gas behind a shock
and ahead of it to he isentropic, we can compile the thermodynamic
relations:
p2/p~ = p~/p'~,

Pl/p~ = Po/p~

where Po and p;, Po and p~ are the stagnation pressure and density
in the regions of the flow ahead of the shock and behind it, respectively. These relations yield the pressure recovery ratio across a shock
wave:
"0 = p~/po = (PiPl) (Pl/pz)" (p~/p()"
Multiplying both sides of this equation by the ratio
obtain

(Polp~)I>..

we

Ch, 4. Shock Wave Theory

17~

Let us use the energy equation y2/2'7 cpT = const and write
it for the conditions ahead of and behind a shock:
V:i~ + cpT, = V:12 + c"T 2
At pOints of stagnation, V, = V 2 = O. 1L follo\\'s from the energy
equation that the temperatures at these points are identical, i.e.
Tn = T~ or, which is the same, Po/Po = p~.(l~.
Consequently.
14.:UO)
(4.3.20')

w11ere P1ip2 and P2/Pl arc found by (4.3.15) and (4.3.13), respectively.
By (3.6.28), the stagnation pressure is
(4.:3.21)

Consequently,
1(1 -:. 6) Mi sin 2 9~_6J(6-1)/20 (.U, sin 9~)(J.r6)"o'

'(1_6)-(IT6)/26

.<

,
(11t=b.
Ur

)(I~

6);26

(1+lt~{$ .Ui~inZ(l$rl

(,'1.;),22)
6)/2(:;

Let us determine the stagnation pressllre coefficient behind <'In

oblique shock
-

Po --

PG-Pl

ql

-.~
{III .: 6) -11~Ism
. ~9
- (t+6)"I~

$-

61"

1)/26

'(M 1 sin9ap+6)/6(1_0)-'II.Nm

(',-6 Ml),>;"'20

(f+~Mi.sin2as
6
)0

6)/20

}
-1

(-'1.3.23)

An analysis of relation (4.3.~O) shows that behind a shock of finite

strength the pressure ratio p~/p() is always less than unity. The
stronger the shock, the largor arc the stagnation pressure losses and,
consequently, the smaller is the ratio P~/po.
When establishing the physical nature of these loss(!s, we cannot
consider a shock as a discontinuity surface; we must take into account
that a real compression process occurs in a layer with a small thickness of the order of the molecular free path. I t is exactly such a process

176

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodyn<llmics of <lin Airfoil <lind

<II

Wing

of transition through a shock in a layer that is possible because the

existence of two contacting regions with a fmite difference of their
temperatures, pressures, and densities cannot be visualized. It is
only a mathematical abstraction.
The transition through a shock having a small thickness is characterized by so great velocity and temperature gradients that in
the compression regions the influence of skin friction and heat conduction becomes quite substantial. It thus follows that the irreversible
losses of the kinetic energy of gas in a transition through a shock
are associated with the work done by the friction forces, and also
with the heat conduction. The action of these dissipative forces and
also heat transfer within the compression zone cause an increase
in the entropy and a resulting reduction in the pressure in the flow
behind the shock in comparison with an isentropic compression
process.
Obllqua Shock Anlla

The parameters behind an oblique shock are determined by the

number Ml and the shock angle Os. Its magnitude, determined by
the same number Ml and the flow deflection angle ~B' can be calculated
by using Eq. (4.2.19). Substituting for .6.1'D ill it its value from
(4.2.21), we obtain a working relation:
tan 9$ltan (9 s - ~B) = P2/Pl
(4.3.24)
Determining Pl/P2 from (4.3.13), we find
tan 9s/tan (as - ~s) = M~ sin2. es /(1 - 6 + 6M~ sin 2 9s) (4.3.25)
On the other hand, this relation allows us to find the flow deflection
angle ~s behind a shock according to the known shock angle. Figure 4.3.3 presents graphically the relation between the angles 9s
and ~$ for various values of the number MI' In the region to the left
of tho dashed Hne, which corresponds to the maximum values of
the angle ~s (Le., ~s. mu), tho value of the anglo as diminishes with
decreasing ~s, and to the right, conversely, it grows with decreasing ~s' This nature of the relation is due to the different form of
a shock. In the first case, the change in the angle as corresponds to
an attached curved shock ahead of a sharp-nosed body. As the body
becomes blunter (the nose angle increases), the flow deflection angle
grows, and, consequently, the shock angle increases. The maximum
flow deflection angle ~s = ~s. rna;.: is determined only by the given
value of MI' This angle is also called the critical How deHection
(deviation) anglc ~cr. The points corresponding to its values are
connected in Fig. 4.3.3 by a dashed line. Investigations show that
a flow behind an attached shock is stable as long as in the entire
region behind it the flow deflection angle is smaller than the critical
one. This flow is accordingly referred to as a subcritical one.

Fig. 4.3.3

Change in the now dcneclioD angle

various numbers Ml

~s

depending OD the shock angle

as

for

Upon a further growth of the nose angle. the angle ~6 may become
crHical. According to Fig. 4.3.3. Us value grows with an increase
in the number Ml . From Ihl:' physical yiewpoint, lhi~ is (>X'piaill(>d
by an increase in the strength of a shock, a greatt>l' density behind
it. and, as a result, hr the shock coming close (0 the> surface of the
bOlly, which leads to dellection of the flow through a larger angle.
At u still larger no,~e ungil:', t.he now ul'hind Illl attached shock
becomes unstahle, as a resllit or which the shock 1II0Y('S away from
the nose, Behind such it (ldnched shock, n new ~lIthle flow region
appears. It is chul'aclcrizcli hr tieflt'clioll thl"Ough 1111 illig-Ie also less
than the critical one. Bill unlikell suhcriti('ai now, 1I1i~ one i!l- called
sup<,reritieal. This delillitioll correspond~ to the f'lct that the nose
angle of the bod)' in the now exceeds the value III which a shock is
still attached.
A detached shock changes its shape absoiutcir. which can be seen
especially clearly in the example of a flow over a sharp-nosed cone or
wedge (Fig. 4.3.4). As long as the Row is subcritical. the shock is
attached to the nose and the gcneratrix of its surface is straight.
The now around thick wedges or cones may become supercritical,
upon which the shock detaches ilnd acquires a curved shape. At the
point of intersection of the shock surface with the flow axis, lhe shock
angle as = n/2 and. consequently, the parameters change according
to the Ill\\" or a normal shock, In practice, there is Il secl ion of such
a normal shock near the nxis.
WiLh an increase in the distance from the axis, thl' ::oiEoek allglc O~
in a(',corriance with Fig, 4,3.4 diminishes. remainililf 011 II eN'lain
section inrger than the value that a subcritical flow corr('~p()lld!< 10,
The change in the flow deflection angle is of Ihe oppo!<itl:' IInlm(',

178

Pt. 1. Theory. Aerodynemics of en Airfoil end, eWing

FW~8~~~~--Silhonic
7'#fJiori

Fig....,..

Detached shock ahead of a

sharp-nosed b,;,dy

At the apex or the detached wave bellind its straight part. ~s = 0,

and then it grows. At a certain point on the surface, the angle ~s.
becomes critical, and then it again diminishes together with the
shock angle. A..."! follows from (<1.3.25), at the limit when ~s _ O.
the angle as tends to the value 111::- siu- 1 (1IM l ). Hence, the shock
angles at a preset number Ml yary within the interval ~Ll ~ as ~
~ 1t/2. A shock of an infinitely small strength that is a simple pressure wave corresponds to the value Os = Ill'
On a curved shock (see Fig. 4.3.3), we can find two points corresponding to two different angles as that at a given MI determine
the same value of the angle ~s. This angle is calculated by formula
(4.2.20), which after introducing into it tho value of ~ Yn from
(4.3.11) acquires the form
taops =cot 9s (M; sin 2 9,-1) [1 - ( 1~6 -sin z 9s ) Mn- 1 (4.3.26)

A strong shock with a subsonic flow behind it corresponds to a

larger value 01 the angle as. and a weak sllOck with a supersonic
flow behind it (if we exclude the vicinity of the shock with angles ~,
close to the critical ones, where the flow may be subsonic) corresponds
to a smaller value of the angle 9s.
An oblique shock angle can be evaluated by using formula (4.2.25).
Substituting the relative density from (4.2.2t) for LlVn we obtain

t.ne.- cot

f!,[H*;--I)

1/+ (*- t)2 -tanZ~~ 1;-]

CO.3.2i)

On each curve shown in Fig. 4.3.3, we can indicate a point ('orresponding to the value of M 2 = 1 behind a curved shock. By connecting these points with a solid curve, we obtain the boundary of

Ch. 4. Shock Weve Theory

179

two flow conditions hehind snch ,I s-hol"k: to the left of thl' cune the
Oow will be supersonic (M 2 > 1). aud to the right of it-subsonic

(M,<I).
~.~.

Hodogr.ph

In tlflditiOIi to llll anal~t.icnl solution of lhe problem of deterlllinill(!" the Row pal'ameters bellilld an oblique shock, there is. a graphical
method based on the concept of a hodograph .
.r\ hodograph is a CUl"ve Iormillg t1w locus of the tips of the \"(~Iocity
vectors in the plane behind a shock. Let us consider the equation
of a hodogruph. Let point A (Fig. 1.11.1) be the tip of the "elocity
,'ector V 2 lind 1.11' located. (~ollsequ('nll)", on Il hodograph cOIl~lrllcted
in fI coordinate sp:.tem whos(' horizontal a.xis c!lincilles with the
dir~ctioll of the \"1loeit.~ VI ahead of tl shock. Hence, the inclination
01 the v{']ocH.}" vector \'2 i~ determill{'d h;\" the ang], ~s. LI"t. lIS
(]esigllate lhe "crliell( lind horizontal components of this "e(oeity
by 1/' !lll(lll. r('!oi.p('cth{']y. A glanc{' al Fig. 4.4 ..1 rc,,{'als that u and 16
can he expressed in terms of t.he normal V U2 and tangential V,.
components of til{' "elocity V 2 10 lh{' plane of the shock as follows:
u ~- Vt cos as.
Vll2 sin Os. m = 1',. sin O~ - VD2 cos a, (1.4.1)
Wl' dctl"rmillc the component. l'Jl2 from formula (4.3.10) in which
a~SHme thal rIll :--: VI sill Os and r,. -' 1-'1 cos 0 . Accordingly,

we

~:~: V~cos2fl.)/VI

Il:-'VjCos2 as-:-(a*z ...

(1.1.2)

Let us eliminate the angle as from this eqllation. For this purpose,
w(' shall lise Eq~. (4.4.1). ~1111tiplyillg the first of them by cos e
the second by sin as find summaUng them. we obtain

as + w sin as = V"'
co~ as. we flDd
(4.4.3)
tan as = WI - u)!w
Sllhstit.uting or tan as its \"slue from (4.4.~) into the trigonometric
u cos

Having in view that V1: = VI

relation cos2 as = (1 -7- tan 2 9,,)-I, we obtain

cos:! 9 s = 11 -:. (llJ - U)2/W2}-1

Introduction of this value into (4.4.2) yields

r,
1 . 111"1

+{a.2_~':~! V~[1-7- (

ul/u'12

l\;U rrl}/VI

180

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of en Airfoil arlCi a Wing

Flg.U.t
To the derivation of the hIJdo
graph equation

Fill. 1.4.1

Strophoid (shock polar)

This expression, relating the variables wand u, is an eqoation

or a hodograph. It is lIsually written in the form
(Vj':'U)!

'(U-a*2/T'I)/

(k!l

V I "",- "V"'12

-u)

(1.1.1i)

Let us introduce the dimensionless quantities )'1' = ula*, A.u; =

= wla*, }..l = V1/a*, and the parameter 6 = (k - 1)/(k -I- 1). The
hodograph equation now becomes
~/(A, - A")' ~ (),"),' - 1)/[(1 - 6) 1.: -!- 1 - 1.,1..1
(4.4.4')
Equation (11.1.1') graphicaUy depicts on the plane Aw , All a curve
known as a strophoid (Fig. 1.1.. 2). Let us determine certain characteristic points of a strophoid. Particularly, let us calculate the coordinates of points A and D of intersection of the strophoid with the
Examinatiun of (4.1.1') reveals that the condition ),10 is
axis All'

Ch. 4. Shoc:k Weve Theory

181

satisfied if A.. = A1 or ;'u =.. I AI' The value Au = )'1 (Ielermines the
coordinate of point A and makes iI possihle to obtain a solution
corrpsponding to fl shock of I1n illlillit~I)' !<mall strC'ngth Ill'hind which
the velority ,Io{'s not changl>. The value All ,-= LA) ,Ictermines the
c.oordinatc of inler~ectiou point]) ('\osest to the origin ofroorilinates
and is the solution for II normal shoek.
)1 follows from thu ronslrllctioll of n 5trophoid thal il~ Iwo hl'flllches
10 111> righL of point A e;"\lellll 10 inrlllil)", asymptotically npproaching till' !<traight line passiug thro\lgll poilll B jIntl paralll'l to lhe verlical EI;"\is. The coordinnte of Ihi!l poiut call he obtained from (-1.4.4')
by a limit Lran~ition Elt i. u' _ 00. The r('sull is the condition
(1 - 6) A; :. 1 - i.)A 14 , ... (J. from which we find the coordinate of
point. H. i.e. Au '-. i' l (1 - 6)
'1 ;'1'
.Any point on a sirophoid brllnch c;"\tending 10 illfinit) fOl'ntnlly
yields 1\ solulion for a shock. Considering, for (';"\ampl(', poinl F
in Fig. 4.2.2, we mil)" af;sumc that for a shoe!.: behilUl which lho
direction of the velocity change~ by a presct \'fl.llll' of Ihe anglf' ~u
the \'elo('ity incrcElsl'S abruptly 10 thE'" value i,~ detC'rminlHI by lhe
IE'"Jlgth of scgment OF. The prE'"ssurE' aud (Iensit)- \\"oulll Jllso .I('('rease
abruptly. In olher word!'!. ill the giv('n casE' there would be not a
compression shock, but an e;"\pansioll one. But the formation of such
shocks is impossihle ph~sically. To prove this, let us use formula
(1.~.(l) for the change in the enl-ropy. Applying the ratios P2 p~ =
=- p;. (p~)k. PI:P~
Poip~, and taking into account that p~. Po =
"-< f'~ 'p", from formula (4.:t6) we ohtain

(M.5)
When there is 1\ compression shock, Po > P~ and, .:onscquently,
8 2 - 8 1 > O. This conchlsioll cortl>sponds to the second law of
thermodynami('~. ac('ording Lo which the cntrop)" of an i~olated
sy!'!tem with ('omprl'ssion shocks increases.
Let U!l !lOW considl'r the reverse l'ituatioll \\hetl n gus passes from
fI statr characterized by Ihe slagnation pressure p~ (the parampll!rS
wilh the subscript 2) into a stat.e with the stagnation pressure Po
(the pnrameters with Ihl! subscript 1) through all expansion shock.
In this case, by flnalogy wilh (4.i.,;;), the challbJ{' in lIle entropy is
SI -

S1.

. R III

(p~/po)

Benel'. whell the coudition p~ < Po is retailled. the entrop), should

diminish. but this contradicts the second law of thermodynamics.
It thus foJlows Ihat expansion 8hocks cannol appear,
In accordance wilh Ihe above. Ihf' passage of a gas through a shock,
which is adiabatic in its 1I111111'e becall:'m it uccurs in a thermally
in~lIlaLed ~ysl('m, is 8n irreversible adiabatic nonisentropic process.
Equation (4.:i,(i) cau he uscil to wrify tha.t a real process of an
increase in the entropy (S2 - 8 1 > 0) corresponds to a supersonic

182

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 an Ai,foil and " Wing

flow [M 1 > 1 (a Ilormal shock). HI sill Os > 1 (all oblique shock)],

while the physically impossible phenomenon of a decrease in the
entropy (S2 - SI < 0), to a subsonic flo\\' (MI < 1 ilnd MI sin Os <
< 1). Hence, shucks can appear only in a supersonic f/ow. We must
note (hal the relations obtained for the change ill the entropy are
valid when an irreversible process of transition through a shock
attended by an isentropic flo\\<' of the gas Lolli aheild of a shod:
behind it.
It follo\\'s from the above that tlw branches of a strophoid extending to infinity have no physical meaning. The part of a stroplloid
(to the left of point A, Fig. 1.4.2) having a physical meaning is called
a shock polar. Such a curve is constructed for a given number Al
(or M I ). Several curves constructed for various \'alues of AI form
a family of shock polars allowing one to calculate grapllically the
velocity of a flow behind a slwck and the flow deflection angle.
Let us consider an attached shock ahead of a wedge-shaped surfAce
with the half-angle ~s (sec Fig. 4.1.1c). To determine Lhe velocity
behind such a shock, we construct a shock polar corresponding to
the given: number Al (or MJ.. and draw a straight line from poillt 0
(Fig. 4.4.2) at the angle ~ . .::.?int of intersection N with the shock
polar determines the vector ON whose magnitude shows the value of
the velocity ratio A2 behind the shock. By formula (4.4.3), which \\'e
"hall write in the form
tan Is = (AI - Au)':Aw
(4.4.3')
the angle ANG on the shock polar equals the shock angle Is;.;. We
must 110te that this angle can also be determined as the angle between the horizontal axis and a normal to tbe straight line connecting the tips of tho velocity vectors ahead of a shock and behind it
(points A and N, respectively, in Fig. 4.1i.2)
When considering the shock polar, we can arri\'C at the cOllclusion
that a decrease in the angle ~s (point A' mo\'es along Llle curve toward
point A) is attended by a decrease in the shock angle 9,;1'\. At the
limit, when ~~ -+ 0, point N merges with point A. which physif'ally
corresponds to the transformation of the shock wl'Ive into an infinitesimal shock wave, i.e. into a line of weak disturbances. The shock
angle for such a shock Is = III is deLermined as the anglc bet \\,pen
the horizontal axis and the straight line perpendicular to a tangent
to the slwck polar at point A (Fig. 1.4.2).
A growth in the flow deflection angle (in J"ig. 4.4.2 this corresponds
to point N moving aWAr from A) leads to an increase in the shock
angle and to a higher strength of the shock. A glance at the shock
polar shows that at a certain angle ~5 a straight line drawn from
point 0 will be t<lngent to the curvo at point C. The angle of inclination of this tangent determines the maximum flow dellection angle,
called the critical one above (~s ~"" ~cr)' Assume that the wedge

Ch. 4. Shock Wave Theory

183

angle ~& > ~er' In the graph, solid line OH drawn from point 0
and nol intersecting the shock polar corresponds to this angle.
Therefore, when ~s > ~tr, we eannot find a graphical solution for
a slwck with the aid of a shock polar. This is due to the fact that
the inequality ~s > ~or does not correspond to the assumptions
(on the basis of which we obtained equations for a shock) consisting
in that a shock is straight and sholtld be attached to a nose. Physi~
caUy-ill the given case of the wedge anglo ~s exceeding the eriticai
deflectiou angle fie r-the compression shock detaches and becomes
cUl'verl,
The determination of the shape of such a cuned shock and of its
distance to the bod~r is the task of 11 special problem of aerodynam
ics associated, particularly, with the conditions of supercritical
flow past a wedge. If such a problem is not selved, then with the aid
of a polar in the field of defmition from point D to A we can give
only a qualitative appraisal of the change in tbe parameters in a re~
gion ahead of the surface in the flow, If, on the other hand, the shape
of the shock is determined for presot fiow conditions (in addition
to calculations, this can also be done with the aid of blowing in
a wind tunnel), it is possible to establish quantitative eorrespondence
between the points of a shock polar and the shock surface.
Assume. for example, that we have set the angle Pa and points E
and N on a shock polar (Fig. 4.1.2). The shock angle 6$N = LANG
corresponds to point X, and the angle SsE = LAEK (EK ..L OB)
to point E. If the configuration of the shock wave front is known,
then by direct measurement \"e can lind on it a point N' with the
wne angle SsN" and a point E' with the angle 6 5 1:;' (see Fig. 4.3.4).
[n tht! ~aJLle way, we can find II. puillt C' 011 the shock that corresponds
to the critical (maximum) denection angle Per.
On a preset surface of a detached shock, point D on the shock polar
corresponds to the shock apex (a normal shock), and terminal point A
of the polar corresponds to the remotest part of the shock that has
transformed into a line of weak disturbances.
For an attached shock (Ps < ~ef)' we can indicate two solutions,
as can be seen on the shock polar. One of them (point E) corresponds
to a lower velocity behind the shock, and the other (point N), to
8 higher one. ObservaLions show that attached shoe-ks with a higher
velocity behind them, i.e. shocks with a lower strength are possible
physical b'.
If we dra'.... on the graph the arc of a circle whose l'adius is unity
(in the dimensional axes wand u this corresponds to a radius equal
to the critical speed of sOltnd a*), we can determiue the regions of
the now-subsonic and supersonic-which points on the shock polar
to the left and right of the arc correspond to. In Fig. 4.3.4, the
section of the flow corresponding to a subsonic velocity is hatehed.
A close look at the shock polar reveals lhat the yelocity is always

184

PI. I. Theory. Aerodyn./lmics of .!In Airfoil .!Inc! .!I Wing

subsonic behind a normal shock. On the other hand, behind an ob

lique (curved) shock, the velocity may be either sllper~onic (the rei
evant points on the shock polar are to the righl of point S) or subsonic
(the points on the polar arc to th~ left of point S). Points on the
polar between Sand C corre.spond to an attached shock behind
which the velocities arc subsonic. Experimental investigations show
that for wedge angles ~s less than the critical one ~cr or larger
than L SOB, a shock remains attached, but it hecome!i curved. The
theoretical values for the angle as and the gas velocity AZ on the
entire section behind such a curved shock fOllnd on the polar accord
ing to the wedge angle B~ do not correspolld to the actnal values.

4.5. A Hormal Shock

In the Flow of a Gas
with Constant Speclfc Heats
We shall obtain the corresponding relations for a normal shock
from the condition that 6s ---: ,,/2 and. consequently, Vnl = VI
and V n2 = V~. Basic eqnation (4.3.10) becomes
(4.0.1)
'(4.5.1')
where Al = 1'1Ja* and A2 = V 2Ja*.
We find the relative change in the velocity from (4.3.11'):

Ii iT ~ (V, -

V,)/V, ~ (1 -

6) (1 -

11M:)

(4.5.2)

We obtain the corresponding relation~ for the ratios of thE' densities, pressures, and temperatures from (4.3.13), (4.3.15), and (4.3.16):
P2/PI = M:/(1 - 6
6M~)
(4.5.3)
P2iPI = (1 + 6) M: - 6
(4.5.4)
T,fT, ~ [(1
6) M: - 6[ (1 - 6
6M:)fbP,
(4.5.5)

By eliminating M~ from (4.5.3) and (4.5.4), we obtain an equation

of a shock adiabat for a normal shock that in its appearance differs
in no way from the similar equation for an oblique shock
[see (4.3.13')[.
Assuming in (4.3.19) that as = nl2, we find the relation for the
Mach' number behind a normal shock:
.V:iM: = (TilT 2) (P IJp2)2
(4.5.6)
Let us consider the parameters of a gas at the point of stagnation
(at the critical point) of a blunt surface behind a normal !ihock
(Fig. 4.5.1). The pressure p~ at this point is determined by formula

Ch. 4. Shock W~ve Theory

18~

(4.3.20') in which the ralio." P2 PI allci P~ PI are found from ('J.5.8}

and (1.5.4), respccliHly. With this in view. we han
p~fpo =

[(1 -;- 6)

M~

61("-1)/~"

fM;/(t - 6 ...

6M~)JCh~)/~"

(4.:1.7)

Determining Po by (4.3.21), we fmd

P;/Pl =

[(1 -;- 6) M; -

61(&-1)/~"

..tt(~'6)/6 (I -

6)-(14&J/~6

(4.5.8)

Knowing the absolute pre~surt! p~, we can determine I he dimE'lIsionless quantity

= (p~ - PI) (h-the pressure coeflicient fit the
stagnat.ion point. Taking into account that the velocity head is

Po

ql:"'"

kP~l/I

2(11-.'_6 ) filM:

we obtain

Po=

(~.~6~~~ {1(1-- 6) M~ _61(6 - J)/~\ JI I (I i 61/6

x(1_6)-(1+6)/2~_

.. }

(1.'=-dl)

It is proved in Sec. 4.3 that the stagnalion temperature behind

a shock does not change, i.e. T~ = To. Consequenlly. at the ;;tilgllation point. we have

T~'-' Td 1 + I~b

.un

(0.10)

Let us usc the expression i~ :..::... cpTo aIH) il = c,,TI 10 determine

the enthalpy. Acconlingly. at the stagnation point. we haw

186

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodyn~mjcs of an Airfoil ~nd Wing

4.6. A Shock at Hypersonic Velocities

and Condanf Specific Heals

0'.

Gas

At hypersonic (very high) velocities, which values of MI sin O. >::> t correspond to, the dimensionless parameters of a gas behind
.a shock are very close to their limiting values obtained at HI sin Os __
__ 00. It follows from (4.3.11') that for this condition, we have

(4.6.1)
Consequently, the limiting ratio of the densities by (4.2.13) is

p,/p,' - 1- ~V.

- 6

(4.6.2)

Introducing this ..-alue into (4.3.27), we obtain the following ex;pression at. the limit when MI sin 8, __ 00:

tan e.= (cotJl,/U) [I-b ]f"'(1-'6"')';-4n;67ta"'n"'~"'.1

(4.6.3)

Let us lind the limiting value of the pressure coeffIcient. For the
conditions directly behind a shock. as follows from (4.3.15~), when
MI sin Os -- 00 and MI __ 00, we have

(4.6.4)
We obtain the corresponding quanlity for the point of stagnation

f'om (4.3.23):

Po =

2 (1 -

6)(6-1)126

(1

+ 6)-{1.")!'.!" sin as
2

(4.6.5)

The ratio of the pressure coefficients is

(4.6.6)

Poipz

In the particular case when 6 = 1/13 (k '-' 1.4), the ratio

=
= 1.09. The limiting value of the llumber M2 can be found from
(4.3.19), using relation (4.3.16) for TzIT 1 A passage to the limit
when MI sin 0, __ 00 and HI __ 00 yields

M:- {II [6 (I ~.6)J) (cot' e,+6')

(4.6.7)

To lind the limiting parameters behind a normal shock, we must

assume that 9 s = :t/2 in the above relations. As a result, from (4.6.4)
and (1.6.5) WC" h8\'e:

Po =

p, 2 (1 -

2 (1 - 6)
6)lll-il/26 (1 -i- 6)-(l+W26

(I,.G.1')
(4.6.;;')

en.

4. S~ock Wdve T~.eory

181

We C(ln :;ec that the ratio Po'I-;~ i:-: the .':'amea~ ror i1n olJliqut' Sllotl;.
The limiting Milch lIumhel' behind OJ JI()l"m~d ~hock is

For 6;;;....; 1,'(j (k --: 1.4), the 11\11111)('1' M ~ - 1/"[7 :::::: O.3t\. The
actual v(lllies of the dilnensionle-s5 parrlrnelf'I's behind a shock fit
linitl:!. nlthough very large', Mnch I\Ulll!wr." depC'nd on M l
Let \I.':' considf!l' the corrl!sponding' worki1lg rrlation:-: fOl" lilt' r.a.':'e
when !lUnched ;.;hock.'< originalr ahead or ;.;h'uder \\('cigcs. ami the
.sllOek angles ,"lrP thcrd"ol'C' low. A~"nlllillg ill (!I.~-t:!;;) Ihal tan s ~
.~ e~ nll(l tall
~J :::::: 0, - ~,. w(' oblai"

(e, -

(0, - ~,) 0, ~ (l - b ., 6M;O~)(,I1;O;)

Introducing Ihe syrnbol K ~ Ml~~' art('r Il'all.'<rOl'lTIutions, WI.' rllld

*-~t- ~t =u

(!t.6.8)

So\viug \.his eqllation for Os/~s and taking inlo arC'Ollllt that the
COlutitioll ()s/~s > t is physically posl'Iihle. WI.' find

*,~ 2(1~&) ;-l/' ~(l~-b)~

;-

~~

(1.6.9)

IuspE'clioJl of Eq. (!t.(U) re\'eals that tilE' parameters determining

the Dow in 11 shock at \'err high velocit leS arl' combined illto fUllcl iOlli'l1
groups snell that ther are a solution oj Ihe f!ro/dem oj a shock Jor
a broad range 0/ number..: M,." and j'alues of the o/l{!le B, in the jorm oj
a single curve. Eqllation ('l.G.Il) ii' <IU c",Hnplt' of ;\ similal"itr 1'('\ation. In (lCCorJllllce willi Lhis cqlliltioll fOI" the I"atio O>:~" thE' qllalltitr K = M,I~s is;l similarity erilcrioil. This silllilal'il r n111sl lJE' I1l1derstooll ill tile sense that l'('gardl('s~ of tl((' ah.:ol\Jtc \";1111("> of the (jU,Hltilies chal'acterizing h~'persouiC' nO\\.~. \\"11('(1 Sill1I rlo\\"s han> identical
partlinett'I's K, the ratios of the angl('s e~;ll., <ll"l' "Iso idt'1l1 ica!. "'llen
K _ 00, the ratio 8" '~~ I('nds to il limit l'(1l1a1 10

Os/Bs

1/(1 -

0)

(/j .li.1U)

Let us consider the relation for 111(' pl'C~IIl'(, c.ot'flicit'llt. AI low

values of 9 s , formula (L1.1;)'") ac((uirt's the forlll

P2

= 2 (1 -

6) (6: -- "I 'M;)

P2 =:2 (1 - 6)~: (Oi,~;- 1 K~)

(l.IL 11)

Introducing the value of 1 'K~ rrom (!di.8), WI' ohtaill

p,

c"

~Il,e,

(1.G.H)

166

Pt. I. Theory.

Aerodyn~mi(5

of 8n Airfoil Md II Wing

S\lbstit\lt.illg for the angle Os the v"llI(' cle-termilled from (4JU1).

we fmd
(4.(;.12)

This formula $110\\'$ that K is nlso 0 similarity criterion for the

ratio p2i~~. At the limit. when K -+ co, this nltio becomes
P2"~~

2..(1 -

('1.\.1:3)

&)

In accordance with (1.3.13), at small \"Iue of Os, the df'nsily

ratio is
(4.H.14)
where lhe parallleler Ks ,':
in the followillg form:

Mle~

K"" 2(1"-6) [1

is dt'lermined with the aid of (/dUJ)

+ V'

.4(1~})Z]

(4.{i.15)

We can see from ('1.:1.18) that at low volues of 9 s the second term
all the right-Iwnd side may be ignored, and \n' can thus cOl1sider
that 1'2 ~ 1'1. With this in vic\\", the ratio or the sqllares of the
Mach numbers in accordance with (1.:Un) is M;IM~ = T 1 1T 2
Substituting for the ratio 1\:'T2 here its value from form\da (4.3.1fi)
in which we assume that sin 9 s ~ es ' \\e ohtain
e~Mi '-" K~,' {l(1 + 8) K~- 8] (1 - 6:- &K~l}
(ldi.16)
When Ks

-+

00,

we have
(4.fJ.1o')

0.

4.7. A Shock in a Flow

a Gas
with Varying Specific Heats
and with Dissociation and Ionization

When solvillg a problem on a shock in a dissociated and ionized

gas, the parameters o[ the air at an altitude H (the pressure PI'
temperature T1 , density PI' speed of sound ai' etc.), and also the
value of the llormal velocity componellt VIII (or the Humber Mill =
:..... VIII/aIl arc taken as the initial data. HplIce, an oblique shock
in the given case is treated as a normal one. Assuming ill a first
approximation that the value of t!I. VII ~ {Ul-O.OJ, whidl corresponds
to setting a relative clensity for a shock of PdJl '-'- (l - ~ Vn)-l ~
~ 10-20, from (4.2.1;') we fwd the presstlre 1'2' aud from (4.2.16),
the enthalpy i2 that is evidently close to the st3gnation C'nthalpy i~.

Ch. 4. Shock Wave Theory

189

By nexl usiug'lII j-S diagram (see Hi. 81). we determine the temperatlll'e T~. and then from Fig. I.;).i. Ihe mean molar mass 11m2' Instead
of the diagram, Olll' 1ll1I:'; use suitahle ta!>les o[ the llH.'rmodyuamic
fUlldioll."1 or air (Sl't' IiI). width will increase lht' accuracy of tlll~
calclllnli()n~.

By inserting the round \"alu\1's of 1'2' T z, and j.lm:! into the equation or state (1.5.81. m' Clln d('tl'l"llIinc the deJisily p~ ilnd <IeJine
the value of t\ V" marl' precisely hy (4.2.21). \\'1..' Ilext usC Ihis value
in a st'cond llpproximation to lind the prl'ssure and enthalpy, respecth'cl)" , br formulas (1.2.15) ami (4.:U6). According to these villues
and with Lhe aid o[ Ia.hlt's and graphs, wc ([eline the temperature
and 'Mall molal' mas,:,; more exactl\". \\'1..' usc the relined values of
p" T 2, and !-Lm2 to lind the llensitr ill the second approximation
by the equation o( state. The approximaliolls arl' terminated when
tile preset accuracy is achieved.
\Ve ciln evaluate the shock angle corresponding to <l gin'll \'elocH),
VI by the formula sin B,; .-=."' VIII' 1'1' 13~' introducing thl' value of a,
and also the numher lJll -, l'I,U 1 into (4.:i.2.1i). \\"e detl'rminc the
flow deviation angle ~.s behind thl' shock.
An oblique sliot"-k tWI also h(' cn\tulated wh(,11 IIIC \'alu('l"i o[ the
free-t'llreClnl parametl'l'S (including the number 1.1 1) alltl the augl{' ~~
are known. In a first approximntioil. we d('t{'l'mine till' siwek angle
8 s (01" all nndissocialillg gas (see (-'a.:i.2i1l. find 'hl'll lind th{' corresponding \'allles of 1.1~!t p~, and i2 br forll\u!a:-l l!l.'!.Hl). (.~.2.1;",
and (4.2.10). Using these \",\lues. we d(lterminc the it'mp(,l'aturc T~
and thE" mean molar mllS~ ~lm~ l'rOIll lable~ IiI 01' gr~lph~ 10. 81. -"ext
by formulas: (4.:L2:i) lllld (1.2.:H). \\'1.' dctinc ~l""n mo1'l~ precisely,
and by expression (4.2.:!5), tan Os nnd the angh~ I:l$' We rerrne the
other parameters according 10 the r(!lenlllt tOI"IllIlI.1S.
We calculate the parameters of ,I gas behind a nOl'mal shock in
a similar ,,'ay with the lise of tables or graphs or Ihe tlU'rmod~"llamic
functions for high temperatures. We a~lIme that as""" :t:2 and
~s = 0 and, therefore, lIse (1i.:!.27)-(".2.3il).
Whl'u dissociation aud ionization occur, the l"ehlti\'C \'allles of the
parameters of a gas behind a shock \\'a\'e depend not only on the
tempernture, which is characteristic of varying specific heats, but
also on the pressure. These relations arc shown graphically in
Figs. 1. 7.1-1.7.3. The ratios of Ihe lemp{'ratures and densities are
calculated for averaged values of t.he temperature T) of 220 and
350 K. These values eqllal, respecth'ely, t.he probable minimum
and maximllm that are chosen depending on the change in the air
temperature with altitude for decreased and increased annual average
values. Availahle data show that dissociation and ioni7.ation give
rise to n suhstantil.ll change in tile equilibrium temperature and
density in comparison witll constant specific heats (k = 1.4 =
= const). The pressure depemhi; Lo a considerably smaller extent

190

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 an Airfoil and a Wing

~':ti~7~tf the air temperatures

behind and ahead of a shock
with account taken of dissociation and ionization:
~lId
linu-T, = 2211
linrs_T, = 3:'11 X

K, dnshrd

lilA

" f---,----t-

"

~I:iit~t the air dcns.ities behind

and ahead of a s.hock with account taken of (Iissociation and

ionization:
wild linu--T) = fW
lInu-T,1 = 3aO K

I~ f--c,r~"""9~=+--c~

K. dnshrd

!I/P,

8DOr-,--,----"::H.::"~lm

6D"r--t---t--n"'Y-'
II}:!

f ll4,7,

Ratio of the air pressures

behind and ahead of a shock
with account taken of dissociation and ionbation

"

2DOi---H:L-jf--"-=-1

on the physicochemical transformations of the air. The ratio P2iPI

differs only slightly from the maximum value of P2iPl ""'" 1 +
-i- klM~ll determined only by the conditions of the oncoming Ilow,
but not by the change in the structure and physicochemical proporties of the air behind a shock wave.

Ch. 4. Shock Wave Theory

191

The temperature behind a shock ill a dissociated gas is lower thall

that with constant specific heats (Fig.1.7.l). The explanation is the
loss of energy on the thermal dbsociatioll of L111' molecules.
The lowering of the temperature due to this phenomenon CHII$eS
the density to grow (Fig. 4.7.2). This greater "yielding" of the gas
to compression reduces the space bf'tween a shock aud a surfa("e in
the flow, thus diminishing the shock angle. And conversely, at the
same angle as in a real heat.ed gas, the Jlow defleetion (tlw angle ~i)
is greater than in a perfect gas (k = COllSl). The result is that in
a heated gas a detached shoek fol'lus with a certaill delay in compal"ison with a cold gas. Particularly, tJH' wedge angle (critical angle)
at which detachment or a sllOek hegins is larger ill a Ilea tell gas than
in a cold one.
Account of the infllH'IH~f' of dis:-;oeiutioll II',I(]." to fI certain illc["case
ill t.he pressure bchilHJ a shork ill compnrison with fI gas haYillg
constant specific heats (Fig. '1.7.3). This is explained by the increase
ill t.he number of pal"tieles in the gas O,,illg to dissociation and. by
the increase in the losses of IduC'tic ('Ilergy wlll'n tiley eollide. But
the drop in the te'mperatnre ill u di."sorialed gas caw'es an oppo!'ite
effect, but smaller in magllitude. :\:; a l"1'SUit. thl' pressilre increases,
although only slightly.
The theory of a normal shock has an impol'tant practical application when determining the pacametC'l"s of a gas at lite point of stagnation. The procedure is as follows. According to the fOllnd values i z
and P2 with account t.aken of dissociiltion and ionization, we find
the entropy 8 2 from an i-8 diagram or tablcs of thermodynamic
functions for air. Considering the flo\\" behind a shock to be isentropic, we assume that the cntropr S~ at the stagllfllion point equals the
value 8 2 behind the shock \\'a\e. In addition, for t.his point We' cfln
find the ent.halpy i~ = i l .!- 0.5V~. l\o\\" knowing 8~ and i~, we ran
use an i-8 diagram or thermod)namk tablcs to find the othf>r parameters, namely, p~, T~, p~, etc.
The results of the calculations correspond to the preset flight
altitude. A change in the altitude is at.t.ellllf!'d by a changc ill the
conditions of flow past. a body and, consequently. in the paralllcters
at t.he point of stagnation. This relation is shown graphically in
Fig. 4.7.4. The curves allow us to determine the temperat.ure T~
and pressure p~ as a function of the veloci\.~' V, and the flight altitude H.
The value of p~, in turn, can he used to ca!r.ulate the pressnre
coefficient at the point of stagnat.ion: Po = O.'skM;'. (p~/p "" - 1).
Its value grows somewhat in a di.!'50ciating flow. For exam piC', at an
altitude of 10 km at M~ = ifi.7, its valne is Pi) '""'" ~.08, whereas
without account taken of dissociation
= 1.83 (for k =- cJ'.c,. =
= 1.4). The pressure coefficient can be seen to grow by abOHt 1R%_

Po

192

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodyntlmics of an Airfoil <'H1d

1I

Wing

Flg.UA

Pressure and temperature at the

of stagnation

point

The results of calculating the density at the point of stagnation

with account taken of dissociation and ionization for air, and also
for pure oxygen and nitrogen. arc given in Fig. 4.7.5. An analysis
of these results allows us to arrive at the following conclusion. At
M"" = 18. when oxygen is already noticeably dissociated, the quantity P~!P_ reaches its maximum value. Upon a further increase
in M "'" the gas completely dissociates, and tile density drops. Next
a growth in M <to is attended by primary ionization of the oxygen.
This leads to an increase in the specific heat and. consequently, to
a cel'lain growth in the density.
The influence of the varying nature of the specific heat on the
change in the density of nitrogen is observed only at very large
numbers M when dissociation and ionization take place. These
processes run not consecutively, as in oxygen, but virtually simultaneollsly, which is due to the smaller difference between the energies
of dissociation l:l.llU ionization of nitrogon. This is why the curve
p~/p ... for nitrogen is more monotonic than for oxygen.
<XI

Ch. 4. Shock Wa.ve Theory

193

At }1"" < D, what mainly occurs in the air is dis~ociation of

oxygeu, and the drnsity curve for air is closer to the rrlevant curve
for oxygen, At M", > 1:3. when the dissocialioll of the nitrogen
becomes appreciable. the dependence of fl~lpoo on M"" for air reminds
one of the similar relation for gaseolls nitrogcll bccause the iatter
is the predominating component. in tile air.
The C;llcnlation of the parameters of a gas behind a shock ,vith
a vicw to the varying na~llre of l!le specifiC heats is Ilescribed in
greater detail in [141.
4.8. Relaxation Phenomena
Sectioll 1.7 deals with ways o[ calculating the parameters of a gas
behind a shock with account taken of tile physicochemical transformations for conditions of equilibrium of the thermodynamic processes.
In a more general case, however, these processes are characterized by non-pquilibrium, which has a delluite innuence 011 the gas
flo\\' behind shocks.
Non-Equilibrium Flows

It is known from thermodynamics that the ilssumption of

thermodynamic equilibrium consist.s in agreement brt,veen the
le,-els of the internal degrees of freedom and the parameters
characterizing the state of a gas, For example, at comparati\'ely
low temperatures (low velocities), equilibrium sets in between the
temperature and the vibrational degree of freedom, which corresponds
to equilibrium l.Jet,veen the temperature and till} specirlc heat. At
high temperatur(}s (high velocities), when a gas diSSOCiates, the
equilibrium state is reached as follows. As diSSOCiation develops,
the probability of triple collisions grows (for a binary mixture of
diatomic gases) because the numher of gas particles increas(}s. This
leads to the acceleration of recombination and the retardation of the
rate of dissociatioll. At a certaill instant and t(}mperature, the rates
of the direct and reverse r(}actious become equal, and the gas arrives
at an equilibrium state. The latter is characterized by a constant
composition and agreement between the degree of dissociation, on
the one hand, and the temperature and pressure, on t.he other. At
still higher temperatures (very high velocities), equilibrium processes
of excitation of the electron levels and ionizatiOIl can be considered.
Upon a sudden change in the temperature in an equilibrium flow,
the corresponding internal degrees of freedom also set in instantaneously; dissociation~and ionization call be considered as the manifestation of new degrees of freedom. Consequently, in these cases,
there is'no delay in establishing the degrees of freedom, i.e. the time
needed for achieving equilibrinm is zero.

194

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 an Airfoil and a Wing

In practice, an equilibrium flow is observed under supersonic

Dows past bodies at Mach numbers of M CO> = 4-5 in conditions corresponding to altitudes of 10-15 km and less. The explallillion is
that at the maximum temperatures of the order of 1000-1500 K
appearing in these conditions, the main part of the intemal energy
falls to the share of the translational and rotational degrees of freedom, which upon sudden changes in the temperature are established
virtually instantaneously because only a few molecular collisions are
needed to achieve equilibrium. This is wby the transl;ltionai and
rotational degrees of freedom arc usually called "active" degrees.
With an increase in the velocities and, conseqllently, in tlie temperatnres, a substantial part of the internal energy is spent on vibrations,
then on dissociation, excitation of the electrolL levels, and ionization.
Actnal processes are such that these energy levels set in more
slowly than the translational and rotational ones beciluse a mtlch
greater number of collisions is needed. For this reason, thE' vibrational
and dissociative degrees o[ fl'C'edom are sometimes called "inert"
degrees. Hence, the inert degrees arc featured by a delay in the
achievement o[ equilibrium called relaxation. The time in which
equilibrium sets in, i.e. correspondence between the temperature
and the energy level is established, is callC'd the relaxation time.
The relaxation time charactertzes the rate oj attenuation oj depa1'lures
oj a gas state from an equilibrtum one, which in a general case manijests
itself in the jorm of a change in the energy distribution limong the
di/Jerent degrees 0/ freedom.
Relaxation processes are determinl'd by whal degreE' of freedom
is excited. If upon a sudden change in the tempf'rilture, vibrations
appear, the corresponding nOll-equilibrillm process is callC'd vibrational relaxation. It is characterized by a lag in the specific heat when
the temperature changes. If the temperature rise!', the specific heat
grows because of the appearance of vibrations of the atoms in the
molecules. The time during which vibrational motion renclles equilibrium is called the vibrational relaxation time.
In a non-equilibrium dissociating gas upon a sudden change in the
temperature, a delay occurs in the change in the degree of dis!'ociation. This phenomenon is called dissociative relaxation. Owing to
the difference between the rates of formation of the aloms and
their vanishing (the rate of dissociation is higher than that of recombination), a gradual increase in the degree of dissociation occurs.
The equilibrium value of the degree of dissociation is achieved at the
instant when the rates of the direct and reverse reactions become
equal. The time needed to obtain an equilibrium degree of dissociation is called the dissociative relaxation time.
Experimental data on the relaxation time for oxygen and nitrogen
are given in Fig. 4.8.1.

Ch, 4, Shock. WlJve Theory

195

~I~p:;~ental (I, 2) curves of

the vibrationaL relaxation time

and calculated (,1, 4) curves of

the relaxation timc for the dissociation or oxygcn and nitrogpn, re-spectively, at atrnosphe-ric prcssure

At. tcmperaturcs approximaLely lip to 10 000 K, the \'ibrational

and dissociative relaxation proces~ws are the nlilin ones, Tht' rl'iaxalion phenoJUpna a~sociateu wiLh the excitation of the elecLro" Il'yels
o[ the Illoipcldes and nlomO', and also wiLh ionizAtion, may 1)(' 4ii~re
gardc41 because a small fraction of the internal energy fallO' to Ihe
shal'c ot' t\Jef':e 4legret's of freedom at the indicated t('mpf'l'atllres.
A nOll-equililJl'illnl slate has a substantial influence on the Yal'iollS
pl'ocess('s attending the flo\\' of a gns at \'Cry high \'e1ocities, l\'l'lic1(lady, vibrational and dissociativc relaxations change t1l(' parameters
of a ga!; ill a trall!;itioll throllgh shock \\'n\'('s and in the fin\\' past
bodi('s, This, ill turn, aHrcts the JlrOCe~Sl'S of friction, heat exchange,
and abo the redistribution of thn pr('ssurp.
The studying of nOll-cquilibrium flo\\'s consists ill the joiHt investigation of the motion of the fluid and of the chemical pro('(''!:ses
occuning at Hnite ,,('Ioeities. Thi~ is ex:pl'essed formally in Ihnl an
eqllatioll for the rate of chemical reactions is adcle{l to till' m:nal
system of equal ions of gas dynamic'!:,
EquilibrIum Processes

Equilibrium flows have been studied better than non-equilibrium

ones both from the qualitative and the qnantitfltive ~t<Hldpoinls.
The regions of n now in which equilibrium sets in are different becousc
of the (Iifferent relaxation times for the excitation levels. The
duration of the establishment of equilibrium relative to the \'ibrational degrees of freedom is longer by several orders than relative
to the translational and rotational ones. Equilibrium set,!: in even
more slowly relative to the composition of a gas mixture when dissociation and ionization occur. Accordingly, the scheme of a nonequilibrium process is such that the attainment of equilibrium of
one degree of freedom may be attended by the beginning of a relax-

t 96

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynemics of en Airfoil end- o!! Wing

ation phenomenon of another one. In more genoral case, overlapping

.()f the regions of establishing equilibrium is observed.
An approximate model of the process can be conceived on the basis
-of the "freezing" principle. It is considered that a region of achievement of equilibrium relates to one or several degrees of freedom,
while the others are not excited. The sequence of these regions of
equilibrium can be represented by degrees of freedom with elevation
of the temperature in the following order: translational, rotational,
and vibrational degrees, dissociation, excitation of electron levels,
and ionization. When considering, for example, the process of establishing equilibrium of vibrations, the first two degrees of freedom
can be considered to be completely excited. This process occurs in
conditions of "froztm" dbsociatioTL and ionization.
Such a scheme is not suitable for certain gases, particularly nitrogen at high temperatures, because ionization begins before dissociation is completed. This is explained by the fact that the energies of
dissociation and ionization of nitrogen differ from each other only
one-and-a-half times. In this case, the regions of attainment of
equilibrium overlap. A similar phenomenon is observed in the air
at comparatively low temperatures. At temperatures exceeding
3200 K, tho relaxation time for the dissociation of oxygen is lower
than the dUl:ation of setting in of nitrogen vibrations. Consequently,
equilibrium in the dissociation of oxygen is established before the
vibrations of the nitrogen are in equilibrium.
Investigation of the flow of a non-equilibrium gas over bodies is
facilitated if the characteristic time of this process is considerably
lower than the relaxation time of one of the inert processes and conditions of a frozen flow occurring without the participation of this
inert process appear. Particularly, if the duration of flo'''''' over a
section of a surface is small in comparison with the time needed for
chemical equilibrium to set in, but is commensurable with the
vibrational relaxation time, a process with frozen dissociation and
ionization may be considered on this section .
laxation Effects In Shock Waves

In the transition of a gas through a shock wave, a portion of the

kinetic energy is converted into the energy of active and inert degrees
of freedom. For the active degrees (superscript "A")-translational
and rotational-equilibrium sets in during the relaxation time tS
commensurable with the time taken by the gas to pass through the
thickness of the shock. Since this time is very small, we can consider
in practice that the active degrees are excited instantaneously.
At the same time, dissociation does not yet begin because during
a small time interval the number of collisioll!i of the molecule~ is not

Ch. 4. Shock Wave Theory

197

m
p,

.::

,; .---.'- . ,:" ----1-,

~Z

,-

p.

'

1""'-

~i~'o!:t~on

t;.-~t~

!t,x

.---,

proceSill in a shock wave:

(ll1e h.lclltd 't'glon delermlnl"8 the thlckni'S$ of Ihr shock way!'):

J .nd l'-lront and ,ellr surtacfs 01 the shock WOYP, N'SpfC\i\")Y

large. Hence, directly behind a shock wave, the- temperature T~

is the same as in a gRS ' .... ith constant specific heats.
In accordance wiLh this scheme. no inert degre('s of freedom (superscript. "I") are excited directly after a shock, Since these degrees
have a fmite relaxation time tL considerably grt'aLer than t.he time
t~ and the duration of transition through the thickness of a real
shock, then the temperature lowers until the illl'l't degrees of freedom
(first vibrations, thon dissociation. excitation of the electron 10\,eI5.
and ionizaLion) reach equilibrium.
In Fig. Ii.B.2, schematically ilhlstratillg a reluxation process, the
relaxation time t~ measured from the instant of lite beginning of
motion on the front surface of t.he shock wan' ahead of which the
temperature of the undisturbed gas is 1\ corresponds to the temperature T;. The figure also shows the density p~ corresponding to thetemperat.ure T~, while the equilibrium state is established at a tC'lIlperature of T 2 < T;. A non-equilibrium process of gas no\\' behind
8 shock is altended by an increa,~e in the density to the e(luiliiJl'illlll
valuc P2 > p;. Here a ~mall growth i1l the pres$lJre is ohscn(lod in
comparison with an ideal gas, Simultaneously the degree 0/ dissoclatiOIl (and at vcry high temperatnres, the degree of ionization) groU's
from zero to its equilibrium l.'aZue.
Thc invesligation of the non-equilibrium now behind a shock
consists in detetminin.a I_he length of the non-l'quilibrinm zone, or
the relaxation length, and also in eSlimaling the non-equilibrium
parameters. The system of equations describing such motion includes
equaLions of the momentum, energy, state, and an equation for the
rate of chemical reactions.
The initial conditions upon its int<.>gratioll arc determined by
the parameters direct1y behind the shock wa\'c, which are found
with the assumption that dissociation is absent. At the end of the

198

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of

olin

Airfoil end

II.

Wing

:!ft"U:~! 01 noo-tquilibrium
dissociation on the density and
temperature behind a shock
wave
g~. ~)JIo.2,

T. _ 300

K.

p,-

relaxation length, these parameters reach equilibrium values corresponding to the equilibrium degree of dissociation.
The results of sucll investigations of a non-equilibrium now of
a gaseous mixture of oxygen and nitrogen behind a shock wave are
given in Fig. 4.8.3. The solid curves were obtained on the assumption of instantaneous vibrational excitation, and the dashed ones in
the absence of excitation. These results reveal that vibrations have
an appreciablesigllirlcance in direct proximiLy to a shock. For example,
without account of eXciLations, the temperature behind a shock
is 12 000 K, while for a complotely exciLed state it is about 9800 K.
i.e. considerably lower. At the end of the relaxation ZOne, vibrational
excitation is of virtually no importance. Tnerefore in calculations of
equilibrium dissociation, we can assume that the rates of vibrational
excitation arc infinitely high, thus considering a gas before the
beginning of dissociation to be completely excited. It is shown in
Fig. 4.8.3 that the length of the non-equilibrium zone is comparatively small and is approximately 8-10 mm.
The data of investigations of the relaxation in shock wan's can
be used to determine the nature of non-equilibrium flow in the vicinity of a blunt nose in a hypersollic now. Here we find the length of
the relaxation (non-equilibrium) zone and determine whether such
a zone reaches the vicinity of the point of stagnation. In accordance
with this, the stagnation parameters arc calculated, and with a view
to their values. Similar parameters are evaluated for the peripheral
sections of the surface in the flow.
The length of the non-equilibrium zone is found as the relaxation
length calculated by means of the expression
XD

= O.5Vctn

(4.8.1)

where Yc is the velocity directly behind the normal part of the

shock wave, and to is the relaxation time.

Ch. 4. Shock Wave Theory

The relaxation tim('

to ~

("all

199

be found hy the formula

2.1:) X 10-7 (1 -

'1. c HI/

(ll) r;1~ 'X~

(;\

. '1. r

CU';.:!.)

in which f (H) = tJooH"P"'I'; is a fUlictioll of the altitude (P''ll and

p.,J:: are the densities of tl.e at.mo:-:-phere fit the altitude J[ aud at
tlw Earth's surface. re.speclivcly).
P'P"'1I Ithl' den ..;ily f'
= 0.;;; (Pc -i- Pel. where pc and Pc are the densities bellin.1 the shock
in the Illidissociated gas ,\litl for equilibrium di::;sociation. respective-

p -

l\'!.

. If the length XL) is smaller \.lUlH the distance .~u hetwel~n a shock
wave and the point of :;tagnatioll, lhe non-eqlliliIH'iulH zone is ncar
lI.e wave and does not include the body in lhe !low. COII:-;e'lI1l'lItiy,
the condition for equilibrium in lhe vicinity of II blunled :;urface
willlJe .1:0 < so' or O.5V{OtlJ < so. llence we cal\ abo lilld lhe inequality to < si(O.5Vc) in which lhe term 011 lhe right-ltaud st.lt' is lhe
characteristic time t s spent by a particle in the compression zone.
If tso> > tu. a particle or the gas will have lime to reach till:' stalo of
eq1lilibrium before it reilc.!ws the slll'[nce.
It is not difficult lo sec rrom formula (1.8.2) llial the relaxalion
time grows with increasing llight altitude II and, consequ('ntly, the
length of the non-equilihrium zone increl'l.ses. At tlw same timc, til
diminishes wHh an incre;lsc in Lhe intensity or a ("ompr{'~sioll sl.ock
for very high supersonic velocities of the !low (here the rclati\'e
density behind a shock ~ ,"" P.'P "'11 b~conU'::; larger).
A non-equilibrium slale suhstantially aned:-:- 1ll!' distance between
a shock wave and a body. With a completely lIolH'qnilibrium flow
behind a shock (the degree of dissociation '"L '-" 0), lhis distance can
be appreciably larger than in equilibrillm dissocialion (a -::: etl' > 0),
It decreases in tlH' real cO\Hlitions of a gradualtrl.lllsit.ion from a nonequilibrium state to RIl equilibrium flow behind a shock wave, i.e.
when the degree of dissociation ehRnges from 0 behind tile wave
to the equilibrium value '"1. , ..:: etc at the ell~1 of the relaxation zone.

5
Method
of Characteristics

5.1. Equlflons for !he velocity

Potential and Stream Funcffon

An important place in aerodynamics is occupied by the method

of characteristics, which allows one to calculate the disturbed flow
of an ideal (inviscid) gas, This method make~ it possible to design
correctly the contours of nozzles for supersonic wind tunnels, determine the parameters of supersonic flow over airfoils and craft bodies.
The method of characteristics has been developed comprehensively
for solving the system of equations of steady supersonic two-dimensional (plane or spatial axisymmetric) vortex and vortex-free gas
flows. Investigations associated with the lISC of the method of characteristics for calculating the three-dimensional flow over bodies
8fC being performed on a broad scale. Below we consider the method
of characteristics and its application to problems on supersonic twodimensional flows.
Equations for a two-dimensional plane steady Dow of an illViscid
gas are obtained from (3.1.20) provided that 1.1. = 0, 8V,/8t =
= 8V,/8t = 0 anel hAve the following form:
V

oV",
'"

V:c

oz

~~. _..!..~ }

+l'
g

8y

iJz

(;"'d.1)

0:; + V, ~:' =, _~. ~~

For a two-dimensional axisymmetric flow, the equations of motion

obtained from (3.1.36) for similar conditions (v = 0, 8V,/8t =
= 8V,IOt = 0) can be wriLten in the form

'V~=-..!.'..!f....}

Vx

DV",
ilz

V:c

o~r + Vr :~r

or

iJz

(5.1.2)

_~.*

The conLinuity equlltions for plune and axisymmetric Dows .having

r('~pcctively the form of (2.4.5) Rnd (2.4.32) can be generalIzed as

Ch. 5. Method 01 Characteri~tic~

20t

follows:
a (pV""yt),()x -j d (rVyye),'uy

~-

(5.t.3}

When e = 0, this equalion coincides with the continuity equation

for a two-dimensional plane now in the Carlesian coor(linates x and y.
If e = 1. we have a continuity equation for a two-dimensional axisymmetric Dow in the cylindrical coordinates y (r), I. Accordingly,.
for both kinds of flow, we may consider that the equatiolls of mot ion
Fd.1) arc written in a gent'ralized form.
Having determined the partial derivative!> ill continuity equation
(5.1.3), we obtain

(v~ ~~

+ V" !~

)ye+pyt ( a;~x.1

{}~1I) ~pVyf:yF-l

.. 0

(5.1.4}

V'le can replace the partial derivative ap./oJ: wiLh lhe expression
Dp/ax = (ap/Elp) aplfJx, in which Elp/fJp = La:!, while the derivative
&p/&x is found from (5.1.1) in the form

-r (Vo. o~:

_;

Vy (.~;Ix)

\\'jth this in view, we have

;~ '-- -%(Vx

{}fJi:x -:

Vy

(5.1.5)

An expression fo!" the del'ivat ivl' rlp/oy is

way:

~';

,;, -7 (V

rJ~;"

f()lItHI

+ V~, ;',~> )

similar

(5.1.6)

Substitution of the vnluC's of th('!ie d(>ri\"{\ti\"t.~ into (:U.4) yields

This cqualioll is thC' fundam(>ntal differential equation of gas

dynamics for a two-dimensional (plane or spatial axis~ mmelric)
steady tlow which the velocity cOlilponelll~
and
mllst satisfy.
Since this equation reJatr:i the \"('Ioritie~, it is {liso 1'C'Cerrcd to a~ the
fundamental kinematic {'(Iuation.
If a flow ii' potential, tllell

r ..

l:x'-- dq,u,t, VII :."': oq uy, dVx/{Jy

thcrc!ort, Ey. F).l.7)
(Vi-a2)

~"j:~

.j

l:U!l

2V.Y'J

ry

= 8J'vlIJ' = (P!p.'ih ay

he transformed as follows:

<!~~~I!I .;-(F~-a2) ~:f~ _I/:~/lf

(:'.1.8)

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and. .e. Wing

202

where

Equation (5.1.8) is the fundamental differential equation of gas

dynamics for a two-dimensional potential stead)' flow and is called
an equation for the vcloeity potential. Hence, unlike (5.1.7), Eq.
(5.1.8) is used only for studying vortex-free gas flows.
If a two-dimensional gas now is a vortex one, the stream function
1Jl lias to be used for studying it. The velocity components expressed
in terms of the function 1Jl have the form of (2.5.5). Replacing p
in accordance with formula (3.G.31) in which the stagnation density
PI! along a given streamline is assumed to be constant, expressions
(2.5.5) can be written as follows:
Vol = y-t (1 _

f1)-1/(4-1)

o1jJloy,

VII = _y-. (1 _ y2)

_1/(4_1)

o/ox
(5.1.9)

where j7 = VIV,u:\~.
The cRlculaLion of a vortex gas flow consists in solving a differelltial equation for the stream function "p. To obtoin tllis equation, let
tiS rUffprentiate (5.1.9) with respect to y and to x:

"~;'

= _ey-e-l (1_V"2tli(4-1l : :

(1- yttl/(A-Il-1

":~"

.. _ y-e

a~2 . ::

-j_

+y-e~

y-e (1- VZ)-I/(k-I)

~ (1- V2tl/(h-1)-1 ~~2

~~

~:~

_ y-e (1- Vit1(1t-1l

T,1king into account expression (3.0.22) for the square of the speed
of sound, and also relations (5.1.9), we can write the expressions
obtained for the derivatives oV,)oy and oV,/ox as follows:

J:;

'--co

_+ v.,.,-

~:~. "~2 +y-e(l_V2)-,/(h-1l ~:~

":;"~, :a~. a~2 _y-e(1_Y2)-I/(h-1l ~:~

(5.1.10)

(5.1.11)

We shall determine the derivatives oV2loy and oV'llox in Eqs.

(5.1.10) and (5.1.11) with the aid of relations (5.1.9). Combining
these relations, we obtain
(5.1.12)

Ch. S. Method of Chllrllcteristics

203

By difierent.iating (5.1.12) with respect to x anti y, we lind the

relevant relations:
2 :~ . ~:~. -t- 2 ~,!

~;

.a~:fJ~

~. ~ t

_ P y 2f

yte

. ~:~ _, ~~2 y2"

a~~~y .:- 2 ~!

2eV2 y 2e -1 (1 _

~~:

--.-

Y2)2/(/'-t) _ 1'2y2e

V2)~/(~-L)

(t -

('I _ V2)10l/(I!-I)-I

(~~2

(1 ._-

V?)'~I(I!-I)

~ 0 - i12.)2/(I<-I)-1 a%y2

We transform these relations with a view to Ell. p.6.22) for the

sqllflre of the speed of sound and to relations (5.1.\)):

-- Vr, !:~)

+ Vx a~2:y
- VI/

4-. ~~~ ('1 _.

'" f aiJ~~2

Y1.)IIi"-t)

a!2:y -i' l' x !;~.

'{ (1 -

~) + y~-e V2(1 -

('1 - -;.)

(:i.1.13)

(1- V~)t/(I'-I)
j72)l/lll-l)

(5.1.1-1)

Dl'termining the derivatives OV'l-IOy and (JV~iOx from these expression~ and inserting them into (5.1.10) and (5.1.11), respecth'ely, we
obtain

f(1-V2)1/(~-t)(1-~) iJ~:x

~.:)

;,: ( 1 -

- !/_e 1'2 (1-f (1 -

-Zy:_eVx(I--ln)II(I'-1)

-r :~~ [.- V" a'I,2!y T V ~ ~:~

1'2)1/1/'-1) ]

+ -} (1 - ~: ) ::~

~: ) 0;;,
-.: ~:: (-Vy !:~..:-1',. :;~y)-}(1- ~:) ::~
Y2)t/(l'-IJ

(1-

Subtraction of the firsL equation from the second one yields a

relation for a vortex:

a;: _ o~/
.;- V",

:;~y

(1- 1'2t

a2~vt'7
l / Ch -t)

-7

(-Vy ::~
(1- V2

t 1/{h- l ) ~:~

204

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of en Airfoil end

Wing

A vortex can also be determined with the aid of Eq. (3.1.22')

transformed for the conditions of the steady flow of an ideal gas
and having the form
(5.1.16)
grad (V'12) + curl V X V ~ - (lip) grad p

By applying the grad operation to the energy equation (3.4.14),

we have:
.
grad (V'12) ~ -grad i
(5.1.17)
Consequently, Eq. (5.1.16) can be written in the form
curl V

XV~

grad i - (lip) grad p

(5.1.18)

Vortex supersonic gas flows call be characterized thermodynamically by the change in the entropy when going over from one streamline
to another. This is why it is con venient to introduce into the calculations a parameter that reflects this change in the entropy as a feature
of vortex flows.
In accordance ''lith the second law of thermodynamics
T dS

= di

- dp/p

or in the vector form,

T grad S = grad i -

(1/p) grad p

(5.1.19)

Combining (.'i.1.18) and (5.1.19), we obtain

curl V

V -= T grad S

(5.1.20}

Let us calculate the cross product curl V X V, having ill view

that by (2.2.12) the vector
curl V = (OV,)8x - 8V,/ay) i3
(here i3 is a unit vector), and, therefore, the projections (curl V)x =
O. Let us use a third-order determinant:
= (curl V)y

curl VXV

I ci i~ (C~~l Vh I
V", V y

in which the projection

(curl V)3 = aV1l 18x - OV,)8y

'2013

Ch. 5. Method 01 Ch<!lr<!lcieristics

Calculations yield
curl YXV = -

Vy ( 0;; _ 0:; )i, :_ Vx ( V~~tl

u;;"" ) i2
(5.1.21)

Accordingly, for tho projection of the vector curl V X V onto

a normal n to a streamline, we obtain the relation
(curl V

V)~

= (curl V

+ (curl V X V)~
= V' (aV,la. - aVJay)'

V)~

(5.1.22)

Examination of (5.1.20) reveals that this projection can also be

written in the form
(curl \' X V)/l. = T dSldn
or, with a view t.o (5.1.22)

V (aY,lax - aY.:ay) = T aSld"

(5.1.23)

Since a Z = kRT, then, taking (3.6.22) into account, we fl"!ld an

expression for the temperature:
Tc.""",

;~ ,_ k~1 .*(V~lax-V2.)= k~t. V~nJ! (1--V2)

Introducing this relation into (5.t.23), we obtain

o~,:

_o~:

.=

~. 1~1~~~

(1- V~)

~:

(5.1.24)

By introducing the vortex according to this expression into

(5.1.15), we lind a differential equation for tile sLream function:

(Vi-a 2 ) ~:~ +2V:'Yllo!~o~ L(V~_a2) ~~l;

+ yt'-e a2V

(1- V2 ),/(h-1)

= k;;1 V;;'J! (1- V2).\/(.\-O ye (02 _

V~) ~:

(5.1.2:1)

5.2. The Cauchy Problem

Equations (5.-1.8) for the velocity potential and (5.1.25) for the
stream function are inhomogeneous nonvlinear second-order partial
differential equations. The soilltion~ of these equations cp = cp (x, y)
and W= W(x, y) are depicted geometrically by integral surface~ in
a space determined by the coordinate systems x, g, cp or x, y, 1p.
In these systems, the plane x, y is considered as the basic one and
is called the pbysical plane or tile planc of independent varlableA.

206

pt.

I. Theory. Aerodynamic, of In Airfoil Ind

I,

Wing

r!'ii!f'~urve AB; the required

function and its first derivatives witil respect to:e and y are
on it

known

Tho Cauchy problem consists in finding snch solutions in the

vicinity of all initial curve y = y (x) satisfying the additional conditions set Oil this curve. The values of the required function (jl (x, g)

~i~~alx~~?d~~i~r~!~e -fll~:~ d::!v~~i:\~~ ~1~S (t;'~hY~: ~~~t:~e ~~~Jlit~~:~!~

From the geometric viewpoint, the Cauchy problem consists in
finding nn integral surface in the space x, y, cp (or x, y, 'lJl) that
passes through a preset spatial curve. It is just the projection of this
curve onto the plnno g, x that is the initial curve y = y (x) on this
plane. The solution of the Cauchy problem as applied to the investigation of supersonic gas flows and the development of the corresponding method of characteristics arc t.he results of work performed by
the Sovict scientist, prof. F. Frankl.
To consider the Cauchy problem, let us write Eqs. (5.1.8) and
(5.1.25) in the general form
Au

+ 2Bs + Ct + H =

(5.2.1)

:~~~ed up:rtT:i J~~i~;t~~:s:=\:;V v~Ol::rV~f ~,d ~,=a:dv Jo:qt"a'l' :~:

coefficients of the corresponding second partial derivatives, and
the quantity H is determined by the free terms in Eqs. (5.1.8) and
(5.1.25).
We shall find a solution of Eq. (5.2.t) in the vicinity of the initial
curve AB (Fig. 5.2.t) in the form of a series. At a point M (x o, Yo).
the required function is

~ (x"

y,)

~ ~ (x, y)+ ~

+, [(dx)' ::~

n=f

+f (L\X}fl-J 6y 8.t:~~~8v +
X

m::',.'

(~~1) (6x)n-2 (6y2)

+ ... + (dy)' ~:n

(5.2.2)

Ch. S. Method of Characteristics

207

where IP (x, y) is the value of this function at the given point A (x, y)on the initial curve, fix = ;:j';1J - x, fUnl fly = YIJ - y. The function
'If may be used ill (5.2.2) instead of IP.
Series (5.2.2) yields the required ~olution if values of Lh(' [HIl('Lions
IP (or 'If) and also their derivatives of any order exist on a gin'n curve
and arc known. Since the flrst derh'alives on this curve [\\'(' shall
denote them by p = (fx (or 'fr) and q "-' lPu (or 1f,)} arc gin'lI. our
task consists in fmding the second derivatives on it, and ul!'o clt'rh'utives of a higher order. lIcmce. the solution of tlu' Cau(,hy prohlem
is associat~d wilh flUding of the conditions in which til(' higlwr (l('ri\.:I.'
tives 011 the givl'1l curvl' ('UIl b(' delermilled.
shalilimiL (lul'~('IYCS
to determination of thc second derinth"es. Since these cic'rh-ilLiYes
are three in numbel' (u, s. rille! t), we ha"'(' to compih Ihl' !'ame
lIumber of indl'Jll'II<h:-nl cquilliom: to fultl them. Equalioll (:).:!.:!).
which is satisfied on the initial CUl"\'e AR. is the first of th('m. The
other two arc obtained from the following known relations for the
tot.al difie-rcntial~ of the functions or two indep'~llclent \aliahl.,!' on
this cnrve:
dp :.:. (iJplih-) da:
(Op/tJy) dy = u d.r --- s dy
dq = (aqillx) dx
(aq/ay) dy = 8 dx -,- t dy

"'c

+
+

Hence, we call write the systcm of equations for determining the

second d('rivnti\'('s ill the form

A,,+2B8-' Ct-; II =.0 }

dxu, dys-:

O.t-dp~O

O.u-~dxs+dyf-dfJ=-

(fi.2.3)

This system of eql\Cltion~ is !;ol\'l'd rOI' the unknowns u. s, and t

with the aid of clcterminallt~. H we introduce the symbols 11 and
a l" 6~, h, for the principal and partial determinants, respectinly,
we have
whero

211 C\
dy 0 ;
dx dy

\. - II
"'...

dp
dq

l
-III I'

2B C \ )
dy
dx

-II
C\
\ A 2B
dp 0 ; 8/ = dx dy
dq dy
0 dx

0
dy

Ui .2A')

dp

dq
)
It follows from these relations tlHl.t if the principal deterDlinant 6.
does not equal 7.ero on the initial curve AB. t.he second derivatives u.
8, and t arc calculated unambiguously.

208

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

Let us assume t.hat t.he curve has been cilosen so that t.he principal
det.erminant on it is zero, i.e . .1. = O. Hence
A (dy/h)' - 2B (dy/h) + C ~ 0
(5.2.5)
I t is known from mathematics that when the principal determinant .1. of the system of equations (5.2.3) is zero on the curve given
by Eq. (5.2.5), the second derivatives u, s, and t (5.2.4) are either
determined ambiguously, or in general cannot be determined in terms
.of q', p, and q.
Let us consider quadratic equation (5.2.5). Solving it for the
derivative dy/dx, we obtain
(dy/h),., ~ y: . ~ (I/A) (B V B' - AC)
(5.2.6)
This equation determines the slope of a tangent at each point of
the initial curve on which the principal determinant .1. = O. It is
not difficult to see that (5.2.6) is a differential equation of two families of real curves if B3 - AC > O. Such curves, at each point of
which the principal determinant of system (5.2.3) is zero, are called
characteristics, and Eq. (5.2.5) is called a characteristic one.
From the above, there follows a condition in which the unambiguous determination of the second derivatives on the initial curve
is possible: no arc element of this curve should coincide with the
characteristics. The same condition .1. 'ji::O holds for the unambiguous determination of tile higher derivatives in series (5.2.2).
Consequently, if .1. 'ji::O, all the coenicients of series (5.2.2) are
determined unambiguously according to the data on the initial
curve.
Consequently, the condition .1. =I=- 0 is necessary and sufficient t.o
solve the Cauchy problem. This problem has a fundamental significance in the theory of partial dinerential equations. and formula
(5.2.2) can be used to calculate the flow of a gas. Dut from the viewpoint of the physical applications, particularly of the calculation
of supersonic gas flows, of greater interest is the problem of determining the solution according to the characteristics, i.o. the method of
characteristic'S. This method can be obtained from an analysis of the
Cauchy problem and consists in the following. Let us assume that
the initial curve An coincides with one of tho characteristics. and
not only the principal determinant of the system (5.2.3) equals zero
along it. but also the partial determinants .1." = d, = .1., = O. It.
can be proved here that if, lor example. the determinants !J. and A,
equal zero, i.e.
(5.2.5')
Ay" - 2By' + C ~ 0
(5.2.7)
A (y'q' - p') - 2Bq' - H = 0
where p' = dpldx. q' = dq/dx. then the equality to zero of the other
determinants is satisfied automatically.

Ch. S. Method or Cherecteristics

209

Ar.cording to the theor~' of s)'stems of algebraic equations, the

equality to zero of the principal and all the partial determinants
signifies that solutions of system (5.2.3), although they are ambiguous.
can exi.,t. If one of the solutions. for example, that for u, is fmite.
then the 801lltions for sand t are also tinite.
5.3. Characteristics
CompatlbllHy Conditions

Equations (5.2.5) and (5.2.7) <letel'lllining the conditions in which

solutions. alLhongh ambiguous, exisl for u, s, and I arc known as the
compatibility conditions. Geometl'icillly, t.he lirsl of these eql1ltUons
l'cpresents two fnmiliesofcHr\'cslhlltarecharacteristirs ill the physical plane x. Y. And the second equat.ion two families of tur,'es thllt
are rharactel'istics in the phllle p. q.
Any solutiou of the prohlem on thc supersonic now of a gas fonnd
by solving equAtions of rharacteristi('~ (or compatibility conditions)
is a solution of the fundame,ttal equation of go., dynamics (5.1.8) or
(5.'1.25). TllC proof follows Crom what is known as the equiulcmce
theorem, according to which {he equations of charActeristics (5.2.5)
and (;).2.7) nre equivall'nt to the fundamentul equation (5.1.8) or
(5.'1.25) (a proof of this tlieonHn is. given in 1151).
From thfl geometric viewpoint. the pron'd eqlLivalellce signifies that
the solution or the eqnations of tllC cliaracteristics also gives tile
image or a plAne T, y Oil tlu~ planfl p. q wholl poillt~ of the ('.unos determin(>(1 by differential eqllation (j.LH) ('orrc."lpolld to points of the
CUf\'e~ determined hy differl:'nlial eqlHlt-ion (5.1.25).
Hence, II definite point 011 a duuac_teristic ill the plane p, q corresponds to <'Ilch point on a characteristic in the plane x, y. This
corr4:'spolldence ran evidently he estaulished in different ways depending 011 the preset boundary cOJldition~. and. as will be shown below,
it is just this correspondencc that makes it possible to use characteristics for r,alclliating gas flows.
Accordingly, a feature of charaderistks is that the initial conditions cannot be sci arbitrarily along them, wbile they can along a
ntf\'e that is not n rharactcristk.
Detennlnatlon of QaracterlsHcs

Kind of Characteristics. A close look at (5.2.6) reveals thal the

roots of quadratic characteristic equation (5.2.5) may be real (equnl
or not equal in magnitude) and also complex c-onjugate. The difference between the root!! is determined by the expres..c;ion B" - AC =
= 6. When 6> O. Eq. (5.2.5) gives two <Iiilerent families of real
U-OIHf>

210

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and eWing

characteristics; the value of 6 = 0 determines two identical roots.

which corresponds to two coinciding families of characteristics, i.e.
actually to one characteristic; when 6 < O. the roots of the equation are a pair of imaginary characteristics.
Since the roots of a characteristic equation depend on the coefficients A, B, and C of diflerential equation (;").2.1), it is cllstomary
practice to establish the type of these equations depending Oll the
kind of clulra("teristics. When B > D, Rq. (fi.2.1) is a hypp.rboHc one,
when 6 =-= 0, a parabolic, and when 6 < D, an eUiptic one.
The cocflidents A, B, and C in Bqs. (5.1.8) for the velocity potential and (5.1.25) for the stream function are determined identically:
A =

Vi -

aZ ,

lJ "'"' V:.:1'II'

= v; -

aZ

(5.3.1)

Consequently,
6 ~ B' - AC - .' (V' - .,)

(5.3.2)

where V = V Vi + V~ is the total velocity.

Therefore. for the regiorls of a gas fiow with snpersonic velocities
(V> a). hyperbolic equations are employed, and for regiolls of a
flow with subsonic velocities (V < a), elliptic ones. At the boundary
of these regions, the velocity equals that of sound (V = a), and
the equations will be parabolic.
Characteristics in a Physical Plane. Characteristics ill the plane
x. yare det.ermined from the solution of the differential equation
(5.2.6) in which the plUR !-lign corresponds to the characteristics of
the first family, aud the minus sign to those of the second ono.
The quantity "-I = dyldx directly calculated by expression (5.2.6)
and the plus sign in this expression determine the angular coefficient
of the characteristic of the ftrst family, and '-2 = dyldx and the minus
sign-that of the characteristic of the second family. Both these
characteristics are customarily referred to as conjugate. With a view
to expressions (5.3.1) and (5.3.2), we obtain the following expression
for the characteristirs in tbe plane x, y:

"-1.2 =

dyldx

[1/(V~ -

aZ)) (VcYv,v aVV! - aZ)

(5.3.3)

The characteristics in the plane x, .'I have a defmite physical meaning that can be determined if we find the angle ~ between the velocity vector V at a point A of the fiow (Fig. 5.3.1) and the direction
of tile charact.eristic at this point. The angle is determined with the
aid of Eq. (5.3.3) if we usc the local system of coordinates Xl' 1h
with its origin at point A and with the Xl-axis coinciding with the
direction of the vector V. With such a choice of the coordinate axes,
Vx = V. VII = 0, aud. consequently,
"-1,1 =

tan Pl.2

:....c:

(M2 -

1)-1/ 2

Ch. S. Method of Characieristic5

211

f~' SJ;~

explanation of the
phYsieal meaning of a characteristic:

It 1I11l~ follows thaL ~L ill the ;Ual"ll angle. We ha\'E' there-rore ('stablished 1111 importilllt property of characteristirs con!"islillg in that at
every point belonging to a rharacteri!"tir, the angle between a tangenl to it and the velocity v('rtor at this point equals the .1lach angle.
Consequentl)', a rharacteristir i!" a line of w('ak di~turbances (or a
Mach Hne) haYing the shape or a eurve in the general case.
The defmition of a characteristic as a Mach line has a direct
application t.o a t.wo-dimensional plane supersonic flow. If we have
to do with a two-dimcn~i()na.l spatial (axisymmetric) sup(>I"sonic
now, the l\Iach lines (characteristics) should be considered as the
generatrices of a surface of revolution enveloping the Mach cones
issuing from ve-rtice~ at the points of disturbance (on the characteristics). A surface confming a certain region of disturbance is called
a wave surface or threedimensional Mach wave.
'Ve alre<ldy ).:now that pre!'i~ure wn,'e!" appear in a ga~ whose 5upcr~onic flow is characterized hy a growth in the pressure. tiut sllch a
flow mtty be a\.tt'nded by lml:ering oj the pressure, Le. there will be
a supersoniC' e:'\panding now, and t1le Marh linc~ will rllaract('ri7.e
expansion ",a'es. The reJe"ant charac.teri!"tic~. wllirh in the general
ease arc curved 1ine~ (for a plane now) or surfaces forme(] by the rotation of these lines (for a spatial t\:'\isymmetric now) coincide with
these Mach lines. If a flow contains Mach lines (rharaderi!"tic~) in
the form of straight Jines, then simple expansion waves ",llose "eJocit.y of propagation ha~ one direction corresponfi to them. Wh{,11
Mach lines correspond to expansion waves, we rail them lines of weak
disturbances. using the terminology adopted for weak pre!"snre wayes.
It mllst be remembered here that no other expansion waves exeept
weak ones appear in 811 expanding slIpl'r!"onie flow. becallse otherwise we would ha'-e to assume the possibility of the formation of
"strong" expansion wavE'~ (C'xpan!"iotl shorks) whirh in reaIllo,v eonditions cannot exist.
If at a point of a physical plane the flow "elority and speed of sonnd
are kno\vn, tIle auove prop(lrty of ehal'lIcteri!!tirs makes it possihle

212

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynllmics 01 lin Airfoil lind

II

Wing

to detl'rmine their ciirectiolls at tlds poillt uy calculu.tillg the Mach

angle by the formula Il = sin _1 (11M). We determine ..he angular
coefficients of the characteristic's in the coordinates x, y (Fig. 5.3.1)
from the eqnation
A102 = dyldx = tan (~ Il)

(5.3.4)

where ~ is the angle of inclination of the velocity vector to the x-axis;

the pills sign relates to the characteristic of the first family, and the
minus sign to that. of the second family.
Equation (5.3.11.) is a differential equation for the characteristics
in a physical plane.
Characteristics in the Plane p,g. If we substitute for y' in Eq. (5.2.7)
the first root of the characteristic equation (5.2.5) equal to y' -= AI'
the equation obtained, namely,

A (Ad - p') - 2l1q' - H

(5.3.5)

is the first family of characteristics in the plane p, q. A similar substitution for y' of the second root,l/' = 1..2 yields an equation for the
sE'cond family of characteristic's in the same plane:

A (A,q' - p') - 2Bq' - H

(5.3.6)

Equations (5.3.5) and (5.3.6) for the characteristics can be transformed by using the property of the roots of quadratic equation
(5.2.5) acc,ordiug to which
Al

+ A2

2BI A

(5.3.7)

By considering the lirstfamily of characteristics and by introducing the relation A Al - 28 = -A2A obtained from (5.3.7) into
(5.3.5), we compile the equation

A (A,q'

+ p') + f/

(5.3.8)

Similarly, for a characteristic of the second family, we have

(5.3.9)
With a view to expression (5.3.4), Eqs. (5.3.8) and (5.3.9) can be
\vritten in the form

(5.3.10)
where the minus sign relates to characteristics of the first family,
and the pillS sign to those of the second one. ~~quation (5.3.10) determines the conjugated cbaractedstics in the plane p, q.

Ch. S. Method 01 Chllrlleter;5tie5

213

Ortbogon;lIIlty of Chllrllc1crlstlu

If we rcplan~ the differentials in the r(lu<ltion:" for thr chararteri~tits with tinite difterell('es, the equaLion;; ubtained will be 011('.<:
of straight lin('s ill the ('onesponding plnne~ T. y and p, 1.
Let us consider the equations, pal'ticlliariy. for thc characteristics
of t.lle first family in the plane x. y and of L11(, :'.c-c()!i(1 family ill the
plane p, q. I t follows from (5,:t4) that for an clement of a characteristic-a straight line ill the p!;me x. y-tile c(]lIatirm has the form

(5.3.4')
where Io. Yo arc the coordinateg of a lixed point, Al is all angular
coeffitient calculated from the parameters of the gas at tltis point.
and x, 11 are the runlling coordinfltes.
Let lIS compile an ('quaLion for an element of a chm'actel'hitic of
the second fllmily in the plane p, q in acrordallr.e witl, (5.::U)):
A

"1 (q -

1u)

+A

(p -

Po) -1- H (x -

xo) = 0

(5.3.no)

where P'I' qll al'e tbe \',II11e:" of the functions p alltl (I at point. Xo, Yo
of the physical plane, the angular cocHidcnt Al and also the values
of A and H are calculated according to the parameter~ of the gas at
tJIi~ point.. find p and q Me rnnlling cool'tlinates.
Examination of Eqs. (5.3.4') and {,").;-Ul') f{'v('als that the inclination of a straight line in the plane;1:, y i~ df'lermined hy the allglllar cocfficient AI' and in the plane p, q by Ihe ,-\lIgular coefficient
-1:'1.. 1 ' It rail be proved similarly lhat fill element of a rharacteristir
or tlte sccond family in the plane x. y has the angular coefficient 1.. 2 ,
and an element of n d,araneristie of the first lomily in the' plane P.
q-the 811gular coeHicient -1/;'2' It Hl\I;.: follow:" that the characteristics of different familie.9 iTt the two planes are perpendicular to ellck
other.
This properly makel'l it pos~ible to determine the> direcLion of the
chflracteristics in the plane p. 1 if the direction or. the conjll~ate
characteristics in the phYl'lirlll pl<lllc i~ known. A.~~llme that for a
point P (l'o. Yu) of the pintle I, y we know the \'clodty components
V.'I'o, VIIO and the vallles of the functions J!o, qo. We ('1\11 delNllline the
directions of "he ~Ia("h lincs at this point (Fig. :1.:3.2) by (5.3.4.'). To
an element of characteristic Pi\" of the lirsL family iii the plane x. y
t.here corrl'sponcis an element of a cilarnc:terislic of the second family-a straight line ill tlte pli1ne p, II set by Eq. (5.3.n'). This liue is
perpendicular to linc PX. but docs not pass through point P' with
the ("oordinates Po. qll. which il'l indicaled by the presence of a free
term ill Eq. (S.:Uj'). Consequently, to COllstrllrt all element of a
cliaractel'istie according to the rules of Analytic geometry, we must
lirst determine the distance 6, to it from point P'. A characteristic

214

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynllmics of lin Airfoil lind

II

Wing

'~<

0'

//

"';1'"

Flg.,s.U

Property of orthogonality of
cttaracterlstics

tile

of the fir ... t family is constructed in a similar way in

plane p. g
perpendicular to ... traight line PM and at a distance of 6 z from point
P' (Fig. 5.3.2).
The property of orthogonality of characteristics helonging to
different families manifests itself in the ("aile of a potential flow for
the planes x. y and Vo Vv (the hodograph plane), and also ill the
casE' of fI vortex flow, for which the plane p. q is replaced with tile
same hodograph plane V.t , V v'
Trllnsformatlon of the Equations

for Characteristics In a Hodograph

Let us transform Eq. (5.3.10) to a form such that it will determine

the characteristics in a hodograph where the wlocity components

J;\~' d~&::eenW:t~~;r~!~~!::i~~! n~~r~~)d~:: ~I~' ;~~~~;.~s t~~~: t\~!Sc~ll~~?:~~

the derivatives dp/dx and dqldx:

_ ye d:; (1- V~)j/(k-I)

+ :~1
~!

Vv (1- V2)I/tk -Il-1 V

~~

=-5;- (~~) =VxlOy~-1 *(1_V1)IJ(II-J>-:~ye

X (l_ll2)'/(h-l)_

(5.3.11)

d1::o:

:~1 V:o:(1-vzPJ(l<-u-IV :~

(5.3.12)

Ch~r~cteristics

Ch. S. Method of

215

A glance at Eq. (5.1.25) reveals that

H=f.ye-ta2Vx(1_V2),/(A-O_

~
y

~"i~x

k2~1

~~ ; A-'Vi-az

(1_V2)1'/(I<-\)Y"'(a 2 _VZ)

~q

After introdueing (:J.3.11)-(5.3.la) into (5.3.10) and replacing the

quontiti('s dy/dx with the angular coefficients 1. 12 of the characteristics. auti the flillctions Ian (~+ ~l) with the corresponding values
of A2.1' we ol)taill
eye-I AI .2 (1- V 2)I/(h-1) (V XA2.1 - V y ) 1- ye (1- y2)1/(~-1J

(d:~:r A~.,- d:~,/) +- J.~~et

-.-

~~

(1_V2)1/(I<-t>-IV

(Vy-I'X A2.1)

Fi~tl~ [ey~-la~Vx(1-jT2.)I/(h-I>-- k;;.1

~~~;x

(1_YZ)k/(I,-uye(a2_V2)

~~

,-,0

After cancelling quantities where possible and inLroducing the dimensionless variables

Vx

-= V.JV.nnx' fy = l'yfVmu.

= V/Vmu ' VIa -=

we ean wriLe this equation in thf' rorm

f A1 .2tV')'2.1- Vy)!

(d~'(~.I_d;:)

r!I-Vx1<_~ .

21'

if

i\

'--;;:-=t.~ dI-Y1-','~!a~

- k;t _1:1'

(1_V2)

t~~;i/~~ .~_=O

(5.3.14)

lly illtroc.lucillg Lhe polar aug-Ie B, we obtain tlJ(~ following expressions for tl\e projections or the velodLy vecLor:

v."
LeL

liS

Vcos~,

Vy

"""

Vsin~

(5.3.15)

differentiate thege expressions with respect to x:

dVxldx ," (dl'/d.r) cos ~ - I' sin ~ d~/dx
elV yld.t = (dV/d.r) sin ~ -7- V cos ~ d~/d.r

(5.3.16)

introducing (5.3."15) and (S.:l.Hi) inLo (5.3.14) an<j taking into

account that tan" ~l = (lll~ - 1)-l and sin~ ~l "= M-", we have

*(

k2~21' sinf\~;\:sc"s~ +A2.,cos~--sin~)

216

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynllmics of lin Airlo,,,;'-',,,"",,,'--W=ing'---_ _ __

- V :~
1
:-0

(A 21 sin ~ -j

C()~~S~~Sin2IlJ-

cos~) +

k;l .

;v

f V [A

12

(AM cos ~ - sin ~)

l'_C:~~t~~in2,"" .~=O

(1-V2)

V 2 /Vin .. x) .." a2JV~Qlt =

l(k - 1)/21 (1 -

Having in view that

fh sin 2 fl, we find

e4

4+d~ (~2.1:~.~~o:-~oS~?:~n11l
'<

[A1.2

(A2.1 cos

~ Si~~~~~:i~2 '""

+ :~ - (sin21l C()Si~~i~::.cos~

C()S2

~) ]

sinBl

~:

tan 2 /-t
=0

(5.3.17)

Performing the substitutions Au -_. tan (~ =F fl) and A1.2 =

/-t). we transform the individual expressions contained
in (5.3.17) to the following form:
= tan (~

:::~~::~+:~:~11
AI.:!

~t~nll

(A2.1C!lS~ s~~~)~~~1~21l __ CIJS2~)

(sin21l- CIlS2

~~i~:'1 CIlS 1:\_ .. sin 1:1)

(5.3.18)

::)~f/::)

-"'

C()SS~~3~ 11)

15.3.19)

(5.3.20)

With a view to (5.3.18)-(5.8.20), Eq. (5.:t17) for the characteristics of the first and second families, respectively, acquire the form
d: _ tan /-t d~-- e~. sin :):~~ ~

~- :~ . co:~;~:_t 11) . :~

d:-

~~n 11

= 0

(5.3.21)

-I--tanlld~-e~.sin~:~~~~~nll
-

:~

co:i;~~~t)

!~

= 0

(5.3.22)

The entropy gradient dS/dn can be calculated ac('ording to the

vahle of the derivative of the stagnation-pressure dp~/dn. For this purpose, we shall usc relations (-1.3.6) and (4.3.20) from which we obtain
the following formula for the difference of the entropies:
S2 - S1

;0.'

-c u (k - 1) In

(p~/PQ)

(5.3.23)

Since c.., (k - 1) = R, then by calculating the derivative with

respect to n am] designating dS:!Jdn by dSldn, we fine!

-}. !: ~ _:~ .~o

(.5.3.24)

Ch. 5. Method of Cherederi5tics

217

For our furthE'r tran~rorml\tiolls, we shall introdll('.e the new va~~

II

(t)

= a{cot ll

dV

(5.3.25)

that is an angle. We shall express the ratio dl//V ill the form
V/a*), and ('ot Il with the lIid of (3.6.23) in the form

d)./')....

(A

eot~~VM'-I~V(''-I)/(I- :~:: .,)

(5.3.26~

Consequently.
>

.. ~ i\.

Vr("_l)/'(l_~").!!:k I 2

(5.3.27}

,.

Integration of (.'i.3.27) yields

(),...,.V ~:'~!

tall-IV'4:=_:'+:-:-'=]'~'~1

'-8}.2

~I
VI=]'~'
,. __k-j,l
k__';"2

- tlln- I .,

Having in view lh'lt A1II8:" = Vmula* =

lain

O)~

11 (k

(5.3.28)

:-1)j(k

1). we olr

V :~! lan- V A~~::=-\~ -tan-1 V :~: . A~~:x~A!

J

(5.3.29).
Substituting M for).. ill (5.3,28) in accol'dance with

(1)=",/ !~.~!

tan-I

(5.~.2(j),

we have

V !,~_: (M~-1) -tllll- 111 M:!.-1 (5.3.30}

Examination of Eqs. (5.:~.2\J) and (5.3.30) reveal~ that tlIe <Ingle (J)
is a fmlclion only of the llllmht'l' A (or M). 8ml. (ou~e('Ht'ntly. it can
be evaluatt'd befOl'ehand. whi('h facilitates ('akniat.iolls of supersonic'
ga~ flows by the method of {'llal'il(',Leri~ti('s.
The vnl\l(,,~ of (jJ for \'ariOils nllmbcrsM nt k - 1..1 <11'C contained in
'fable 5.3.1. whirh fllso gi\'cS the angles of indinatioll of the Ilistur-'
ballce Iill(' ('Illrlllatcd by tbt formula Il - sin-I (-II,").

218

Pt. I. Theory. Aerody""mics of "" Airfoil "nd " Wing

TolJle 5.3.1

"I
1.00
1.10
1.20

1.30
1.40
1.50
1.60
1.70
l.SO
1.90
2,00
2,'10
2.20

2.3<'
2.40
2.50
2.00
2.70
2.8)
2.90
3.no
.3. to
3.2]
3,30

3.40
3.50
3.60
3,70
3,80
3.90

w,

d"

I ., d" Ii ... I

0.000

L3J6
3.558
6.170
8.987
l1.9C5
14.861
17.810
21.725
23.586

26.380
29.097
31.732
34.282
36.746
39.t24
41.415
43.621
45.746
47.790
49.757
51.650
53.470
55.222
56.907
58.530
60.091
61.595
83.044
64.440

~J.OOO

II

4,00

55.381 4.10
56.443 I 4.20
50.285 . 4.30

45.585 ~ 4.40
4LSI0 !4.50

38.682 4.&1
36.1'132 4.70
33.749 4.80
3t. 757 ' 4.90
31l.(}UO i 5.00
28.437 5,'10
27.036 5.20
25.7'11 5.30

24.624

5.4.0

23.578 5.50
22.620 5.60
21.738 5.70
20.925 5,80
2(1.1,1 5.90
19.471 6,00
18.819 : 6.10
18.210
t7.G40
17.1t5 6.40
16.602 6.50
16.128 6.60
15.681 6.70
15.258 6.SO
14.857
6 90
1

I ~:~
I

w,

I . . d,. II.. I

d,"

65.785
67.(182
68.333
69.541
70.706
71.832
72.919
73.970
74.986
75.969
76.92..)
77.841
78.732
79.596
8<).433
81.245
82.032
82.796
83.537
84.256
84.955
85.635
86.296
86.937
87.561
88.168
88.759
89.335
89.895
9.1.441

14.478
14.117
13.774
13.448
13.137

12.814

11

7.00
7.10
7.20
7.30
7.40

I 7,50

12.556 7.60
12.284 ; 7.70
12.025 I 7.80
11. 776 7. 9;)
11.537 8.00
1

~~:~~ j ~:!~
10.876
10.672
10.476
10.287
10.104
9.928
9.758
9.594
9.4.35
9.282
9.133
8.989

! 8.SO

SO
. 00
9 20

1 . 40

'J,60
I 9.SO
10.00
110.20
10.40
to. 60
to.80
. 850 11.00
8.715
8.584
8.457 j11.60
8.333II 1.80
112 .00
I

i!::~

w,

d.,

90.973
91.491
91.997
92.490
92.970
93.440
93.898
94.345
94.781
95.2.:8
95.625
96.430
97.200
97.936
98,1)4.2
99.318
99,967
100.589
101.188
t01..763
102.316
102.849
t(iS.362
1(13.857
114.335
104.796
105.241
105.671
trI6.087
t06.489
HI6.879

I . d.,
8.213
8.097
7.984
7.873
7.776
7.662

7.5M
7.462
7.366
7.272
7.181
7.005
6.837
6.617
6.525
6.379

'.240
6.107
5.979
5.857
5.739
5.626
5.518
5.413
5.313
5.216
5.133
5.032
4,945
4.861
4.780

InlrolJu<"ing the angle (tj into (5.;3.21) and (5.3.22), we obtain the
following equation for the characteristic's:

d(w=F~)-e-T. :.~~il5~~n:)

:~

~:~t(P;~~

.#n-=O
(5.0.31)

Equation (5.3.Hl) corresponds to th(' mo~t general case of super

.sonic two-dim('nsionai (plane or spatial) vortex (non-isentropic)

now of a gas,

Ch, 5, Method of CharacleristiC$

219

Equlltlons (OJ ChllJlldeJisHcs

In a Hodograph lor Pllrtfcular
Cllses 01 GIIS flow

The form of Eq, (5,2,5) for charaderislics in a pllysical piane is

the same for all ('ases of gas flow if til(' latter is Sl1pf>['soni('. and twodimensional. Bllt in a hooograph. the eqllations for the ("haracteristks difl'er and depend Oll the kilul of now.
If a two-dimensional flow is \'ortex-free, then 1\("{'ortiing to (5,1.2:1)
at all points of :::pa("e occllpiefl hy tin' gas, the entropy is com;tant
(dSldn = 0), and, therefore, the efjuation for the characteristics
3equircs a simpler form:

d(w=F~)-f' ~:'~~]1s~~)

,0

(5.3.32)

For a plane lion-isentropic now ( -= 0). we have

In the simplest ease of a plane \'ort('x-free flo\\' (dS'dn -: 0), wc

have
d (00 'tO~) ~ 0

(5.:1.:1-1)

lntcgl'ation of (5.3.34) yields ~ - (r) -+- const. Introducing lixcd

values of tho angles ~l atl(l ~2 instead of the ('onsLanl. where ~l (',01'respollds to t.he pIll," sign of ro, and ~2 to the minus sign, we lind lUI
equation for the ('haractE'ristics in the form

- ro
Introducing instead of

B=

t,l

---j-

relation

(V:g tan-

-tlln-ll;/

~~.!

Bl.:!

(3.:l..15)

(~).:{.2U),
I }-/

we oblnin

i.::::-\1

. i.Lzx-:....\2) .:.~I.Z

(5.3.36)

Hence. unlike Eq. (;),2 .' lor ('hnracLt'rislics in a php:icai plane

and Eqs. (.'i.3,31), (!i.:1.~{2) or (!i.;{,3:~) for rharadl'l'islics in a hoclograph ill a difie]'('utial Io]'[\}. the ('ol'l'eSpollfHng er]uation (5.;~.:J())
for the charact.eristics of a pin!}' isentropk flow has an explicit form.
GeomClt'('ally, this eqllation deline's two families of ('urves-('haracteristics in a ring whose iuncr radiu!> is ").. ---.., 1 anci whose outer
one is i. nlax = [(k ._. I)!(k -- 1)11/~ (Fig. 5.:1.3). The integl'<ltion
conslant ~l and til(' pillS sign in front of the function w (i..) corre~
spond to II dlilrarteristic of the I'm"l family. while the constant ~2
and the rninu.'\ sign. to the second ouc. These curves are epicycloids

220

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and II Wing

A,

Fig. S.l.l
Epicycloids-characteTistics of
lL plane supersonic flow:
l-charaelprisHc or the first lamn),;
2-charactnistlc of the Sf'cond ra
mU)'

and can be obtained as the path of a point on a circle of radius

0.5 (Amax - 1) travelling along the inner (or outer) cirrle of the
ring (Fig. 5.3.3). The angle ~ of inclination of the velodty vector
and the speed ratio A are the polar coordinates of points on an epic.ycloid.
By analysing a graph depicting a network of epicycloios, we can
condude that angles ~ larger in their magnitude, i.e. a more considerable deflection of the flow from its initial direction, correspond to
an increase in the velocity due to expansion of the flow. A smaller
deflection of the flow is observed at lower velocities.
The angle of inclination of the velocity vector is neterJllined directly by the angle w whose physical meaning can be established
from (5.3.35). Assume that the integration constants ~I.2 . .." O. This
signifLCs that expansion of the flow begins when ~ --= 0 and M = 1In accorciance with this, the quantity ~ = w (M) is the angle of
deflection of the flow upon its isentropic expansion from the point
where M
1 to a state characterized by an arbitrary number M > 1
equal to the upper limit when evaillating integral (5.3.27).
Hence, there is a difference hetween the angle of deflection of a
flow with the numher M > 1 from a certain initial direction and the
angle ~ .- w determining the complete turning of the flow upon
its expansion from a state characterizeci by the number M -: 1.
The angle of flow deflection in an arbitrary cross sectioll can be
determined as follows. Let lLS aSSHme that we know the initial number Ml > 1 which as a result o[ expansion of the flow increases and
rea('hes the yalue M2 > MI. The angles WI and 002 of {Iefle('.tion of the
flow from its direction al a point with the number M --' 1 correspond
to the numbers Ml and M 2 . The angles WI and 002 can be determined
graphic-ally with the aid of all epicyc.ioid from expression (5.3.30) or
Table 5.3.1. We lise their values to lind the allglrl of inclination of
the velocity vectors. Considering, partieularly, a characteristic of
the lirst familr, we obtain ~I -= WI (M 1) ami ~2 002 (M 2). Conse-

Ch. 5. Method 01 Characteristics

221

quently, the angle of deflection from the initial direction is

,,~ ~ ~, -~,

"00, (M,) -

00, (M,)

(5.3.37)

The calClllati()ll~ can hI' performed in tllC oppo1'itc sequence. determining the local number M'}. according to the known angle d~ of
<iefieetion of the flow tlnd the initial number MI' For this purpose,
from (5.3.37) (in the given example we also considcl' a characteristic
Qf the first. family), we find

00, (M,)

~ ,,~

+ 00, (M,)

"2

(5.3.38)

We lind tbe corresponding values of

or M2 from Fig. 5.3.3 or
Table 5.3.1 according to tllC value of (0)2'
Of interest is the calculation of the ultimate Row angle or the
angle of deflection of the flow needed to obtain the maximum \'elocity
l'max' Assume that deviation begins from the initial lIumber M '--" 1.
In this case, we lind the ultimate flow angle by formuli\ (5.3.::l0) in
which we must adopt a value of M corresponding \0 V ma " equal to
infinitr:
(5.3.39)
for k .-' 1.1, the value of W ma " - U.72{b: -' "1:~{J.1(jo.
Consequent Iy. a supergQIlic flow cannot turn through an angle larger than wmax and theoretically part of space remains unfilled with
the gllS.
H the initial Ilumuer M from which the deflection begills is larger
than uuity, the angle of this (Icflec-lion measured from the direction
at. M = 1 will be OJ (M), while the ultimAte flow angle corresponding
to tills Humber is
~,,,,,~oom,,-w(M)' (~/2)1V(krl)/(k I)
Ij-.o(M) (5.3.10)
for k . 1.4. the angle ~lIlax - J3U.4(r - (0) PI).
For hypersonir velocities, the calculation of the function (0) and,
('oJlseqllently, of the angles of deflection is simplified. Indeed. for
M I. the terms iu (5.3.30) can he represented in the follo ..... ing form
'''itll all at'cllri\{'Y within quantities of a higher order of inflllitesimal:

V~~~ tall-'l/~~~ (M2_"1)~V~~! (T-~V:=!)

tan-I VM"--l ~ a/2-1/M.
Accordingly,
(5.3.41)

The formula corresponding to (!J.3.3i) acquires the form

~~=~2-~1=

- k~1 (;2 - ~t)

(U3n

222

Pt. I. Theory.

Aerodyn~mic$

0/ an Airfoil and

Wing

All the above relations have been found for a perfect gas. At very
low pressures. however. a gas is no longer perfect. This is why the
calculated ultimate now angles are not realized and have only a theoretical significance.
5.... Outline of Solution
of Gas-Dynamic Problems
A"ordlng to the Method
01 Characteristics

The determination of the parameters of a disturbed snpersonic

flow is as)':ociated with the solution of a system of eqnations for the
('hnracteristies in a physical plane and in a hodograph if the initial
conditions in some way or other are set in the form of Cauchy's conditions. In the general case of II two-dimensional non-isentropic flow.
this system has the form:
for characteristi('s of the first family
dy - dx t.n (~ -;- ~,)
(5.4.1)
d (oo - ~) - e (dx/y) l
(dx/kR) (dS/dn) c - 0 (5.4.2)

for characteristics of the second family

dy - dx t.n (~ - ~,)
d (oo -;- ~) - e (dx/y) m - (dx!kR) (dS/dn) t = 0
where the coefficients are
1 = sin ~ sin )licos (~

+ 11),

si11 2

C .-

~~

(5.4.3)
(5.4.4)

cos J1lcos

m = sin ~ sin !-lIco.<; (~ - )l), t = sin 2 j.l cos ,lIeos (~ For a two-dimensional isentropic flow. we have
dS/dn - 0
therefore the system of equations is simplified:
for characteristics of the first family
dy ~ dx t,n (~ + ~); d (oo - ~) - E (dx/g) l

(~

+ j.l)

j.l)

(5.4.5)
(5.4.6)
(5.4.7)

(5.4.8)

for characteristics of the second family

dy ~ dx t.n (~ - ~); d (w + ~) - e (dr/y) m - 0 (5.4.9)
For a plane flow, we assume that

= 0 in the equations, for a

SP~1:~~I:i1~s:~C~:;d!~:~:ih~ ~eii):dn~f:~~;a~;:!fsCt~c~ ~~s!:~d p~!g:

lem on the flow over a body t:onsisls of the solution of three particular problems.

Ch. 5. Method of Characteridics

223

(6)

~~~e:~':ion or the
different families:

(I"-physical

pl~ne:

velocity at the intersection point of two characteristics of

tl_I)lane or hodograph

The Jirst problem is assoeiated wiLh the determination of thevclarity and other parameter." at the poillt of iElIl'r~eclioll of characterist.irs or tliffereut fnUlilie!'; i!lsuing 11'0111 two rio!le poillt~_
Assume that we arc delermining the parameter,s at point C (velocity Ve. IlIliub.>l' .J/r,. flow uefleciioll angle ~e. entropy Sc. etc.) at.
the inter~ectioll of clements of charfl('.tcristirs 01' the lil'st anti gccond
families drawll from points A and JJ (Fig. 5.4.10). At these points~
whirh arc on diffl'rent strealillille~. we know the velocities VAt Vo
and other parameters, including the cntropie.<; S.". and So.
All the ralrulatioJls arc based on the lise of Eqs. (5.4.1)-(5.4.4) for
the ('haracteristit's. which in linite dirrcrenrcs havo tli.> form:
for the fir!!t family
6Yn ..." 6XB tau (~s '7- ~In)
(5.1.10,
..l.Ws - .1.~1l - e (6xs/YIl) ls -:' (l\:rs'kR) (6S/.1.II) CD ~.= 0 (5.4.11)
for the

~e('oncl

family
.1.YA . - 6.T,. tall (~,. -

~I,.)

(S.1.12}

6w,. ...:, .1.~,. - f (.1.J,.ly,.) til,. - (1lr,.lkll) (6SI.1.II)I,. 0 O"iA.13)

wherr
6yo ..." Yc - Yn- 6JIl'-O; .I'e -.t"Jj. 600a -= (ole - (0)11'
}
t:J.YA ._' Yc -

1IA.

&~B ~ ~c
6XA:~ Xc - .TA_

~B

6(1),.

&~. ~~" -~.

We -

roA.

(5.4.14)

'224

PI. l. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 .n Airloil and a Wing

In . , sin ~B sin I-'u/cos (~B

-I-

I-'B)

sin~ J1B cos Jln/cos (~B

Jln)
(~A - I-'..d
tA :-: sin!! JlA cos /-lA/COS (~A - /-lA)
CD -

mA .:.

(5.4.15)

sin PA sin I-'A/c.os

Equations (5.4.10H5.4.13) were derived assuming that the caefficients I, m, c, and t remain constant upon motion along characteristic
elements BC and AC and equal their values at the initial points B
and A.
The change in the entropy per unit length of a normal b.S/b.n is
ealculated as follows. It is shown in Fig. 5.4.1a that the distance
between point.s B and A is
b.n ::::::: (AC) sin IlA
(BC) sin j.1n

where
AC ....:; (xc -

XA)/COS (~A

JlA),

Introducing the notation

e "-' (xc - XA) sill JlA {'os (PB -\- J.lB).

XB)/COS (~n

Be -- (xc -

.= (xc -

xo) sin ,...8 cos X

X (~A -

we obtain
IlSllln ~ (S. - SB)

,OS (~B -'- ~D) COS (~. -

Ils)

~A)I(f

+ e)

~.)

(5.1.16)

The entropy aL point C is determined from the relation

Sc=b.Sn-l-SB =

!! (BC)sinJ.ls+Sn= (SA/~SeR)/ +Sn

(5.4.17)

The entropy gradient may be replaced with the stagnation pressure

gradient in accordance with (5.3.24):
t

AS

Apo

7f'Afl= -P;;'""'Kn=" -

(PO,A-PO.S) cos (f}n+lls) CtlS(f}A-IlA)

(j:e)
II

Po.

(5.4.18)

The sLagnation pressure at point C is

(5.4.19)
Po, c ...: (Pl!. A - Po, n) fl(f -I- e) + Po, B
To rilld the coordinates Xc and Yc of point C, we have to solve the
simultaneous equations (5.4.10) and (5.4.12) for the elements of the
eharacteris1ks in a physical plane:
Yc - YB = (xc - xB) tan (Pe -1- J.l8);
Yc - YA = (xc
XA) tan (~A - J.l.A)

A graphical solution of these equations is shown in Fig. 5.4.1a,

We use the found value of Xc to determine the differences b.xo '-"

Ch. 5. Method 01

=Xc

and

'-::L'c

CI1~r,!lcle"stics

22ri

in Eqs. (3.4.11) and (5k13).

The incremenl~ 6.008, .1.UlA. 6.~o, flnd 6.~.\ Hre tilc ullJ..:no\\'ll~ in these
equations, but the latter are onl:.' two ill numher. The numbet of
unkuO\\'rls can be reduced to two in lluordance with the number of
equations in the system. For this purpose, we compile tlte obviolls
relations
.1.wA ,- Ule - UlA, -- 6.~lB -+ Wn - ~JA \
(3.4.20)
6.~A
~B - ~A - 6.~B + [31J - ~A
-Xll

u,tA

-XA

."0

With account taken of tllese relations, Eq_ (5.4.13) is tran:::Iormed

as follows:

~W.TW.-wA' ~~nT~B-~A-' A:~' mA- ':/,'. !! 'A-O

(5.4.21)
By !'olving this equfltioll simultaneou:::ly wilh (5.4,11) for the
\"al'iflbie 6.~II' we obtain

ll~n=+ [k~l . ~~.

tLixAtA :.1.ZoClI) :-8

(~:A

- ~:l.) -(W'-"'A)-(~n-~A)]

\-Ve use the found value oI

function W by (5A11):

6.~fl to

rnA

(5.1.22)

evaluate the inrn>lllellt of the

(5.4.23)

Xow we can cakulRte the angles for point C:

~c = Li~B

+ i3B;

We = 6. Ws

+ (us

(5.4.24)

Ar('ording to the found \'alu!'! of (U(;, we determine the number M(;

and the :Uar.h lingle Ile at point C from Table ;i~l.1.
A grapbiclll solution of the ~ystE'rn of pqu.1lioIlS for characteristic ..,
in a hodograph a5 a result of which thf' angle ~c and the nllmher
AC (Mel are detet'mined i5shown in fig. 5.4.1b. where fi'e' and A'C'
are elements of the charnclerisLics of tIle fm;t and serond families
corrc!>ponding to element:; of tlte eonjngate characteristic.<I llC and
AC in a physicfll phme. The fOHm! number Me (or he) when necessary ('an be used to detcrmine parameters such fI~ the pressure. densit-yo and tempNatUl'C
The calculaled parameter", can he detel'miued llIore precisely if
we substitute for IJl' mAo cn. and lA ilt Eqs, (.1.1.10)-(5.4.13) the
qllantitie~ obtained from the \'alue:; of the angles ~ and 11 that are
the a\"('rage between the ones set. at points A and 11, and those found

226

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynllmics of en Airfoil .nd .. Wing

(oj A,

(al "
V,

~~'~~~:ion of the velocity at the int.ersection point of a characteristic with

a surface in a flow:
a-pbysical plane; b-planp of bodogrl. ph

at point C in the first approximation, i.e. from the values:

fl1' ,= (flA
~~' ~ (~A

+ Ilcl/2, IllJ'
+ ~c)/2. ~~'

::-=

(fiB

~ (~.

Ilc)/2

~c) /2

(5.1.25)

We fm<] the more precise coordinates .cc and Yc of point C from

the equations
6YB = AXB tall (~il ' +- IllJ ' );
6YA = 6z A tan (~A2' - fl.~')

(5.4.26)

The se~oDd problem consist:!' in calculating the velocity at the

point of interscction of a characteristic with a surface in a now.
Assume that point H is located at the inter5ection with linear element DB of a characteristic of the second family drawn [rom pOint D
near a surfacc (Fig. 5.4.2). The velocity at this point (both its magnitude and direction), the entropy, and the coordinates of the point
are known.
The velocity at point R is determined directly with the aid of
Eq. (5.1.1) for a characteristic of the second family. If we relate this
equation to the conditions along characteristic element DB and
express it in fmite differences, we have
6wI) .~ -6~D -7- e (6xo/Yo) mo - (6xo/kR) (6S/6n) to (5.4.27)
where
6wo = WB - WO, 6~o = ~B - ~o' 6xo = XB mo = sin ~o sin flo/COS (~o - flo)
to = sin2 flo cos flO/COS Wo - flo)

Xo

}
(5.4.28)

Ch. $. Melhod of Ch~r~deri5tics

227

The coordinates XB and YB of point II ;1fP drt0fmincd by the "imllltaneous soIntioll of thc equation for (\ clwra('teristic of the l'f.'conri
fnmily and the eqllation of the wall contour:
YB - Yo -, (rn - Xfj) tall (~l) - /.'-0); Yo "--' f (xD) (5.1.30)
A graphical sohllion of these equations is ~ho\\"l1 in Fig. 5.1.2a.
'Ve lISe the fOlllld ('oordinates .Tn and Yn Lo evaluate the angleo
~s from the eqllation
tun ~!.1 = (dyld.c)Jj
(5.4.31)

The entropy S8 (or the stagnation pressure P~. B) at point B is

considered to be " known qllantity and equal to its \'slue all die
streamline ("uindding with a tnngellt. to t.he surfa('e. The entropy is
con~idcred 1.0 be constant alOllg au clement of the tangent.
Vpon ca\cllinlillg the innelllcnj. 4wv by (5.4.27). we can liltd
the angle (r)R - AWD -L. WJ). Hlld theu detel'mine the number i.,s
from Table 5_3_ 1. Ilo\\" the velocity at point H is determined is shown
graphically in Fig. 5..'i.2b, whert> element Dr fl' of it characteristic
of the ~econd famiJy ill 0. hodograph ("orrl'spond~ to all element of n
('.hafnrteri~tic of the same family in n physicnl pI nne.
The third problem consist~ in calculating the YP\ocity at the
interl'prtioll of the charartE'ristics with a ."hod, alld in determilling
the rhl'lnge in t.he inclinatiOIl of the shock at. this point. Since a characteristic in its nature is a line of weak di.~lllfhan('e.", Ihis illtersectioll physically ('orrc!'iponds 10 the inlcraclion of a wpal, w(\\-e \\"lth
a compression shark. Assume that closely arrangpd expan"ioll wa\"('~,
""hi('\l rharacteril'tics of the first family ('orrespolld to. fnll at
points J and H on ('omprc~sioll shock A of a preset shape!J ..,.t tl")
(Fig. 5.4.3a). As a rcsult, the streng!11 dimillishL's. as dol'S the inclination angle of the shock_ Sin('c points.r nnd Jl :lr(' SOllrces of (Iistllrbanccs. expansion wa\"C~ appear, AJI(I ('h~facteristics of thc .~ecOl\d
bmily ran he drawn through these point". Olle of stich rharartl'fistics, pa.<:sing through point. J. interser.ts the neighbouring conjugate ('hnrart('ristic at point P (-ailed lhe nodaJ point of the cbarac~
teristies.
To determine the rhaugc in tIll' illl"linl'ltion of tbt'! shark oud in
the ,elority behind it, olle nlll~t u~e the properties of the C'hornC'tcris-tics .r F and FH pH.~sing through nodal point F. and also the rcla~
tions for calcllhllillg" a compl"f!SSiOll shock. Since length JH of the
shock h, mall. this scrtiOH lTlay be a!'>sumed to be linear. The angle
of inclinl'llion of thc ilo('k on this section and the corresponding pa-

228

pt, I. Theory. Aerodynamic.s of an Airfoil and a Wing

(6)

(.1

~y

rameters of t.he gas are approximately equal Lo their values at inLersection point II of clement FH of a first family characteristic with
the shock.
One or the unknown parameters is the angle of indinatioll ~H of
the velocity vector at this point. which can be written as ~H =
= A~p + ~p, where A~Ji'
~H - ~F. and ~F is the known angle
of inclination of the velocity vector at point F. To evaluate the
second unknown (the number MH at the same point) we shall use
the formula
MH ~ MJ -I- (dMld~)JA~JH
(5.4.32)
in whicb (dMld~)J is a derivative calculated with the aid of the relevant expressions for a compression shock according to the known
parameters at point J, and the quantity A~JH determined by the
change in the angle ~ along a shock element equals the dirt:erence
~H - ~J. We may assume that this quantity approximately equals
the change in the angle ~ along the element FH of a characteristic
of the lirst family A~PH --' L1~p
PH - PF'
The derivative dMldP is evaluated as a result of difterentiation
of (4.3.19'),
00<

dd~

~1&1

-M2

+ 2 (f~6)

[cOt(9~-P5) ( ::: -1)

~,)
f.-)]

s;n' (a, -

+. (

(5.4.33)

We shall calculate the derivath'c d (P2/Pl)/dP. on the right-hand

side by differentiating (4.3.13):

d:s (Tr-)=2cote~(1-~*)i7-' ::

(5.4.34)

Ch, 5. Method of CharaderjstiC$

229

We determine the derivative de_\.'d~s as follows. We differentiate

(4.3.24):

d~S (~)-~~{ :~; [sine5Ico~As - "Csi"""'(e';-'-~;~),"'"CCs(mll,----c~".)

+ sin (0" Bs/cos (0;: tis)}
This relation ('au be transformed ::;omcwhat by using

().~.2~):

d~s (~) =~. tan05eos~(OS ~s)

X

{~:: [cos:(;~;o:~~)_~ ]+Tt}

(5.4.35)

Equating the right-hand sides of (5.4.34) and (5.4.35) and solving

the equation obtained for the derivative dO,/d~~, we obtain:

~~: .~~ [2cog2 (6s -Ps) (1-l)~)

(5.4.36)
Let IlS de-rive an expre!'sioll for the change in the number.V when
trave-lling along the characteristics from point F to point H, Le.
for the quantity llMp - M'H - M}I. To do this, we sh",n s\lb.~tittlte
expression (5.1.32) h('re for MH:
ll,"~. = 111J -:- (dMJd~h ll~F - .uF
(S.,i.~7)
\Ve can go over from the nllmber M to the rUllction

(0)

determined

by relation (5.:1.30):

(5.-'1.38)
where
(dwld~)J ~ (dMid~"

(5.4 ..1U)

(dwidM),

The derivative dw/dill is determined as n result of differentiating

(5.3.30):
(5."-40)

Equation (5.-1.11) for a characteristic of the first family applied

along clement FH yields
~"'F

~~,

e (AXFiy,.) I, -'- (AxFlkR) (!!'sIAn)

'F ~ 0

(5.4.41)

where
6,Wp=WH-WF,

ll~F=~ll-PP.

IF = sin ~}' sin IlF/cos (~F -:- JAF)

CF =

sin 2 J-tF cos

).tp/cos (tiF

'i-IlF)

llXP=Zll-XP}
(5.4.~2)

230

pt. I. Theory. Aerodynllmks of lin Airfoil lind II Wing

The distance along a normal to a streamline between points F

and H is
6.n= (FH) sin I-LF= c::~~~~I-lF sinllF

(5.4.43)

COIl!<eqllently, the entropy gradient in (5.4.-'11) is

I1S/6.n . . . .: (SH - SF) cos (~F

!:

= -

P:' F

(po.

+ IlF)/(:rH

xF) sin Jl.F

H(~:O.~)):~:~;+~f

(S.4.4'i)
(5.4.45)

Po,

where
H i~ found ac(',ording to the nllmber Mn from the shock
theory.
The entropy SF or the st.agnation pre~~;ure P~.F at point F can be
adopted approximately eq1lal to the corresponding values at point
J on the shock, i.e. SF ~ SJ and P;,. t' ~
J.
Solving Eqs. (5.4.38) and (!j./i.41) for 6.~F' we obtain

Po.

I1~F:~[( !;L-1rl(WF-WJ+f: tl:t~'

IF-

~~;. !~

Ct)

(5.4.46)

Illserting the value of 6.~F into (5.4.38), we call find 6.wp, ('~alcu
late the angle Wn ....; 6.Wt' + Wt" and determine more precisely the
number M H . By (,alculating the angle ~n ~...: 6.~F
~F' we lise
the values of this angle, and also of the preset llumber Moo to lind
the shock angle 8s. H at point H and, consequently, to determine
the shape of tbe shock more accurately on section JH. If necessary,
til" calculations can be performed in a second approximation, adopting instead of the parameters at point J their average values between
points J ami H. Particularly, instead of the angles WJ and ~J' we
take the relevant average values of 0.5 (wJ -;- WH) aud 0.5 (~J ~ ~n)
Figure 5.4.3b shows how the problem is solved graphically. Point
H' 011 a hodograph, corresponding to point H on a physieai plane, is
determined as a result of the intersection of element F' H' of a first
family characteristic ,,,ith a shock polar constructed for the given
free-stream number Moo. The vector 0' H' determines the velocity
AH at point H.

5.5. Applications of the Method

of Characteristics
to the Solution of the Problem
on Shaping the Nozzles
of Supersonic Wind Tunnels

The method of characteristics allows liS to solve one of the most

important problems of gas dynamics associated with the determination of the shape of a wind tnnnel nozzle intended for producing a
two-dimensional plane parallel supersonic flow at a preset velocity.

Ch. 5. Method of Cho!lro!lcteris/ics

231

e:<~lt;::~J
7

ff:iz~:'~r sup~rsonic
:p~~t:ferwall; t

4. J

tunnl'\;

nod .1 -;iM walls; J-t'xit 5"CtiOO; "-bottom

'Ilo... II:

,,-critical

s~cliQn;

7-

FitJU.l

Unshape>d
twodimensional
supersonic nozzle with a radial
now
The nozr-Ie ensuriug sur-Ii a now is a mouthpiece whose l'lidc walls are
nat. while its top and boltom walls have a spedaUy shaped contour
(Fig. ;).5.t).
Tn addition to detCl'mining tile shape of its curved contour, the
design of a nozzle inc.ludes calculation of the pllrameters of tile ga9
ill the reeeiver (Lhe p;uameters of stagnation) and in the critical section, and also ill'l area S*. The parameters of the gas at tile nozzle
exit are Ilsually pl'escl. namely, lht' nllmber Me.;, tile pressure p"".
the area of the ('xit section S ~ lb, and the temperature of the gas
in til(' receiver To. The area of til(' <:Titleal nozzle section is found
from flow I'ale (,([lIalion (;l.G.fa!a) which we sllall write in the form
p""V""S ... P*Il*S*.lIence S* - {r.",V",/r*a"') S -=
It follow!' from (:~.(j.li(),) thai Ihe parameter q is rletcrrnilled IJY
the preset number M", nl the noule exit. According Lo this value of
Moe and Ihe PI'csslLre p"", at the exit, and by lIsing formula (:-)'G.:.J.G),
we c.an lind the pressure Po in the recei\'e'r necdCll to ensure the pre~ct
lIum\)Ci' M xo at the exit.
Sext the anglf! 2" of an ullshaped nou.lc is liet (Fig. ;).J.~). E-xpcrimental illve:<tigations show that this angle is generally chosen
eqlllli to 30-3;)'.
If tile sectioll or the inlet part of a nozzle changes sldiiciently
gradllally, the now dO\\'nstream of tile critical section can be ('omdd'!red AS an expanding radial How from a soufee aL point O. SUcil a
flow has the property that its direction coincide"! with that of radial
linl's emerging from point O. The change in the parameters of the
gas in magnitllde along caeh of these lines is of the same nature.
The length of the subsonic. portion of the nozzle of unit width is de-

qS.

232

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynllmics of lin Airfoil and

II

Wing

FIg. S.S.)

Construction of a:shaped supersonic twodimensional nozzle

termined by the quantity r* =- 8* [360/(2n2y1)1, while the

distance to the exit section r A ~ 8 [360/(2n21'1)1.
In the region of the nonle confmed by two cirrles of radii r* and
rA, i.e. beyond the limits of the critical section, the gas flow is supersonic.. Shaping of tile nozzle consists in replacing straight wall BC
in this region with a curved contour ensuring the gradual transition
of the radial flow into a plane parallel flow at the eTit at a preset
velocity. For this purpose, let u.s draw through point 0 a number of
closely arranged liJlPs and determine the velocities (the numbers M)
on these lines at their intersection points AI' ... An with a characteristic of on(> of the families AAn (let us consider it to be a characteristic of the sl;lcond family) emerging from point A on all arc of
radius rA (Fig. 5.5.3). Point Al is at the intersection of ray r 1 =
= OA I with the element of characteristic AA I drawn at an angle of
~"" -- _Sill- I (11M ",,).
We fwd the number MI at point Al \vitl! thp aid of the expression
91 = 8*IS1 Since 8 1 = 2ar1 ,1 (21'/360), and S* -= :!nr*1 (2yl360),
we have ih = r*lrI . Employing (3.6.'.6), \ve can lind Al and the corre~ponding number MI'
We determine in a similar way the coordinates of intersection
point A z of the adjacent ray rz = 0.1 2 with the element of character
istic AIAz inclined to straight line OA I at the angle ~(l =
= _sin- l (1IM I ), the number M2 at point A2\ and so on. As a
result, wo can construct a characterist.ic of the secolJd family in the
form of broken line AA1 ... An_tAn int('r~ect.ing straight wall
BAn of the nozzle at point An. For this point, as for the other points
An_2' An_I' and An of intersection of the characteristic wit.h the
straight lines emerging from source 0, we r.an calculate the relevant
Mach numbers and the angles fL = -sin-l (11M).
The flow region OAAn with a known velocity field confllled by the
characteristic AAn and the straight walls of the nozzle is called a
triangle of definiteness. The shape of this flow is preserved if we
change the wall behind point An so that the radial flow on the Mach
line gradually transforms into a plane parallel flow at the exit.

Ch, 5, Method of Characteristics

\'"ith a "iew to

thi~

'233

ronciilioll, we can

of the nr!'t family eml'l'ging from point

~traight lirH', If we now determine the
the ehMueteristie!' AA" /Iud ADm' we
lillc~. I t is exactly the .streamline pa.<;:-ing
('idl'~ with the .shaped ('ontol1r of titl'
To rietN'minc tIlt'> wloeit\' field, \\.('
dimensional tlow being (,(;ll:"idl'r('ri
the rhara('1l'ristic.'< of theftr.!'t family elll(,l'ging from point,;.: /t" -2 ... 1". l' ilS \\'('11 as the rhnraeteristir .. iD m art' slraight lillc.s Wig, :;,5,:~), Till' inclination of
ead( charartN'islic 10 a radial line is II(>terlllin('d by thcenrri'5pOndIng ~!ar1t anglc jl( _. sin- J (J'Il!I). ~12
sin 1 (t/M 2 ), C!t<'., while
the vclocity Iklong a ('haJ'art(lri~ti(' is dl'terminod hy ils l'I'I(','allt ,'ahlent L1tl' initial pOints AI' A z, .
Let liS ron."ill(>1' Ihe streamliu(' (lllll'l'giug from point ~In' Ttu~ initial part of thi:- tiTle ('oillel()c;': with the directioll of th(! "elodty at
point An and is II strllight line that is all exten~ioll of contour /JAn
lip 10 its iHtC'r,:cction poi)1t V 1 with the dlllrllC'lcri':Uc of the lirst
family A"_lfI". Behind point IJ I , the streamline elplnent ('oillddcs
with th(' dire(,tion of the \"elorily at point D1 equal to the ,'elodty
at point An_I. Drawing t!trough point DI II straight line pllrallel to
ray OA',_I lip 10 its iul('J';o'l'rtioll point D2 with the dllu'a('.leristic
A,,_zD~, we obtain the next part of t.he stt'eamlill" Behind poinl D 2
part DzD m_? of the strenmlinc (poin\. /)",-2 i.~ on lhe ('hnrncll'ri~tic
of the Ilrst family A 2D m_2 ) is parallel 10 straight linc 0 .. 1,,_2. The
remaining parts of the streamline arc ('ollstrw:ted sitllil<"lrly. Bchilld
pointD m, which ison the ('.hurac\.eristir AIJ m , the
of thc ,:Ireallllille is panlUl:!l 10 tlte nxis of the uoule. The
of the HOlz1ecoinciding with the streamline AnI)", I-I arrd rOllstru('\rri in thc form
of a smooth cnrve en~ure,<; II parallel .~l(pcr.~oTlir flow with lhe presf>t
Humber M"" lit tire nozzle exit,

6
Airfoil
.nd Finite-Spin Wing
in an Incompressible Flow

Let HS consider the problems associated with the application of

the aerodynamic theory to calculating the flow past an airfoiL A fea~
ture of thb flow is the formation of a two-dimensional disturbed
flow over the airfoil. We shall lise simpler equations of aerodynamies
than for three-dimen:-;ional flows to investigate it.
The flow over an airfoil trc<ltcd as a two-dimcnsionlll one is idealized. Actually, the flow past an airfoil belonging to a real fmitespan wing is three-dirnCIl.<iiollal. This is why the aerodynamic characteristic's of fin airfoil cannot. be transferred directly to a wing.
But these ritaracteri."tics can he among the ba,<;ic parameters used
in calculating similar rhara('\cristies of re,li wings. At the same
time, the solution of the problem on an airfoil has an independent
significance beclluse cases are possible when all individual parts of
wings the flow past airfoils is practic.ally of a two-dimensional
nature.
We shall illYcstigate the flow of an incompressible fluid past an
airfoil. \Ve shall simullaneollsly consider the problem of a finitespan wing in a similar flow. The results obtained, which have an
independent significance in lowspced aerodynamics, can be used
for aet"Odynamic investigations at high spceds.
6.1. Thin Airfoil
in an Incompressible Flow

Let us consider the method of cal(,ulating the steady l10w of an in{'ompressible fluid past a thin slightlr bent airfoil at a small angle
-of attack (Fig. G.1.1). The acrodynamic charaderistic.s of the airfoil obtained as a result of t.hese ('al('ulations can be used directly
for flight at low subsonic spceds (M", < 0.30.4) when the air may
he considered as an incompressible fluid. They can also be lIsed as

Ch. 6. Airfoil ~nd Fjnite-Sp~n Wing in Incompressible Flow

235

fI,.6.t.t
Thln airfoil in an incompressible flow

the initial data when performing aerodynamic rulculations of airfoils having a given configuration in a !iuhsonic compre~~ible flow.
Since the airfoil is thin. and the angle of atlack i~ not large. the
velocity of the flow near it differs only slightly from that. of the
llndi~turbed now. Such a now is called nearly uniForm.
We can write the following condition for tilt' ,'('lority of a neal'ly
!lniform flow:
V, ,~ V ~,;- u (u~ V,), V, ~" (r~ \'.)
(6,1.1)
where II- and v are the components of lhe ,'cloeHy or small dis-turhanees.
In accordance with this condition.
V" ~"Vi T v~ = (V"" -i- u)~ -:- I'~ ~ v:;, .;...2V""u (6.1.2)
Let us now determine the pressure in a nearly uniform now. From
the 13ernOlllli equalion (3.4.13), in which we assume that the ronstant C 2 equals p"",'pcc " V~/2 anci (l ....: const, we obtain the excess
pressure
p - p. ~ p. (V~/2 - 1"/2) '~ -p.V.u
(6,1.:1)
We cleline u in terms of the "elodty potential, u .""' Ocr/iJx:
p - Poe = -p",V""i}lrfo.I
(G.1.4)
The correspoJlding pressure coefficient i!<

Ii ~

(p - P.)'q. ~ -2uIV. ~ -(211'.) iJqlax

(6,1.5)

By (G. 1.4), the excess pressure on the lJOttom surfact' of the airfoil is
Pb - P ~ ~ -(a~bla,) V.p.
and on it!; upper surface is
p~ -

p ... = -(otpu/Ox) l' ~fI""

236

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

where <r" and (flu are the velocity potentials on the hottom and upper
surfaces, rC)lpectivcly. Conseqnently. the lift force produced by t.he
pressure acting on an element of area is
dYa 1c

,....

(Ph - Pu) dx "-' -V .. poo (OWb!aX - iJ'Pu1ox) dx

..
I

while the lift force for the entire airfoil with. the chord b is
Y;I,1c = -VooP..

(a:: - 8izU )dx

Assuming the upper limit b' of the integral to be approximately

equal 10 the chord b (because of the smallness of the angle of attack),
we find t.hc rorresponding lift r.oeffiC'-ient:
Y".1c

C,,;,.iC

=q:r-=--

l:,

i1qIh

0%

V~b ~ (/iX---a;-)dx

(6.1.6)

Let liS ('onsider tlle circulation of the velocity over a contour that
is a rectangle with the dimensions dx and dy and encloses an element
of the airfoil. In arcordallce with Fig. 6.1. t. the circulation is

dr:~ (Voo.i

ac:u ) dx- (v... -,- a::) dx+ (88~1 -

az

r ) dy

where 'PI and Ifr are the velocity polentials on the left and right
surfaces. respectively.
Let us introduce the concept of the intensity of circulation (of a vortex) determined by the derivative drldx .= y (x). The magnitude of
this int.em:ity is

y(x)~ a:; - aa~b +.~( aa~1 -

0:;)

Since for a thin airfoil, the angular coefficient dyldx is small, the
product of this coefficient and the difference of the vertical component
of the velocities is a second-order infinitesimal and, consequently,
y (x) ~ "'P.lax - .'fh/ax

.
.i

(6.1.7)

Hence, (6.1.6) can be written in the form

cII".

y(x) dx
o
'Ve calculate the moment coeHicient in a similar way:
ic= V:b

m"t1' ic= -

V~bt

y(x)xdx

(6.1.8)

(6.1.9)

Ch. 6. Airfoil and Finite-Spen Wing in Incompressible Flow

237

In ac.cordancc with formulns (6.1.8) and (6.1.9), Lhe coefficients

of the lift force and the moment pro(lnced by the pressllre depend on
the distribution of the inlensity of the circillation a!on~ the airfoil.
This signifies that the now over an airfoil cau iw(:alculatcd by replae.ing it with a sy~lcm of continlJollsly distrib\lted \"orLiees.
According to the Biot-SaYart formula (~.7.12), an element of a
distributed vortex with the rirr.ulaLion dl'
'Y (xl dx induces the
vertical vclodty at a poillt with the uusrissa ; (Fig. (j.t. t)
de ~ dl'!l2n (r -.)1 ~ ~ (x) dx/lh (. -

<)1

The velocity induced at this point b)' all the vortices i:;

v=-inJ

.,!~~~Z

(6.1.10)

ACcol'ding to the houndary condilion, vl(V .. -:- ()(fldx) ...", dyftk.

Taking int,o account that the airfoil ig thin. wo can assnmo that
V..,-i-!lCrlrJ.r :::::::: V"". and calculate the derivative dyfd.t from the
equation of the mean c"mher line

=-0

Y (x) """ 0.5 Wu -i- Yb)

(6.1-11)

where y" '-- y"V) anel Yb ; Yb(X) nre the equal-ions of the upper
and bollom contours of the airfoil. FI'l:o;poctively.
Hence_ the intensity of vortex. circulation'Y (.r) i" dC'termineu by
the integral eqnation
(0.1.12)
Let us jnl-roduce instead of x a !le\\" inrlependent variable e determi.ned by the equation
r ~ (b/2) (1
cos U)
(0.1.13)
We fmd the solution of Eq. (6.1.12) in the form of a trigonometric
Fourier series:

1'(00) =2lT '"

[AD cot ~+ ~ A",Sin:(nOo)j

., ... t

in which the variable 6 0 in accordance wit.h (6.1.13) is related t.o

the coordinat.e x --" ~ by the equation

(bJ2)

(1 - cos 8 0 )

(6.1.15)

We chauge tile- yariables in (l),1.12). fir diRerential-ion of (6.1.13).

we find
(6.1.16)
d.l' =-= (hIZ) sin 0 dO

238

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil artd a Wing

Substitution~

yield

where ~ (e,) ~ (dy/dx),.

After introducing the values of the integral" ill (6.1.17) ealculated
in [161. we find

(6.1.18)
By integrating both sides of Eq. (6.1.18) from 0 to n, we obtain
a relation for the coefficient A 0 of the Fourier series:

A,~

-+ I, ~(9)d9

(6.1.19)

By multiplying (o.1.Ul) in turn by cos B. cos 20, . , cos (nEl),

we find expressions for the coefficients All A 2 , An. respectively. Hence,
2

An=-:l

rJ

~(O)eos(nO)dB

(6.1.20)

Let liS consider relation (6.1.8) for the lift coefficient. Going over
to the variable e and introducing (13.1.16), we obtain
n

eva,le :-.

v~ )

y(B) sin e de

(6.1.21)

o
With a view to (6.1.14)
Clla.le

= 2Ao

~ cot -} sin B dB + 2 ~

,,=1

An

sin (ne) sin e de

Integration yields
(6.1.22)

Hence, the lilt cucfficient depends on the first two coefficient.; of

the series. Introdll('.ing into (6.1.22) expression (6.1.19) and formllla (6.1.20) in which n = 1, we have
Co,.

,,~

-21 ~
o

(e) (I-cos e)

de

(6.1.23)

Ch. D. Airfoil and Finite-Span Wing in Incompressible Flow

Sl39

Fig.6.U

~Iean

camber line of an airfoil

We change the variables ill (tU.9) for the moment coefficient:

~-~

m:".I.. =

Jy(9)(1-cos8)Rin9d8

(G.1.24}

With a view to expresRion (6.1.14) for y (9). we bave

m~a'

= -Ao

j (1 -cos 9,2 d8- ~ An J sin (n8) \1-cos8) sin 8d&

II

n=1

IntegraUon yields
mza_le = -

(;-t;2) (Ao

-T At -

A~,'2)

(6.1.25}

(1;4) cVale

(6.1.26}

With a view to (6.1.22), we have

(n;4) (A I - A 2) -

Tn'a.le = -

By determining Al Rnd ...12 from (6.-1.20) and introdllciugtheir

values into (6.1.26), we obtain
1

l!

mz", '" = -"2 ~ ~(9) (cos8-cos20) cla-Teu",

Ie

(6.1.27)-

Let us consider the body axis coordinates Xl lind Vt in which the

equaUon of the mean camber lille is Yt = Yl (XI)' and the sJop~ of a
tangent is determined hy the derivative dYl,'dx1. This angle (Fig. 6.1.2)
is ~1 = ~ + ct, where p:::::J dy/dx. Hence w(' d('termine th" angle
~ = ~l - a and introduce its value into (6.1.23) anll (G.t.27):
e'a.le = 2n (a; ..!... eo)
(G.1.28)
mZa' ie'"'"

-2

(ffo-l1o)-fclla. Ie

(6.1.2H}

240

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynemics of an Airfoil and a Wing

where

eo=+!f31(1-COSe)d~; 1l0=-+If3~(1-COS2e)de

(6.1.30)

A glance at (6.1.28) reveals that when ex = -eo, the lift coefficient equals zero. The angle ex = -eo is called tlte angle of zero
li.ft. The coe[Jicients eo and J.Lo are evaluated according to the given
equation of the mean camber line of the airfoil provided that in the
expression for the function f3I (tl) the variable Xl = xi/b is replaced
.according to (6.1.13) with the relation Xl = (112) (1- cos 9).
We can use the found values of mla and c Yd to approximately determine the coefficient of the centre of pressure cp = xp/b and the relative coordinate of the aerodynamic centre ZAC = xAclb:
=

_~_J..+
c!l~ -

(:t/4)p.o-f-Io
1t (a;T~o)

AC

-~=...!..
iJc lIa

(6.1.31)

It follows from these relations that the coordinate of the centre

-of pressure depends on the angle of attack and the shape of the airfoil. wl~ereas the aerodynamic centre is at a fixed point at a distance
of one-fourth of the chord length from the leading edge. For a symmetric airfoil eo = J.Lo = 0 [which follows from formulas (6.1.30) in
which f3I = dyIldx l = OJ. therefore the value of Cpt like that of the
l"elative coordinate of the aerodynamic centre, is 114.
6.2. Transverse Flow over
II Thin Plate

Let us consider the flow of an incompressible fluid over a very

simple airfoil in the form of a thin plato arranged at rigllt angles
to the direction of the free-stream velocity. We can solve this problem by means of the conformal transformation (or mapping) method.
We shall use the results of the solution in real cases to determine
the aerodynamic characteristics of finite-span ";vings.
Let lLS arrange the plato in the plane of the complex variable
o = x + iy along the real axis x (Fig. 6.2.tb). ~ow the free-stream
velocity vector V will coincide with the direction of the imaginary
axis y. In this case, the flow over such a plate can be obtained by
conformal transformation of the flow over a Circular cylinder on the
plane S =
+ iT'[ (Fig. 6.2.1a). If we know the function W = f (~)
that is a complex potential for the flow over a circular cylinder and
the analytical function S = F (a) of the complex varia hIe a = x -i+ iy (known as the conformal function) that transforms t.he contonr
(lf~a ~circle on the plane ~ into a segment of a straight line placed across

Ch. 6. Airfoil .nd Finite.Span Wing in Incomprenible Flow

241

(a)

FiS!.6.l.t

Conformal transformation or the flow past a round cylinder (0) into a Dow past
a flat plate arranged (b) at right angles to the direction of the free-stream velocity, or (r) along the flow

the now on the plane cr, then the fUllction W = f [F (0')1 is the complex potential for the flow over the plate.
Let us sec how we can determine the complex potential for the
[low over a circular cylinder. For this purpose, we shall again revert
to the meLhod of conrormal transformation, using the known function of Lhe complex potential for the flow over a plate arranged
along it. This function has the form
W =

<r

+ i1j;

= -iV (x .. - i.1ll

=--0

iVcr

(6.2.1)

We shall show that the conformal fUllclion

*"

(6.2.2)

transforms a segment of a straight line arranged along (he flow on

the plane 0" into a circle on thf' plane ~ (Fig. f::j.~.1c.a).lndeed, examination of (6.2.2) reveals that since fOf points satisfying the conditions - 0 ~ y ~ a, x = 0, and a = ~R, ,ve ha\"(~ 0" = iy, then from
the solutionoftheqlladraticeqlJation ';;2 _ O"~ _ R2 = 0, we obtain
{~iyI2VR'-Y'14~S+i~

(6.2.3)

Separating the rcal and imaginary parts, we obtain

~c'yI2,

,~VIl'-Y'14

whence ;2 -i- 11~

R2.
Consequently, points on the circle in the plane t correspond to
points in the plane (J on the vertical segment. Substituting for (J in
(6.2.1) its value from (G.2.2). we obtain the complex potential of
the flow over a circular cylinder or radius R in a plane parallel now

242

pt.

I_ Theory. Aerodyn.mic5 of .n Airfoil and a WJng

at the velocity V:
(6.2.4)

To obtain the complex potential for the flow over a plate arranged
across the flow (Fig. 6.2.1b), let us substitute for S in (6.2.4) the
following value obtained from the conformal formula 0" = S +
+ RZ1s transforming a circle of radius R (plane t) into a segment of
a straight line across the flow (plane 0):
~=0/2V02/4-R2

(6.2.5)

Therefore,

W=-iV

(fl/ {_R2

Since for points on the plate we have

and a = 2R, then

(6.2.6)
0"

= x, where -a ~ x ~ a

W=rp-i-ilP=-iV(+q/RZ-f-

x/2.1:f~~t

:;:2/4)

whence the potential function is

<p~VV4R'-x'~VVa'-x'

(6.2.7)

where the plus sign corresponds to the upper surface, and the minus
sign to the bottom olle.
By evaluating the derivatives iJrpl8x, we can find the velocity on
the plate and calculate the pressure. It follows from the data obtained that the pressure on the upper and bottom sides of the plate is
the same. Consequently, ill the case being considered of the transverse free streamline flow of an ideal (in viscid) fluid over a plate,
drag of the plate is absent. This interesting aerodynamic effect is
considered below in Sec. 6.3 using the example of flow over a flat
plate arranged at a certain finite angle of attack.
A flow characterized by the potential function (6.2.7) is sho,vn in
Fig. 6.2.1b. It is a non-circulatoryftow past the plate obtained upon
the superposition onto an undisturbed flow with the potential
W~~-iVS

(6.2.8)

of the flow from a doublet with the potential

Wd = iVRzl1;

where S is determined by the conformal function (6.2.5).

(6.2.9)

ct..

6. Airfoil end Finite-Spen Wing in Incompressible Flow

243

6.3. Thin Plate

at an Angle of Attack

Let us calculate the potential function for the disturbed flow of

an incompressible fluid over a thin plate at the angle of attack ct
using, as in the preceding problem, the method of conformal transformation. We arrange the plate in the plane of the complex variable
0' = X + iy along the real axis x.
If we assume that t.he flow being considered is a non-circulatory
one, the complex potential of such a flow can be written as the sum
of the potentials of the longitudinal WI = V 000' and transverse W z
flows at the velocity of the undisturbed flow V = aV"" (Fig. 6.3.1).
The total complex potential is

W=W 1 + Wz=V",O'-ictV""

[-%- V f - R z

-RZ(-%-V (/41 -Rz)-I]=Voo('fiaVooVcrZ-4RZ

(6.3.1)

,"Vith account taken of formula (G.2.7), the total velocit.y potcntial on the plate is
q:=1'""xctV""Va2 -xZ
(6.3.2)
We use this \'alue of the potential to find the velocity component

V x =V""=FaV",,,xIVaZ-x2

(13.3.3)

The second veloci~y component on the thin plate Vy = O.

A close look at (6.3.3) reveals that at the leading (x = -a) and
trailing (x = a) edges, the velocity V:t is infinite. Physically, such a
flow is impossible. The velocity at one of the edgcs, for example, the
trailing one, can be restricted by superposition of a circulatory flow
onto the flow being considered. In the pI aIle 1;, the potential of the
circulatory flow is determined in accordance with (2.9.22) hy thc
expression
(6.3.4)
w, ~ - (if/2n) In S
Let us substitute for S its value from (6.2.5):

Ws=-

J~

In

(f vf-

RZ)

(6.3.5)

Summation of (6.3.1) and (6.3.5) yields the complex potential of

a circulatory-forward flow over an inclined plate:
W= WI + W z + W3 = V""cr iaV""Vcr 2 _ 4R2
(6.3.6)

244

Pt. I. Theory_ Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

Flg.6.3.t

Flo\v over a flat plate at an angle or attack

We determine the circulation r on the basis of the ZhukovskyCbaplygin hypothesis, according to which the velocity at the trailing
edge of the plate is finite. This value of the velocity can be obtained,
as we already know from the theory of conformal transformation,
in the form of the aerivative dWida of the complex potential W
for a cylinder. This potential, in turn, makes it possible t.o nnd the
complex velocity at the relevant point on the cylinder as the derivative dWidS;, which according to the rules of differentiation of a
complex function is
(6.3.7)

where Wand Ware the complex potentials for the cylinder and
plate, respectively.
According to the Zhukovsky-Chaplygin hypothesis, the quantity
dWlda is limited in magnitude. Since the derivative dalds calculated by the formula
daldS; = 1 _

R2/~'J.

equals zero on the cylinder at the point S; = R corresponding to a

point on the trailing edge of the plate, the derivative dWidS; = O.
The complex potential for a cylinder is

W=~+W;+W;
The potential Wr characterizes the flow in an axial direction correspondin~ to the flow over the plate in the same direction at the
velocity V .... It is obtained by substituting the value a = S; +
+ R2/S for (J in the formula WI = V""a:

W;

~ V~ (,

+ R'I,)

Ch. 6. Airfoil and Finite-Span Wing in Inccompr.ssible Flow

24&

The complex potentials Wt and W; are determined by Eqs. (6.2.4)

and (6.3.4), respectively. We 511al1 substitute a.l' ~ for V in the rlrst
of them and lind the total complex potential:
V ~ (, + H'/,) - letV. (6 - H',,) - (ir,2n) In 6 (6,3.8)

w:.

We calculate the derivative:

"r

dWid6 ~ V. (I - H'i 6') - let V (I

R', 6') - Ir, (2~ 6) (6.3.8')
For the coordinate ~ = R corresponding to a point on the trailing
edge of the plate, the derivative dWJd~ is zero. i.e.
2ia V "" - iri(2nR)

=0

Hence

r
or. since 2R

= a,

-4naHV.

(6.3,9)

r=

-2naaV ....

(;,3.9')

After inserting this result into (tt3.6) and differentiating with

respect to a. we fmd the complex velocity:

~: =v":.;-iVy= il.., Y~~~:R2

-r 2J\i;~V'" a y~

(1-

y' a~~41l~ )

Simple transformations and the substitution 2R

=a

yield

dWldo~ Vz-tVv~ 1'.(1 'F iet.V (o-a)/(o+a)

16.3.10)

On the surface of the plate (0 = x)

dWldo~Vz-IV,~V-t(I'FI"V(x

a)/(.: a)) (6.3.11)

Since I x I ~ a. we have
dWldo~ Vz-iV,~ V.(IetV(a

.i(a+.))

(6.3.11')

whence it follows that the total velocity on the plate is

v~

V. ~ V. (I "V(a

.)I(a -,. x))

(6.3.12)

The plus sign relates to the upper surface, and the minus sign to the
bottom one.
The velocity on the trailing edge (or = a = 2R) is V .... and on the
leading edge (x = -a) it is found to be infinite. In real conditions,
the tbickness of the leading edge is not zero; particularly, the nose
may have a finite. although small. radius of curvature. Therefore
the velocit.ies on such an edge have high. but tinite values.

~46

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

y"",

Flg.6.1.1

Contour in the flow of an in-

""--cc'---'.L----'_ _ _-'''--

compressible fluid

To determine the force acting on the plate, we shall use the general
expression for the principal vector of the hydrodynamic pressure
forces applied to a stationary cylindrical body of an arbitrary shape
in the steady flow of an incompressible fluid. By analogy with the
complex: velocity, let us introdtlce the concept of the complex force
Ra = X - iY, determining this force as the mirror reflection of
the principal vector R;. of the pressure forces with respect to the renl
axis.
The vector R/J, being considered is detl3rmined by formulas (1.3.2)
and (1.3.3) in which the friction coefficient el.:e is taken equal to zl3ro:

Ra=X -iY =

-~ p [cos ( 0 ) - i cos (.;.-u)] ds

c

-~ p(sin9+icos9)ds= - i ~pe-i(jds

(6.3.13)

where n is tne direction of an outward normal to contour C of the

body in the flow and 9 is the angle between the olement ds of the
contour and tne x-axis (Fig. 6.3.2).
Since
d~ = dx + i dy = ds (cos 9 + i sin 9) = eie ds
do ~ ax - i dy ~ as (cos 8 _ i sin 8) ~ .-"ds
(6.3.14)
I

and the pressure is determined by the Bernoulli equation

p ~ p_
pV'_12 - pV'12 ~ C, -- pV'12
then

~~-~i~+fV'~~ftV'~

(6.3.15)

c
c
c
Taking into account that by (6.3.14) we have du = e- 2ie dCJ, and
also that in accordance with the condition of flow without separa-

Ch. 6. Airfoil and Finite-Span Wing in Incompressible Flow

247

t.ion the complex velocity at the point of the contour being considered is

V=

V;I' - iV, = V cos

e-

tV sin

a=

Ve- iO

(6.3.16)

we find
Ra=X-iY--t- ~ Vida
c

(6.3.17)

Since for a potential now, the complex velocity is

have

Ra=X-iY

V = dWlda. we

={- ~ (~~)2 do

(6.3.18)

Expression (6.3.18) is called the Zhukovsky-Chaplygin formula.

Integration in (6.3.18) can be performed over another contOllr enveloping the given contour C of the body in the flow, for example,
over a circle K whose complex velocity in the plane 0" is written as
follows:
(6.3.19)
dWldcr = V ~ - tf/(2ncr) + Alcr'
where V cD = V;I''''' - tV,,,,,= V ... e- i9"", and A is a coelicient determined with the aid of an equation similar to (6.3.8).
The square of the complex velocity is

( ~~ )2 i'!.- I~~"" +
"C"

2AV"'-:~'2/(4;1~)

+ ...

Introducing this value into (0.3.18), we find

Ra=X-iY=*[V!'~da_lr:", ~~
K

+(2AV_-L~,)t ~~ + ... ]
Here the first and third integrals equal zero. The integral ~dO"/O"
is evaluated with a view to the formula
6.3.2) and equals

0"

= X + iy

= re;qI

(Fig.

'!:' =lnO" IK=ln(rei~) IK=2sti

Hence,

Ro=X-iY=ipjl.. r

or

X-iY=ipV",re- to.. (6.3.20)

where V .. is the magnitude of the frec-stream velocity.

248

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

If its direction coincides with the horizontal axis (a .... = n), we

have
Ra = X - iY = -ipV ...
(6.3.21)

whence it follows that

(6.3.22)
I R. I = Y = Y. = pv.r
Expression (6.3.22) is known as the Zhukovsky formula.
It follows from (6.3.21) that the force is a vector perpendicular
to the free-stream velocity vector, and, therefore, is a lift force. Its
direction coincides with that of the vector obtained by turning the
velocity vector V ... through the angle nl2 against the circulation.
A glance at (6.3.21) reveals that X = X a = O. Hence, when an
in viscid incompressible fluid flows over a surface without separation,
the resistance associated with the distribution of the pressure is zero.
This aerodynamic effect is known as the Euler-D'Alcmbert paradox.
This name corresponds to the fact that actually resistance is present
because there always occurs a relevant redistribution of the pressure
caused by separation of the flow and the action of skin friction (viscosity).
Let us use formula (6.3.22) to evaluate the lift force of a flat plate.
Taking into account the value of the circulation (6.3.9'), we obtain
(Fig. 6.3.3)
(6.3.23)
Y .. = 2naapV!.
Let us determine the normal Y and longitudinal X components
of the force Y II:
(6.3.24)
Y = Y. cos a ~ Ya= 2:laapV:O
(6.3.25)
X = - Y. sin a ~ -Y.a = -2na2apV:c.
The arising of the force X acting along the plate opposite to the
flow seems to be paradoxical because all the elementary forces produced by the pressure are directed along a normal to the surface.

Ch. 6. Airfoil lind Finlte-Splln Wing in Incompressible Flow

'249

This component is called the suction force. The plty~ic(ll nature of

its appearance consists in the following. A~snnlt' Lhllt the leading
edge is slightly rounded. :\'ow the velociLies ne<lr iL will be collsi(lerable, but not inlinitely high as at the leading edge or a plate. In
accordance with t.he Bernoulli equation, the differellCf' he tween t.he
pressure at the edge and thnt at infinity will be negativc. Theresnlling rarefaction is exnctly whnt CaHSf"S the .'iBctiOI( force. lls limiting
value is given hy expression (().:~.2:)) relating to the casp or flow over
a plate when the velOCity near its leadillg f'dge i. dctprmincd by formilia (6.3.12). In aCCOr<Jilnce wit.h this formula. the longitudinal
component of the disturbed \'elocity at the intlicaLed point of the
plate i.s
1'; ~ aV. V(a - x)/(a ... x)
(6.3.26)
The expression for the suction force call he generalized for an
arbitrary velOCity near the leading edge. For this purpose, we shaH
transform (!i.:~.2;'j) to the form

.~

-X "" npc'

(0.3.27)

where
(6.3.28)
We shall write the quanl.ily
c!~-

c~

in the form of the limit

lim (r~2 {.r-Xl.e)j

(C>.3.28')

X-"'J.t

where ;fl.e is the abscissa of the lending edge (Xt.e - -a) . .( is the
rUlining abscissa of points of the plate, afl{1 v.~ is the longitudinal
component of the disturbed velocity on the upper surface of a wing.
Formula (6.3,28') can be shown to be correct. For this purpose,
we shall insert expression (6.3.2G) into (6.3.2t;'):

c!= }~~la [v!,a2

:~:

(:rt

a)] =

2aa~r;,

Dy introducing this value into (6.3.27), we obtain formula (0.3.25).

The conclusions on an incompressible Circulatory-forward flow
over an airfoil in the form of a thill plflte (Ire used ill studying the
aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils encountered in practice, and
also of finite-span wings in flows of an incompressible fluid or of a
compressible gas.

6.... Finite-Span Wing

in an Incompressible Flow
Up to now, we considered an airfoil in an incompressible flow. We
call presum~ that such an airfoil relates to an elementary part of a
lifting SUI face belonging to an infinite-span wing in a plane parallel

ftO

pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of en Airfoil end eWing

'f11.U.t

:System of equivalent vortices

for a rectangular wing

Dow. Hence. the theory of this 110w is also a foundation of the aerodynamics of an infinite-span wing.
Er formula (6.3.22), the lift force of a unit-span wing part is
Y!l) = p""v... r (Fig. GAia). Consequently, there is a circulation
flow around the airfoil with the velocity circulation r. If the circulation is clockwise. the velocities on the upper surface of the airfoil
are higher (a circulation flow having the same direction as the oncoming one is superposed on it), while on the bottom surface they
are lower (the circulation flow does not coincide with the direction
-of the oncoming flow). Therefore, in accordance with the Bernoulli
.equation. the pressure from above is lower than from below, and the
lift force is directed upward as shown in Fig. O.4.ib.
Since by (2.7.8) and (2.7.8'), the circulation equals the vorticity
(vortex strength) ")(, the part of the wing can be replaced with an
'equh'alent vortex of the indicated strength passing along its span.
N. ZhukovskY used the term bound to designate this vortex. Hence,
in the hydrodynamic sense, an inrmite-span wing is equivalent to
a l)ound vortex.
Let us now consider an approximate scheme oj the flow past a finite.$pan wing with a rectangular planform. As established by S. Chaplygin. a bound vortex near the side edges turns and is cast off the
wing in the form of a pair of vortex cores approximately coinciding
with the direction of the free-stream velocity. The distance e
{Fig. 6.4.ic) from a vortex core to the relevant side edge depends on
the geometry of the wing. Consequently, the hydrodynamic effect
-of a finite-span wing can be obtained by replacing it with a bound
vortex and a pair of free horseshoe vortices. This wing pattern is
-called Cbaplygin's horseshoe one.
A vortex system equivalent to a finite-span wing induces addHion.al velocities in the flow and thus causes downwash. which is a fea-

Ch. 6. Airfoil and Finite-Span Wing in Incompressible Flow

2fi1

f.lotl!!dlI.p
Z v.'rile!!.>

fI,.6.U
Vortex ,neet and rolled-up vortices behlDd a WiDg

ture of now past a finite-span wing. The calculations of the induced

velocities and tho down wash angle caused by the free \'ortices are
based 011 the following theorems rormulated by II. IIl'lmllOltz:
(1) the strength along a vortex docs not change in magnitude,
and a~ n restJlt, a vortex cannot end somewhere ill a fluid. It must
either be closed or reach the houndary of the nuid;
(2) the slrength of a vortex does not depend Oil t he time;
(:'\) a vortex is not disrupted in an ideal fiuid,
In the considered scheme of a rectangular wing. the circulation
along the span was presumed to be constant in accordance wilh the
assumption that the lift forct! of each elementary part of the wing is
identical. Actnally, the lift force along tile spall of a \\'ing having
such II rectangular phl.nform varies. This change is not great ill the
middle part of the wing and is more 1I0ticeahl~ at the side edges.
For n wing with an arbitn'lrY planform, the change in the circulation
is cle<trir expressed and is dlle to the different dimensions of the
elementary parts and. consel,JItent,ly, to ditlerent values of the lift
force. We can obtain the vortex pattern of now over a wing with a
system of horseshoe vortices forming a vortex shcet (Fig. 6.4.2).
The circulation Along each vortex will be COllstant. but changes
when going over from one vorLex to another. For the section at the
middle of the wing. the lHt force is maximum, therefore the strength
or the relevant "ortox and the circnlation will be maximum.
~ow let us see ,.... hat changes t.he downwash introduces into the
flow over a wing arranged at the geometric angle of atluck a. (the
angle between the chord of a wing section and th<' v('ctor V"" is also

2152

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an AirFoil and" Wing

Flg.6.U

r~~Wapdp~~;a:~~hof tinad:::l dar~:

called the setting angle). The appearance of downwash of the flow
behind the wing at the angle leads to the fact that the flow over
the wing in the section being considered is characterized by values
of the velocity V~ and the angle of attack at differing from the corresponding values of V"" and a that determine the flow over an infinite-span wing. The true angle of attack Ctt of a section of a finitespan wing is smaller than the setting angle by the magnitude of the
downwash angle e (Fig. 6.4.3), i.e. Ctt = a-E. The downwash angle
E = -wiV
varies along the span of the wing, increasing toward
its tips. For convenience, the concept of the span-averaged down wash
00

1/2

angle is introduced, determined by the formula em

Accordingly, the true angle of attack of the wing is
tXt=~-em

={ J e dz.
-1/2

(6.4.1)

The existence of a downwash angle leads to a change in the forces

acting on a body in the flow. If flow downwash is absent, the vector
of the aerodynamic force by (6.3.21) is normal to the direction of
the velocity of the undisturbed ftow V"". If downwash is present,
the vector of the resultant aerodynamic force is oriented along a
normal to the direction of the true velocity V~ (Fig. 6.4.3). Such
deviation of the resultant force through the angle till causes the
component XI to appear in the direction of the undisturbed flow.
This additional force X i appearing as a result of flow downwash is
called the induced r('sistance or induced drag. From the physical
viewpoint, an induced drag is due to losses of a portion of the kinetic
energy of a moving wing spent on the formation of vortices cast off
its trailing edge. The magnitude of this drag is determined in accordance with Fig. 6.4.3 from the expression
XI = YaEm

(6.4.2)

The lift force Y a , owing to the smallness of the downwash, is determined in the same way as for an infinite-spall wing. 1f we divide
XI by the quantity (PooV!.l2) Sw, we obtain the induced drag c0efficient

Ch. 6. Airloil .nd Finite_Span Wing in Incompressible Flow

253

'190 6.'"
Replacement uf a finite-span wing with a loaded linc:
J-dlstribuUOll ot c:in:ulauOll; 1'-loadtd line; 3-d1s1ribuUOll or inducrd velOCities
wash angles

I.If

down-

We sllaU determine thls coefficicut on the basis or the theory of a

"loaded line". According to this theory, a finite-span wing is replaced
with a single hound vortex (a loaded line). Tilt' circulation r (z)
for tlte loaded line is the same as for the corresponding sections of the
wing itself (Fig. 6.4.4). Upon such a replacement, a plane vortex
sheet begins directly on the loaded line and has a strength dr (z)/th
that varies along the span. The flow down wash in a gil'en section is
determined for a semi-infinite vortex core having the strength
(dr (z)fthJ th_ Accordingly, the tot.al downwash angle for a section,
as can be seen from Fig. 6.4.4. is
e= -

v:

= -

,,2

J dizf). /:"'1.

4!t~...

(6.4.4)

-1/2

Here the improper integral must bc considered in the sense of its

principal value.
By (6.4.4), the mean dowilwash angle over a span is

'm=--', \'2 [I?J dr(.t).~."

]dz
4:tV""l.
d%
% _%

-1/1

(6.4.5)

-1/2

The lift force coetticient cY " can be determined according t.o the
known law of circulation distribution along the span. With such a
determination, we caft proceed from the hypothesis of plane sections
according to which the flow ovcr a wing element being considered is

254

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynllmic5 of an Airfoil and a Wing

the same as over the corresponding airfoil belonging to a cylindrical

inlinHe-span wing. Calculations on the basis of this hypothesis give
a satisfactory accuracy for wings with a low sweep and an aspect
ratio of Aw> 3-4.
According to the Zhukovsky formula, the lift force of an airfoil is
dY, _ p_V_f (,) d,
(6.4.6)
its total value for a wing is
'/2

Y,-p_V_

f(,)d,

(6.4.6')

-[/2

and the corresponding aerodynamic coefficient is

Cila =

q:Sw

In
= V...2S W

(z) dz

(6.4.6")

-1/2

To find the law of circulation distribution r (z), let us consider an

airfoil in an arbitrary section of a wing for which the lift force can
be wrilten in the form
dY a = Cil (z) q ... b(z) dz
(6.4.7)
where b(z) is the chord of the airfoil in the section being considered.
With a view to the Zhukovsky formula (6.4.6), we find a coupling
equation determining the relation for the velocity circulation in
a given section:
(6.4.8)
f(,) - 0.5", (,) b(,) V_
According to the hypothesis of plane sections, the lift coefficient
clIa(z) of a section being considered is the same as for the corresponding infinite-span cylindrical wing. Its magnitude can be determined with account taken of the downwash angle by the formula
cila (z) = c~a (z) (0: -

e)

(6.4.9)

where the derivative c~a(z) = (}clIa(z)/oo: is determined for an infinite-span wing and a range of angles of attack corresponding to the
linear section of the curve c1Io (0:). After inserting into (6.4.8) the
values from (6.4.4) and (6.4.9), we obtain
[(z)=(1I2)

~a(z)b(z)V...

(a+

41t~...

1/2

d~~;') ./~1.) (6.4.10)

-1/2

This equation is called the fundamental integro-differential equation

of a finite-span wing. It allows one to find the law of circulation
distribution r (z) for a given wing shape according to the known
conditions of its flight. The angle of attack 0: in (6.4.10) may be fixed

Ch. 6, Airfoil .nd Finite-Span Wing in Incompressible Flow

2&5,

(i.e. the same for all sections) or may vary along the span if geometric warp of the wing is present.
One of the most favoured ways of solving Eq. (6.4.10) is based on
expanding the required function r (z) into a trigonometric seris
(the Glauert-Trefftz method)

r (z) = 2lV ""=~t An sin (nO)

(o.4.11}

where the new variable e is related to the variable z by the expression

z = - (U2) cos e (see Io'ig. 6.S.1), aud An are cOllstant coefficients
determined with the aid of Eq. (6.4.10).
Since the series (6.4.11) is a rapidly descending one, a small number m of terms is usually sufficient. To det.ermine the unknowncoefficients Am, we compile m algebraic equations (according to the Ilumber of selected sections). Each of these equations is obtained by
introducing into (6.4.10) the value of the circulation r (z) =
= 2lV"" :LAn
'/1,=1

SiD

(118) for the corresponding sectiOll.

For conventional wings that are symmetric about the central (root}
chord, the distribution of the circulation over the span is also symmetric, i.e. the equality r (e) = r (:r - 6) holds (see Fig. 6.5.1).
Accordingly, the terms of the series with even indices equal zero.
and the circulation can be written in the approximate form
r = 2lV "" (AI sin 6

+ A, sin (3e) + ... + Am sin (me))

Consequently, the number of algebraic equations needed to determine the coefficients Am diminishes. The procedure followed to determine these coefficients is set out in detail in 1161.
Using the found law of distribution of the circulalion in the form
of a series, we can determine the flow dov,,-nwash and the corresponding aerodynamic coeJJicients (see 1131). By goillg over in (6.4.6")
from the variable z to the variable 0 in accordance with the expression dz = (1I2) sin 8 ae, introducing the formula for the circulation
in the form of a series, and taking into account that l'l./S ..... = Aw, we
find a relation for the lift coefficient:
e'a = 1tA".A 1
(f1.4.12)
Using (6.4.5), we determine the me-an down wash angle:
8 m = (c"lnl.w) (I + .)
(6.4.13)
where
ratio:

't"

is a coefficient taking into account the inrJuence of the aspect

(6.4.14)

2~6

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 an Airfoil and a Wing

JI'rom (6.4.3), we obtain the relevant induced drag loefiicient.

Its value can be determined more precisely, however, by going over
from the mean downwash angle to its local value in accordance with
the expression dX, = e dY a By introducing into this expression
instead of t and dY. their values from (6.4.4) and (6.4.6), integratiog, and determining the induced drag coefficient. we obtain
-t

ex.

?,I (z) ['1,2j ~'"'i""=Z

dr(,')
d..!:"
Jdz

= 21I:''-:''S"" J

-1/2

(6.4.15)

-l!2

Introducing the value of r(z) and substituting

have

~.

for l'l/Sw, we
(6.4.16)

where the coellicient 6 taking into account t.he influence of the aspect
ratio on the drag depending on the lift is

6=.f
.-, nA~.IA:

(6.4.17)

The coefficient.s T and 6 for wings of various planforms can be determined according to the dat.a given iu (13, 161.
The results of the general theory of a loaded line obtained can be
seen to be charact.erized by a comparative simplicity of the aerodynamic relations, proYide a clear notion of the physical phenomena
attending flow past finite-span wings, and allow one t.o reveal the
mechanism of formation or the lift force and induced drag. The applicat.ion of this theory, however. is limit.ed to wings ' .... ith a sufficiently small sweep and a relatively large aspect ratio. In modern
aerodynamics, more accurate and more general solut.ions are worked
out. They arc described in special literature.
At the same time. the development of ways of evaluating the aero'dynamic properties of wings by constructing approximat.e models
of the flow over fmite-span wings is of practical signilicance. Let us
consider one of them based on the representation of the aerodynamic
scheme of a wing in the form of a bound and a pair of free vortex
.cores. This representation is based on experimental data according
to which a vortex sheet is not stable and at a comparatively short
distance from the wing rolls up into two parallel vortex cores (see
Fig. 6.4.2).
The basic element of this problem is the fmding of the distance lo
between the free (rolled up) vortices. We proceed here from the fact
that for a wing with a span of I, the vortex pattern of the wing may
be replaced with a single horseshoe vortex with the constant circulation ro corresponding to the root section. We also assume that the
bound vortex (the loaded line) passes through the aerodynamic cen-

Ch. 6. Airfoil and Finite-Span Wing in Incompressible Flow

~7

tre of the wing with the coordinate XFa' The magnitude of this circulation can be determined by a coupling equation according to which
ro = O5c voboV 00

(6.4.18)

where ev o and ho are the lift coefficient and t.he section chord, respectively.
A similar expression can be compiled for the mean circl1ialion
over the span. the sarue as in the section with t.he chol'd bIn:
(GA. in)

where eVa is the lift coefficient of the wing.

From Eqs. (6.4,18) and (6.4.19), we find the relation between the
circulations:
(6 ... 20)
As stipulated, the adopted vortex systems rill and r 0 correspond
to the same lift force (Y II = pooroorml = p ... T',.Tolo). hence
rml = rolo. Therefore. by Eq. (6.4.20). we have

(6.4.21)

now. according to the known arrangement of the horsesho(' \'ortex system, we cau use formula (2.7.13) to determine the do\vllwash
angle at each point behind a wing, also taking into l\cconnt the induction of the bound \orlex.
To find the induced drag coefficient by formula (6.4.3). we must
find the mean down wash IlIlgle

..,

'"

~ (ill) ~ e dz all the IOl\ded linc,

-~"2

t.aking account onll' of 1\ pltir of free vortices with the aid of formu
la (2.7.13). According to raiculatiolls (sel' (131), this angle is
(6 t,,22)

wbere ro is determined by (6.4.18). Having in view that lIb o

= A.w (bmlb o). we finally obtain

(6.4.23)

We can use this downwash angle to estimate the \'aille of the indu('ed drag cocffident with the aid of (6.4.3). In a particular case
for an infmite-span wing (Aw- 00). the downwash angle is absent
and, consequently, the induced drag vanishes.
11-onu

2~8

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodyn"mics of an Airfoil and

/I

Wing

6.5. Wing with Optimal Planform

COnYW,lon of CoefIkIeIdI
and (:c. 1 frOID
One Wing A,pen Ratio

cv

to Another

A finite-span lifting plano having the minimum induced drag is

called a wing with the optimal planform. A glance at formula (6.4.16)
reveals that "t the given values of c Va and Aw , the vallie of C:/:.! wi1l
be minimum when the coefficicnt 6 = 0, or

i; nA:IA: = O. It follows
-,

from this equality that all the weflidcnts of the expansion of the
circ.111atioll r into a series (6.4.11), except for AI' equal zero (As =
= A5 = . . . .- 0). Hence, the circulatioll in an arbitrary section is

r (e)

21V ~A, sin

(6.5.1)

For the celltral ::;ection (0 = 1[.'2), the dr{:lIlation is maximum and

equals 1'0 = 2lV ",AI' lIenee, r (0) = rosin S. Inserting into this
formnla sill 0
Vt-{2zll)2, we obtain
1" (,)/f:

z'I(0.51)'

=1

(6.5.2)

This equation determines the ~lliptic law of distrib\ltion of the

circulation oyer the span of a wing IHlving the optimal planform
(Fig. 6.5.1). For such a wing, the illdnced rlrag coefficient c",,! =
"..., c;/{nAw), while the mean now downwasl! angle Em = cy/(nA w );
by analysing (6..1.4), we can convince o\lrselves that the quantity
10 m C'xactly equals the downwash angle in an arbitrary section. In
other words. the downwash angle does not change along the span in
a wing with the minimum induced drag.
In accordance with the coupling equ<ltion, for lin arbitrary wing
scction, we have f{z) :-:-: O.5c Ya b (z) F ,." and for a central one, we
have r 0 - O,5c yao b(lV 00' ~ow we ('an usc Eq. (6.5.2) to find the
following expression for the chord in a wing section with the optimal
planform:

Let liS consider a wing at tlte angle of attack" having section

profiles that <Ire identical along the span. We shall assume that thesections of the wing are arranged at the same local geometric angleof Ilttac.k determined by the given vallie of ct. Since the downwasb
augle docs not change from one section to another for a wing witb an
elliptical distribution of the circulation, the true angles of attack

Ch. 6. Airfoil and Finite~Span Wing in Incompressible Flow

~9

'f(;;;- --~-:)!'\\
~\'i:it~!l

circulation

distribulion of the
and a geometric
of the constants

~n!~jr8tation

::;:'

"a

i.lf?

are the same: at = CJ. - e, and, therefore, the lift eoefficienl~ of

the profiles are the same. i.e. the ratio c!/a/cYaO = 1. Hence, the local
cliOI'd of the wing is (letermined by the relation

b (,) ~ b. V 1- (,10.51)'
(6.3.4)
III accordance with the result obtained, a wing with the minimum
induced drag has all elliplical planform. In the case heing considered,
a cons\.ant coefficient c II
c~. at is ensured a~ a result of the constancy along the span ~f the "quantity at an!l the derivatiq"
iuentieal for the same proliles. For a wing with an elliptical planform. the same effert cau he achieved by varying the parameter~ c~a
and at, i.e. by selecting the corresponding prol'tles ill comhination
with gcom(,tric warp (UpOIl which the seetions arc set at different
geometric angles of attack).
I t must be noted that j(]~t. .<;;urh 11 method of varying lhe geometric
/lnd aerodYllamic parameters is used to achieve an elliptical (or dose
to it) distribution of the circulation on modem wing!>. IIere three
factors c.hange in the corresponding way simultaneously. These
factors, namely, c~a (z), at (z), and b (z) characteri?e the circulation
1'(:) --: O.5c~.atbF ox- thal is di~tl"ihllted according to the elliptical
law (u.5.2) ..,
In the simplesl case of a wing wilh a rectangular planform. b '-'"
= const, t.his law of circ.ll1atioll di~trih\ltion il' cnsured by only varying tlte va\lIes of c~ and at (by selecting the profiles and warping,
rl'sp(!clivcly). It mllst"be horne i~ mind that for wings of a nOllcllip
tical planform, including rectallgular ones, an elliptk.al distribution
of the eirculatiofl can be achieved only at a definite angle of attack,
and the distribution will be different if the value of the angle is
changed.
It is intercsting to appraise by how much wings with a difrcrent
planform differ from their elliptical counterparts in their aerodynamic properties. Table 6.5.1 gives the results of e\'a!uating the coefti-

c;a

260

Pt. I. Theory. A.rodynemlcs of

.In

Airfoil end eWing

Table 6.S.1
Piaarorm ot willi

Elliptical
Trapezoidal ('1w = 2-3)
Rectangular (A. w = 5-8)
RectaDgular with rounded tips

o
o

o
o

0.179
0.14i

0,053

eients 15 and T, called corrections for wings of a non-elliptical planform. These coefficients depend mainly on the planform of a wing
and its aspect ratio. A glance at the table reveals that trapezoidal
wings do not virtually differ from elliptical ones. A slight deviation
in the values of 15 and 't is observed in rectangular wings with
straight tips. Rounding of those tips leads to complete analogy
with an elliptical wing as regards the value of 15 and to a smaller
difference in the coefficients 'to
The relations obtained for determining the aerodynamic coefficients of fmite-span wings make it possible to solve an important
problem associated with the fmding of these coefficients when going
over from one wing aspect ratio AWl to another one Aw2' This solution
appreciably facilitates aerodynamic calculations because it makes it
possible to use the data obtained when testing serial models of
wings with the adopted (standard) value of the aspect ratio in wind
tunnels.
Let us aSS\lme that for a wing with the aspect ratio AWl we know
the coefficients c lla and cx.1 and we have to convert these coefficients
to another aspect ratio A 912 of a wing having the same set of sections,
but differing in its planform. If both of these wings have the same
lift coefficient c Ua ' the mean downwash angles behind them are
gmt

= (c"lrrJW1) (1

+ 't1)'

em2 = (c,/nlw2) (1

+ '(2)

Identical values of cr. for wings are determined hy identical true

angles of attack, i.e. au = au, where
au = al - eDll' au :-= a2 - em2
Consequently, for the setting angle of the second wing, we obtain
the expression
<t, = <t. - (c,/n) [(I + <.)/. w - (I + <,)lAw,1
(6.5.5)
According to this formula for converting the lift eoefficient. a
wing with a smaller aspect ratio (Aw2 < AWl) having a larger down-

Ch. 6. Airfoil and Fi"ile-SplI" Wing in Incompressible Flow

Flg. Mol
COD version

261

of aerodynamic coef-

ficients of II. wing from

aspect ratio to another

one

wash angle (Ew2 > "'WI) must haye an increased setting nngle ('Z:z >
al) to obtain the same coefficjent c,Ia
The induced drag coefficients for two wings wilh the aspect ratios
AWl and A.w2 and with identical coefficients cYa are determined by
the following formulas, respectively:

>

cx .11 = (c,/",-AwJ (1

+ 61),

Cx.12

= (Cy/J1f. ~d (1

+ 62)

Accordingly. for a wing with the aspect ratio AwZ. the indllced drag
coefficient is
C;I;,U.

Cx.1l -

(c,/<l) [(1

+ 61)/Awl

(1

+ 6z)/A.w 1
2

(6.5.6)

This formula is used to convert the value of c.", 1 for a wing with
the aspect ratio AWl to its value for the aspect ratio Avo'2' If this new
ratio is smaller than the given one C)"w2 < ~'''l)' a large dowllwash
appears (em:z> eml)' and, consequently, the mduced drag Coofflclent
grows (C x,12 > cx.Ii)'
Figure 6.5.2 shows graphically how the coellicients c,III ant! Cx,1
are converted from the aspect ratio AWl to Aw2 in accordance with
formulas (6.5.5) and (6.5.6). First the curves c'a "" II (al) and CUll =
= Cfl (cx,n) are plotted for a wing with the given aspect ratio AWl'
Next. setting ~ number of values of c,Ia' we lise the plot to determine
the correspondmg values of a 1 and c;.;.Il' and then calculate l.he angles of attack a2 and the coefficients c.~ 12 for the second WHlg by
formulas (6.5.5) and (6.5.6). The corresponding points are laid off,
and the curves C,I. = h. (0:.2) arId c,In -= (f2 (c x.l2) are plotted,
For wings with smaller aspect ratios ().w:z < AWl)' these l'Uf\'eS
will be to the right of those of tile ratio Awl because with the same
true angle of attack, tIle incrcage in the downwash angle w2 [Ol' the
second wing with a smaller A,,2 is compensated by the growth in the
setting angle of attack (a2 > a 1); ill turn, all illcreased coefiici('nt
C.~.12 corresponds to tho greater downwash angle 1:'''''2, and this i:5 exactly what is shown in Fig. 6.5.2.
The plots in Fig. 6.5.2 can be llsed to convert clla and Cx .! to a
wing with an infini tely large aspect ratio (airfoil). For this pt1rpose,

262

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

the second terms in the brackets in formulas (6.5.5) and (6.5.6) must
be taken equal to zero. The converted curves Clla ~-..: 12 (a2) and clla =
= 1"f2 (C~.I2) will occupy a position at the extreme left of the corresponding curves clI , = h (al) and cu, = 'PI (c~.Il).
Mean Aerodynamic ChoM. When performing aerodynamic calculations of finite-span wings. the mean aerodynamic clIord is selected
as the characteristic geometric dimension of the span. Such a chord
belongs to a conditional wing having a rectangular planform for
which the planform area. the aerodynamic force, and the pitching
moment are the same as for a wing of the given planform. The mean
aerodynamic chord allows us to compare the moment characteristics of various wings with a varying chord along their span. One
of such characteristics is the pitching moment coefticient determined
as mlA = Mz/(bAqSw). where bA is the mean aerodynamic chord.
The quantity mzA is sufficiently stable when the planform of a wing
and its dimensions change.
The value of the chord h. and those of the coordinates of its leading point XA. YA (relative to coordinate axes passing through the
apex of the given wing), are usually determined approximately
assuming equality of the aerodynamic coefficients (of the moment,
drag, and lift) of a wing as a whole and its individual section (profile). Accordingly. we have

bA=S~

'/'

1/'

) b2 (z)dz,

z--i;-I%b(Z)d'l

(6.5.7)

'/2

YA-

L Jo yb('Jd,

where x, yare the longitudinal and vertical coordinates of the leading

point of a section with the varying chord b (z). Evidently, knowing
and the equation of the leading edge of a given wing, we can determine the lateral coordinate ZA of the mean aerodynamic chord.
Formulas (6.5.7) make it possible to calculate the magnitude of
the chord bA, by numerical or graphical integration and determine
its position. The middle of bA coincides with the centre of gravity
of the wing area.
For a broad range of wings having a trapezoidal planform, we
can find analytical relations for bAr xA. NA' and ZA' For such wings

XI.

b(.)-bo[I-(~w-IJ'/~wJ }
Sw-b,l(~w+I)/(2'1w)

z=ztan"o;

y=ztan1p

(6.5.8)

Ch. 6. Airloil and Finite-Span Wing in Incompressible Flow

263

where f). = bJb A is the taper ratio of the wing, XI' is the sweep
angle of the leading edge. ~: is the dihedral angle. and i""" 2-;11.
Introduction of (6.5.8) inlo (i.5.7) yields

bA =4Sw [1-~"/(tl"+ 1)'[/(31) }

ZA,= 1(f)w+ 2) tan xo/rO (11,,+ 1)1
YA=I(~w" 2)1.n~/[6(~ .. -< 1)[

(U.5.U)

'fhe lateral coordinate of the (.hord bit, is found from the formula
ZA ..." XIt, !tan Xo_ [f 8 wing tla:o; no dihedral, the coordinate YA, is
evidently zero.

An Airfoil
in a Compressible Flow

7.1. Subsonic Flow

over

iI

Thin Airfoil

LInearization of the Equation

lor the Velocity Potential

The calculation of a subsonic flow over an airfoil i.e; associated with

solution of the equation for the velocity potential of a plane two~
dimensional flow that is obtained from (5.1.8) provided that e = 0
and has the form
(Vi-a 2)

;;~

+2V:rVII a!2:y

+(V~-a2) :~ s::::0.

(7.1.1)

This partial differential equation of the second order is non-linear in the unknowll function <p and describes the flow past sufficiently thick airfoih;. The latter cause large disturbances of the gas
upon which the flow velocities V and the .c;peeds of sound a differ
appreciably from the relevant free-stream flow parameters.
II an airfoil i.e; thin and the dislnrbances it produces are small,
Eq. (7.1.1) can be simplified by reducing it to a linear equation
with conslant coefficients of the second partial derivatives. Such
a simplification is called linearization, \"hile the obtained equation
and the nearly uniform now it desc.ribes are called linearized.
For a linearized flow, conditions (6.1.1) for the velocities are satisfied, and equation (6.1.2) holds. Since the disturbance velocities u
and v (6.1.1) are infinitesimal, the equation for the speed of sound
obtained from (3.6.20) can be transformed as follows:

a'

a?,

+ I(k -

1)/21 (V? -

V')

(7.1.2)

Substituting for 1'Z its value from (6.1.2), we obtain

a Z = a!" -

(k -

1) 1'""u

(7.1.2')

Inserting into (7.1.1) the value of a2 from (7.1.2'), aud also V" =
= 1'.., -i- u, Vv = v, Vi=J12""
21',.,u, V; ~ v 2 , and taking into
account that the total velocity potential of a linearized flow can be
writlen ill the form q> = ((I""
cp', where {foo is tile velocity potential
of the oncoming flow, while the additional potential according to

eh. 7. An Airfoil In e

Compre~~ible Flow

26a

comlition (6.1.1) is <p' ((l",,, we obtain

[V~-a!.+(k+1)V",ul ~:~' +2(V",+u)v ~~:

+ ru2 -a'!.+ (k-1) V",u]

~~' =0

(7.1.3)

The second partial derivatives of the potential (p' with respect to

the ('.oordinate~ x and Y Ilre f1rstorder inrmitesimals:
o2cp'

OIL

""Tz2 = Tz '

oZ(p'

ilu

ill)

a;ay = Ty = 8Z t

iI~'

ifr;

-ays = 8Y

With this in view, ill (i.1.3), \ve ('an determine the gronp of terms
that are second and third-order infmitesimals; disregarding them,
we obtain a linearized equation in the following form:
(a!o-V!o)

~:~' +a!o~-O

(7.!.4)

or
(1-M!,) ~~'
~~. ==0
(7.1.4')
where M", = V ",/a..,.
Let us consider the expression for the pressure in a linearized Dow.
To do this. we Sh811 use formula (3.6.26), which we shall write in
the form

pip.., = (1 -

y2/V:nh)

"/(11_1)

(1 -

v:../l'~a"tll/(~-l)

Inserting the value of V' from (6.1.2), we have

pip"", = [1 - 2V..,u/(Vlssa" - P!..,)lk/(k-lj
Taking into a(',count that by formula (3,G.22)
l"max- V ;,=

k':"t a;, = k~t'~

we find

:. :-..:(1_k;1.

P"'pv~"'lIr/(lI-l)

(7.1.5)

Let us expand the expression Oil the right-hand side into a binomial series and retaiu the second term in the expansion:
p/p~ ~ I - p~V~u/p~
(i.1.5)
Hence we find the excess pressure p - p ... = -!}",V ...rL and the
pressure coe[(icient p- = -2u1V i.e. we obtain the same relations
(6.1.3) and (6.1.5) as for an incompressible fluid. But when using
these relations for Iligh ~ub~onic velocities. one lU\lst take into account that the disturbance velocity u = iJq//ox is detel'roined with a
view to compressibility.
00.

266

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 an Airfoil and

Wing

hlllllon letween
the Parameters of Clllllpreuible
and InCOlllpresslbi. FIIlId Flow
DVer Thin Airfoil

Tbe flow over a thin airfoil at a small angle of attack in a compressible subsonic Dow is investigated with the aid of Eq. (7.1.4') in
which M. < 1. Let us cb.ange the variables in this equation in
.accordance with the relations

%,=%, y,=yVI-M:', ~;=~'vV...IV_

(7.1.6)

where,.. is an arbitrary parameter. and V.o is the velocity of a conditional Dow (fictitious velocity) that in the general case differs from
the veloci ty V. of a given flow.
By introducing fl.1.6) into (7.1.4'). we obtain the Laplace equation
for determining the veloeHy potential rp~ of an in('".ompressible flow in
the plane Zoo Yo:
8'~;.'az: + a'~;.'art, = 0
(1.1.4")
Hence, the problem of a compressible flow over a given airfoil can
be solved by using the results of solving the problem on an incompressible flow at the fictitious velocity V. o over 8 modified airfoil. Let
us find the relation between the ('.orresponding parameters of flow
over the airfoils and between thoir geomotric characteristics. The
relation between the disturbance velocities U o in the incompressible
and u in the compressible flows is established in accordance with
(7.1.6) as follows:

~= :~ = ~~'

V ~:o

=uy ~.:o

(7.1.7)

Using (6.1.5), we find the pressure coefficients in an incompressible

fluid Pic = -2uolV.o and in a compressible gas p = -2uJV"".
Consequently, with a view to (7.1.7), we obtain
(7.1.8)

From the formulas cg,JC = ~ Pic dio, mz.l c = ~ FICXO eGo, in

which ;;, = x/b, and expression (7.1.8). we lind the relation between
the corresponding lift and moment coefficients:

C".Jc=.,~pdi='\'C"a;

mZatc=y~pzii-ym'a

(7.1.9)

where ; = :db.
Let us establish the relation between the configurations of airfoils
and the angles of attack. For this purpose, we shall first determine

Ch. 7. An Airfoil in .. Compressible Flow

261

''~'~I_..

""~

-,---

,---*1

/)'

:'

Pig. 7.1.1
Airfoils in a nearly unifonn incompressible (a) and compressible (b) flows:
A lind A.-st&lnltlon poln\l

the relation between the vertical velocity components. In accordance

with (7.1.6), we have

vo= aq:o = alp' .

ayo

ay

V_o =tI

V1-Jl'!.,

v_

V 1-

,,...G

M:"

v_

(i.1.10)

In an incompressible fluid by Eq. (3.3.17'), in which the function

~ni!i~~~i~nll~~~~~/(~!: -=!_ f~JxQ) ~y~7ck: ~~,(~:ti::~:;; a~~~:~~~i!~~

Uo <: V"'o, assume that "Ill V ""0 ...: dYo/d:t o. Similarly, we rind for an
airfoil in a compres.'1ible gas that vlV,", '= dyldx. Consequently,
(1,.''/1') (l'""IVooll) = (dYoldy) dl'fdx o Taking (7.1.6) and (7.1.10) into
account, we find dYoldy = I'IV 1 - JP"". Integration ror the condition that for y = 0 the quantity Yo ...,., 0 yields an equation relating
the vertical coordinates of the fictitious and gh'en airfoils:
Yo ~

yytVl - M:.

(7,1.11)

At the same time. as follows from (7.1.6). the horizontal coordinates of the airfoils do not change. With this in view, the angles of
attack can be written in the forlll
0;10 = yJ(b' x) and 0; = y/(b' - x)
where b' is the distance to the trailing edge of the airfoil, and x is
the horizontal coordinate (Fig. 7.1.1.).
Hencp., b)" (7.1.11), we ha,"e

"" ~"ytVl-M:.
(7.1.12)
Let us assume that the arbitrary parameter I' = 1.. Therefore.

p~p,,, Y=YoVI-M~, "~""VI-M:'}

era = ell_let

m,_ = m,.1c

(7,1.13)

268

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodyn.mic:s of tin Airfoil tlnd

tI

Wing

Consequently. if the pre!!sure coefficients arc the same at corresponding points of thin airfoils in compressible and incompressible
flows. then in the compressible flow the airfoil is thinner than in the
incompressible one V 1 - M!, time!!. The angle of attack decreases
to the same extent.
Let us consider the case when y = V 1 - M!, and. therefore.

p""'Plc/V1-M!"

Y=Yo,

cr;=al e

c" ~ c",,/V 1- M:'. m" ~ m",JV 1- M!.

(7.1.14)

According to the results obtained, for two identical airfoils at the

same angle of attack, the pressure coefficients at corresponding points
of the airfoils. and also their overall lift and moment coefficients
in a compressible flow are larger than those in an incompressible one
1N 1 - M!.. times. Hence follows the conclusion that compressibility leads to an increase in the pressure and lift force. The coefficient
1tV 1 - M!, is known as the PrandtJ-Glauert correction (for the
compressibility eUect). The corresponding relation (7.1.14) for ii is
known as the Prandtl-Glauert formula. It can be considered as a
first approximation when calculating the pressure coefficient ill a
compressible flow according to the relevant value of Pie' More accurate results relating to thickened airfoils and increased angles of
attack are obtained by the Karman-Talen formula

-P=PIO
- (V-M'
PI )-'
1-M!.+ 1+Y1-=-M!. +

(7.1.15)

The lise of formulas (7.1.14) and (7.1.15) for p leads to quite a

large error when determining the pressure coefficient at the stagnation point where the velocities and, consequently, the local Mach
number, equal zero. For example, for this point. at which POle = 1,
formula (7.1.14) when M .. = 0.8 yields a coefficient Po = 1.67,
and formula (7.1.15), Po = 1.26 instead of the actual value of 1.17.
At the stagnation point, the pressure coefficient Po = 2 (Po - pcc)/(kp...M:O) for arbitrary numbers Moo < 1 is evaluated with
the aid of an expression obtained from (3.6.30) provided that M = 1:

Po =

~[( 1+

";1 h/';;.. Y""-I) -1J

(7.1.16)

When M"" < 1, the quantity in parentheses can be written in the

form of a series in which the first three terms are retained:

Po=1+ ~:.. +2;"JU!,

(7.1.17)

This relation is suitable for quite a broad runge of values of 0

";;M~";;1.

Ch, 7. An Airfoil in e CompressIble Flow

269

7.2. Khrlsllanovlch MoIhotI

content of 1M Method
If an airfoil or another body in a flow introduces finite disturbances
into it, the linearized equations are not suitable. Non-linear
equations of gas dynamics must be used when studying such a flow.
Many problems on supersonic. flow can be solved by employing,
particularly, the method of characteristics. The number of solvable
problems of supcrsonic. aerodynamics increases still more owing to
the numerical methods of integrating the equations of motion. It is
mll('h more difficult to analyse subsonic flow. This is explained mathematically by the different nature of the equations: for snpersonic
flows they are hyperbolic, and for subsonic ones, elliptic.
The lise of imaginary characteristics in the elliptic equations does
not yield appreciable simpli{i('.ations. The more ('.omplicnted nature
of studying sub50nic now~ i~ explained physic,ally by the fact that
disturbances in them propagate into all the regions of motion, whereas the disturbances in ~npersonic flows are conlined within conkal
~urfaces issuing from the point of disturbance and propagating only
downstream. Owing to the linearized nature of the equations, the
im'esLigation of nearly uniform subsonic flows i~ !!omewhat simpler
than of subsonic. flows with finite disturbances o\"er, for c:'\ample,
thick airfoils.
A meLhod of studying such flows is de5Cribed by Academician
S. Chaplygin [t71. He gives equations forming thc mathematical
basis of the theory- of potential subsonic flows. They are known in
gas dynamics as the Chaplygin equations, Their feature i!'l that they
describe the flow of a gas Ilot in the plane y. x, but in that of the
special ('oordinates 't" and ~ (or '""" V~ is the square of the lotal \"elocitr at a given point in the flo\\,. and ~ is the polar angle determined
from the condition V", ,.,,, V ('os ~). Unlike the (',ollventional e(lua
tions, they are Unear because the coeflicient.<; of the equations are
functions of the independent "ariables"t and ~. Tbese equations were
so!\'ed by Chaplygin lor a nllmber of cases of flow at high subsonic
\"elocities.
The Chaplygin equations underlie many other methods in the
field of high-speed aerodynamics. Academician S. Khristiano"ich,
using these equation!'!, dcveloped a method making it possible to
take into account the influence of compressibiJity Oil the subsonic
Dow over aidons of an arbitrary configuration. The theoretical tenets of this method are desc.ribed in detail in [:iJ. We shall consider
the basic content of the method and its application to the !'!ollition
of various problems of a compressible subsonic flow over airfoils.
When considering a compressible flow o\'er an airfoil of a gh'en
configuration. Khristianovich showed that the flow equations c_an be

270

(a)

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamic:s of lin Airfoil lind

II

Wing

(b)

"
FIg.7.1.t

Calculation of the pressure on an airfoil in D. compressible now:

a-VUe no_I b_flcUltoll!l flOw; I-given llrfoll; R-i\clltiOUI alrfotl

reduced to e(luatiOn.s of an incompressible flow over an air/oil u:ith a

modified configuration (Fig. 7.2.1). Hcn('e, according to Khristianovich's approach, lirst the relatively simple problem of a conditional
(flCtitious) incompressible flow oeer a fictitious airfoil is solved, and
then the parameters obtained are converted to the conditions of a compressible flow over the given airfoil.
Table 7.2.1

A 1~ 1~::::oo 1::~981 ~:::93 [:;:83 1:~67 [:~;43 [ ~~'"

[~:i~621 ::~71 ::~"

:;~51 ~:;;21 ::~, 1:~:o
, 1::;~;1 ::;!, 1~:;;O681 :;;;71 ::~8~71 :::~ 1:::~:Il 1:::;;3
'I ::24 1:~;, I ::;~ I::;;1 :.7517
1 :;;" 1

This conversion is hased on the usc of a funetional relation between

the true speed ratio A = Vla* of a compressible Dow and the lictiHOllS speed ratio A = Vola* at the corresponding points of the gi.
ven and flCtitiuus airfoils (Table 7.2.1). The method being considered makes it possible to reconstrud the given airfoil to the fictitious

Ch. 7. An Airfoil in " Compressible Flow

271

As shown by Khristianovich, for prolate airfoils, the difference

between the configurations of the given and fictitious airfoils may
be disregarded. In this rase, the Khristianovieh method allows olle
to ronvert the parameters of the now over an airfoil (pressure. veloe
ity) to any number M"", > 0, Le. to lake aceount of compressibilitYaif the distribution o[ these parameters over the same airfoil is known
for a low-speed flow wh('1I the innnence of compressibility is absent
(M ... ~ 0). In addition, this method allows us to convert the flow
parameters from OIU) number M ~1 > 0 to ,\llother one M <"~ > o.
The Khristianovich method is sllitable provided that- the velocity
is suhsunic o\"er the enlil'tl airfoil. This condition is satisfied if the
Mach number of the oncoming now is les.." thnll the critical value
M cr' Conseqllently, hefore p(>rfol'ming calculations, one mllst find
tlds criticnl value nnd determine the numbf'r M"" < M "-'. er for
whirh calculations are possible. The critical 1lI1l11bN Moo .... , can also
be found by the Khristianovich method.
0<""

Conversion of the Pressure CoeHldeni

for an IncompreSJlble FlUid
to the Humber Moo>O

Assume that we know thr {listrilmtiOIl of the pressure coefficient

over an airfoil in Iln incompressible flow, i.e. we know the form of
thC' function Pic c- Pie (x) (Fig. 7.2.2). This fnnction is converted
to the number M"",.er > Moo > 0 n~ follows.
We determine the speed ratio accorciillg to the given number
M~>O:

A"" _=

Ikt I M;, (1-1- k-;t .ill;' r!r 2

(7.2.J)

From Tahle 7.2.1, we (ind the i'lflitioH$ speed ralio .\"" of an ill_
eOlllprf'ssible flmv corresponding to the value ;."'" and for tl\{> choSE'Q
value of
frolll th(> Bernoulli e(lllation

Pic

(7.2.2)
we determine the local fictitious speed ratio

(7.2.2')
Kllowing A, we usc Table 7.2.1 to find t.he loeal trlle !<pepd ratio A
of the compressible flow, and we calculatC' the pre~sllrC' Jl by fur
mula (3.6.26) in which it is necessary to aSSIllIl! tha V~/V"ma(
- I(k - 1)/(k+ 1)1 '}..2. \\-'e determine the pressurl' coeniei('lIt by the

:272

pt. I. Thtiory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and

fII

Wing

'FIg.7.1.J:

Nature of &he pressure distrl

button 011 one side 01 aD airfoil
at diD'erent valun of M ...

ii

formula
= 2 (pIp., - 1)/(kM:'). The curve = p(x) converted
to the given number M., is shown by a dashed line in Fig. 7.2.2.
ConWlnlon of the Pruaur. Coefficient
Irom M ... 1 >0 to lJI...a>'>

Assume that we know the distribution of the pressure coefficient

a compressible fluid PI = P; (x) nt a certain number M""1 (where
M -,Cr > M _1 > 0). To COil vert this distribution to the number
M"' 2 > 0, it is necessary to flrst ca!c.ulate the speed ratios J.. ... I and
A"'2 corresponding to the numbers M ""I and M"2 by formula (7.2.1)
and use Table 7.2.1 to lind the speed ratios A ...t and A"' 2 of the ficti
1.i01ls incompressible flow.
After l'I$Signing a value t.o the pressure coefficient PI' from the
formula PI = 2 (PI - poo)/(kM ""IP""I) we rand t.he absolute pressure:

~f

p, ~ p~, I;' (kMl.,t2)+ 11

and evaluate the local speed ratio of the given flow:

Af c:

{::::! [t - (To r"-I>I"]} 1/2

(7.2.3)
(7.2.4)

From Table 7.2.1 according to the value of A.h we fand the local
speed ratio of the fictitious incompressible flow, and from the Bernoulli equation (i.2.2), we c.a1culate the corresponding pressure coeffident:

Pic = 1 -

(A/A""I)2

The pressure ('.oefiicient P2 for the number M ",,2 is determined

according to this value of Pie in the same way as the pressure coeffi
cient of an incompressible now is converted to the number M"" > 0
.according to thE' procedure set nut. previonsly.

Ch. 7. An Airfoil in .. Compressible Flow

273

Determination 01 the Critical Number .V

According to Khristianovich's hypothesis, a local sonic t'elocity,

which the crUical JJach number.u "',er oj lhe ollcomin/f flow corresponds
to, appea.rs near all air/oil where the ma:J;imum rar~/action. is obsern:d
tn all incompressible flou:. Khri.~t.iallo\"ich establisheu the relation
betweell the minimum coefficiellt PIc, nlln corresponding 10 this maximum rarefilction and the number Moo. cr'
lIence, to lind the critical \Iach Illimber, it is Ileccssary in some
war or other, for example, by hlowillg air over a model ill ala\\"speed willu tnnnel, to determine lhe magnitude of tliC maximum
rarefacLlon PIc, mIll' If us aresult we linclthe distribution of the pressure with account taken of the compressibility for Moo, rr > M"" > 0,
we Cllll determine the value of Pte, mIll by the COH\'ersion of Pic. min
to the number Moo = O.
Assume tha~ we know the value of lhe maximullI rarefaction
P1C. IHln' Since}, -""", 1 \....here a sonic velocity appears, from Table i .2.1
we can find the corresponding value of the local spe(>.d ratio of the
fictitiouS incompressible flow, i.e. A ~ 0.7577. Gsing the Bernoulli
equation
mIn = 1 - (A/.\",,)2 we can find the speed ratio for
the fktitiollS oncorning flow:

Pic.

1\00

A/I ' 1- Pic, mill =. 0.7577 / I

'1-

Pic,

mIll

(i .2.5)

while H~illg Table 7.2.1 and the value of .\"" we can deterrnine the
critical speed ratio A",_ cr of the compre~sihle flow. The corresponding
critical Mar-h number is

M",. cr =

"00, cr (k-~-1_ 1.:-;-1 A~, er) -1.'2

(i .2.G)

A plot of the critical Mach number "erslls "I~' 111111 con.slructed

ae.cording to the results of the above calculation isshown in Fig. 7.2.3.
An increase in the airfoil thickness is attended hy a decrease in
the IIl1mber M Cr' The explanation i~ that such all inr-rease leads
to contraction of tlte stream lilament and to an increase in the local
flo\\' velocily. Conseqnently, sonie "elocity on a thickened airfoil is
achie"ed at a lower fr('e-~tl"eam velocity. i.e. at a lower value of
M
1'1"". cr- This conclusion follows (liree.tly frolll Fig. 7.2.3 in
acconlnnce with which at all illcreased local yelodty lower Yulues of
M",.cr correspond to a lower value of the coeffirient Pte. ml,,' Upon
an inet'ease in the angle of attack, the /lumber M "". cr diminishes,
which is also explained by tlw greater contraction of the streO'l.rn HIaments and by the 'ls.sociated increase in the loc.al subsonic velocity.
QQ.

oX

-:

274

'm

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynemics of en Airfoil end eWing

M_.,r

'-'

I .

a.,
I.a

a.8

I:---r-

0.7

0.6
Flg.7.:U
A Khristianovich curve for
determining .the crHical ~18ch
number

a.5
M

-0.5 -'.'0 -,.~ Jii(.nri~

....rodynamlc Coefficients

Khristianovich's investigations made it possible to obtain more

accurate relations for the lift and moment r.oefticients than relations
(7.1.1'1) found on tlle basis of the Prandtl-Glauert formula for the
pressure coefficient. These relations are as follows:

clIa=cy.lcL/V1-M!o;

ml:a=m%alcL2/V1-M!.,

(7.2.7)

where

L = 1-f- O.05M;'1 M!."

cr

Compressibility changes the position of the centre of pressure of

an airfoil (the coordinate xp of this centre is measnred from the
leading edge along the chord). It follows from (7.2.7) that in a compressible flow, the coefficient of the centre of pressure is
(7.2.8)
where
Cp = xplb = -m 2/c!la' c".ie = -m'alc/cYalC

Examination of (7.2.8) reveals that the centre of pressure in a

compreS!>ible flow ill c.omparisoll with an incompressible one is displaced toward the trailing edge. This is explained by the increase in the
aerodynamic load on the tail sections of an airfoil at increased flow
speech; and. as a consequenc.e, by the appearance of an additional
stabilizing effect.

7.3. Flow at Supercrifical Velocity

oYer an Airfoil
(Moo>,ll"",cr)

Sn bsonic flow over an airfoil can be characterized by two cases.

In the flrsl one, the local velocity of the flow on a surface does not
exceed the speed of sound anywhere. This case is purely subsonic

Ch. 7. An Airfoil in Compressible Flow

271!.

~~\~'~i~ flow over an airfoil at a supercritical ve1ocill':

,,-diagram or H," Row U5('d ror ealculllli("'~ ,,'hN' local norlllal shuck Is p",~nl; bdi~lrfb"li"n 01 Ilw Jlrcssuro' ov .. r Ihr llirl"iI wb"n II local }.'$hap<'d shock rO""5

flow. It i~ gelle!ral kuowll'dgl' thalH! sur.h II "('Iodt)', 110 shocks ran

form nt alLY point on nn airfoil. while! the lift forre lHul drug ;He
determined with a dcw to tIll' {'ompressibility ami in the gellernl
ca~e depend on Ihe lIormal pressllf(~ <Iud skin fric.tion forces. Such a
drag. including \lUll produced by tlw lIol'mal ~Ires:< (pressul"(,) <lnd
the friction drag is called Ihe profile' drag.
JIl the secOllri cast'. ('all('(1 supf'rcritical now. al. \\'hirh t.he nllmber
M of tllt.- ollcomillg flow is larger llifln llw ('filirai one, i.e. JJt "" >
> M '-'. ("r' the lornl \"Clodl}" a! somE' poilllS ill the vicinily of an
airfoil be("ornes higher tllall Ill(' speed of SOIIll/1, (111(\ a 1. Olle of local
supersonic "elocities Ilppears. IT('re the flow o\"er all airfoil is chm
arleri1.ed hy II\(' flld thai hoth hphilHl it and ahc(ld of t.he leading
edge t.he local \T.]odly is lowm' Ihall I.he speNI of ~ollnd. 11(>lIc(>, local
compression shocks form in the trallsilioll from s upersonir. velocities
10 !'lubsonir oncs in the \'ieini ly of the wing (Fig. 7.3. t) . Such I.-shaped
shorks {'ollsis!.. as it wcre , or two shods: a fronl cllrvp.d (ohlique)
onC! DH and 11 r('ar alnlOsl !'Lraight. allc
(Fig. 7.3 .1h) .
Local shocks Ihol. may form on both tile uppE'r ,IIIIJ hollol1l si<l('s
of nil ilirfoil suhstontinlly l"il.(lngCllhe distribution of thE' pressure and
lend to tile appeManc(> of au ;Iddiliollul wllve drng Xw' IIcnce . I./ic
tolal drag of an "'irfoil X it consi~ts of the profile X pr ami t.he WIH"C
X", drag!' , i.('. Xl.
Xpr -i- X w ' or c'~a=-,,:c.'.l'r + c .~.w . where c""
iJ; lilc tot:ll dl:lg ('odTiricllt of Ihe i,lirroil. c",, lor allil c"'.w lire the profile
and wave drag {'oefficiC'llls, Icspcc.tin-ly.
Let llS ('onsider a !'limple method of calcllla1.ing wave drng proposed
hy Prof. G. Bllrago [161. Let liS assume tlHlt a local supersonic zone
closed hy Hearly uormaJ slio('k IJC is formed on the llpper side of all
airfoil (Fig. 7.:~.1a). Let usscpilrulc a stream IllaJllcnl passing throllgh
this shock in the flo\\'. The paramctC'r.<: of the ga~ in the fllamellt
di1"('ctly alwad of the sllock fll'() i"" Ill' PI' ami ,til> and hehind it are

en

276

Pt. J. Theory. Aerodyn.!lmics of .!In AirFoil .!Ind .!I Wing

V z, P2, Pz. and M z Let us introduce two control surfaces I-I and
II-I! to the left and right of the airfoil at a sufficiently large distance
from it; let the parameters of tho gas along the left plane be V,oo.
p,,,,, and PI'"'' and along the right plane be Va 00, P2o'" and pzoo.
Using the theorem of the change in the momentum of the mass of
a gas when flowing through the control surfaces, we ohtain

1v,~dm'~-1 v,~dm'-1 (p,~-p,.)dy-Xw

(7.3.1)

where PI and Pzcc are the forces acting on the left and "right surfaces, X w is the force of the wave drag with which the airfoil acts on
the flow, and dm p " . - p, ..... 1','" dYl""" dm2"" = P2""V2oo dY2"" are
the rates of flow of the gas along the stream filaments that according
to the condition of the constancy of the flow rale are equal, i.e.
p,,,,,V1 dYloo = P2ooV2O dyzoo
(7.3.2)
00

Let u::: assume (see [1(1) that levelling out of the velocities occurs
hehind the wing at a l<nge distance from it, i.e. 1'200 - VI"'" Accordingly, and by (7.3.2), we have
_[ V 2""dm 2 . . , - _ [ V loo dm l "" = _[ PI"'Y1oo (V2oo - V loo) dy,oo=O

Consequently,

Xw

-1 (p,~

p,~) dy

(7.3.3)

We can assume that for stream filaments not intersecting the shock.
P2<>< = p,oo i.e. the pressure at a large distance from the airfoil behind it is restored to the value of the free-stream pressure. For the
fllaments that pass through the shock, P200 < PlOO' Indeed, since
PI"" = Pu ("1 - VIooIV:nad~J{h-t)

P2""= p~ ("1 _

where

p~

<

V~ooIV~ax)hJ(h-t).= p~ (1- VL"IV~ax)h/(h-l)

(7.3.4)

Po, we ha\'e
p2~/p,oo

= p;lpo"-:

Vo

<

(7.3.5)

According to (7.3.5), formula (7.3,3) can be trans[ormed by taking

inlo account lhe flow ratc equation p,,,,,V,,,, dylO" = Pll'l ds, in
accordance with which
dyl'c ~ dy -= (p,l't/pP,vloo) ds

where s is lhe length of the shock.

Ch. 7. An Airfoil in

(I

Compressible Flow

As a result of transformations, the wave drag force is

s
Xw=Pt<S> ~ PI~l (1-\'o)d.<;
'0 PIOHI<S>

277

(7.3.G)

and the coefficient of this force is

2X.
2
ex. w = kp..,M!..b = k,V:'b

Let us expand the function

n =M I -1:
'\'0

'\'0

(n) ~.. "0(0) + ( ~:~

I' Pl""l',,,,
p,r, (1 -

)d

Vo

I)

in (1.3.20) inLo

i.I

(7.3.6')

series in powers of

)"=0 n+ {( ~:~~~ )"=0 n Z

(7.3.7)

In exprel'!sioll (i.a.i). the quantily Vo (0) '""" 1 because at .t11 = 1

(n = 0), thesJlOck lran"forllls inlo a wave of nn illfllllLe!'!iroal stl'ength.
and the preS!;llrC p~ '.; PB'
using (4.;U:J), (1,;U5). IlIld (4.3.20), we (au 111":'0 ~how thilt

(~:o )'I~O = ( g'~1 ).11,,. I=

0 and (

~:\:n }n._n ~ ( ;~i )_11.=1 =

Having in view that for thin airfoil.s al smAll angles of aUlU'k.

the differcllce Ml - 1 is small, we- can limil oHrscives to the [ourln
term in expansion (7.3.7):
yo(n) = 1-:-,*" (

r;; L,.:.I(Mt-l)Z

(7.3.7')

Investigations have shown that. for a given airfoil. the quantity

Ml - 1 call be considered approximately proporLional to the diff{'r~
ence M"" - Moo. cr' Designating tho relevant proportionality fact.or
by Al and including it in the overall coefficient A determiocfl in the
form

A---"-'-(""')
ak,":'b dMi

.II,~I

i~dS

0 PI_v1_

(7.3.8)

we obtain an expres.'1ion from (7.3.6') and (7.3.i') for the wave- drag
coefficient:
(7.3.\)
':r.w = A (Mo<> - M"".cr)3
The coefficit'Jlt A in the general case depends on the configuration
of the aidoil, the aJlgle of attack, and the number Ifl_. It may be
considered as approximately constant, however. Tests of modern
airfoils installed at small angles of attack in wiud tunnels show that

278

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodyn.mic5 of an AirFoil and a Wing

C,

0.6

0.5

V_(M_)
~

rI-

.,

'1,.7.:1.1

Drag o( an airroil in a nearl)"

sonic no",'

o.

..

H=

i-'
D.'

0.'

the coefficient A ~ 11. At t.his nIue, satisfactory results of calcll~

lations by formula (7.3.9) arc obtained if the differenco M co - M .... et
does not exceed 0.15.
It. follows from formula (7.a.B) that the wave drag coellicient
increases with increasing Moo. This is due to the fact that npon a
growth in t.he airspeed, the shocks formed on an airfol I become more
and more intensive and extended. To lower cx. w at a given M .... one
must ollsure an increase in the number M _. cr' whit-.h is achieved
mainly by reducing the thickness or the ail'foil. A similar result
can be obtained when the angle of altaek is made smaller.
}o'igure 7.3.2 shows an experimental (".uT\'e charaeterizing the change
in the drag coefficient c'\"a -,:, c.~, Pr -I- c.~. w in nearly sonic flow. For
values of M Of> < 0.45 -0.5, only profile drag is observed. while at
M Of> > 0.5-0.55 (supercritical flow velo('.ities) a wave drag also ap~
pears that. is due to local shocks.
7.4. Supersonic Flow of a Gas
with Constant Specific Heats
over a Thin Plate
Let us ('ollsidcr a very simple airfoil in the form of an inflllitely
thin plate placed iu a suporsonic flow at the angle of attack (x. The
flow over such a plate is shaWl! scllematically in Fig. 7.4.1. At its
leading edge. the supersonic flow divides into two parts-an upper
one (above the plate) and a bottom one (under it) that do not influence each ot.hel'. This is wh\' the supersonic flow over each side can be
investigated independently.
Let us consider the upper side of the plate. The flow here is a plane
supersonic flow over a surface forming an angle larger than 18(J<'
with the direction of the undisturbed flow. Such a flow is shown
sc.hematically in }o'ig. 7.4.2, where plane OC corresponds to the upper

Ch. 7. An Airfoil in a Compressible Fiow

Jl79

,I

Fig.U.'

Supersonic flow over a thin platc:

J-uplIJ\$ion ran:

~-8 t1ock

(') 'I ,),-"

":~1j~. ~

,~
Fig. 7.4.1

Prandtl-Meycr no\\':
,,_ph ysieal planl"; b-hmlograph pial"': c-d;agram of ;'\ nl"arl), uniform no\\';
~ Ion ran : t-CI>ic),clo;,1

1- ~ x,,;,\I\

sillc of thc phill'. II wus rllost illwsligatcd hy L I'nUld11 and T. :\Icyer

aud i!; <"-JlIINI a Prandtl-M(,ycr now.
In aCl'Ql'tlance wilh til(' flow di<lg'ralll in Fig. 7A.:!o , Ih e How panlllei to pll'tneOH when passing arollnd anglc 0 grlldLlnll~' IUI'US, expands,
and flCQI1iL'CS a IlCW direction parallel to planc OC. The auglc ~t)c
of inriillatioTl of this plane to lhe \'('!ctor V"" cOI'L'('sponds 10 the angle
of attack cr. of the plnte (sec Fig. 7.4.1). The disturbed regioll of the
l'xpanding fluw is limited flt- the lE'ft-hanrl s ide hy )1ach line OD
indincd to the fI'ee-strc3m vclodty vector V ... aL the flngle ~'"
,... !'iio _I ("liM ... ), whe]'e M:x- is the :\Iach uumhcI' of the undisturbed
flow. TIll.' expansioll proccs~ terminates 011 Milch liul' OE inclined to

280

Pt. I. Theory. AerodynemiC5 of en Airfoil and a Wing

the disturbed velocity vector Voc at the angle ~LOC -...:: sin-I (1/Mod
determined from the Madl number 0 the disturbed now along plane
OC. The change in thc direcLiou of the now betwecn Mach lines OD
and OE can be repre~ented as a consecutive set of deflections of the
streamlines through the small angles A~. A straight Madl line isslling from point 0 corresponds to each of these defloctions iudie-aUng
the formation of an additional disturhance.
Hence, thc turning flow is filled with an infinite multitude of
Mach line.~ forming a "fan" of disturbance lines that ("horacterizes a
centered expansion wave. This r,entered wave, sometimes c.aUed a
Prandtl-Mf"ycr fan, is defmed by straight Mach lincs along each of
whir.h the now parameters arc COllstant, and this is why it belongs to
the closs of simple expan:;ion waves.
The problem on the disturbed molion of a gas ncar an obtuse
angle, which is associated with the formation of a centered expansion
wave, can be solved according to the method of characteristics.
Point F' on an epicycloid-a charar.teristic in tI hodograph of the
same family-corresponds to point F of intersection of a streamline
belonging to the plarc parallel onrQming flow (the inclination of a
streamline at this pomt is ~ _..: 0) with characlcristic OD in a J.hys-.
ical plane. To be specirlc, we ran relate each of these characteristics
to those of the firsl family. The equation ~ ." 0) -:- ~I is used for a
characteristic of this family in Lile hodograph. Sinc.e we have assumed
that ~:-: 0, therollstant ~I :::-: - ( I ) " , (Moo), where the angle (I)"" is
fonnd from (5.3.30) according to the known number Moo. Consequently, the equation for the characteristic has the form ~ = (I) - 0)"",
whence
(7.1.1)
By setting the inclination of a streamline on the small angle
~ = A~, we can calculate the corresponding angle co ,..", A~ + w""
and flDd the number M on the ncigIlbouring Mach line inclined to
the new direction of a streamline at the angle j.l. "" sin- I (11M).
The Mach number on plane OC with an inclination of ~ = ~oc "Ct,
i.e. on the upper side of the plate, is determined according to the
angle
_
floc + ..
(7.4.2)
~

The found vnlue of the local number Moe makes it pos!;ible to determine the Mach angle ~c
sin _I (tlMod. A graphical solution
of the problem on the Prandtl-Meyer flow is shown in Fig. 7.4.2h.
The coordinate of point G' of intersection of the epicycloid with
straight line O'G' parallel to plane OC determines the speed ratio
hoc of the disturbed flow near plane OC. The point G of intersection
of a streamline with characteristic OE corresponds to point G' in a
physical plane.

Ch, 7, An Airfoil in

II

Compressible Flow

'281

AC'cordillg to the kl\own numbel' Moe (J.oe), hy using formula

(3.6.30), we ("lln d('t('rmin(' till' pl'es!<l1l'e 011 the upper !<hlc of the plat.e:

Pu= Poe, u=: Poe [( 1+ k;-l M:")! (1 T k-;-1 Mf)C) ]"/(11- I) (7A.3)
and t.he cOfl'esponciiug vtllue of the pressure cocftident.!
1"1

POC,n -, 2 ({Joc, II

poo)/(k.lli.,p",)

At. hypersonic vclocilie~ (Moo: t), thc cllicuhltiou of the Prilluitl\Ieyer flow is simplified, bec8u:-tc to detflrmine 01(' funrliOIl W wc call
lise formula (5.3,/11). This allows mILo deL(,I'minf! the lot'lllliumher M
directly. Suhstituting for the Rugles Woe ami 0,1.,.., ill (IA2) their \'1'11u('s ill ac('ordan("e wilh (5.3.!11), we oblilin

M,,=Moc=( ,u~

_k-;IPoc)-1

(7A.4)

The t'orresponding preS,'illre cal) be determined by formula (3.6.30).

Lct us (".ollsidel' the Prandtl-\l!'rer now appearing III hypel':-tonic
\'clocitie!> with !.aunli now dellc("lions Poe -" -:t. At \'er~' hu-gc numbers M "", the hmun or 'Illch lilies i~"'lIillg fl'om point 0 will be very
nan-ow. We Clln ("Ollsider [0 11 suftidently good appro:'(imatioll that
the beam is ("olllpre:":"Cld into a single line on which [he low imrnediat('ly turn:;, wilh cxpansion. This line ('an tlwt'cfore be ("ollliitiollally considered 11:-; Illl "expansion sho('.k" behilld whirh the velodties
(;'\lacll Ilumbers) grow and the pre~s\lt'es lower. The angle ~l;)C of
inclination of this line to the ve("tor V"" is ohtailled if we take "d\'an~
tage of the analogy with II. ("omprcssioll shot'k illld ("alculntc this
angle by Iormuln (4.6.1J) provided that. the angle ~~ ~.:. ~ -" ex in
this formula is negflth'e, Assuming that O. . ~IOC' we lind

I:~i =2(t~6)+V "(1~W

+rb-

(7,4.5}

where I Poe I ::-. I ex I is the magnitude of the tllming angle of theDow (the angle of attack), ~lIld K~ -:: (M ""~od:.!.
By llsing formula (4.6,11') to ("valnate t.he pressui'e coefficient
with a view to the sign of the lingle ~oc :- a. we obtain

(U.S}
At low numbers Moo aud small angles ~oc '--: -:t, a nearly uniform
Ptandtl~:,\'leyer flow appears lIear the deflected surbce. Fill' such a
f10\V, relation (1.1.2') fOl' the !:\pced of sOllnd holds. If we III)W find a:
formula for the l'.1ach nllmber from (7.1.2), namely,

'H~=f.-=k~1(~-1)+ ~~

..

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

and introduce the value of a~ fl'om (7.1.2') into t,his formula, we obtain

;.=M2 . . . M;,(1-L

e:)r1-(k-1)

u~"'rl

(7.4.7)

In acC'ordance with this expressioll. we can assume in a first approximation lhat ill a nearly uniform flow M =::: M"" and, C'onsequently,
the equation dy1dx
tall (P J.l",,) is used for the cllaracteristics
in a ph~'siC'1l1 pi nne. Since the flow den()('.tion angle P is small and
~ <:: 11.". then dy/dx =::: tan J.l "". COllsequently, the characteristics
are Marh lines inclined to the x-axis at angles of J.l ..... For a PrandtlMeyer flow, we hHe a family of characteristics in the form of para[lei lilies inclined to the horizontal axis at the angle J.l .... Wig. 7.4.2c).
We obtain dirfl!fenrp. p.quations fOf tile characteristics in the hodo:grapll of t\ supersonic Row from (.'}.3.21) and (5.3.22):
dV!V =F tan p..dP -- 0

(704.8)

For a nearly uniform flow, we have

AV - u, V -, V coo. dP

,p,

tan J.l:""": tan J.loo -: (iJP... _1)_1/2

Consequently.

ulV ~

~!V M:, - 1

(7.4.8')

Int<erting the \'aille of u fl'om (7.4.8') into (U.5), we ohtain (he

pres.~urc ('O('ffiricnl
(7.4.9)

dince we are considering an expanding flow for which < 0 and

are ha\'ing in "iew that tile magnitude of the angle Ii is being found,
we mll~t take the minus sign in formula (7.4.9). Acc.ordingly, on the
upper side of the plate inclined at a small angle of attack Ii ." a,
the pr~~ure roerriC'ient is

Pu -.':

POC.II = -2a.IY M:' - 1

(7.4.10)

Let liS rOllsicier tile botlOin side of the plate. The flow o\'er this
side (see "'ig. 7.4.1) is attended by the formation of shork OF. issuing
from n point on the leading edge and, consequently, by compression
of the now. To ti(!termine the angle e~.OI~ of inclination of the shock,
we shoulll use formula (4.3.25) in which we mll~t a~lIme that MI -~
~.., M ... and ~$ _ a. At"t'_ording to the fOlilld value of 6 s'0l::. we rllld
the ~ta('h number M2 -= MOC b on the bottom side by (4.3.19) or
(4.3.19').
When determining the nature of the flow in the region behind
point C on Ihe trailing edge. we can proceed from the following
-consiilelatiOlls. On the upper side of the plate, the number Moe.u
ahead of shock CD is larger than the number Moo ahead of shock OE

Ch. 7. An Airfoil in

iI

Compre~~ibfe

Flow

'283

formed on the loading o(lgo from below. If we ai'Sll[l)(' that behind

point C the flow does not deflect from the direction of the undisturbed
flow (streamline CF is parallel to the H'ctor V",). the losses in the
upper shock will evidently be greater, and tllcrefDrc Mo,\> <
< iVCF lI The pr(':-;surc in the region abovc line CF will he greater
than in that helow it.
A pressure jump rannol be rehlill('(1 on a houndary i'lll'fac(' in

11

gas flow. althouglt the velodties may remain different. Tllerefore,

itl real conditioll~. the diredion of :o.trPHmlinc CF differ.~ from that
of the free-stream velocity. i.t'. a downwash of thc flow forms behind
the pl<lte. It is clear ft'om phy:o.ical notions that line CF dC\'iales in
the direction of the boltom region. Here turning of the flow behind
-shock CD through a smaller angle is ensured. wllirh is just what
leads to lowf'ring of the pressure.
Inve.<;tigations .'''how that the downwl'Hjh angle is smAll. hefl{'c \.0
11 .<;lIftidently good approximation we CAll proreerl from the as.'mlllption that at. point C the direclion or the flow ('oinddcs with that of
the free stre<llll. Accordingly. the sho('k angle 0s.ell Oil the upper
5icte i:o. determined by formula (4.:1.25) ill whirh we as."III11E' thul
Ml . Aloc. \I and ~"'- a. The (,Ofl't'spolHling Mach numhcl' hehind
the shork M'l . MU'.n is determined frofU f.'1.:~.Hl) or (4.:U9')

'HW~t~~~gli~~ ~IFe ~'~ll~;~; r~~if~~l l~el?tn(ttl~ltl'Ail~~re~igea.n~1 ~;al~d~t

Meyer flow appears with the ~1acb 1\lllTlher MU.b d'tt'rmi1l(,d with
the aid of the formula WCF.h
(')OLl> _,_ a.
The pressure PI' ....., lhX:.\l on the llppe'r side of the phlte is dl'll'rmilled by forml11a (7.1. :1). white the ("orresponding prpsslIrf> Ph .=-: /JOC.b on the bottom side- is ("<llr111<l!td h~' c\prCSSioll (,.. ;1.1;-)) in
which it i!'l a:-;!'Illmed that pz
Ph, PI - fl ",. 0., - G"m'. (lnd
p" <P",,<Jlb'
If the length of lhe plAte is / .. and its width i.~ t,ll,ell equ<1\lo unity.
the forre producl'd by the Ilornlal pres~llre l'Ipplied to the plate i~
y . /. (Pb - fl,,), Consequently. the lift force i." j"n . Y ("os a.
while the drag is Xa

." ~ill

lift and drag ('oefficient~

'H'e

'I.
CUa

The ('Ol'l'(>.~pouding \',ducs of !he

}-,'(q",,/,) :1ud cx" . Xa'(q",).)

r" .-

Intro<iu('illg the pl'eS~Hrt' coenki('uts

(fiu - p",)iq ... fo!' tile
llpper allli Ph
(Ph - /1:.;)/("", for the lower ~i('es. t'('spedi\cly.
we obtAin the full()willg e\pre",~iolls for t.he (ll.rodynamlx ('oel1icients:
c Ya

:-=

(j)h - POI) ros a,

c:r" '-'

(Pb -

P\I) .!'ill

(i.4.11)

The force X 3 Hppearillg !lpon supersonic fiow over the plate and
<.:a\l~e(1 by the formation of ~hock waves and ordinary disturban('e
wav!,." is I"all('d the waH' drag. lind the rOfl"esponding quantity
eXa . ex'''' is ('ailed the wave drag coefficient. This drag dot's not
equal zero even in an ideal (in\'iscid) nuid.

284

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 an Airfoil and a Wing

The Jinencss of the plate K = cy/cxa ,..,., cot Ct can be seen to be

a function of only the anglc of aLt.Ack. Owing to Ihe uniform distribution of the pres:o;nrc ovcr the snrfate of the plate. the centre of
pressure is at ils mhldle. Conseqllenlly, the moment of the pressurE"
forces about the l(lading edge is M: :.." -YU2. and the corresponding moment coefficient is
:...~ m:8 = Mz/(q""L'l) = -(.vb - Pu)/2

In:

(7.4.12)

At hypersonic velocities, the pressure c.oefJirient for the upper

side oC the plate is determined approximately by (7.1i.6), and Cor
its lower side, by (4..6.12). With this in view and assuming in (1.6.12)
that ~8 - Ct, we obtain for the differenc.e of the pressure coefficienL<;
Ph also known ns the pressure-drop coeffleient, the expression

Pn.

(7.4.13)
Consequently,
c,/a.'~4VVI4(1

6J'J+lIK'

17.4.14)

cJ.)a3=4Vlll4.(1

6}2jI1/Kz

(7.4.15)

nl z

/a.2.=

-2Vf/14(1

6)2J+ 11Kz

(7.4.16)

Formulas (i.1.1:J)-(7A.16)expre!'s the Jaw of hypersonic simitarity

as applied to the flow oyer a thin plate. This law consists in that
regardle!'s of the values of Moo and ex, but nt identical values of
K = M""ex, the corresponding quantities pla.'I.. cyia. 2 cxa.'tz,:i, and
m:a/a.'I. for plates are identical. The pnrameter K = M ""ex is called
the hypersonic iimilarity criterion.
Examination of formulas (7.4.13)-(7.4.16) reveals that the relations
for the pres.~lIre. lift, and moment coefficients are quadratic, and
for the drag roeffir.ient~-cl1 bie. funclions of the angle of attack ex.
At the limit., when K __ 00, we have
(Pb -

pu)/a'!. = cila/a'! = cz/as = 2/(1 - 6)

m,,!a.'

.~

-li(1 - 6)

(i.4.17)

(7.4.18)

"'or a plate in a nearly uniform (linearized) flow, the pressure

coefficicuts are calculated by formula (7.4.9) in which we should
assume that ~ = Ct. The minus sign in this formuJa determines the
pre!r.'!ure coefficient for the upper side, and the pIns sign-for tlle
bottom side. Accordingly, the difference between the pressure coeDicients related to the angle of aitllck is

(P. -

p,)Ia. ~

"IV M!. - I

(7.4.19)

Ch. 7. An Airfoil in a Compressible Flow

Introducing (i.!L.19) into

formllla~

28~

('iAB) and (7.4.12). we obtain

cy/a =

4/V bl;, -1

(7.1.20)

cx/a'Z ==

4/V M!o -1

(;.4.21)

rnz/a= -2/J!M!o-1

(;.4.22)

In the given cuse. the number M", is the similarity criterion.

'Vhcn its valuc is retaincu, and regUl'dless of tllC yullic of the angle
Q[ attack, the rOlre~ponding. values of pia, cy/a, c,/a 2, alld m:/a
are identical. If \\'e ronsider a nearly uniform flow at very large
numbers ~f '" : 1. rormulas similar to (7.1.1n)-(7.1.~2) cnn be wrilten
in the [orlll
{Ph - pu)/a2 '-" cy/a~ :-=; c:r./a:1 '""" 4'K
(7.4.2:1)
(;.4.24)
m:/a2 = -';!JK
Hence, the h},persouic similarity cl'itcriOIl K
M ooa is also
valid for a nearly uniform (linearized) now with large ~Iuch nHllIher~.
It is evident that SUell a now can appear only at very small angles
of attflrk.

7.5. Parameters of a Supersonic Flow

over an Airfoil wHh an ArbHrary
ConftguraHon
Use of the Method of Characteristics

Let us consider a supersonic. flow over a sharp-nosed airfoil with

an arbitrary configuration (Fig. 7.5.1). The upper contour of the
airfoil is given by the equation Yu = fu (x), and the hottom one by
the equation Yb = fll (x). Assume that the angle of attack is larger
than the augle ~o.u formed by a tangent to the airfoil ('~ontollf on its
upper side at point 0 on the leading edge. Consequently, a PrandtlMeyer now develops at this point. The flow pa.s!';cs through an expan-"'ion fan issuing from point 0 as from a sonrce of disturbances, and
acquires a direction tangent to the contour at thi:-: point. Further
expansion of the flow occurs behind point 0 along the cont.our. Con!'equently, tIle flow near the airfoil can be considered as a consecutit'e
set oj Prandtl-J[eyer flows. Since the turning angle at the points
on the coutour is inlinitely small, indivillnal Mach ljnes issue from
them instead of a fan of expansion lines (Fig. 7.5.1).
We lind the velocit:,>' at point 0 by formula (7.4.2). which we shall
write in the form
(7.;).1)
w~ '-= Woo -7- CL - Bo...
where

~o.

-:=

tan _l (dy /d.r)o.

286

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynllmics of lin Airfoil lind

II

Wing

flg.7.S.t

Supersonic Dow over a sharpnosed airfoil:

J-~XpanBi ... n

fan; 2_Mach

lin~s

Vsing the value of 000, we determine the corresponding number Mf)

from Table 5.3.1. At point C, which is at a small distance from the
nose, the velority of the gas is calculated as for a PrandtlMeyer
flow by the forOlIlJa
(7.5.2)
We -'. (j)o -+- ~o.u - ~c
where ~c
tan l (dy u1dx)c.
IlIFerting Eq. (7.5.1) into (7.5.2), we obtain
(7.5.3)
We''='' woc+a-~e
Hence, by (7.5.3) for any arbitrary point N on the contonr, we
have
(7.5.1)
W.'/
Woo -+. a - ~N
where~:s:

=. tall~l (dYu1dx)N is the angle calculat.ed wit.h a view t.()

the sign (for the leading part of the cont.our the signs of the angles
are positive, and for the trailing part, negative).
Let. lIS assume, as for flow over a flat plate, t.hat the flow behind
point H approximately retains the direction of the free stream. Therefore, at point E, t.he now moving ncar the contour at a velocity corresponding to the number Mn.u turns, and a shock BE appears issuing
from point H. The angle Os.BF. of inclination of the shock and the
parameters behind it are calculated wit.h the aid of the relevant for
Imllas of the shock t.heory according t.o the known valnes of the angle
of attack Ct, the lIl1mber M II u , and the contonr nose angle at point H
on the upper side. The parameters on the upper side of the airfoil
(pressure, velocity, etc.) are determined from the known value of the
local :Mach numlJerwith the aid of the relations for an isentropic now
01 a gas.
If the angle of attack equals the angle ~o. ", we have t.he limiting
ca.~e of a Prandtl-Meyer flow at point 0 where the Mach number i~
AlO.b = M "". Formula (7.5.4) can be written as
(7.5.4')

Ch. 7. An Airfoil in II Compressible Flow

287

Fig. 7.5..2

Supersonic flow over the bottom side of an airfoil with the fonnation of s shock:
I-s1raight part of UtI' rolllollr of the Rlrfol] in tha flow; ll-cllrvr.ll'ilTt or lhp air/(Illronlour; III-curv .. <1 part 01 the shock; IV-slralf:ht part 01 tlw ~hntk

Calculation of thellow OVCl" Ihe bottom ~ide of the airfoil (Fig. 7.S.2)
h('gins with detrrminatioll of the gas parameters at point V-directly
behind the siwek. For this purpose, llsing formula (-'I.:i.25) anti the
\'allies M. . M"" and ~{; - rx -f ~O,b, we calcillate the :<hork angle
as.(J' We rllici the lIlImher Mo. ll " M2 at point 0 from 0.:3.1\1) or
(/1.:3. HI'). \Ve may f1:<Slline that this lIumher L"ellwins cOllslllnt within
a \'ery small ndghhourhood of point 0 on strflight. line element OD
of the ron tour. Straight elemt1]lt OJ of an oblique shock rorr(>sponils
to Of). lis length is determined as the distallc(, hom poinl () 10 pointJ
thatis on the intersection of the shock with'l first fanlily characteristie issuing from point D.
The now hehilld a straight shock is uorteJ-free. cOJlseqlleHtly there
is all isentropir flow over part of the contollr brhilld poinl D. To determine the velocity of sueh u flow at point F, we shall lise Eq. (i.4..1),
from which we lind WI" . Wn - (~D - ~~,), where (OJ) is the ,'alue
of the angle CD calclilated hy formula (.").3.30) for the numher lJf on
port OD of the contollr. 'fhe "allies of the angles ~[) and ~t' arc determined with a "ie\\" to the sign (ill the given case the <lllgles r~o and ~~.
arc negotiYe Oil the ImHling parl of the contour).
The flow Ilear part UF of the contour CIIIl bc COll:o;illered as a Prandtl).!eyer flow, therefore disturbanre line F-1-8 issnes from point. F as
from a perlnrbalion source. It intersects the l"ollliJlllatioll of the
normal shock at point 3 and r.urves it, flS a result of which the actual
direction of the shork is determined by point,'! of illters(>("\ioll of the
shock and the characteristic.
Downstream. cHrving of the shock is due to its intt'l"<l.clioll with
the r.haracteristics issuing from points G, 11, K, etc. Curving of the
shock causes a /:Oriez flow to form J01" WhORl' calculation we must lise
r('ialions on the characteristirs for a non-isentropic plane flo\\,. The

.288

Pt. J. Theory. Aerodynamics of en Airfoil and eWing

second family characteristic J l/ is the boundary of this vortex flow.

The characterislic is gradually constructed in lhe form of a broken
line according to the known values oCthe number M and the angles Jl
along the straight !lecond family characteristics issuing from contonr
points F. G, etc. At. point II of the c.ontour. which is simultaneously
on ,haracteristic JR, the velocity is found from lhe expression
-(OK "-' Wo - (PD - PH). At. point K adjacent to H. the parameters
are ('alculalcd according to the equations for the characteristks
taking into a('count the vortex nature of the flow behind a shock.
To determine the velocity at this point. it is su(ficient to know the
velocity and its direction (the angle P) at point 7 Ileal' point K on
-element. 7-K of t.hesecond family characteristic. To fllld this velocity.
it is neccs!{ary to c.alculate the curving of the shock behind point J
on element J ...1' and lind t.he parametcl'S on the shock at point 3'.
To do this, we ha\'e tlle following data at our disposal: the number
M = MI = Mp and the angle Jl = JlF of deflection of the now at point
1. and also the parameters M'I. "= MJ and Jls = Ps.J on the shock at
point J. By Ilsing formula (5.4.46) and assuming that I! = O. we
obtain the following expression for the change in the auglo Jl along
-characteristir- 1-3:

~~I=[( ~L-1r'

(wt-CU.,-

~~I

.n-c.)

(7.5.5)

whtlre .I1~I=P3-~1t .I1x1=X'-%I;

!!

(S3;,Sl)Z~3S~~I~~I)

Cj

~~32(~:~~~

The derivative (dwldPh is evaluated by (5.4.39) for the values of

the relevant parameters at point 1: the angles CUI and WJ are determined from (5.3.30) according to the numbers M at points 1 and J,
I'espectively.
Point 3 in Fig. 7.5.2 is at the intersection of the normal shocl< and
-characteristic 1-3. Consequently, its coordinates are found as a result
of the simultaneolls solution of the equations
YI = (X3
XI) tan (PI + Ill)' Y3 = X8 tan (0 0 - a) (7.5.G)
The intersection of the characteristic with the shocl< at point 3'
is diRerenl because of curving of the shock. We shall find the new
shock angle 6 S,J3' on J-3' according to the flow deRection angle behind
the shock ~s = Jl3' = apt + ~I ann the number M; calculated by
means of the expression w; = aWl + WI in which aWl is found from
(5.4.38):

Ys -

aWl = cuJ

+ (dw1dlHJ apl -

(7.5.7)

WI

Consequently, the equation of the shock element J~3' has the form
Y3' -

YJ

= (X3'

XJ)

tan (6 s,J"

a)

Ch. 7. An Airfoil in

II

Compumibla Flow

289

Owing Lo deflection of the flow at point 3', tho characteristic on

element 1-3' changes its direction. The equation of the characteristic
on this element has the form
.fIa' -

Yl = (xa' -

Xl) tan (~~.

+ !J.3')

By sol ving these two equations simullaneoll::;ly, we rInd the coordinates X a, ann Y3' of point 3'.
LeL us consider point 5 at tlie intersection of characteristic elements
2-5 of the rlrst and 3'-5 of the second family. We determine the coor
dinates Ys and Xs of this point from the solution of the equations for
the clement.'; of the corresponding charac.teristics:
Y5-Y2=(XS-x~)tan(~2+JJ.2)

y,_ y. ~ (x, -x,.) tan (~,._~,.)

(7.5.8)

We determine tIle change in the direction of the flow when passing

from point 2 to point 5 along characteristic element 2-5 from Eq.
(5.4.22) in which we assn me that e = 0:

~~2=t[ k~r' ~! (liX3'l3'+liZtCt)-(~-ro3)-(~t-~3.)J

(7.5.!)

where li~2=~~-~~: liX30=XS-Z3';

l'lS

(SJ,-S2)MS(~=+"-)eos(~3-,,.d

Tn

I:

we assume that

f -:::

(xs -

X2)

sin !la' cos (~2

+ )J.~);

e = (xs - x.~,) .~i II ~12 cos (~a' - fla')

We determine the values of C z and t a, by (SA.15). We lind the
number M at point 5 from (5.4.23) llsing l<.~2' Similarly, according
to the known values of the gas parameters al point 5 and at point H
on the wall, we determine the velocity at point fl at the intersection
of the characteristic elemenL.;; II-(j of the fir!;t family and 5-6 of the
second one. We fwd the coordinates Xl[ and YH of point II bv solving
the eqnations of the contour Yu-= III (XH) ano of elemell't 2-H of
the characteristic YH - '12 -:: (XH- X2) tan (~2 - 1-'-2)'
Let us now choose arbi trary point 7 with the coordinates X7 and Y7
on characteristic element fl-6. We shall determine the parameters
at this point by interpola.tion. For example, the angle ~, = ~8 - (~6 - BH) la_1Jl"_fl, where l._1 and ie-u are the distances from
point G to point 7 and to point H, respectively. Similarly, we can
find the numher M, and the corresponding Mach angle 1-'7' We choose
point 7 so that characteristic element 7-K drawn from this point
at the angle ~1-fl7 will intersect the contour at point K at a small
distance1from point H. We determine the coordinates XK. YK of this

pt. I. Theory. Aerodynllmics of lin Airfoil lind

290

II

Wing

FIg'.7.S.]

Supersonic Isentropic' flow over a curved sharp-nosed airfoil:

I-contour 01 the body In the now; 2-sccond family characteristic

point as a result of solving the equation VK - V7 = (XK - x 7) X

X tan (~7 - 117) for the characteristic clement 7-K and the equation

YK -'" IH (xld of the contour. Since the flow at point K is a vortex

one, Eq. (5.4.27) must be used to calculate the velocity at this point.
Assuming in the equation that e = 0, we obtain
(7.5.10)
where 6Cil 7 :-:; CilK - Cil 7 and 6~7 = ~K - ~7' the angle ~K =
= tan _1 (dvHldx)K' We determine the parameter t7 from (5.4.28) for the
values 117 and ~7 and evaluate the entropy gradient hy the formula
(5.4.29),

6S/6n = (S7 - SK) cos

(~7 -

f!7)/[(XK -

x 7) sin /.t71

We flOd the entropy SK at point K as a result of calculating its

value at point 0 directly behind the shock, and the entropy S7 at
point 7 by interpolation between its values at points II and 6.
Similarly, by consecutively solving earh of the three problems
considered in Sec. 5.4, we determine the velocity Iield in the region
between characteristic DJ, the contour. and curved shock J-3'-4'.
We flOd the shape of this shock gradually in the form of a broken
line, and fill the indkated region of the flow with a network of
characteristic curves (characteristics).
We can determine the pressure at tJle nodes of the network of
characteristics according to the Mach number with the aid of formula
(3.6.28). We calculate the corresponding stagnation pressure Po =
needed in this formula by interpolation, using formula (5.4.19).
We find the pressure at points on the contour Ilsing the corresponding
Mach numbers and the stagnation pressure Po
evaluated by
(4.3.22) for the angle 8 6.0 and the number M "".

Po

""0

Po

Ch. 7. An Air'oil in a Compressible Flow

2m

Calculation of the flow on the bottom side of an airfoil is simplified

when a second family characteristic drawn from point J does not
intersect the contour, and, consequently, this flow can be considered
as an isentropic one (Fig. 7.5.3). We use Eq. (5.3.38) to calculate the
Mach number at arbitrary point [, of the contour:
(7.5.11)
Here we determine the angle ~L by the formula ~L = tan -l(dYH/lkk
with a view to the sign: at the leading edge of the contonr it is negative, at the trailing edge, posithe, the angle ~n is negative. We
determine the shape of the shock by its angles as at points 3' and 4'
at the intersection of the strAight characteristics drawn from points F
and G. We find the shock angle Os at point 3' approximately by
formula (4.3.25), using the values of B3' = ~F and 1'd 00' We calculate
the shock angle at point It' ill a similar way.
We have considNed the calculation of the flow at snch angles of
attack Ct
~o.u when there is an expanding flow all over the upper
side. If this condition is not observed (ex < ~o.,,), the flow oyer the
upper contour occurs with compression of the gas at the leading edge
and the formation of a compression .~hock. Hence, such a' flow should
be calculated in the same way as fol' the bottom surface.)

>

Hypersonic Flow over a Thin Airfoil

U a thin sharp-nosed airfoil (sec Fig. 7.5.1) is in n hypersonic

flow at such small angles of attack that the local :\.fach numbers on
its upper and bottom surfaces at all points c~onsi<lerably exceed unity
and, in addition, the conditions of is(,lltropic flow O\'er the bottom
contour (Fig. 7.5.3) are retained, we can U!le simplified relations for
the characteristics to ('alculate the disturbance velocity.
1f the angle of attack ex
~o.\\, to det('rmine the number M at
an arbitrary point N on the upper contour, we mllst use the formula

>

hlf';:'~[:co _k;1(a_~N)rl

(7.5.12)

obtained from (7.4..1).

Since everywhere on the upper contour there is all e:rpanding [Ww,
the number MN > M
Flow over the hottom surface is attended by the formation of a
shock and, therefore, by compression 0/ the gas. We c.a1clliato thE!
pressure coefficient at point 0 directly behind the slwck with the
aid of formula (4.6.12) as follow~:

co.

p,/(a-Bo.,)'=I/(1-6)+Vl/(1
where K =
sign.

..

Mco (a -

~O.b);

6)'-,4IK'

(7.5.13)

we take the angle ~O.b with a minus

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of olin Airfoil and a Wing

Pb

From the formula

=-=: 28~.0 (a ~O.b)' we can calculate tile
shock angle 8 s.0 , and then lIsing the valuo of Kg = M 008 5.0 we call
find the Mach number at point O. IIsing formula (4.6.16):
M1,.b/M~ ~

K:/(lil

+ 6) K: -

61 (I - 6

+ 6Km

(7.5.14)

Behind point O. expansion of the flow occurs, therefore to deter

mine the 'Velocity at an nrbitrar~' point I., we can ;Ise the relation

(7.5.15)
Hypersonic flow over a thin airfoil call be calculatod approximately
by using the method of tangent wedg(>,S. According to this method,
we calculate the now at an arbitrary point of a contollr by the relevant
formulas for a nat plate assllming that the lauel' is in a flow with
the number Moo at an angle of aUack equal to the angle between tile
vector V 00 and a tangent to the contour at the poillt being considered.
Hence, for a point N on the llpper side, the pressure coeffir.ient by
(7.4.6) i,
PN/("-~N)'~l/(1-6) -VI/(1-6)' +4/K,

;(7.5.10)

where KN = Moo (a. - ~N)'

Foran arbitrary point L on the botto:n side, with a vi!:)w to (7.3.1.:1),
we hav&
pd("-~,)'~ 11(1-6)+ VI/(I

6)'-i-4/Kl.

(7.5.17)

where KL = JlI 00 (a - ~Ll.

In formula (7.5.16), the angle ~'" has a pillS sign at tlle leading
edge of the contour and a minus sign at the trailing odge, whereas
in formula (7.5.17) the angle ~L hai a millns sign at the leading edge
and a plus sign at the trailing one.
At the limit, when K _ 00, we have

iN
PL

~ 2 (" -

.= 0

~Ll'/(I - 6)

(7.5.18)
(7.5.19)

With a zero angle of atla(;k, formulas (7.5.16), (7.5.17), and

(7.5.19) acquire the following form:
p,/~k ~ 1/(1- 6) -

V 1"'/('1-6""),"+--'4"1K",

Pr/~L~I/(I-6)+ VtI(1 6)'+1,[(1.

~ 2~U11 - 6)

PL

In formulas (7.5.l6') and (7.5.17'), K", = l"oo~N

~Moo~L

(7.5.16')
(7.5.17')
(7.5.19')
and KL =

Ch. 7. An Airfoil in ~ Comprenible Flow

293

Nearly Uniform Flow

over a Thin Airfoil

At this case, we consider a flow over a thin airfoil at small angle!

of attack. This flow is featured by shocks of a finite intensity being
absent and by the eharactcristics on the upper and bottom sides
being straight lines with an angle of indin;:ttion of fL = sin _1 (11M",,).
To determine the pressure coefficient for the alrfoil, we shall use
Eq. (7.4.9). According to this equation, for (In arbitrary point N
on the upper side of the airfoil
00

,7.5.20)
and for a point L on the bottom side

;;L~2 ("-~cl/YM!"-1

r or a

(7.5.20')

zero angle of attack

PN~2~,/VM!"c=j,

PL~-~Jl/"M!"-1

(7.5.20")

An increase in the small angles of attack lead~ to a growth in the

error when calculating the pre>,snre on a thin eirfoil in a nearly
uniform flow. The aecuron! of these calculations can be increased
by usillg lhe second-order aerodynamic theory. Ac('ording to the lattPl',
the pressure coeRicient is
(7.5.21)
where
C1

= 2(M!, -

1)-I/z.

C2

0.5 (JU;'" -

1)-~

[(;11;" - 2)2

+ kIlI!:.1
(7.5.22)

The pIllS sign in (7.5.21) relatcs 10 the bottorl1 ..,ide of the plate
CPL; 0 "-~ a - ~iJ, and the minus Sig:ll, to the upper one (PN.; e =
~,,- ~N)'

Aerodynamic Forces
and Their Coetllclents

To determine tile llerodYllflmic prc!;!;urc forcos. we sha! I use formulaa

(1.3.2) and (1.3.3), relating them to the body axes x, y (seo Fig. 7.5.1)
and assuming that c,.x ,--- O. In this condition, formula (1.3.2)
determine.., the 10llgitudinal force X for an airfoil. and (1.3.3), the
normal force Y produced by the pressuro:

X = q",,8 r

.~
(5)

peos (n",'x)

ff-,

Y = - q>Sr \
(8)

pcos (~:y)-r

294

pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 an AIrfoil and eWing

Flg.7.U

Aerodynamic forces for an airfoil in a body axil and flight path coordinate
systems

Adopting the quantity S r = b X 1 as the characteristic area

and taking into account that dS = dl X 1 (b is the chord of the
airfoil, and dl is an arc element of the contour), we obtain the following expressions for tho aerodynamic coefficients:
XI(q..,Sr)

Cx =

c, ~YI(q~Sc)~

~ peas (h,i> dT.

-fiicos (,;','y)

dT

where dt = dUb, while the cllrvilinear integrals are taken along the
contour of the airfoil (counterclockwise circumvention of the contour
is usually taken as positi vel.
Let us introduce
...............

into

this

expression dl = dx/sin

/'-.
x),

(fl,

cos (n, y) dl -= dx, where dx = dx/b.

Next passing over from curvilinear integrals to ordinary ones, we
obtain
1

c,~ -.i Pb (*)b dx + Jp" (*)"dx

o

(7.5.23)

"

j (Pb-pJdz

(7.5.24)
o
where Ph and Pu are the pressure coefficients for the bottom and
upper sides of the airfoil, respectively.
Using the formula for con version [see formula (1.2.3) and Table
1.2.11, we obtain the aerodynamic coefficients in a wind (flight path)
coordinate sy.<:tem (Fig. 7.5.1):
(7.5.25)
(!I'a = Cx cos Ct + CII sin Ct, clla = CII cos a c'" sin a
C II

298

Ch. 7. An Airfoil in e Compressible Flow

'114I.l.U
Determination of Ihe moment

of the forces for an airfoil

With flight angles of auack not exceeding tbe values of Ct

we have

10-12.

(7.5.25')

For the coeUicient of the moment about the leading edge of the
airfoil due to the pressure force (Fig. 7.5.5), by analogy with (1.3.6),
we deriyc the formula
m,= q:fj1r b =
=

q~rb (~xdY- ~

1 {(-'

.' px cos (n, y)

(s)

ydX)

~-

dS

..., dS}
py cos (n, xl s;

s; (

or

(7.5.26)
where Yb '--' Yb'b and II -:; y,/b.
We determine t.he coefficient of the cell Ire of pressure for the
condition that the point or application of the re.<lullant of the aerodynamic force..'l is on the chord of the airfoil. H ii,s coordinate is .x p
we have

(7.5.27)

For thin airfoil:;, we may disregard the second integral on the

right-hand side of (7.5.26) and in the numerator of (7.5.27). Accord-

296

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

ingly,
I

mz =

J(ilb-P~)xdx

(7.5.26')

cp =

J(PIt-Pu)zd.x[l (Pb-Pu)dxf

(7.5.27')

By comparing the first and second terms on the right-hand side of

(7.5.26), we can estimate the order of the discarded infinitesimals.
I

,y

It is determined by the value of \

(dYtdX) dX ~ All, where X = Mb

is tbe relative thickness of the airfoil.

Ul'ing relation (7.5.21), we ohtain the longitudinal-force coefficient
(7.5.23) corresponding to the second-order aerodynamic theory:
C x = cl K 1
2c"K2<X
(7.5.28)

where
I

K. ~

j (~t:

(7.5.29)
~:) di, K.~ (~,-~:)d;
o
o
The normal force coclIicicnt in accordance with (7.5.24) is
cy = 2c1o:.

+ c'!K'!

(7.5.30)

Ac('.ording to the results obtained, the drag and lift coefficients are
c Xn = 2c 1o:.Il
3C2K2<t
c1K h c lla = 2cta
c,!Kz
(7.5.31)

In the particular case of a

symmetr~c

= {dyldx)2 and, consequently, Kl = 2

airfoil,

~t

'-=

I ~2 dx and Kz

~~ =

~2 =

= O. Accord-

iagly,

r
I

c:ra

=2c t a 2

+2c t

~2ix,

cu.=2c ta

(7.5.31')

o
From these two relat.ion.'l. we find
c:ra =

c~,

t~-

2c 1 ;-2ctJ ~-d.x

(7.5.32)

Equation (7.5.32) determines the relation between the drag and

lift coefficients-what is called the polar of an airfoil.

Ch, 7, An Airfoil in " Compreuible Flow

'297

We find the coefficient of the longitudinal moment abont the

leading edge by inserting (7.5.2t) inlo (7.5.26'):
(7.5.:33)

where

,
,
A,- o\ (~b'i ~")zd': A.- jo (~b-~") zdz

.
B'-.i
o

For a symmetric airfoil,

Az = 2

j pi eG.

~u

Accordingly,

(7.5.34)

(~t-~:)zd'

= -~(I

,...",

~.

(7.5.35)

therefore Al = B1

m%= (4cz ) ~idx-.Ct)

0;

(7.5.33')

ct

o
The coefficiclll or the ('entre of
cp = -(clA1 - C2Hz

+ (2cv12 -

For a symmetric airfoil

c p =O.5 (1 -4

prcs~llre.

by (7.5.27'), is

'r-

Cl) o.j/(2c 1o.

czKz)

*J.
o

pxd:;)

(7.5.36)

(7.5.36')

For a linearized now (low supersonic veiocitie.o;;), lhe cocffident Cz

should be taken equal to 1cro in the abo\'c relations.
With hyper.wnic l.:elocUiea or II thin airfoil. formulas (7.4.6) nnd
(4.6.12) can be used to calculate the pressure coeflicients ill (7.5.2a).
(7.5.21i), (7.5.26')and (7.5.27'). The pre!":~ure ("oeftici('nt 101' the bottom
side in ac("ordance with (li.6.12) i!;
Pb-(ex-~b)'[I/(I-6)+Vl/(1

6)' 41KJ,]

(7.5.37)

while for tlle upper side, the \'alue of this coefficient by (7kG) is

p"-(ex-p",'[1!(1-6)-1/1!(1

61'-i-4IK;.1

(7.5.38)

where Kb = M.., let - ~b) and Ku = M_ (ct - ~u).

Let us find the relalions for the aerodynamic coefiicients of a
wedge-shaped Airfoil (Fig. 7.5.G). Since for the bottom contour we
have (dyldx)., = tan ~b. and fOl' the upper one (dyldx)u = tan ~u.
and taking into account that the pressure coeiTicicnts Pb and Pu

are ('onstanl, wo obtain from (7.5.23) and (7.5.24):

c.. =

-Pb tan ~b

clI

""

+ Pu tan

~u

(7.5.39)
(7.5.40)

Pb -Pu

The angle ~b should be considered negative in formula (7.5.39).

We fmd the moment coefficient. from (7.5.26):
mr = -0.5 (Pb -

Pu) -

0.5

<Pb

tan i ~b

Pu

tan 2 Pu)

(7.5.41)

while the coefficient of the centre of pressure by (7.5.27) is

cr = 0.511

+ (Pb tan! ~b - P. tan2

~u)i(Pb- Pu)1

(7.5.12)

For a symmelric airfoil, we have

Pb

In the above relations, the pressure coefficient

is determined
by accurate relations obtained in the theory of an oblique shock.
We also lise this theory to fmd the pressure coefficient Pu for ex. < ~u'
For ex. > Pu, the rmding of Pu is as..,ociated with calculation of the
Pralldtl-Meyer flow on the upper side of the airfoil.
The relations obtained for the aerodynamic coefficients of the
airfoil relate to arbitrary values of the nose angle (h, ~u) and tho
angle of attack. If these values are not largo, the second-order t.heory
can be IIsed to calculate the coefficients. According to this theory,
in formulas (7.5.31) for c!l.a and c lla ' we must assume that
K, - ~, +~.

K, - ~, -

When calculating the moment coefficients (7.5.33) and (7.5.36),

wo must proceed from the fact that

A, - 0.5 (~b -;- ~").I A,

= 0.5 (~b -

~").

B,

= 0.5 (~, -

~:)

Ch. 7. An Airfoil in

II

Compressible Flow

For a symmetric airfoil, we have

c:I;.=2cda;Z~~Z),

clIa =2c j a.

m,=(2cz~-cj)a;,

cp=O.5(1-2--2-~)

299

where the angle ~ i~ chosen with a minus sign (for the bOltom side).
The use of formulas (7.5.37), (i . .'J.38) allows HS to determine the
aerodynamic coefficients (7.5.39)-(7 . .').43) corresponding to hypcrsonic velocities of a thin airfoil at a small angle of attack.
7.6. Sideslipping Wing Airfoil
Definition of II Sideslipping Wing

...... Let 1\S assume that an inlinite-span rectangular wing performs

longitudinal motion at the velocity VI (normal to Lhe leading edge)
and lateral motion aiong lhe spall at tho velocity V 2 The resultant
velocity V = VI + V2 is directed toward the plane of symmetry of
the wing at the sideslip angle ~. A rectangular wing performing such
motion is said to be a sldC!:llipping one_
The flow over a sideslipping wing does 110t change if we consider
inverted now in whicll a rectangular wing encounters a stream of
air at the velocity - Y I perpendicular to the leading edge, and a
stream at the velocity - V 2 in the direction of tbe wing span
(Fig. 7.6.1).
The nature of the l10w is the same if the resultant velocity V""
is parallel to the initial velocity - Vi (soc Fig. 7.6.1) and the reclangular wing is turned through the angle x = ~ (fig. 7.0.2). Such a
wing, which is also a sideslipping one, is usually called an infmitespan swept wing. The angle x is determined as the sweep angle relative to the leading edge.
Let us consider some features of Hie flow over sideslipping wings.
The Dow about such wings can be divided into two nO\Vs: a longitudinal one (along lhe span of the wing) characterilcd by the velocity
V"oo = V 00 sin x parallel to the leading edge, and a lateral ooe
depending on the magnitude of tile normal velocity component to
this edge Vnoo = V 00 cos x.
The distribution of the velocities and pressures along the wing
does not depend on the longiludinal Dow, and is due only to the
lateral Dow at the velocity V n _ = V ... cos )to The nature of this
flow and, therefore, the pressure distribution change depending on
the configuration of the airfoil in a plane normal to tho leading edge,
and on the angle of attack measured in this plane. Accordingly.
the aerodynamic characteristics of the airfoil are the same as of a
rectangular (unswept) wing airfoil in a Dow with a free-stream
velocity of V n00 at the indicated angle of attack.

300

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of lin Airfoil and a Wing

I
c:::=J
(')

V,

(b~)_ _V'_-----,

Rt7.6.t

Motion of a wing with sideslippiog:

o-Iongiludlnal motion at an Inflnlte-apan rtctangulaf wins: b-Iatenl motion; _ ...ultant moUon at tbe sldeallp angle,

~:'~:i~p~ing
I-wing

wing:

6urtac~:

2-nlrfoU In a Sf'ction along 8 nomal; ,,_alrloilin a eectlon along tbe Oow

This is exactly the content of the sld(>5lip elTed which to a considerable extent determines the aerodynamic properties of finitespan swept wings. The term swept is conventionally applied to a
wing in which the line connecting the aerodynamic centres (foci)
of the airfoils (the aerodynamic centre line) makes with a normal to
the longitudinal plane of symmetry the angle x (the sweep angle).
In aerodynamic investigations, the sweep angle is often measured
from another characteristic line, for example, from the leading or
trailing edge (Xl' x s), from lines connecting the ends of selected
elements of a chord (XI/4' Xlii' ). from the lines of the maximum
thickness of the airfoils. etc. (Fig. 7.6.3a).
If the leading edges are curved or have sharp bends, the sweep
angle will be variable along the span.
The flow over swept wings in real conditions is distinguished by
its very intricate nature, due primarily to the partial realization
of the sideslip effect. Figure 7.6.3b shows a possible scheme of such
flow over a swept finite-span wing with a sufficiently large aspect
ratio.

Ch. 7. An Airfoil in

III

Comprenible Flow

301

ra!

Fig. 7.6.3

Finite-span swept wing:

a-dcalgnatloll of the sweep angles: b-sllb8Ol\lo now oYer a swept wing

The middle region of the wing (region I) is characterized by the

mutual influence of neighbouring airfoils reducing the sweep (sideslip)
angle. Here the midspan effect appears that detracts from the aerodynamic properties because of the decrease in the sideslip effect.
In region III, the tipeiTect acts. It is due to an appreciable deflection
of the streamlines in comparison with a sideslipping wing. And only
in region II, distinguished by a more uniform flow, is the curvature
of the streamlines relatively small, and the sideslip angles ~ are close
to the sweep angle x. In aerodynamic investigations, this region of
the wing can be represented in the "pure" form as a region of a swept
(sideslipping) infinite-span wing arranged in the flow at the sweep
angle. It will be shown in Chap. 8 that the conclusions relating to
such wings of a small thickness can be used to calculate the flow over
separate parts of swept finite-span wings at supersonic volocities .
...,odynamlc Ch.r.derlsflcs
of stcIullpplng Wing Alrfo[l

When determining such charactoristics, a sideslipping wing is

considered as a straight one turned through the sideslip angle x.
In this case, the airfoil of a sideslipping wing in a normal section
will evidently be the same as that of a straight one.
The airfoil and the angle of attack in a plane normal to the leading
edge differ from the airfoil and anltie of attack in the section along
the flow (see Fig. 7.6.2). The chord in a normal section bn and the
chord b along the flow are related by the expression bn = b cos x.
The angle of attack Ctn in a normal section is determined from the
expression
sin aD

= hlbp. = hl(b cos x)

= sin Ct/cos x

(7.6.1)

302

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynilmics of iln Airfoll ilnd

iI

Wing

where a is the angle of attack in the plane of the (low. It is evident

that at small angles of attack we have

= WCOS x

an

(7.6.1')

If at a point on a wing airfoil in flow without sideslipping at the

velocity V"" the pressure coefficient is F, then when the wing is
turned through the angle x the pressure coefficient Pn at thei corresponding point is the same, Le.
2(P. - P .)/(p. 1"'; cos' x) = 2 (p - p .)/(p. 1".)
Accordingly, for the airfoil of a sideslipping wing, the pressure
coefficient calculated from the velocity head q ... = O.5p... V:, is

p" = 2 (P. - P.)/(p.1".) = COS'"

(7.6.2)
With a view to (7.6.2) and in accordance with (7.5.23), (7.5.24),
and (7.5.26), the aerodynamic coefficients for the airfoil of a thin
sideslipping wing are
c:r,>< = Cr cos! it,
=
cos! x, m~,;( = m~ COS" (7.6.3)

C",.

C,

Evidently. by (7.5.25'), we have

c~a'" =

(c:c

+ c,a) cos! " = crr, cos

Since the drag force is determined not in the direction of the

velocity component V"" cos x, but in the direction of the free-stream
velocity V... , the coellicient of this drag is

c:c:;( = c~a"

COS" =

c:c. cosS "

(7.6.4)

All these coellicients arc determined for a velocity head of q"" =

= O.5p""P"". Inspection of formulas (7.6.3) for c,.,. and mz,l< reveals
that the coefficient of the centre of pressure c p = -m,.,./c,.y' corresponding to small angles of attack does not depend on the angle of
attack, i.e. C p = -m~/c/l'
Compressible Flow. According to the linearized theory, the pressure
coefficient for the airfoil of a sideslipping wing in a subsontc compressible flow can be obtained from the corresponding coe1licient for the
same '.... ing in an incompressible flllid by the Prandtl-Glauert formula
(7.1.14), substituting the number Moo cos x for Moo in it:

p,.=P",teIV1-M!.cos2x

(7.6.5)

or, with a view to (7.6.2)

p,.

Pic cos

xlVi

M:" cos2 it

(7.6.5')

The relevant aerodynamic coefficients are obtained from (7.5.23).

(7.5.24), and fI.5.26), and are found with the aid of formulas (7.6.3)

Ch. 7. An Airfoil in .. Compressible Flow

:~ (M""~~W':~--V_:_;___
i",

303

(b)

'iC-Si,2-,u_

~i~~:itp'Ping

wing with slIhsonic (a) and supersonic (b) leadintt c(lgros

and

(7.5.4) whose right-hand sides contain the qnantity

Vi M!o cos2 x in the denominaLor. Particularly. the coerricieillsof
the normal force and the longiludinal moment. are
Cll.~ =cu cos2.xf1/1

M:" cos2.x; m1 , >! = rn; cos2.;;JV 1- M~ cos:! %

(7.6.6)

It follows from t.hese relations that for thin airfoils, the coeITicient
of the centre or pressure c p = -m 1 ,)I,lcy,)I, depends neither on the
sideslip (sweep) angle nor on tho eomprr.ssihility (the number ill ",,).
The usc of a sideslipping wing produces the same flow efT('ct that
appears when the frcc-stream velocity is lowered from F
to
V ... cos x (or the Mnch number from M ... to M"" cos Yo). HC're, Ilalurally. the local velocities on an airfoil or the shlcslipping wing also
decrease, and this, in turn. le8tls to diminishing of tho rarl'r;lction
and. as n result-. to an increase in the critical Milch nnmber. The
Jatter call be dc.termined from its ]mown v31ue JH eo C r for a straight
wing of the same shape and flngle of aLtack as 11m airfoil of Ill('
sideslipping wing in a normal seclion:
<&>

Moo cr,"

= M ... cr/cos'fl. x

(i.G.7)

Supersonic Velocities. Let us llSl'umc that aL a ~upcr!'=ollie frcestream velocity (V ... > a .... Moo> 1), tbe sweep angle satislips the
inequality )t > n/2 - ..... , according to which cos x < sin 1-1"" and,
consequently. Vn"" < a,., = V"" sin ]l ... , Le. the normal component
to the leading edge is subsonic. lIence. the flow over the seclious of
a sideslipping wing is subsonic in its nature. In the case beiug considered. the swept edge is called suhsonic (Fig. 7.6.1a).
At increased Dow veloeitie!'=. the normal velocily component may
become higher than the speed of sound (Vn... > a ... = V"" sin 1-1 ....).
so that x < n/2 - 1-' ... and cos x > sin 1-'00' In this case, the Dow

304

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 an Airfoil and a Wing

over the airfoils of a sideslipping wing is supersonic. Accordingly,

the leading edge of such a wing is called supersonic (Fig. 1.6.4b).
Let us consider the calculation of the supersonic Dow over a sideslipping wing in each of these cases.
Supersonic Leadlng Edge. The Dow over such a wing can be calculated by the formulas obtained for an infinite-span thin plate
provided that the free-stream velocity is V n"" = V"" cos x > a"",
and the corresponding number M 0. "" = M "" cos x > t. The angle of
attack of the plate aD is related to the given angle of attack a of the
Sideslipping wing by expression (7.6.1). or at small angles of attack
by (7.6.1').
Using formula (7.4.9) and substituting aD. = a/cos x for ~ and
MD"" = M "" cos x for M "" in it. we obtain a relation for the pressure
coofficient in a plane perpendicular to the leading edge:

j;-I 2a/(eosjx V M'.eos'x-I)

In this formula. the pressure coefficient Ii is rolated to the velocity
hoad qn = O.5kp....M1D oo. To obtain the value of the pressure coefficiont
rolated to the froe-stream volocity head q"" = O.5kp...,M1"", we must
use formula (7.6.2) according to which
p,. _ 2a eoslxtV M"':'-:Cco:-:s"'.c-'I
(7.6.8)
In (7.6.8). the plus sign determines the pressure coefficient for
the bottom sido of a wing. and the minus sign for the upper side.
In accordanco with formulas (7.4.20)-(7.4.22) (replacing a with aD
and M ... with M"" cos x in them). and also with a view to relations
(7.6.3) and (7.6.4). wo find a rolation for the aerodynamic coefficients
of a sideslipping wing airfoil
cll

.,.= 4(111 cos2 x/V M!,cos:l.x-1

C=.1C=

4a.~cossx/VM!. cos2 x-1

')
(7.6.9)

m"a>l= -2a"coszy'/V M!,cos 2 x-1

Upon analysing these relations. we can establish a feature of
swopt wings consisting in that in comparison with straight ones
(x = 0). the lift force and drag coefficients, and also the coelliciont
of the longitudinal moment of airfoils (in tlteir magnitude) are
smaller at identical angles of attack an along a normal to the leading
edge. The physical explanation is that in now over a Sideslipping
wing Dot tho total volocity head g... = 0.5p ... V!. is realized, but only
a part of it. gO. = g ... cos2 x, and flow in the direction of the oncoming
stream occurs at a smallor angle of attack than in the absonce of
sideslip (a < an. aa = a/cos x).
Subsonic Leading Edge. The Dow over sections (',orresponding to
the motion or a straight wing with the number Mn_ < 1 is investi-

Ch, 7. An Airfoil in

II

Compressible Flow

305

gated with tlle aid of the subsonic or transonic (combined) theory of

flow over an airfoil. The drag and lift forceg arc determined by the
laws of subsonic flows cllar;lcterizcd by interaction of the flows on
the upper and bottom sides of a wing that manifest.s itself in thE!
gas flowing ovcr from a region of lligll pressure into a zone \\'itll
reduced pressure values, V\'U\'C losses may appear olily in sllpcrcritical flow (Mno<> > M > cr) when shocks form on the surface,
If M" '" < lW 00 c r, then shocks and, therefore, \\'ave drag are absent.
This conclusion relates to an inlinite-span wing, For lillite-span
wings, wave losses are always prescnt because flow O\'er their tips
is allccted by the velocity component V sin %, A result is the
appearance of supersonic flow properties and of a wayc drag, The
three-dimcnsional theory of supersonic flow has to be llsed to study
this drag.
00

Suction Force

As we have established in Sec. 6.3, a ~mctioll force appears on the

leading edge of an airfoil over which an incompressible fluid is
flowing. The same effect occllrs when an airfoil is in It subsonic flow
of a compressible gas. The magnitude of tile snction force is affected
by the sweep of the leading edge of the wing.
To calculate this force, we shall use expression (o.il.25), which
by meallS of the corresponding transformations can be made to
cover the more general case of the tlow over an airfoil of a wing \vith
a swept leading edge (Fig. 7.6.5). Let us consider this transformation.
In au iu\'iscid flow, the free-stream velocity component tangent to the
leading edge of a sideslipping wing docs )lot change the Iield of the
disturbed velocitics, and it remains the sume as for a straight wing
in a l10w at the velochY V n "" ,.., V"" cos %. The forces acting on the
wing also remain unchanged.
Therefore, the following suet ion force acts on a wing element
dz o with a straight edge (in the coordinates .1'0' zo):
dl'o = ;tpc! dz o
(7.G.1D)
where in accordance with (6.3.28')
c~=
lim lu:(xo-x~.eo)l
Xo-Xs .eo

A glance at Fig. 7.6.3 reveals that dT o = dT/cos

= u/cos~, and Xo - Xs.eo = (x- x~.e) cos ~.
Insertion of these values into (7.6.10) yields

~,

dz o = dz/cos

~,

Uo

dT/dz=npc:z.V1-i- tan:z.x

(7.().ll)

c:z.,._", lim fu 2 (x-xs,e}J

(7.().12)

where
Z-X s . r
20-01715

FIg. 7.6.5

Suction force of a sidellipping

wing

Expressions (7.6.11) and (7.6.12) can be generalized for compressible Dows. For this purpose, we shall use expressions (8.2.4) relating
the geometric characteristics of wings in a compressible and an incompressible Dows. It follows from these relations that all the linear
dimensions in the direction of the x-axis for a wing in a compressible
Dow are 'V 1 - M!, limes smaller than the relevant dimensions for
a wing in an incompressible Dow. whereas the thickness of the wing
and its lateral dimensions (in the direction of the z-axis) do not
change. Accordingly. we have

x=xlc'Vl-M!... bdz=b1c dz 1C 'V1-M!,

tanx=tanx!c'V1-M;'
From the conditions that x
find

= XIC 'V 1 -

M~ and <p'

(7.6.13)

= <Pl~'

we

i.e.
(7.6.14)

'therefore, the pressure coefficient for a compressible Dow is determined by the Prandtl-Glauert formula:
(7.6.15)
~he suction force T in its physical nature is a force produced by the
achon ?f the normal stress (pressure) and at low angles of attack is
determmed from the condition T ~ aY a. The corresponding suction

Ch. 7. An Airfoil ill 11 Comp.eS$ible Flow

307

force coefficient is C;(.T = TI(q"S".) = ac y,,' Since the dimensions

of a wing in the direction of tho y-axis do not Ch<lllge ill a compressible
and an incompressible flows, the anglE's of attack for both flows also
do not change, i.e. t;(. = ale' Consequently, C",T/C"',T.IC = cll~IcYalc,
or by (7.1.14)
(7.6.16)

With a vie\,, to the relations for an airfoil of a sideslipping wing,

we ha.ve
c,~. T

P<>o1';,

p..r;,

Cx,T---y-bdz= VI-,ll!, .~bjc

V--,
I-Jf;,dz

1e

dT = dT,c

But since dz = dz lc , then

(7.6.17)

dT/dz = dT1e.tUle

The right-hand side of Eq. (7.6.17) corresponding to an incompressible flow is determined by formula!; (7.6.11) and (7.6.12):
dT\cldz}c.

'-=

:tP""CI~

Vi -+- tanl! i(IC

where

cre=

lilll
[UTc
"Ie-Xs.e. Ie

(.rIC-.Ts,e.

Icl]

In accordance with (7.6.17), (7.6.13), and (7.6.14), we obtain

cfc= lim [u2(x-x~.e)lV1-J1~;
x ......s.e

Vl-

tan 2 %IC

Consequently,
dTldz

= npaoc2V1 + tan:! x

M';.

(7.6.18)

where
c~=

lim [u:!(x-xs.e)j

(J.6.19)

X-Xs_e

I t follows from the abo .... e formulas that at a given value of the
number JU co, the suction force depends on the sideslip angle and on
the nature of the change in the velocity u within a very small vicinity
of the leading edge. We can assume that a finite-span swept wing is
also characterized by a similar relation for the suction force.

8. t. Linearized Theory

of Supersonic Flow
over a Finite-Span Wing
Llnearlzatfon 01 the Equation
for the Potenflal Fundlon

Let us consider a thin slightly bent fmite-span wing of an arbitrary

planform in a supersonic Oow at a sIllall angle of attack. The disturbances introduced by such a wing into the flow are small. and for
investigation of the Dow we can use the linearized theory as when
studying a nearly unirorm now near a thin airfoil (see Sec. 6.2). The
conditions for such a flow are given for the velocities in the form of
(6.t.t). If we are considering a linearized three-dimensional gas flow.
these conditions are supplemented with a given velocity component
along the z-axis. Accordingly, the following relations hold for a
linearized three-dimensional disturbed Oow:

V. = V

lSI

+ u.

V..,

= V,

V:: = w

(S.Li)

where u, v, and UJ are the disturbance velocity components along the

z, y, and, axes, respectively.
In accordance with the property of a linearized flow, we have

"<:

V _.

<

V _.

<

V_

(8.1.2)

Theae conditions make it possible to linearize the equations of

motion and continuity and thus simplify the solution of the problem
on a thin wing in an inviscid steady flow. In the general form. the
equations of motion of such a flow are obtained from system (3.t.t7)
in which .... '.:: 0, aV~/8t = aVlllat = aViat = 0:

V.

a;:. +V" a:u. +V:: 8~:c =

V.

8~:

V. 8Jzr

+VII

_+.~

a:; +V:: iJ~u =-f.*

::r = - i-. ~

+ VII a:,~ -~ 1':

(8.i.3)

Ch. 8. A Wing in

ill

Supersonic Flow

309

We shall adopt the continuiLy equation in the form of (2.4.4).

Calculation of the partial derivatives yields

p(a~% + 8:;, + iJ~2 )~'V:O:~'r'Vv* :"V:*=O

(8.1.4)

It was shown in Sec. 5.1 that the equations of continuity and

motion can be combined into a single equation relating the velocity
components to one another. By performing transformations similar
to those made in Sec-. ;i.f, we can write this eqnation in the form
(Vi-a:!)

iJ~~x

..

(V~-Q:!)

::" .

+V:o:VII(iJ~x + iJ~" ).~.ll'xVt

+ l-'yV,

(V~-a:!) o;~.
(0;;'(

+ ~;:?)

((J;:" -7- iJ/~~z ) ... 0

(8.1.5)

Taking into account relations (2.:l.2) for the potential function,

and also the condition of equality of the cross partial derivatives
(a 2fPlox ay = a2ff,'()Y ox, otc.), from (R.i.;'}) we derive an equation
for the velocity potential:

(Vi - a2 ) ::~ -T- (V~ - a:) :~

+(Vi _ a2)

~-2V:o:V!1 iJ~~:~ -:-2V:o:V: :::: .~2VyV,

8;:

:;:1

=0

(8.1.6)

Equations (8.1.5) and (8.1.6) are the fundamental d(tjerential

equations of gas dynamics for three-dimensional steady gas flows. The
first of them relates to the more general case of a vortex (non-potential)
now of a gas, while the second is used to investigato only vortex-free
(potential) flows.
Since the flow over thin wings at small angles o[ attack is potential,
we can use Eq. (8.1.6) for the velocity potential to investigate this
ftow. To linearize Eq. (8.1.6), ,... hieh is a non-linear differential
equation, we shall introduce into it expression (7.1.::n for the speed
of sound, and also the values

Vi-

V z = V"" +u, V!I =V, V l =w

= l'!. .!- 2V""u, V::::::::: v 2, 'Vl
w2 ;

"'~"'-+'I'.
After analysing the order of magnitude of the terms in the obtained
equation in the same way as we did in Sec. 7.1 when considering a

310

Pt. I. Theory ..... rodynamics of lin Airfoil .nd a Wing

f!l

(oJ

"

Fig. 1.1.1
Thin wing In a linearized floVo"

nearly uniform plane flow, we obtain a linearized equation for the

"elocity potential of a three-dimensional di5turbE'd flow in the
following form:

louncllry ConciHlcns

Investigation of the Dow over a thin finite-span wing consists in

solving the linearized partial dHIerential equation (8.1.7) of the
second order for the velocity potential <f' at the given boundary
conditions. Let us consider these boundary conditions.
1. A wing in a linearized Dow (Fig. 8.1.1a, b) causes disturbances
that are concentrated inside the wave zone. This zone is limited by
a surface that is the envelope of Mach cones issuing from points on
the leading edge and having an apex (cone) angle of fl ... =
= sin- 1 (11M ",,). The boundary condition satislied by the solution
of Eq. (S.1.i) for the function <p' has the form
[~ . (x. y. ,)1, ~ 0
(8.1.8)
Acc-ording to this condition, on the wave surface (we shall designate
this surface by 1:) or outside of it, the disturbance velocities are
'Zero .
2. The solution for the additional potential cp' also satisfies the
boundary condition of flow over the wi ng surface S \vithout separation,
in accor dance with which the normal velocity component at each
point is 'Zero. i.e.
(V II)S =" ( ::

)s =

+"*" COs(~)+ :~

::

cos

(~)

C05(i)=O

(S.1.9)

Ch. 8. A Wing in " Supenonic Flow

311

Here

The direcLion cosines of an outward normal to the surface are

found by formulas of analytical geometry:
/'--

cos (n, x) "'" -A iWtJJ',

/'--

cos (n. y)

/'--

A;

cos (n, z) = -it

araz

(8.1.10)

in which
,I ~ II ,- (a//8x)'

+ (8//0,)'1-'1'

(8.1.11)

while the fUlIction I is determined by the shape of the wing surface

[the fllIlelion y -= lu (.1'. z) for the upper surface, alld y = Ib (x, z)
for the bottom ollei.
A linearized (nearly uniform) [low is reali~ed provided that the
wing is thin and, consequently, alliJx <: 1 and iJlliJz <: 1. According/'-.

/'--

/'--

-afax, cos (n, y) = 1, and cos (n, z) = -iJlia:,.

(Utp':ax) allax <: 1 and (fflp' /iJz) iJ/liJz <t. 1 are also
flow over a thin wing. With this in view, (8.1.9)
as
- V '"' alliJx ;-lJrf'/iJy = 0;
whence the boundary condition is
iJCf'.'ily = V,., fJ//a.T
(8.1.12)
:t Till) low over a wing may he attended uy the developing of a
lift force who~;e total magnitude is determined by integration over
the surface of the values of the lift force acting on all elementary
surface {a part of the wing having a width of dz and a chord length of
b (z) (fig. 8.t.l)1. In accordance with (6.1.8), ami with the fact that

Iy, cos (n, x) =

The conditions
observed in the
can be written

, '\' (x) dx equals tile circulation

-,

in the section z being considered,

the lift coefficient for an elementary surface equals the "alue

= (2/V cob) r (z), whence the circulation in the given section
r (,) ~ O.5c;.V ~b
(8.1.13)
According to the conpling equation (8.1.13) Isee (6.4.8)], UpOIl
moving to a neighhouring section with a dillerent lift coefficient.
the velocity circulation also changes. This change is
dr (,) ~ (dr/d,) d, ~ O.5V ~ Id (c;.b)/dzl d,
(8.1.14)
In accorclauce with the vortex model of a wing treated in Sec. 6.4.
an elementary bound vortex belonging only to the section being con~

a12

pt. I. Theory. Aerodynomics of on Airfoil ond ., Wing

sidcred passes within the contour enclosing t.he adjacent section.

This vortex turns and is cast off the trailing edge in the form of a
pair of elementary free I)()rtices forming a vorU'x she<!t beJlind the
wing (Fig. 8.1.1). For a thin wing in a flow at a small angle of attack,
we may assume that the width of this sheet equals the span of the
wing, and that the direction of the free vortices coincides with the
free~stream velocity.
Physical notions allow us to establish the following boundary
conditions on a "ortex sheet. The normal component of a particle's
velocity Vn = fJep'/fJn remains continuous on the sheet. Since the
direction of a Ilormal on the vortex sheet differs only slightly from
the direction of the axis Oy, the derivative fJq/lfJn equals the quantity
fJ'P'/fJy. Consequently, we can write the condition
(a~'lay),_+o ~

(aq>'iiiy), __o

(8.1.15)

in which the left-hand side corresponds to the velocity Vn directly

above the vortex sheet (y = +0), and the right-hand side, to the
velocity under it (y = -0). Hence, condition (8.1.15) expresses the
continuity of the function orr-'lfJy when passing through a vortex
sheet.
In addition, the condition of the continuity of the pressure is
satisfied on a vortex sheet. According to (7.1.5'), we obtain the
relation
(8.1.16)
that also expresses the continuity of the partial derivative fJcp'18x
when passing through a vortex sheet.
Let us consider the fiow over a wing with a symmetric airfoil
(yu = -Yb) at a zero angle of attack. In this case, there is no lift
force and. consequently, no vortex sheet. Owing to the wing being
symmetric, the vertical components of the velocity on its upper and
bottom sides are equal in magnitude and opposite in sign, i.e.
v (x, +y, z) = -v (x, -Y, z). On plane :cOz outside the wing, the
component v = 0, therefore
a~'liiy ~ 0
(8.1.t7)
Let us assume further that we have a zero-thickness wing of the
same planform in a flow at a small angle of attack. The equation of
the wing's surface is y = f (x, z). A glance at (8.1.12) reveals that
the vertical velocity components Vn = 8cp'/oy on the upper and
bottom sides of the wing are identical at corresponding points. Since
we arc dealing with a sufficiently small angle of attack of the wing,
the same condition can be related to the plane y = O. At the same
time, such a condition can be extended to the vortex sheet bebin"
the wing, which is conSidered as a continuation of the vortices in the
plane y = O. Therefore, at points symmetric about this plane, the

Ch. 8, A Wing in

<I

Supersonic Flow

components Vn are the same, i.e. D<{l' (x, -y,

lay. Consequently, the additional polential
relative to the coordinate y, Le.

'1" (x, -y, ,)

= (hr'

313.

(x, +y, z)!

an odd function

- , ' ix, - y, ,)

(8,L\8}

Accordingly, the partial derivative uq//Ox on tile bottom side of

the vortex sheet equals the value -chp'lux on the upper side. But
the equality of the derivatives U(v' 'OJ.' \\'as estaLdi.-;IJed from the CODdition of pressure continuity. This equality C<l1I be observed only
when
art' ax = 0
(8,t.19}
on the vortex sheet.
1. To establish the last boundary condition, let us consider thedisturbed regiolls S rand S J (Fig. 8.1.1) that are cut off from the plane
y = 0 by the ~Iach wave surface and located outside the \\'"ing and
the vortex sheet. Over these regions of the plane y = 0 and within
tho limits of the wave ZOlle, the flow is continuous, therefore thepotential q/ here is also a continuous fUllction. At the 5..'lme time,
taking illto accouut that by (8.1.18) the function q:.' isodo, we should
adopt the following: ('qual ion for the plane y = 0:
If' (x, 0, z) = 0

(8.L20}

Components 0' the Tol<ll Va'ue5

oflhe VelocIty PotentIals
and AerodynamIc CoeHlcienb

The solution of Eq. (8.1.7) for the lHJditiollal potenlial I.p' must
correspond to the considered bOllnuary condiliOlls. Tlli:> solution
can be obtained for a wing with a given plan form by summation of
two potentials: the first, ((I;, is fOHlld for an idealized flat wing 1
(Fig. 8.1.2) of the same plan form ;1.:; the given on(', but ,yith a symmetric air/oil, and at a zero angle of attack (r,l. = 0). The second
potential, ((I~, is evaluated for a different idealiwd cambered wing ::
0/ zero thickness, but for the given angle of attack a.
The surface of nn idealized symmetric airfoil ,\ing can be given by
the equation

(S.UI}
and of a zero-thickness airfoil wing, by the 1!(luation of the surfaceof the mean camber lines of the airfoil

y =O.5Uu+/b)

(S.L22}

Hence, the total potential of the given wing is

(~' =-

q; .r'

(I;

(8, 1.23}

314

FIg.

Pt.

r.

Theory. Aerodynamics of an AirFoil and a Wing

a.u

Linearized supersonic now over a fmite lhickness airfoil at an angle of attack (I.:
0= 0, symml'tric alrroil, and givl'n thickness distribution; 2-a =!' 0, u'ro. th.tckne~
(tb" airfoil colncid~s with thp mpan cltmbl.>r line); 3-a 0= 0, z~ro thickncss (the alr'oll coincides wLth the mean cambt'r lm~); 4-a oF 0, zero thicknc$$ (the pl~lc airtoil colncid~s "'ilh
the chord)

I-a

The flow past wing 2, in turn, at a; *0 can be represented as a

flow past wing 3 with a uro angle of attack and a surface equation
y = 0.5 (fu + fb) and an additional flow superposed onto this one.
The additional flow is formed near wing 4 in the form of a zero thickness plate coinciding with the chord of the initial wing having an
angle of attack a; (Fig. 8.1.2). In accordance with this flow scheme,
the total potential for the given wing is
~' = ~; + ~; +~;
(8.1.24)
We can use this value of the velocity potential to calculate the
-distribution of the pressure coefficient

p = p; + Po + Po

(8.1.25)

and then fmd the drag and lift forces. By (8.1.24) and (8.1.25), the
total drag of the given wing is composed of the drags produced by
wings 1, 3, and 4, Le.
Xa = Xl + X3 + X,
(8.1.26)
Introducing the notation Xl -T- X 4 = XI and going over from the
forces to the corresponding aerodynamic coefficients, we have

q:'~w

q:;". + ~~~:4 q. .X~". + q:;".

=

(8.1.27)

Ch. 8. A Wing in ~ Supersonic Flow

315

In accordance with (8.1.27), the wing drag coefficient c"a consists

of the drag coefficient CliO of a symmetric wing at cVa = 0 and the
additional drag coefficient cx.; due to the lift force and calculated
for a zero-thickness wing at c y "
O. The coefficient C;r.h in turn,
consists of the induc(>d wav(> drag coeffi.cient calculated for the case
when the influence of vortices is absent and an additional induced
,oltex drag cocfficie-nt due to the span being Hnite anel to the formaliOIl in this connection of a vortex sheet behind the trailing edge.
By analogy with expression (8.1.2G) for the drag, let us gh'c in
the general form a relation determining the total magnitude of the
lift force of a wing }' a = Y 1 .- }':, I' Y4' A glance at Fig. 8.1.2
reveals that wing I baving 11 symm('tric airfoil and arranged at a
zero angle of attack does not create a lift foree 0'1 =O).Consequentiy, the total lift foree of the wing: is
1" a = }r:1 .!. Y'~
(8.1.28)

and the correspollllillg coefficient of this force is

(8.1.29)
Hence, according to the approximate Iinearizerl theory of Oow,
the thickness of a wing docs not aHect the lirt force. Wing ~ pro{luces
a constant lift force that docs not depend on tiw angle of attack. It
corresponds to the "alue of this forc(> at a zero angle of attack and 11
given concavity of a wing. A lift force due to the angl!' of at.lack is
p~oduced by wing 4- and, therefore, depends on the planform of the
wlIlg.

The iindillg of tile pressure distribution, the resultant forces, and

the releyant aerodynamic coefficients with a ,'ie\\, to their possible
resolution into components according to formulas (8.1.27) and
(8.1.29) is the basic problem of the aerodynamiCS o[ a finite-span
wing in a nt'ariy uniform supersonic now.
Features 01 Supersonic
Flow over Wings

When determining the aerodynamic characteristics of wings, we

mnst t.ake acconnl of the features of the supersonic flow over them.
These features are due to the specifiC property of supersonic flo\\'s
in which the disturbancps propagate only downstream and within
tile con(ines of a disturbance (Mach) cone with all apex angle of
f-l "" = sin -l (1/Jl1 00)'
Let us consider a supersonic flow oyer a thin wing having an arbitrary plan form (Fig. 8.1.3). Point 0 on the leading edge is a source of
disturbance!' propagating dow.nslream within the conlines of a Mach
cone. The Macll lines OF and OG are both ahead of tile leading edges

318

Pt. I. Theory, Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

Supersollic flow over n wing:

G-wlng with subsonic

rdgr~;

b- wing with

sll~l'$onlc

cdg\"s

(Fig. 8.1.3a) and behind them Wig. 8.1.3b). The arrangement of the
Mach Jines at a given wing planform depends on the number M ....
In the Jirst case, the nnmbcr M ... is smaller than in the second one,
and the angle of inclination of the Mach line ""OIl > nl2 - x (x is the
sweep angle). The normal velocity component to the leading eelge is
Vn ... =V""cosx. Since cosx<sin 11 ... = 11M"" and V OIl/a ... =
= M ... , the normal component V n... is evidently smaller than the
speed of sound. The flow of a gas in the region of the leading edge of
a swept wing for this case was considered in Sec. 7.6. This flow
corresponds to the sllbsonic flow over an airfoil that is characterized
by interaction between the upper and bottom surfaces occurring
through the Jearling edge. Such a leading edge is called 8ubsonic
(Fig. 8.U.).
Upon an increase in the now velocity, wben the tone of disturbance
propagat.ion narrows and the Mach lines are behind the leading edges
as shown in Fig. 8.1.3b, the normnl velocity component becomes
supersonic. Indeed, examination of Fig. 8.1.3b reveills that the angle
of inclination of the Mach line /1 ... < rr./2 - 1(, bence sin ~ ... =
= 11M ... < cos Y., anti therefore V n_ = V < cos X .> a-. Such a
leading edge ucalled 8uperBonic. The now over airfoils in the region
of the leading edge is of a ~upersonie nature whose feature is the
ab~ence of interaction between the hottom and the \lpper surfaces.
If the l-loch line coincides with the leading edge (x = ';[/2 - ~ ... ),
such an edge is sonic. It is quite evident that in thiscilse the magnitude
of the normal velocity componen t to the edge equall'! the speed of
sound.
Let us introduce the leading edge sweep paralllf'!ter n :"'- tan xl
Icot /1 .... For a supersonic. Jeading edge, cot ~l"" > tan x, therefore

Ch. 8. A Wing in a Supersonic Flow

317

1. For suhsonic. and SOllie lending edges. we have n > 1 and

It -= 1. respectively. hecause! in the first rase rot !J."" < tan x and
in the second one rot J.l "" -- tan x.
By analogy with thli' J(lading edges, we can inlrodllce Ihe ronrept
n

<

of Sllbsoni('. "'onir. and sllpc>rsollie lips (side edgcs) and trailing edges
of a wing, Tip CD wilh all allale of illclinaion Vt to the direclion of
the free-stream relocity smaller tlutn the Mach anale (Fig. 8.1.3a) ig
called subsonic. The velorilycompollent normal to a lip CInd equal to
= l' "" sin Vt is lower thnn the speed of SOl1nd ill the giYen case.
Indeed. sincu a x ,V .'>in p"" nnd Pox
Vt. we ha\'c Vn < a"".
It is ohvious that the leading edge sweep parameter II > 1. The
part of the wing surface with a sllhsonic tip is inside !.he region cut
()[( by the 1I.-[ach rones is.'<ning from rorners A and C of t.he contour.
Owing 10 a subsonic normal velocity component determining the
flow o\'er this pari of the wing, air i:; ob"'en'ed to OYernOW the tips,
the result heillg II rh<1llge in the pressl1l'e di.'<\.rihntiOlI. Such UII innllenc() of the wiug tips 011 the now ovcr the wing as II whole is not ohserved if the tips aresilpersonic. as when VI> J.l.,., (Fig, Fl,1.:1b), In
this case, t.he normal eomponent V" '" ,_ 1'..., ."in '\\ i.'< hight:'r than
the speed of SOHnd a"" - VoosiJl 1-1"".
Similar reasoning can be related to the trailing crlgc of the wiug.
Fig, X,1.3a shows a ."ubsonir trailing edge ('Vtr < J.1 ""; 1'" < a",,),
alld Fig, R.1.~/)-a supersonir on(' ('Vtr > 11 ... ; 1'" "" > 1I",),
The above analysis allow." one 10 e:-tablish the qnalilati"e difference between supersonic 8mi stlh:-onlr nnw over wing.". This difference manifests itself in the diHerl'nt influence of the tips and trailing
edges on the now over thli' entirl' wing surface. If in a ~upersollir
flow. the tips and trailing edges do 1I0t afiect the flow o\'er the wing
(Fig. 8.1.3b), or this innuenr,e i.-;. limited to the part of the surface
adjoining these tips and eugt:'s (Fig. 8.1.3a), in a subsonic. flow the
action of the tips aud trailing edges manifests itself on the entire
surface because the di."turbances can propagate both downstream
and u pstrt:'am.

"n""

<&>

8.2. Method of Sources

To sol"e the problem on determining the aerodynamic characteristics (Pl' cxo) of a thin symmetric airfoil wing of an arbitrary pI aliform
in a Hearly uniform silper."onic flow at a zero angle of attack (c v -::: 0),
we shall usc the method of sources.
Sources ill an incompressible fluid are treated in Sec, 2,9. The
velocity potential of the incompressible now from a point source at
the origin of eoorriinates of the system Xlc. Ytr. Z(C' aecording to
(2.9.14), is

Ifle = -qte/ (4;r. Yrte

+ Yfe

: zle)

(8.2.1)

818

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airloil and a Wing

where qlc is the flow rate of the source, i.e. the volume of fluid flowing
out of the source in unit time.
The method of sources deals not with individual point sources,
but with sources continuously distributed over a part of a plane.
usually the coordinate plane xOz.
Let dqlc be the elementary volume flow rate of the fluid produced
by the sources 011 the small area dalc = df.lc d~IC in the plane xOz.
I-Ienc.e the derivative dqlc/dole = QIC' known 8S the density (or
intf'nsity) of !';ource distribution, determines the strength of the
sources per unit area.
If v is the vertical component of the velocity on the area dUIe
(the plus sign signifies that the fluid is discharged upward from the
sources, and the minus sign-downward), the elementary volume
flow rate is evidently dqlc = 2v dalc and, therefore.
(8.2.2)
QIC = 2v
The following potential corresponds to an elementary source:
dqJlc= -

QIC

du,c/(4n V zic -~- yfc + zlc)

(8.2.3)

using this expression, we can obtain a relation for the elementary

potential of a source in a subsonic compressible flow. To do lhis, let
us consider Eq. (8.1.7) and introduce the new variables
xlc=xtV1-M~,

YJc=Y,

Zlc=-Z

(8.2.4)

With the aid of these variables, Eq. (8.1.7) is transformed as follows

o21Jl'loxlc + o2rp'loyfc + a2!p'lazfc =-: 0
(8.2.5)
This expression coincides with the continuity equation (2.4.8') for
an incompressible flow. Consequently, the problem on the compressible disturbed flow in the coordinates x. y, and Z can be reduced to
the problem on an incompressible disturbed flow in the coordinates
Zlc' Ylc. alld ZIC. both systems of coordinates being related by conditions (8.2.4).
Accordingly, we ('an go o"er from potential (8.2.3) for an elementary source of an incompressible fluid to the relevant potential for a
subsonic source of a compressible fluid. To do this, we shall flOd
the relation between the small area dolC on the plane XICOZIC in the
in('ompregsible flow and the area du on a corresponding plane in the
compre5SibJe flow. Using (8.2.4) (with the substitution of ~ for Ilc
and t for ZIP) and lhe expression dolc :-: d~,C dt, C' we fmd that
dUlc -= d dt (1/V1 - M!.). whence, taking into account that
~ do, we find
(8.2.6)
Let us transform the expression for QIC in (8.2.3). Thecomponent
Vic = {)!P'I{)YIC' or with a view to (8.2.4), Vic == {)qJ' /(jy. It thus follows

d, d,

Ch. 8. A Wing in " Supersonic Flow

319'

FI,.I.l,t

Disturbed flow due to a supersonic source:

"t the right-a )lnch (oislurbantf!)c:onl' In a rt'alsupt>rsonic now, at till' lell-an "inverte$
Math

~"olIe"

that in a compressible flow. the vclocity componcnt v equa.ls thecomponent ViC in an incompreflsible flow. TIencc. the density of sourcedistribution in a compre.c;sible and incompressible flows is the some,

i.e.
(8.2.7)

With account taken of the relations obtained for A ('ompressibJeflow. (8.2,~) is transformed to tho following expression:
d~'-Qda/[4n]/'z' ,(1

"l~)(y', z'))

(8.2.8)

We can COllvince ourselves by direct substitutioll that the huution

q/ is an integral of Eq. (8,2,5). It does not matter whether the velocity
is subsonic (M ... < 1) or supersonic (M ... > 1). III Ihe latter ca!'le. it

is convenient to write the expression for the elemeutary potential as.

d~'- -Q da/[4n]/,z'--a"(y'c "JJ

(8.2.9)

where (Z,'2=M!.-1.
Examination of expression (8.2.9) re\'eals that whell M <to> 1 it
has real values in the region of space where ;r: ~ (1:: (y~ .-:- Z2). This
signifIes that the region of i'lonrce influence, i.e. the region of disturbed
flow experiencing thE'!' actioll of the~e MUf('es, il'l inside the couical
surfaco represented by the equation .1'2 - a.'2 (yZ -;- ZZ). If a poillt is
outside this surface, the sourCE'!'S have un influellce 011 it. Hert' thereis no disturbed Row from a gh'en source.
Formally, tbe equation x,2 = Ct'Z (yl! + z~) dE'!'lermincs the Sllrfaces
of two aligned cones (Fig. 8.2.1) with their \'ertice!'l at the origin of
coordinates, and. consequently, the strength of a !<ource Q do is
used to produce disturbed flows inside these cones. In a real case,
supersonic disturbance., propagate only downstrf>am aod only inside
one cone (the right-hand one in Fig. 8.2,1).
The disturbed flow in such a cone is determined by a potential
double that given by (8.2.9) because the entire strpngth of the source.

320

Pt. J. Theory. Aerodyn"mics of an Airfoil and a Wing

Fig. 8.2.2

Region of influence of supeI1lonic sources

and not half of it, is realized in the flow confmed within the Mach
cone. Accordingly,
(8.2.10)

In the considered case, the elementary area da ~ d~ d with the

.sources is at the origin of coordinates. If it is displaced with respect
to tile origin of coordinates to a point with (he coordinates x O.=: Ii
and z ,.", ~, Eq. (8.2.10) has the form
d~' ~ -

Q dol (2o< V'(x---,"')"--a'''-''[yO'-+-(,-z----.,=)'1J'

(8.2.11)

When studying the flow over a wing, its surface is replaced with
a system of disturbed SOUfCC5. To obtain the potential due to these
sources at arbitrary point A (.:c, y, z) (Fig. 8.2.2), we must integrate
(B.2. "11) over the region a in which only part of the sources are located.
Eacll of these sources inflILen('es point A (x, y, z) if it is inside a !\[ach
COlle with its vertex in the source. Hence, the region affected by the
sources (the region of integration) is in the zone of intersection with
the wing surface of an "inverted Mach cone" with its vertex at point
A (x y, z) being considered.
In a simpler case, point A alld the source are located, as can be
seen from Fig. 8.2.2, in the same plane y ----' O. In this case, the
affected zone coincides with the region of intersection of the wing
and the ~Iaeh lines issuing from point l'vl (x, z), while the region of
integration 0" is on the wing and is the intersection of the wing surface with the im'erted plane Mach wave having its vertex at point
t

A (.1", z).

Having determined the integration region cr, we r.an evaluate the

total potential at point A (x, y, z):
(8.2.12)

Ch. 8. /II Wing 'in a Supersonic Flow

321

By t',alculating the parlial ucrh'ative of If' (8.2.-12) with respect to

oX, we fmd the additional axial velocity tomponent:
~-u-~
QZ - 2n

j).

>

l/{lz

Q(~, t)(z-ild~d;
S)l a;':I.
(:

[II~:

;PW

(R.2.13)

We use this value to determine the pres~ure coefficient

= -2u1V_ at the eorresponding point.
Let us introduce the new ("oordinates

Ii =

(8.2.14)

In these coordinates. expression (8.2.12) bas the form

'P

'(z

,.

y,. . ) 1 -

1
-2:[

rr
J,,J

Y(ZI

Q(",)"":
!)I lit (III

In a particular case for points on the wing

additional potential bl

~'(z.. O. ")~

_-..!.. r
2tt

J0

I ,l

~)'

~urface

lO.)t

{II

Wl = 0), the
(8.2.16)

Qt<, ')",d,
(rl

(8215)

QI

where by (8.:L7)
(8.2.17)

The expressions obtained for the potential fUllction allow us to

calculate the distribution of the velocity Ilud pressure over the
surface of a thin wing if its plnnform. airfoil ("onfiguration, and the
free stream Ilumber M are given .
3, Wing with Symmetric Alrloll
and Trlangu. . P.antorm
(%=.:0. cy .. ~O)
Flow over _ Wing '_nel
wHh Subsonic leading Ed.e

Let us consider a supersonic flow at a zero angle of auack over a

wing panel with a symmetric airfoil that is a triangular surface in
which one of the side edges is directed along the x-axis. while the
trailing edge is removed to infinity (such a panel is also called aD
infinite triangular half-wing, }<'ig. 8.3.1). If such a surface has a
subsonic leading edge, the Mach line issuing from \'ertex 0 is ahead
of this edge.
The now parameters at small angles of attack a; can be determined
by replacing the surface in the now with a system of distributed
sonrces on the plane y = O. Let. us consider arbitrary point P on the
surface and evaluate the velocity potential at this point by arld21-017U

322

Pt. 1. Theory. Aerodynamics of lin Airfoil lind II Wing

Flg.I.l,t

Triangular wing with a subsonic leadin, edge

ing up the action of the sources in region OAPIJ conlined by the

leadiugOA aud side DB edges, and also by the Mach linesAP aud BP.
We determine the strength Q (s, ~) of the sources by formula
(8.2.7) in which according to the condition of now \.... ithout separation
we have v
AV
where J,. = dy/dx is the angular coeflicient of
the wing surface. lIenee
'0

0<),

The velocity potential at point P is determined by formula (8.2.12).

Performing the substitution Q :-: 2J,.V and assuming that y = O~
we obtain
,'v~ll
(83
Cf = -~ (I Y(XI' ,)1 o:'l{zp ')~
. . 1)
00

d,d,

where Xl' and Zp arc the coordinates of point P.

This integral takes into account the acHoll on point P of 80111'c.es
located on the area 0 equal to region OAPB that can be represented
as the slim of two sections: OAPJ{ aud HPH. Accordingly, the integral !fl' (8.3.1) can he written as the sum of two illtegrals:
<p'""

A~~

r II f("
()~\P}f

,)d,d,+ II 1. ()d,d,]

(8,3.2)

HPB

where

II" ')_[(x._')'_~"(z._,)'r'i2
(8.3.3)
On section OAPH, integration with respect to for each value of
must he performed from S =
~ tan x to S = SD =
ct' (zp ~), and integration with respe(,t to ~ from 0 to Zp.
On section BPB, integratioll with respect. to S, for which the value
of ~ = ~2' must be performed from S - ~F ;..: ~ tan x to S = SE ""
= Xp - a' (I; - zp), and integration with respect. to ~ from Zp to
~ --= ~1
= Xp -

sc -.

Ch, B, A Wing in ~ Supersol'lic Flow

Zn

= (Xp -+- a'zJ'("X'

-J_

[J d,

Ip

'r'~

323

tnn x), lienee,

- ;.~~

.Tp-tt'(JJ.>-;l

o
'1)

-'- Jd,

t~n

ft!,

'1'

,)d,

)(

.Tp-,;r.'(t-ll'l

1("

,)<I'J

(8.3.4)

ttl'lnx

Tho indcnrfiLe integral

Jf (s. ~) d~ = J 1/(xl'

~)~ ~fl.'~ (zp

(8.3.5)

;)i

Using this exprp~sion and introducing the main \'alue of the integral, we obtain the following formulll for the potential fUllction:

l_lzp-~tanxd"
a'lzp-",1
...

1I.l''''%i

836)

II' .-"",~ .. cos I

( ..

By rairulating Ihe partial Ileri\'ali\'c Qlp':OX, we lind t.he component of the additional velocity at point P in the dirertion of the
.T-axi!l:
11.1"...

i'lj/

1l=7j"i""

'.
f

c-=~ ~

V(zp

Taking into aeroullt t.hal. Lan x

>

d;
;tany.)S

a'l(zp

~)2

(8.3.7)

a' (cot !!""), we lind as II result

of integration that
:t

V~ CO~h-1 ;r(~~it:;~~:z:)

(8.3.8)

To facilitate the ("lirnlations. we shall inLrociure the angle e

del('l'milll"ld from the condition Lau 0 . 41' '.(;>, Clnd the nose lingle
Ilf the leading edge y . ~ ,1(':2 - x (Fig. H.3.2). In addiHon, let. liS
introdurc the Ilotlltion
n - tan Kia' .. " tan I.l ,..,/tan '1.
Zp tan x/,t'p . tan O't.an l'
With this taken into accounl. we havc
Il= -

and tho

presSUl'il

:ta'

~=z_t

cosh-I

1!1I(~-=~)

(8.8.0)

coefficicnt is

p= - ~:

= :ta' ::3_1 cosh- t 1111(21-=.(1)

(8.3.10)

324

pt. I. Theory. Aerodyn"mics of IOn Aidoil "nd " Wing

Now let us consider point N outside of the wing between the Mach
line OK' and the x-axis (.see Fig. 8.3.1) and calclliate for it the
velocity that is induced by the sources distrihuted over the wing
surface. To do this. we shall \l~e fonmlia (S.:1.1) determining the
velocity potential. Taking into a,connt that till.! action of the sources
on point N is confined by the region rJ = O/.!. we obtain the expression

~'~ - ),~~ ll/(U)d,dc

(8.3.11)

OLJ

where the function f (. s) is determined hy relat.ion (8.3.3). Integration with respect to; for each value of S .= ~3 lllust he performed
from = R = S tan x to .= T = X;-.1 + Ct' (ZN - s), and integration "..-ith respert to C, from 0 to ZJ. Hence,
ZJ

~'~

"'NHt'(lN-t)

- '~~ Jo d, tunx
J

I (;,

c) d,

(8.3.12)

where ZJ = (XN
a'zN)/(a.' + tan x).
By integrating and using the main value of the integral, we obtain
cp'= ),V""
n

"

r cosh-1

.t;;-ttanK d
a IZl'>-~1

This expression i~ similar to (8.3.6) with the djfference that the

coordinate zJ is taken as the upper limit of the integraL By calculating tlte derivative UIfJ'/ux and integraLillg, we obtain relation
(8.3.9) for the component of the additional velocity. We must assume
in it that cr < 0 because the coordinatezN is negath. e. In calculations,
the coordinate ZN may be assumed to be positive, and, consequently,
0> O. If we take the magnitudGS of tan x, then to determine the

Ch. 8. A Wing in

f~'riu~~~

oBI

Supersonic Flow

S2ij

"

of sources on the velocity oulside a wing

induced ... clority we may use Eq. (H.3J) in whidl 0 ~hoilltl he taken
with the opposite sign. The \vorking relalion 1I0W be('ome;<:

u,..,. -- .,'X'

~,72_'1

cosh-

l ~1;1~;~cr)

Thc IlreSSlll'C roefficicllt ill the region being

(~onsiderell

(8.3.13)
is

(8.3.14)
The sources (listl'ibuled o,'E'r the wing also induce n \'t'Jorily in
the region between the "Iar.h line OK and the leading subsonic edge
(Fig. B.3.a). Tht! magnitude of this velority at a point L is determined by the sources distributed on region DUG. We fllld the corresponding potential fUII('tion by ('xpres.o;ioll (8.3.12) in which we must
iJllrodllce the ('oorilillatc %\. instead of ZJ. and replace the quantity
IX ~ ex' (:1" -~) with Ihe valut xL - -:L' (ZL - ;) equal to the
longitlldinal coorllinate or point R (Fig. 8.3.:i). lIence.
q.' --' -

A~""

~?

1(l~

XL -O\'(:L-~)

11

t tan

l (s. ;) ds

(8.3.15)

where :e ~ (XI. - cx'zd:'(tan x - -x').

Integration yieJds

'f' .," ~ ;~ cosh-l

., J

.t'L -;;. tan K dt

,=,'

\~I.-~I

By evaluntillg the del'i ,athe d'F' ;{).x and then perforUling integrnt.ion pro\'ided that 0 ::"" ZI. tnn x/xp > 1, we obtain the following

326

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of oSn Airfoil and a Wing

FIg.. I.U
Pressure field for a trianllular
wing with a subsonic learling
edge

formnla similar to (8.3.9) for the additional vclor.ity component:

u= -

:la'

~~

(8.3.16)

cosh- t n"(:-=-G1)

where n>o.
We lISC thc value of this vclocity to fllld the pressurc coeflidcnt:

p= - ;:

;1'];'

:~

cosh- t

:Ita--:.at)

(8.3.17)

Figurc 8.3.4 shows the ficld of pressur('.<; for a \\ing witll a trianglllar
planform having a sub!;()nic Icading edge. The pr('ssure roefficient
along the Mach lines is zero. On the leading edge, the theoretical
pressure coefficient equals infinity. The physically possible pressure
can be considered to be sufficiently high, corresponding Lo the stagnation pressllreatasubsonic vclocity whose directioll roincides wilh
a normal to the Icading edge.
Triangular Wing Symmetric
about the .xAlls
with SubsonIc Leading Edges

The velocitr at POtut l' of a triangular wing symmelric aDout the

,x-axis and having snbsonic leading edges (Fig. 8.;~.5) is determined
by snmmating the action of ::'OUf(',CS ill region OHPA' confmed by
leading edge::. Oil' and ON and hy Mach linesPA' and PB. The \'Blocity induced by t.he sourccs distributed on section OAPE is detel
mined by formula (13.3.9). Tile sourccs distributed in region OilA'
produce (tt point P a \'elocity tllat is ('alcuialed by exprcssion (8.3.13).
The total Yalue of tile velocity is

u= -

:1(:1;'

~~:2_1

[cosh- J

:It;~_aG)

-i-cosh- I

nll(zl~.GG)

Ch. 8. A Wing in a Supersoni(; Flow

927

Fig. L15

Triangular wing

s~'mmetric

about the z-axis with subsonic leading edges

This upre.!=sion can be transformed a$ follows:

It=

_~('OSh-l1/ II~-(f~
na.'~
r t-o~

(8.3.18)

Formula (8.:1.18) is suitable for tlte rOTldition~ 11 > 1 > o.

We C(I;Il determine the pressur(! cocllident with the aid of (6.1.5)
according to thc .known Y(I;luc of the additional velocity component:
p~_' _~=
VOO

1IU'

41.
cosh-t'l /
yn~-1
V

1/

2 __

a2

i-a!

(8.3.19)

Point /. located bet.ween the leading edge and the Mach wave
(Fig. 8.3.5) is inl1uence(l by t.he sources distributed on section OUG'
of the wiug. The ,'clodty induced by these !'OlilTes ran be calculated
as tll(l slim of the velocities induced by the sources in region aUG
(formula (8.:1.16)1 and by the sources distributed in triangle 000'

[formula (8.3.13)[.
Con::;equentlr,
U= -

111];'

~=2_1

[cosh-I

,;,~~(1)

+cosh- I

1:1;~~~(f) J

or nfter transformations

u= _

211....

00sh-11/ tI~-1
0 2 _1

Ita' yal-I

(8.3.20)

The corresponding pressure coefficient is

p=
where n

> a>

U.

:1(1.yn~-l

eosh- 1 1/r 1I~-1

0 1 -1

(8.3.21)

328

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynllmics 01 lin Airfoil lind

II

Wing

SemllnfinPe Wing
with Supersonic Edge

For such a wing (Fig. 8.3.6), Mach line OK issuing from a vertex
is on its surface. Consequently,

n/2-x>ll.." taox<a.', n=tanx/a.'<i (a'=cottl""=V.M',,,,-i)

Let us consider the velocity at point L on the \ving between the
leading edge and :;\-Iach line OK. Since the side edge (tip) of the
wingcoiocidingwith the x-axis is outside the Marh line drawn through
point L, no influence of the side edge is observed on the flow at this
point. This flow is the same as over (I' f1(1t plate in a flow directed
along II. normal to its leading edge nt. the supersonic velocity 1'n"" =
= V "" cos x > a"". By expression (i.G.S) and the formula p =
= -2u/V"'" the additional velocity component is
U

= -AI'"" cos xiV.lI!, ros 2

iC

Since

+1

M!,. = a.'z

and

1 - L'cos z x = -tan 2 x

we have
u = -AV""IV

a.'2 - tanz)(

whence

" ~ -/-V ~/(a' Vl=n')

(8.3.22)

The relevant value of the pressure coefficient is

p=

-2uIV"" = 2A/(a' Vi _ nZ)

(8.3.23)

Formulas (8.3.22) and (8.3.23) may be applied for n < 1 and

1>o>n.
Let us calculate the \'elocity and pressure at point P between
Mach line OK and the side edge. If we assume that this point belongs
to a wing whose vertex is at point C (Fig. 8.3.6), the velocity would
be calculated with account taken of the influence of only the leading
edge and, consequently, of the sources distributed in region PCH.
By (8.3.22), this velocity is
"PCII ~ -)'V~/(a'

VI -

n')

(8.3.24)

To find the actual velocity at point P belonging to the wing with

its vertex at point 0, we must subtract from (8.3.24) t.he velocity
induced by sources distributed in triangle ACO and having a strength
of the opposite sign. The magnitude of this \'elocity is determined
by means of formula (8.3.i). Substituting Zc = (xp - a'zp)/(tan iC-(t')

Ch. 8. A Wing in

II

Supersonic Flow

329-

~1

Flt8.U

TriaDgular wing with a supersonic edge

for the upper limit ZB of the integral, aftI'I" integriltioll we obtaill.

M'...

'~

UAOC=~ ~

d;

V;2(tan2x_a'2)

:t

va~:~tan2x

2~(Jptanr.

COS-I

:t'tZI'J . .c!'

::~:: ::~:~:)

Taking into account that n = tall x:-x' and

Zp

a'2=i,

(8.3.25)
tau x/xI', we

nnd
(8.3.26).
The total value of the additional velocity at point P is
u=UPCH-UAOC":: -

,=,'

V';-n

COS-I

II(J(~-~:J

lS.3.27)-

[1-+co.,,-1

"o(;-:~)

(8.3.28}'

[1-

and the pressure coelTicient is

p=- ~:

=:t'

~f.l_!!2

where 0 < n < l.

The indu('ed \'clol'ily at point .V, bl'\we('l1 :\111("11 \\il\(' OK' and
the side edge is determill('d b~' 51l1nmatiOll (If thl' adioll of the :<OIlf('(,S
distributed on sllrfa('e ~ection OEF con filled by leculing edge OF,
side edg~ OF:, and \Iach line RF drawn throll~h point .Y.
To calrulate thl:' wlodly. WE' ~hall use formula (8.3.2;)). in wlli("h
we 5hatl rl:'placl' t.he upper limit Zc of till' inlegra1 with the qllantity
Zp = (IN .:. 'J:'Z,,). (Ifill Y. :- a.').
alll1 Ill(> ("ooJ"(linl1l's Xl' and z""

.330

Pt.

r.

Theory. Aerodynamiu 01 an Air/oil and a Wing

Pig. 1.3.7

Pressure Held for a semi-infinite

triangular wing with a supersonic lending edge

witll the rele"ant "alues Xx and

uOEF~

Introducing the symbols

UOEF

= -

cos- j

~:\~.~n_:~~~:::J

(8.3.29)

and n, we have

(J

:la'

Inlegration yiclds

ZN'

- ., l/::~':tan:)(

\';7'_11

cos- j

IInt,~.(J(J)

(8.3.30)

where (J < 0, n < 1. and I a I < n.

If we adopt positive values of Z:-; /lnll (J -'" ZN tall x/xt-> and take
absolute values for n, the additional \'clocity is
u=

:let'

~~; __ II:

COS-I l"t,"':"'..(JO)

(8.3.3!)

and the pressure coefficient is

p= - ~:

= na'

cos- J

:'tl_':_(J(J)

(8.3.32)

The pressure field for a semi-infinite triangular wing with a supersonic leading edge is shown ill Fig. 8.3.7. Between the leading edge
and the internal Mach line, the pressure is constant, then it lowers,
and on the external l\-lach line reaches the value of the free-stream
pressure (jj = 0).
TrlaJtlulu WIng 5,......rfc
about the ,x.AliI
with Supenonlc LeitClllJtl Edges

The velocity and the pressure coefficient at point L (Fig. 8.3.8)

between !\lach wave OK and the leading edge are determined by
formulas (8.3.22) and (8.3.23), respectively, because the now at
this point is affected only by edge OR. These formulas may be applied
for the conditiolls n < 1 and 1 > (J > n.

Ch. 8. A Wing in " Supersonic Flow

331

Fig. 8.].8

Triangular winq symmetric about thl' .r-axis with Supl,!f$onic leading etlges:
J-/lfacll hrw: 2-mnximuln thickness I",,,

The v('locity <It point P Ihal i~ within the ~lach augle is affcdcd not
only by Ihe leading edge. hUI al:o;o b~' the trailing nnt! :;ide edges of
thE' wing. The n,loritr due to lhe iutlnem'e of the leading E.'dge and
pRrt OA of the maximum tltickllC!<S lilll! (Fig. R.~.H) is determined
br fol'tlwlll (8.:t27), whilc tllc \('Iodt~ ilulm'etl tlr the source!'! di!o'tribllted ovel' region 0-1 'A is ('\'aluilled by p;,>:prcssion Ui.:J :11). Adding
(8.3.27) and (fLLH). we oblain the total n']orit.\ (It point ') of a .~ylll
metric wing:
It'-_ -

0;'

~:~~ "~
__

r1

+cos-

"n(l

JI~) ++co_~-! 1I1\'I-~<J(J)

or after Iransfonnlltiolls,

u .. -' -

ct'

The c.orresponding

::};~J'~ (1 Ilt'CS):il\l'f.-'

-+

sin-!

(8.:U3)

cocf[icirnt is

p= - ~.:. _ ~. ';~_II~ (1 -

-+

"in-!

1/ - ';l~a~')

(H.3.o1)

8.4. Flow over a Tetragonal Symmetric

Airfoil Wing with Subsonic Edges
at

OJ

Zero Angle of Attack

By u:o;ing the formulas for dell'rmining the yclodtr And pressure

on the surface of a II'iangular willg, we {"an Cah'\llate the now at a
z(,ro angle of .. Ilark O\'cr willg:-; with II symml'trir ail'foil and nn arbi-

332

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamic$ of an Airfoil and a Wing

FI,. B.4.t
Tetragooal wing with a symmetric airfoil nod subsonic edges

trary planform. Let 115 cOllsider the tetragonal wing shown in Fig. 8.4.1.
A left-hand s1'stem of coordinates has been adopted here and in some
other fIgures to facilitate the spatial depicting of the ,.... ing and the
arrangement of both the sections being considered and the reqnired
notation. We shall assume that for SItch 11 wing the leading aud trailing
edges, and also Tntlximum thickness line CBC' are subsonic. Acr.ording11', the sweep angles Xl' Xa of Ihe leading and trailing cdgc!> and the
anglc X2 of the maximum thickness line nre larger than 11./'2 - fLoo.
The distributioll of the vclodtr and pressure O\'er an airfoil depends
on where the latter is along thc wing span. i.e. on the laterAl C,OOfdinate z of the section.
Airfoil FL (z = z,). Four Dow regions, namely, FG, GH, HJ,
and J L, should be considered all thc airfoil. Region FG is confined
by point F Oil the lcading edge and point G at thc intersectioll of a
Mach Jine with the coordinate plane % --' %1' Point G is considered
to be on plane zOx and is determined, cOllseqll('ntly. as th(' point of
intersedion of the :'tIach line issuing from the projection fl' of point
Jj onto plane zOx and of the straight line z . %1 (Fig. 8.4.1). The
"elocity and pressure eoefficient in region FC behind !\Iach line OKo
on the sllrfa('c of the wing are dE'termined wilh the aid of the distrihution of Ihesources in IriangieOCC' hy the relevant formulas (8.3.18)
and (8.3.10).

Ch. 8. A Wing in

o!I

Supersonic Flow

aaa

Since the inclination of the sUl'fact:" is "1 in accordance with (8.3.19)

we

h.\\(\

PPG= :ta;' ~~COSh-1 V' ~f~o~r

(8.4.1)

where lit ~ tan x, '''-' . O't .-c z. tan x, .1"1' and It is the l'unning coordinate of the point.
The drag coefficient of the airfoil corresponding to region FC is
Xu

cx. ~'G =

(Pu.L Pb) d.l.'1

(8.4.2)

'F

where b is the local chord of the profile.

Since

pu.+Pb=2PFG.
dO', =

z\

l:~

. :,

0',,..;

:\I:~)tl,

=1 ::~ . :\ cri

dJ.', == -

we have

where O'IP = Zl tan XI/XF --,:: Land O'IG ".---= :::1 tan x.JxG
Region Gil is acted upon by the di:;:tl'i\.Jution of the source:;: in
triangle OCC' with a strenglll of Q = ::!t'll".", alHl in triangle BCC'
where the strength of the sources Q = 2 (A.~ - I-I) 1-coo (the sign of
the angle 1.,2 is opposite to that of I_I)'
Since region GH is hehino ;'o,Iach line OKa within the limits of the
wing, the pressure coefficient due to tllC distrilliited sources in region
OCC' must be calculated with the aid of formula (8.3.19). The influence of the distribution of sonrces in triangle BCC' on the pressure
coefficient should be taken into acconnt with the aid of relation
(8.3.21) because region GH is outside triangle BCC' between Mach
wave B' KB and edge nc. Hence,

PoH= __4_A'__ cosh-t' I

;ta;'~

-1-

4 (A.s-).t)

mx' Vn~-t

COSh-I'

nl-oi
t-ol

I nl-1

(8.4.4)

01-1

where n2 = tan X2/a.'; O'~ = z. tan y.~Ix~, and X2 is the coordinate

measured from point B nllo equal to X2 = Xl - XB.

334

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil <'Ind <'I Wing

Using formulas (8.4.2) and (8.4.4), let

cient corresponding t.o region Glf:

ItS

oe-termine the drag coeffi-

O,lI

__

J cosh-

b:~,z';:'~i ~\ I

C,.;. OH =

V/ '~i~:l

. do?

(II!>

(lzil

80';:~\~A,:;~~n ~2

__

CO.~h-1

V :~=! . ~~2

(8.4.5)

:oG

where 0"2H and 02G are cvaluated relative to point II.

Slimming (8.4.3) and (S.Ll) and tnking into account that

0IP'"""' z,

02G = :, 1;(:

%2

~~~x'
"-'

c-,-, L

om

tan 11.", tan )(2

-=

_~

III t;:X\

== X:~~:~l~'XI

I";.XB =~,

(J~H"""

z. ;; x~ = 1

we obt~in
Cx, }'H

-= Cx, Fe: rex. all

II tlln)(l

.Tn+71 tlln )(2

8Jfz, tall XI

b:ta'

Xd:r,
Let us

Ylli--l

coc;h-I

'V '~i-=-;.f

--

8(A:.'1-:~!~n)(1) casICt}/'" :~=~

a~<;urne

.~~z

(8.4.6)

that part of cho;;; HL (wc presume that point H

is 011 line JJC) equals rb. where r is a dimensionlegg coefficient of
proportionality determined from the condition T = B'Dib o (here /Yo
is the central chord). Therefore. for Sllrface ORe, the part of chord
FH will be (1
r) b.
Since a part of centrlll dlOrd R'D {'l]uals Til". the remaining part
OR' equals (1 - r) boo The angle.<; arc
"-I = 'X/2 (1 - r). "-2 -;1.'(2T)
(R.4.7)
WhCrC X ~ IJ./b o is the relative thid;ness of the airfoil.
Taking int.o tlcc()unt the values of AI and "-2 we elln write formula
(S.1.6) a.<;:

Ch. S. A Wing in '" Super~onic Flow

335

The velocity on line HJ is induced hy :-OllfC('S of the strength Q =

= 2~1 V"" distributed in triangle 0('(" flnd by :-:ollrces of the ."trength
Q '-' 2 (~2 - "1) V"" distributed over region /ICC'. Tile lir:-t di.~tri
bution of the !'ollrces gi"es risc to tllf' pres.'illrC {'oeffident nt\clliated
by formula (a.3.H.I) in which we 11111,-.t aSRHHle thill iI.
;"1,1/ =- 11\.
and (1 -~ (11' The pressure coefficient (lue to the inOIlt'IKe of the sprond
distribtltion of the ~otlrces is 1'1150 found with thr aid of fOl'tnula
(8,3.HI) ill which we musL as!'>llllle lilat I.
;"2 - i'l' II
f/2, alld
(J '"'" 0"2' Summation of the pressun' ('oeJ1iriellls yie\(ls
-

I _I

4AI

na.'V ni- 1 COSI

['HJ-

:t::A0J~~)

-i

1 COSh-I

nl-of

.. /

I-('f[

lit ~~;

(8.4.9}

C!'>illg forJllllla (8.4,5) in which w() mllst replace the "alne of A}

with I.: and taking into account that

A] = 6./12 {1 - T)I, 1..2 - I.]

n l = tan x/a',
=

Oz

22

K~1I2r (1 - r)1. 1..2 = - ~(2r)

n2 = tan x.ja'. 0'1

tan xz!J-~,

J'H ~ Xl .:&;

.t'.l>

= %1 tan xlixi

x; =

Xl -

JJi-o.r

J'u

we obtain
__ 24tzl

Cr,nJ

Gj1J cosh-I

[tanxi

"r(l- r):l'x'

Jll-'!
!Jill

1-0,

il(1,

--or-

__

(J~.J

eo~h-1

V nl~-:l' dO~2

{8,4_10~

(J~I[

where (12 i!' C,'"llIlILcri l'ellllivc to poillt /l_

On J/. we take inlo UCCCIHlll lhe illfillC'nce of 1II1'l'e di5trilHlliOIl,~
or the SOlll'('(!S, lIamely, 011 trillngular Sllrf,l('CS OCC' _ flCC' ali(I neG',
The Hr5l. two distl'ihl1l.iolls give ri~0 10 111(' pre:-:slll'C' coefficienl determilled with the aid of formula (8.".~J) ill which (1\
(';\Iell'
lflted relative to points () and
n_~rectiHI~'. TII('
(-ueffi
rienl of pl'essII1'c iuilu('cd by the ~ollrces II istri hlllpd 0\'('1' l'I'g-iOll DCC'
with a ~LL'el1gth of -A2 I!'> fOlllH1 wilh till,' nid of rurlllllill (S.:t:!t)
in which we 1Il11."l aSSIIIII(> that ;,' A~. u
"3' illHI (1
(1:1'
Silmmilig 1I1(' pre:-sllrc coefficients due to all three soul'ce disll'iblltiolls, we obtnill

n.

Poll =,

yeos

4AI

:w;' y'1I~-1

h-I"/

cosh-!

V" 1'11-

(Iii -t
(11

~ ().,~-).,1)

"o;t' ~

n~-fJi
.!i).,l
1-1"'/"'iii'=T
t_()'I-l'1a,~cosl V 0:-1

8411

336

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynlmics of an Airfoil and a Wing

where n:') = tan ;(:,)/(1.': the values of 01' 02, and 0, are calculated
nllative to points O. Band D.
Introducing the value of P-;L into formula (8.4.2) and substituting
A!! for AI in it, we obtain
_

cr ,

JL = -

:r~~:~

(/IL

(1-

~;n~

d:~l

~I ~1::a~; . ~~'

oosh-(

'u

+ ;. V:J)(~l

V ~~I1~t

--

__

COJlh- 1

',J

'IL

t~n;; n~

r (1

',L

__

)" COSh-I V =:=: .d;.a J

(8.4.12)

',J

Summing (8.4.10) and (8.4.12). we have

_

!:~. HL= - :t.~:I,

(/IL

(I

_~n~

j
',"

(/2L

r(1

__

cosh- t

V ~f~:l- da;1

,/_.
__

t~;~ co.~h-I V ~'-=-:i' ~2

',L ',"
__

+ ;. ~~ J cosh-t V :i=! .~ ]

(8.4.13)

'oJ

In this expression
'I tanK 1
(t-;:)bO+.31 tanxa

0'2H-1,
C13J=

1:1

x,

rbo~::~:~xa

0'2L

tan X,
zj

0'11a= ~l
bO+=1 tan

=n,.

0'3L=

SI

tan x,

zi,

I
}

1.

(8.4.13')

where xJ = Zt cot fl ... = ZI(1.'. and xi, = Zt tan )(3'

We take the integrals in formulas (8.4.8) and (8.4.13) by parts.
These formulas hold (see Fig. 8.4.1) when
(8.4.14)

where
zlh

(1 - r) bo/(tan

Xl -

ex'}.

Zo.

= rbJ(tan

X2 -

a') (8.4.15)

Ch. 8. A Wing in a Supeunnic Flow

SS7

or (Fig. 8.4.2) when

(8.1.16)
The drag cocfficicnt of th(' airfoil dctcrmined by formula (8.4.13)
has been relntcd to the local chord 1,. We calculatc the value or the
drag ('oellicicnt. Cx.o relatcd to t1l(' rcntral cliord lIo by thf' fornmln
C:l',fI = C:r: (blb o)
Airfoil in the :\1id-Span Section (z = 0). We determine the \'alucs
of the aerodynamic coefficients for this airfoil ns 10110\\,5. 011 nirfoil
section OB (sec Fig. 8.4.1) with a 1f'ngth of (1 - ii boo thc "clarity
is indllr.ed hy ~ollrc.es having' i1 strcngth of Q.-, 2i'Il"." distrihutrd
in trianglc
Accordinglr. we evaluatE' the pressure coerti<'icllt II)' ramuli"
(S.3.1Sl). A!':'lullling that IJ ''''' Z, tan Xl/Xl - O. we ohtain

vec'.

Pos=

:la'

(8.4.17)

COSh-I ",

Airfoil scct.ion l)fl with a length of rbo experienc.es thE' ac,lion of

sources with a ~trength of Q = 2;'11'... distribute(1 over rE'gioll OCC'
and with n strength of Q = 2 (A2 - AI) V... dil'=tributptl in trianglc
BGC'. J n a('.('ordance with I.his. we dl'lermine the pI'C!!!!lIre coellkielltF.
Ul'Iinl? formllin (8.S.H) nt IJ
0, we find

PaD =

~~' ~;:f-1

COSh-I nl

+ n:~~

COSh-I

I/~

(8.1. '18)

The drag coeHidcllt of the airfoil wilh account tnken of the. upper
and bottom snrfnees relaLe-d to the ('entral ("hord 110 i~
(1-;,1>(1

cx=.-fo-

,J

Pon]'1 dx-:,

rbo

.\ PnD"2 dr

(H.4.1!1)

Introdudng the value of POD from (8..1.17), UrpDD rrom (S.It.iS).

and having in vicw that "': = -M(2r). A2 - i'l' -\/12( (1 --,)1
and also thai (i - r) Al = Xl2 ;l.Iul ;"2 ~ --3:/2. WI.' obtllin
(8.4.20)

where ('oRh _1 "2 .-: 111 (nz ..!. 1/ n~ - 1).

Airfoil FI~" Lpt us calculate the lirag coeffiCient or an airfoil
(see Fig-. 8,4,1) Wh05C coorliinate %1 satisfies the ineqllality %D, <
< %1 < '0, Sect ion FI", or the aidoiI expericnces the action of
sourcc!' with Ihe strenltth Q .-:- 2A I V"... distrihntC'd in region OCnG',
and with thL' !'Irc-nglh Q -= 2 (i'2 - "',) V ... dil'ltribntl:!d in IICG'.
TherefOl'r. WI:! Illay use formula (8.104) to calculate thc pJ'('~!'IlIre
2::-0171$

aas

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

Fig. B.U

ArrDngement of :\Iach lines

coefficient, and I'elation (SA5) to determine the drag coefficient.
For airfoil !ie('tion F 1 H j relation (BAS) has the form
"111 1

c.,".r1Il t = -

/.>~~i,Z\~:tKI1 ,\

--

cosh-I

"1F t

8().::~t~n}(2

"2H1

.\'

V '~'-='a~~' (~att

V ~:=: .d:i~
--

cOsh-I

(SA.21)

"21'1

where 0"1 and 0"2 <lH' cakHlatcd rei alive to poinls 0 and lJ. respecti vely.
We determine the pl'cssure on airfoil section HILI in tIle same way
as on Ill, with the aid of formulas (fI.4.9) and (8A11). We find the
corrcsrol1ding drag co(>nicient c.",,",!., from expression (8,4.-13)
in which we replace the limits 0ln and <JIL with the quantities <J1H, and
O"IL" the limits 0"2H and 0"21, wilh the quanLities 0"2H, and 0"21.., and
the limits 0"3.1 and 0"31. with the quantities 0"3J, and <JJL" respectively.
determined by formulas (8.4.13'). The over<lll drag coefficient for
the airfoil f\LI related to the central ehord bo is
Cx , F,L, =

Cl:, F,R,

+ ex, H,L,

Airfoil F 2L 2 . Lel us consider the airfoil b(>lween points D. and B.

(Fig. 8.4.2) with the coordinate ZI satisfying the inequality zD, <
< Zt < Zn,. The flow over this airfoil is of a more intricate nature.
The velocity on section F 2G2 is indneed by sources having the strength
Q ,.-.:: 21l, V distributed in triangle OCC'. Consequently, the pressure
coefficient on this section is determined with the aid of formula
(8.4.1), and the corresponding drag coeITieient Cx l'-.G, from expressioD
(8.4.3) in which the integral is taken between the limits O"IF , and OIG,.
00

Ch. 8. A Wing in e Supersonic Flow

aag

The pressure OIL scction G2.H z depends on the influencc of sources

having a strength of Q -"- 21..1 Y 00 distributeel oyer section OCC', and
also of sonrces having a strength of Q = 2 (Az - 1..\) Y 00 in region
BCG'. Conseql1ently. we cakulHte the pressure roeITicient by formula
(8.4.4), and the drag coefficient c,\:. ("H, from ('xpre.!'sion (8.4.:)) in
whkh we take the first inlrgral hetween the limits OIG, anti OtH,.
an(l the second between (J~G and O"~II
Section II zJ2. experiellrcs'lhc si~ultaneolls actiou of sources distrillllted in region OCC' (Q . . , 2"11"00), and also in triangle RCC'
IQ --: 2 (A2 - AI) Fool and 011 sl1rfflre [JCC', where the strength Q =
= -2A21'oo. The first. distribution re!'.lIils in a pressure coefficient
determined by formula (8.:tHl), alill thr se('ond two distributions
resulL in the roefiicienl calcl11ated by expression (8.3.21).
The total vallie of the pressure coerfLcient 011 this section of the
airfoil is
PHzJz

:vx'

1-1

',COSI

~;:ti-1

c05h- 1 1-/

'~i~:/ .~ .1~/'~-;:;~1

1.~.2
:t~' l/n~-1

/III=T
J; o~-I -

]-1' /

COSI

n:f= I

(J~-I

(8422)
..

where 01' 02' and 0"3 arc determined relative to points 0, 8, and
D, respectively.
By using the formula

') Xft _

C.", 112J, =

i;:.\

P1I2J2AZ

dx

(8.4.23)

'H,

we can calculate the drag coefficient ror lhe sectioll of the airfoil
being considered relate!l to the length bo of the centre chord.
The flow over the last airroil sect-ion J 2L'J is the result of indllction
by the sources distribnted in tlte sallle regions of the wing as for
airfoil section II ~J~. lIere accouut must be taken of the feature
that the velocity induced by the sources in region ReG' is determined
by formula (8.3.1R), where A is replaced by the ,",ngular coefficient
A~ - At. Therefore, the pressure coefficient should be calculated by
formula (8.4.11). and the drag cocrncient ex, J,I . trom expression
(8/1.12) in which we take the integrals between the limits onJ,
and (Jnl., (n = 1, 2, :~).
We obtain the total drag coefficient by summation of the coeffi~
dents for all four sections of the airfoil:
ex.

F,L,

= ex, F.G,

provided that the value of

tao

+ cx. G,H, -!- ex .II,J, + c:t, J.l.

Zt

satisfies the inequality

~~O_ct' < Z1 < t~~-;:~b~,

340

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 an Airfoil arld a Wirl9

Airroil FaLa. Let us consider seclion F3La (Fig. 8.4.2) with the
coordinate Zl satisfying the inequality
(8.4.24)
where
(8.4.25)
Tho pressure on section F aJ a of tho airfoil is due to the action
of sources distributed on the triangular surfaces OCC' (Q = 2A1 V .,.,)
and BCC' lQ = 2 (All - A,) Vool. We shall therefore calculate the
pressure coefficient by expression (8.4.4), and the drag coefficient
by formula (8.4.5) in which we replace the limits all, G and an, H with
the values On,!'. and on, J. (n = 1, 2).
Airfoil section J 3H 3_ in addition to the indicated source distributions in regions OCC' and BCC', also experiences the action of sources
having a strength of Q = -2A\I VL distributed in triangle DCC'.
Consequently, the pressure coefficient equals the value calculated
by formula (8.4.4) plus the additional value calculated by formula
(8.3.21) in which we assume that A = -At.
Flow over section H 33 is characterized by the induction of sources
distributed in three regions of the wing, namely, OCC', BCC', and
DCC'. Accordingly, the pressure coefflcient on this section should be
calculated with the aid of formula (8.4.11).
By calculating the relevant components of the drag coeflicient
for all three SGctions and summing them, we obtain the total drag
coefficient:
c%:. F.r.. = C:c. P,J.
C.'C.J.H. + C%:, H,I..
The relevant expression is suitable for calculating the drag coeffI~
cient of the airfoil between points DI and D2 (Fig 8.4.2) with the
coordinate Zl that satisfies the inequality

tao

y.:;~~, < Zt <

tan )1.,1):..0.'

(8.4.26)

F~L"

(see Fig. 8.4.1) with

Airfoil F,!.. ... Let as consider Sf'ction

coordinate
ZI> zD,

(8.4.27)

Three source distributions simultaneously act on this section,

namely, OCC' (Q - 2~, V ~), BCC' [Q - 2 lA, - ~.) V ~l. and
DCC' (Q = -2A2V ooJ. Airfoil section F,H, is behind Mach line OKo
within the confIDes of the wing, therefore to calculate the pressure
produced by the distribution of lhe sources in OCC' we must use
formula (8.3.19) in which wo assume that A = AI' The second distribution of the sources in BCC' acts on section F ,H, located beyond
the conilnes of the surface between the Mach line and edge BC.
Therefore, to calculate the additional pressure dlle to the influence
of the distribution of the sources in BCC'. we must use formula
(8.3.2t) with the substitution of At - A)' for A..

Ch. 8. A Wing in a Supersonic Flow

a41

Fi,.8.4.3

Distribution of the drag coerrl-

~~~~a~~e~h~hred S~~~g o~\"i~hs~~~~

sonic edges
(tbr dasbeLl

Un~

sholl's an unswrJ,1

~lng

The second seclion of airfoil H4L~ is located within the confine.,

of the wing surface, i.e, at the same side from the Mach lines and the
relevant edges OC and BC, Consequently, to determine the pre~~ure
coefficient resulting from the dislribntions of the sources in OCC'
and BCC', we use formula (8.3.19) in which the value A. = ;.., corresponds to the distribution in OCC', and the value A. = 1.2 - Al
to the distribution in BCG'.
Section H4L4 is at both sides of Mach line DKo and trailing edge
DC, Le. it is beyond the contines of triangular surface DCC' where
the strength of the sources is Q = -2A. 2 V"". Hence, to calculate the
pressure coefficient produced by these sources, we should use formula (8,3.21) with the substitution of -1.2 for A.,
Using the obtained value of the pressure coefficient, we can determine the relevant drag coefficient for airfoil F4L4:
Figure 8.4.3 shows the results of calculating the distribution of
the drag coefficient c:r/lJ.2 (3. = I1lb) over the span of a swept constant chord (b) wing (Xl = X, = X3 = 60) with a symmetric rhombiform airfoil (r = 112) for M"" = 1.8 and 1.9. A glance at the figure
reveals that with an increase in the distance from the centre chord,
the drag coefflcient riist grows somewhat, and then sharply drops.
For purposes of comparison, the figure shows the value of the func~
tion c,/ t;, for an airfoil belonging to an unswcpt wing.
To determine the total drag coefficient of the wing, we must
integrate the distribution of the drag coefficients Cx ." of the airfoils
over the span, using the formula
It'

cX

=7- Jc:r,,,dz

(8.4.28)

342

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynemics of en Airfoil end eWing

Influence of a Side Edge on the Flow over a Wing. If a wing has

a wide tip or side edge (Fig. 8.4.4), its influence on the pressure distribution and the drag coefficient must be taken into account. The
flow over such a hexagonal wing is calculated as follows. First the
velocities and pressures in region 00' D' D produced by the distri
bution of the sources on triangular area OCD are calculated. The
calculations in this case are performed similar to those of a wing
with a tetragonal planform (see Fig. 8.4.1) having no side edges.
Next the calculated velocities and pressures are determined more
precisely with account taken of the influence of side edge O'C',
which is oquivalent to the action of sources distributed in triangle
O'CD'. The strength of these sources has a sign opposite to that of
the sources corresponding to a wing of area O'CD'. The action of
the sources distributed in triangle O'CD' extends to the wing within
the area O'TnD' confined by Mach line 0' K', the side edge, and the
trailing edge. For example, for airfoil F 2L21 the action of the sources
is confmed by section F~L2 (point F~ is at the intersection of chord
F2L2 and Mach line 0' K').
Let us see how the pressure is evaluated on section J 2L2 of this
airfoil. Taking into consideration only the distribution of the sources
in region OCC', we can determine the pressure coefficient by for
mula (8.4.11). We can introduce the correction IJ.p-for the action of
sources of opposite signs in triangle O'CD', so that
(8.4.29)

When fmding the correction IJ.p we must take account of the posi
tion of airfoil section J 2L2 relative to Mach line O~K; that passes
through point 0; belonging to the opposite side edge (Fig. 8.4.4).
If this line does not intersect J 2L2' the latter is influenced only by
the distribution of the sources in region O'CD' of one side of the

a.

Ch.

A Wing in ~ SupersoniC Flow

343

wing. whereas the influence of the sources ill O;C'U; is excluded.

The induced velocity is calcuh\led by formula (8.3.13), and the corresponding additional value of the pressure cocITieient b~' the formula !!.p = -2u/V .... We shall write this a(lditional nlluf' in the
form of the slim
(8.4.:l0)
where !!.Pl depends on the distriblltion of the sources ill O'CC'
(Q = 2"'1 V 00), while IlP2 and IlPa depend on the distribution of the
sources in B'CC" IQ = 2 (!,~ - AI) v ... 1 and [)'CC~ (Q = -2"'21' ,.,).
Hence, by using formula (8.a.14). we obtain

D.p=

.10:'

~::f-I

cosh-

l n;l~~~(f~I)

+ ~~~}.; ~;'l~ 1 cosh- n:'l;~_(f;~)

t

_
:-(0;'

n~
)1"1-1

cosh-!

1I~;-1]3
" 3 {1-i- 0 3)

(H.Io.:311

where 1, 02 and 03 arc calculated relative to points 0'. /J', and [)'.
If Mach line O~K; intersel.'ts chord F2 L l then simult.aneously
with the action of sources 0' CC account must also be taken of th.e
influence of t.he sources distributed in triangle O;C'C; at the opposite
side of the wing. The same formula (8.:U:~) is used to c~lc\llate tile
induced velocity.
N

B.S. Flow over a Tetragonal Symmetric

Airloil Wing with Edges
01 Different Kinds
(Subsonic and Supersonic I
Leading and Middle Edges Are Subsonic
T'llIing Edge Is Supersonic

The disturbances from the trailing supersonic edges of a wing

(Fig. 8.5.1a) propagate downstream \\'ithin the confines of the Mach
cone with the g(lneratrix DKD and therefore do not affect the flow
ovor the wing surface. The velocities and pressures depend on the
influence of the leading and middle subsonic edges.
Let us consider profile FL with the coordinate ZI < 200,. The
pressure coefficient on section FC, which depends on the action of
sources having a strengtll of Q = 2"'lV.... that are distributed in
triangle OCC'. is determined from (8.4.1). and the corresponding
drag coefficient c"'. n. from (8.4.3). On t.he following section GH
experiencing the influence of the sources distributed in triallgles
OCC' (Q = 21.1 V..,) and BCC' IQ..." 2 ("'2 - AI) V .... 1. the pressure

344

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil a"d a Wing

(h)

Fig. '.S.t

Tetragonal wing in a supersonic Dow:

rng~h:.!cr;d~L:~rc.u:t~::I~:f:~:~t~lm~l~i~e a~a!~~~~~;I:~~\1~~1':'a~es~~

Ionic

coefficient is calculated by (8.4.4). The con'esponding value of the

drag coefficient c~. GH for this section is determined from (8.4.5).
The action of the same source distributions is observed on section
HL as on section GH. But taking into account that section HL
is below Mach line BKB (on the wing sudace), the pressure coefficient PHI. must be calculated from (8.4.9). and the drag coefficient
C~, HL. from (8.4.10). The total drag coefficient of the aidoil is
c~, FL = cjC, PO
c~, GH
c~, HL
(8.5.t)

When considering section FILl with the coordinate %1 > %8,.

account must be taken simultaneously of the source distributions
in OCC' and BCC'. For section FlHl the drag coefficient c~, P,H, is
determined by formula (8.4,21). For section H1L" the drag coeffieient
Cit, H,L, is found by expression (8.4.13) in which the third term in
the brackets is taken equal to zero, while the limits Gn.H and a p ,1,

Ch. 8. A Wing in a Supersonic. Flow

34lS

are replaced with the values Gn, H, and Gn, L,(n = 1,2), respectively.
The total drag coefficient for airfoil FlLI is
(8.5.2)
Leading Edge Is Subsonic,
Middle and Trailing Edges
lire Supersonic

A feature of the flow over the wing (Fig. 8.5.1b) consists in that
the sources distributed in region BDD t do not affect the distribution
of the velocities and pressures on the remaining part of the wing
above Mach line BK D
Let us considor airfoil F L with the coordinate Xl < ZD,. Section
FH of this airfoil is acted upon hy the sources distributed in triallglo
OCC' (Fig. 8.5.ia); consequently. the pressure distribution can bu
found from (8.4.1), and the corresponding drag coefficient C:E.l<'H,
from (8.4.3) in which G t " is substituted for the upper limit GIG'
The second section HG is influenced by subsonic leading edge OC
(and. therefore. the distribution of the sources in OCC') and by
supersonic middle edge BC. The corresponding pressure coefficienl
is determinod as the sum of two coefficients, the first of which is
evaluated by expression (8.4.1), and the second by (8.3.23) wherl~
we assume A = A2 - AI and n = "2' Consequently,

p,.G-- __
4l._'_ _ cosh-I";
na' Vnl-1
V

n~-or ...:, 20.~-AI)

i-oj . a: ~

(853)
..

On section GL, the velocity is induced by the sOllrces distributed

in triangles OCC' and BCC' (Fig. 8.5.1a). By using formulas (8.5.3)
and (8.3.34), we obtain the following working relation for the pressure coefficient:

The drag coefficient of the airfoil is

Xli

C:E.l'L=f(J
Xl'

PFlIA1dx+

Xc;

Xc

"'H

"c

J PHG~dx+ JPCl.A dx)

2

(8.5.5)

Airfoil FILl is below Mach line OK o therefore it is influenced by

the distribution of sources with a strength of Q = 2AI V in triangl&
00

PI. I. Theory. Aerodyn,mics of ,n Airfoil lind

346

II

Wing

OCC'. In addition, section HILI is acted upon by the distribution of

sources with a strength of Q = 2 (A: - AI) V 00 in triangle BCC'
that produces an additional pressure evaluated by formula (8.3.23),
where we assume A = At - AI' Accordingly. the pressure coefficient

PP.H.

on section FIHl is evaluated by expression (8.4.1), and the

pressure coefficient PH,I. on section HtL I with the aid of formula
(8.5.3). The drag coefficient of the airfoil is
Cs;,

~'ILI

=+ (j

"'Ll

"'HI

Pt'lu\Ajdx -+-

"'PI

J PHILl~ dX)

(8.5.6)

"'HI
Wing with All Supersonic Edges

For such a wing (Fig. 8.S.1c). Mach lines OKo BKB and DKo
drawn from points O. B, and D are below the corresponding edges
OC, BC and DC, therefore formulas (8.3.23) and (8.3.34) are used to
calculate the pressure coefficient.
Let uS consider airfoil FL with the coordinate 0 < Zl < zo.
Section FH is between leading edge OC and Mach line OK o Therefore, the other edge OC' (Fig. 8.o.1a) does not affect the flow on this
section, which is considered as plane supersonic. Taking into account
that section FH is influenced by the sources in triangle OCC' having
a strength of Q = 2Al V 00, the pressure coefficient PFH can be determined by formula (8.3.23) in which we assume A = At and n """ nl'
The additional pressure on section HG is due to the influence of edge
OC'. The pressure coefficient PHe on this section is found from
expression (8.3.34) in which it is assumed that n = nl and (] = 0'1'
Section GJ. in addition to the distribution of the sources in OCC'.
is affected by the source distribution in BCC' having a strength of
Q = 2 (A2 - AI) V 00. Using formulas (8.3.34) and (8.3.23). we obtain
an expression for the pressure coeO'icient:
PGJ

211

a'

J-'i-ni

(1-2sin-1'/ IIt-a~)+ 20"1-"-il

11
V 1-at
a' ~

(8.5.7)

The last airfoil section J L is influenced additionally by opposite

edge BC'. Accordingly. the pressure coefficient on section J L on
which sources having a strength of Q = 2 (A2 - At) V 00 act is

PJJ.= a' ;~'-lIl

(1-

sin-I

V ~l~:l )

Ch. 8, A Wing -in

/I

Supersonic Flow

347

The drag coefficient of airfoil FL is

C",.

FL =~

+(.\

3:u

XI;

PI'HA1 dx+ ) PUGA , dx

"'p

"-..

"'J

"'L

"'G

"J

+ ) PGJ).,. dx + J PJLA2 dX)

(8.5.H)

The pressurr coefficient PF,II, on section FIlii of airfoil FILl

with the coordinate Zn < ZI < zu, is determined by formula
(8.3.23) in which I.. = AI and n = n l . To determine the pressure
coefficient PH,O. for the neighbouring section H]G I , we use formula
(8.3.34) in \vhich A "-' AI' n = Ill' and a ='" a 1 . On the last section
GILl' the pressure is due to the influence of source distributions in
OCC' (Q = 2)'1 V 0<) aud RCC' IQ = 2 (1.. 2 - AI) V",,]. Consequently,
to calculate the pressure coefficient Fe.L,. we can use formula
(8.5.7). The drag coefficient of airfoil FILl is

CX.F'li.I={-(

"'HI

"'V\

"'Lt

jl;F]

:rHt

:to l

J PFIH,A,dx--:-- J PHIG1Ajdx+) PG,LIA.-zdx) (8.5.10)

ThE! flow near airfoil 1-':[,2 in the section zn, < ZI is plane supersonic, therefore the pres."ure coefficienl for it is determined Ly formilia (8.3.23). The sources in triangle OCC' having a strength of
Q = 2Al V x act on section F 2G2 therefore the pressure coe[ficient
Pf,G, is found by formula (8.:1.23) in which I.. = Al and It = Ill'
The second $ectioll G:L: is additionally influenced by the sources
having a strength of Q =-= 2 (A 2 - AI) V 00 distributed in triangle
BCG'. Therefore, the pressure coeHicient on this section is
-

2}1.

PG!I.,=

Ct'

1/1-1l~ --t-

2P'2-1.\)
1/1-'1l!

Ct'

(8.5.11)

The drag coefficient for airfoil F2L2 is

+(

XGI

C:t.F t LI ""'"

~.

jl;F~

PF2GzAI dx ~

"'Ls

J PG2LI~dx)

(8.;).12)

:to.

If a tetragonal wing has an extended tip or side edge (b t *0),

the flow parameters are calculated with (lccount taken of the influence of the side edge on them. The part of the wing where this inl1uenc.e is ohsen"ed is below the Mach line issuing from the froot
point of the side edge (see Fig. 8.4.4). The velocity and pressllre on

348

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

Fig.5.2
Drag coefficient of wings with
asymmetric rhombiform airfoil:

Xc

= ~clb

.,

0.5; 11"....

b.lbt

= 5;

~2/1:1:~:'~1)/~~:/;1~ ~a: :~~

IIh~

dashpd curve 19 lin pxperlmcn.

talon(

this section are calculated by the method set out in Sec. 8.4 with
account taken of the kind of the leading and middle edges (Le.
depending on whether they are subsonic or supersonic) by means of
the relevant relations similar to (8.4.31).
By integrating over the span, we can determine the wave-drag
coefficients in each of the cases of flow over a hexagonal or tetragonal rhombiform airfoil wing considered in Secs. 8.4 and 8.5.
According to the relations obtained, these coefficients depend on the
number M ... and on the configuration and relative dimensions of the
wing:
(8.5.13)
Here in addition to the known notation. we have introduced the
quantity Xc = xc1b-the dimensionless distance to the spot with
the maximum airfoil thickness.
The number of independent variables in (8.5.13) can be reduced
by using the relation
C%/(Aw6. 2) = 12

O,w V M'oo -

1. Aw tan

;1.

Tiw.

xc)

(8.5.14)

where tan x, is the tangent of the sweep angle along the maximum
thickness line (i.e. of the middle edge).
Figure 8.5.2 shows a family of curves constructed in accordance
with formula (8.5.14) for the following conditions: llw = bolb t = 5
and Xc = 0.5. The salient points of the curves correspond to sonic
edges. Particularly. for the curve corresponding to the value of
Aw tan
= 3, the salient point for the smallest value of
'AwV M~ - 1 corresponds to a sonic trailing edge. and the second
and third points to a sonic middle (the maximum thickness line)
and trailing edges.

x,

Ch. 8. A Wing in ~ Supenonic Flow

349

:;r':.:-:-::1~=---;---'--ri--,---,
I

---1- ,-

0.2

C5

t:r.ll

FIlii. 1.5.1
Drag of triangular wings wiLh a symmetric rhombiform airfoil in a supersonic

flow

(n, _ Un x,/')

A comparison snows that the experimental and theoretical vallles

of the wave-drag coefficients differ, especially near values of
A".V" M!. - 1 ~ Aw tan x 2 , i.e. when the maximum thickness line
becomes sonic. In this case, the linear theory cannot be applied. The
discrepancy between the indicated values diminishes when this line
is supersonic (I..wll M!. - 1 > I.. w tan )(2)'
From the relations found for a tetragonnl planform wing, we can
obtain the relations for the aerodynamic characteristics of a triangular \'ling as a particular case (Fig. 8.5.3). The trailing edge of such
a wing is supersonic and straight (xs = 0). The leading edge nnd
the maximum thickness line (the middle edge) may be either subsonic or supersonic and, consequently, inclined at different angles
Xl and x 2 Depending on this, we determine the locnl velocities nnd
pres.~ures, and also the total drag coefficient c",.
Figure 8.5.3 shows the results of calculating the function cxa'/(4L\2)
for triangular wings with a subsonic (n] > 1) and supersonic (n) < 1)
leading edges depending on 1 for varions vnlnes of n l (the sweep
angle Xl)' The values of c",a'I(4K2) at n1 = 0 correspond to a straight
wing with a symmetric airfoil.
Figure 8.5.3 can be used \0 appraise the influence of the location
of the maximum airfoil thickness on the drag. We can indicate the
valne of which the minimum drag coefficient corresponds to. The
salient point!; of the curves correspond to valuE'S or ~t which the
maximum thickness line becomes sonic (n! = III ~nd r- = O.

350

Pt. L Theory. Aerodyn ..mic:s of

"1'1

Airfoil lind II Wing

Genefal Relation
tOf Calculating the Dfal

The total drag coefficient of a wing can be written in the form

(8.S.15)

where A is a coefficient determined by the kind of the leading edge;

if it is supersonic, the coefficient A equals the reciprocal of the derivative of the lift coefficient with respect to the angle of attack
[A = (C:,)-l]; with a subsonic edge A < (C~)-l because a suction
force appears that decreases the drag. The quantity AC~a is the
induced drag depending on the lift force.
The coefficient of friction drag cx. r can he evaluated for an equivalent rectangular wing whose chord equals the mean aerodynamic
chord of the given lifting surface. We may consider here that theboundary layer ncar the leading edge of such a wing is laminar and
on the remaining part is turbulent.
Let us consider the second component of the total drag coefficient,
cx. wo, which is the wave-drag coefficient of the wing at 0: = O.
We shall use formula (7.5.31) to evaluate it. According to this formula, at 0: = 0, the wave-drag coefficient of an airfoil is Cx. VI =

clK I = c1

(~L

+ ~~) dx,

therefore

for a symmetric wedge

we have Cx. w = O.5cliS~. Such a relation, characterizing the challge

in the wave-drag coefficient proportional to the square of the relative
thickness of the airfoil [iS Z = (6.lb)zl, canbeapplicd for a thin airfoil
of an arbitrary configuration. By comparing the above relation for
cx. w with (8.;).1 /1). we can determine the ratio
(8.5.16)

in which cx. w is the wave-drag coe[[icient of the airfoil oriented

in the direction of the oncoming flow (see Sec. 7.5), Aw and llw are
the speed ratio and taper ratio of the wing, respectively.
The function 13 in (8.5.16) is similar to the (unction 12 in (8.5.14)
and is determined with the aid of the method of sources set out
above. The quantity x may be taken equal to onc of the characteristic
angles of the givcn wing (the angle of inclination of the leading and
trailing edges Or of the maximum thickness line).
Figure 8.5.4 shows a cmve characterizing the change in the function Is for a swept wing with a taper ratio of llw = :> ~ rp!~~.ive- coordinate of Xc = 0.5 and the quantity A.w tan Xl -= 3.67. The tirst

3~1

Cho 8, A Wing in II Supe'lonic Flow

,';~~v~_~~~~
~),: /

r1

r-

___

~.

Mar(ll/llm
UUCkf/CSS
IHW

0.8

Fig.

'

8.S.~

Change> in drug {unction I, by Tormuln (8.5.t6)

saliant point corresponds to the tl'ansformalion of the I.railing edge,.
and til(! second. of the leading edge into a sonic one.

8.6_ Field of Application

of the Source Method
The method of sources, as we already know. is used to calculatu
the flow in order to fmd the drag forc~ of a wing with a symmetric
Airfoil at a zero angle 0/ aUack, i.e. in the absence of a lift force. In,,-e1ltigations reveal that the fiCld of application or this metilOu ill
ap.rodynamic research call be extended. Let \loS consider case::; when the
method of sources can be used to determin0 a nearly uniform flow
over a thin wing at u non-zero angle of attack, and we CMI thus lind
the lift force in addition to the drag.
Let us take two wings with different leading edges. One of them lias
a curved edge wi til a nnite sllpersonic section (Fig. 0.Li.l), while the
other has completely subsonic leading edges (Fig. 8.6.2).
In Fig. 8.6.1, the supersonic section is bounded I;y points E and t'r
at which a tangent to the contour coillcides with the genera trices
of the Mach cones. Let us con~ider tlw velocily potential at a point .H
in the region confined by euge!; ED and the Mach lines dmwn in
plane xOz from points E, J), (Jr, and E'.
By formula (8.2.16) in which the integration region f'1 shouleJ bo
taken equal to (J " - SI
S~, the velOCity potential at the point
being considered is

JJ y (~1 ('i):) d~z~~ t)2

--irt JJ V(Z~I(~)II;)~ld~

cp' = -

2~

5,

t;)i

5,

(8.6.1)

atl2

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of lin Airfoil and a Wing

~~~n;'~1tb

a finite section of a supel'3onic leading etlge

'F1,.I.6.l

Wlng witb subsonic leading

edges

In (S.6.1), the function Ql (x. z) = 2 (OI.p'!oY)II'-'o' This follows

from (8.2.17). This function is determined from the condition of flow
over the wing surface without separation (8.1.12). Since the equation
of this surface is given, the function Ql (x. z) is known. In the particular case of a wing in the form of a plate in a flow at the angle of
attack IX, the function Ql = 2V""IX. Hence, the determination of !p'
by formula (8.6.1) is associated with the finding of the unknown
function Q2 determining the intensity of sonrce distribution on section S .
To find this function Q" let us take an arbitrary point N (x 0, z)
in the region between the Mach lines issuing from points E and D .
At this point, according to (8.1.20). the velocit}' potential is zero,
therefore in accordance with the notation (sec Fig. 8.6.1), we have
t

0= -

it- JJ y' (~I (ti);) d~J:~~

S,

+ -it .\ .f -V (~2 (~t)a~) ~~ ~)1

S,

t)!
-

(R.6.2)

Ch. 8. A Wing in " Super~onic Flow

3~3

The ftrst term on the right-hand side of this int.egral equation is

a known function of the coordinates of a point because the strength
Q1 on area S3 has been determinerl from the boundary conditions.
We can therefore use the equation to determine the unknown function Q~ that is the strength of the sources in region 8 4 ,
Hence, if the leading edge of a symmetric airfoil wing is completely
or partly supersonic, the metlwd of sources is suitable for investigating
tM flow over tM wing at a non-zero angle of attack. The same conclusion evidently also relates to a wing with similar edges and a nonsymmetric airfoil in a Gow either at the angle 0: =#:0 or at ct = O.
I\ow let us consider a wing with subsonic leading edges. We can
derive the following relation for a similar point N (Fig. 8.6.2):

0= -

2~

.\.\

s,

y(~3(~)2~)'~:ld~ I;l~

~ JJ 1/(~d~)2{:)~~~

1:)1

~-

(8.6.3)
We have obtained an equation with two unknown functions Q,
and Q2' Similar to Q2, the rnnction Q3 is the strength of the sources
on area 8 s belonging to the region located between the left-hand
leading edge and the Mach line issuing from the wing vertex.
Hence, if a wing has a subsonic leadirl{! edge, the source method cannot be used to investigate the flow oeer a thin symmetric airfoil wing at
an angle of attack, or the flow over a non-symmetric airfoil wing at
a zero angle of attack or when 'J. =#: O.
'.7. Doublet Distribution Method
It has been establishod that the application or the source method
for investigating supersouic flow is restricted to wings with completely or partly supersonic lending edges. In other cases associated
with the investigation of the supe-rsonic aerodynamic characteristics
of wings with subsonic leading edges wit.h a non-zero angle of attack
(or of similar non-symmetric airfoil wings and at a = 0), the doublet
distribution PlE:lbod mllst be llsed.
Let us consider a doublet in a supersonic flow. To do this. we shall
determine the velocity potential of the Dow produced by an elementary source and an elementary sink of the same strength Q
having coordinates x = ;, z = t y = 8, and:x = ~,z = t. y = -e.
respectively. The chosen source is located above the plane 11 = 0
at the small distance I:: from it, and the sink is under this plane at
the same small distance -e. Expressing (8.2.11) as a differenceequation, we shall write the potential produced by the source and sink

354

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynlmic5 of on Airfoil lind 0 Wing

in the form
A<p=

~~o

V(l:

{Jill:

~)~ Ct"~(:

~)!

Ct"I\"-l.jnZ-t-(s

~)IJ

ep+(s

Q1J }

Introducing the symbol p = V (x

GrOl a'il [gil
disregarding the quantity a'le t , we obtain
Aq:=

(z

e)'] and

~:I~ ( 1/1+~\ge!!l1 + Vl-:a.'2ge/p'I)

Using the expansion of the square ro~ts into a series and deleting
the second and higher order infinitesimals, we fmd
..\.rp =

Ct'I~::6a

:l

U~ Ct~~i:!~ (z

tt.!:

t):lJ}3/'i

By calculating the limit of Arp at E __ 0 and assuming that the

quantity ;vl = Qe called the moment (or power) of the doublet
remains constant. we obtain an expression for the differentia) of the
potential function of a doublet

This expression can be written in the form

d(Jldoub=

~'lda .-!y{

r{Z

~)! Ct~~IY~+(Z ')~J}

Integrating over the region a which the influence of the doublets

extends to, we obtain for the potential function
'Pdoub=..!....
Oil

ii
0

V{.!:

M(~. ~ldtd~

~I-

':A.-~IY~+{s

t)~1

(8.7.1)

where the number n; has been included in the doublet distribution

function.
It ean be shown that funetion (8.7.1) satisfies Eq. (8.1.7). To do
this, let us differentiate (8.1.7) with respect to g:
(M!.-1)

fu-( ~:~' )-i (::~. )- :11 (0;';' ) =0

Wo can write this equation as

(M!.-1)

!2~

( DO:' ) _ :, 1. ( a~' ) _

:Z2: ( D8~' ) =0

(8.7.2)

Now let us consider expression (8.7.1) for the potential or a doublet.

If we include the quantity -1/(211:) into the expression for this

Ch. 8. A Wing in a Supersonic Flow

355

potential, then in accordance with (8.2.12) the double integral can

be considered as the potential of sources whose distrihution over area
o is set by a function M. Consequently,
18.7.3)
Comparing (8.7.2) and (8.7.3), we see that the funclion (fdoul)
does indeed satisfy Eq. (8.1.7) for the velocity potentiaL
Knowing the configuration of the surface in the flow, the freestream velocity, and the angle of attack, we can find the doublet
distriblltion function J/ and thus determine the potential Ifd(lub
of the douiJlels. The derivative of the fUllction (fdo"b with respect
to x yields the additional longitudinal componellt of the disturbed
velocity u = alPdOllbiaX that is llsed lo c;llculate the prpssure coefficient ;; = -2u/V;.o on the lifting surface and the lift force proullced
by this surface.
8.8. Flow over a Triangular Wing
with Subsonic Leading Edges
A plane triangulaf wing with subsonic leading edges is inside
a Mach cone (Fig. 8.8.1). To find tho lift fOfce of such a wing, we shall
use the doublet distribution method and the relevant relation (8.7.1)
for the velocity potential of doublets.
H is general knowledge that the additional velocity u induced by
sources distributed over an inclined triangular surface with subsonic
edges depends only on the function cr = zu.'lx [see, for example,
formula (8.3.18)1. This signifies that along the fay issuing from the
salient point of the leading edge of the wing at the angle 'I =
= tan -1 (zlx) the velocity is constant. This ray can be considered as
the generatrix of a cone with its vertex coinciding with the salient
point of the leading edge.
A flow retaining a constant velocity anci, therefore, other constant
parameters along a generatrix of such a conical surface is called
a conical flow. We can consider that the additional velocity u for
such a flo\v in the plane y = 0 is a function of the ratio z/x, i.e.
u = f (zlx). It thus follows that the potential produced by the sources
for a conica.l flow also depends on this ra.tio.
Considering the flow set up by doublets near a triangular surface
as a conical one, its potential can be written for point P in the plane
y = 0 (Fig. 8.8.1) as follows:
IPdo"b

= xFdollb (zlx)

!(8.8.1)

where Fd""b (zlx) is a function :c1epending only on the angle of the

conical surface 'I = tan- 1 (zlx).

Pt. 1. Theory. Aerodynamic:s of an Airfoil and a Wing

866

fig.

a.l.t

Plane

triangular wing

with subsonic edges

fig. 8.a.2
Region of doublet influence on
the flow over II. wing with subsonic leading edges:
I-region of doublet InDuence; . trlaniu1ar wlnr

For a point with the coordinates x, y, z we shall write the potential of a conical flow in a more general form:
<Pdoub

= ZFdoub

(zlx. y/x)

(8.8.2)

In accordance with Eq. (8.8.1), the relation characterizing the

distribution of the doublets in the plane y = 0 (00 the wing surface)
is such that
AI (S. ,) - ~ (h)
(8.8.3)
where h = ~~, and m (h) is a function of the argument h.
Let us transform Eq. (8.7.1). We shall express the elementary area
occupied by a doublet in the form da = ds d~ = dh
because
d~ = S dh. Therefore

s ds

tl

eotl<

CPdoub =

)
-cot~

(h) dh-f;)
0

Y (z E)i

!~I~!la+(s

11;)'1

(8.8.4)

Ch. B. A Wi"g ;" ~ Supe'$or'lic Flow

3a7

where ~l is the coordinate of a doublet that may influence the flow

at point P (x. y. z). This doublet is on the C\1Tve confIDing the region
of doublet influence (Fig. 8.8.2) and obtained as a result of the intersection of the plane y = 0 with the Mach cone issuing upstream
from point P. This curve is parabola AIBI described by the equation
(x - "~I' - ,," iy' -'- (z
~,)'I ~ 0
(8.8.5)
in the coordinates
the form

61' ;1'

We shall write the rUtlicand in (8.8.4) in

where

a=

1_r:t.'2h 2

b=2x (a.'Zh+ -

1).
(8.8.7)

(8.8.8)

Taking into account that a = 1 - a,'2 and h 2

integral on the right-hand side of (8.8.8):
~1

>

0, we lind the

\ ~ '"+lnIZVa(as'c bO"): 2aO'-bll"

;2+

-;-C

"a

By (8.8.5), the value of

?~
-+

+ C = 0,
= ~Vc

as~ -i- b~l

~2d;

v~t,

b,.:-c

3:~2-:~C JIn (2a~t -!- b) -

18.8.9)

consequently,

'la-

hi (2

va;; + b)j

(8.8.10)

Solving Eq. (8.8.5) in the form

a~~

we obtain

+ b~l + C =

(8.8.11)

0,

(8.8.12)
Accordingly,

In (2a~1

+ b) =

In Yb~

4ac

(8.8.13)

3!58

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodyntlmics of tin Airfoil .nod W,ng

is The difference of the logarithms in (8.8.10) with a view to (8.8.13)

In (2a;, : b)-lo(2V;IC,b)=ln lfb Z.=4ac =...!....In
21'ac,b

=...!....In b-2~
2

b~:..4ac

(2 Y<u+b)2

-th-'-'-

(8.8.14)

2 Ira;:

bj-21'ac

Therefore,

}t
~

~2d~

_ """' 3b

l'asz+b~~c

,r;: _ 3b~-4ac

8a 2

th-' _ , _

1'a

vac

(8.8.15)

We ca.lculate the derivative with respect to y from (8.8.15):

y r' aS~+b~--:-C
~tds

.*(
iJ

8ii 0

:...: 2a

~'a

J~;;C 4a~b2

-i-Ue' 2

Vac)

Introducing the symbol

'" ~ M(2 ViU)

and llaving in view that i}cioy = _2y(1.'2 (see formula.
we obtain

A'=

~:~'2

1~\"2 +th- I v)

(8.8.16)
(8.8.7)1.
(8.8.17)

We introduce tlds expression into (8.8.4):

(8.8.18)
To determine the form of the doublet distribution function, wo
shall use the condition of flow without separation, in accordance
with which

~ WI"" (.!!!...)
m (h) dh
( ,.''''")
iJg
y=o -cOl
iJy y=o

(8.8.20)

y.

Introducing this expression into (8.8.19). we find

cOI><
V,.,a= -1>< (0: )y=om(h)dh

(8.8.21)

Ch. 8. A Wi:->g in 5 Supersonic Flow

Se,9

Differentiation of (8.B.1i) wilh resp('ct to y yields

( u:;

)11_ II~":"

,::1.;;.

(I-':V1 ;- th- I v)Y;oOQ

(8.8.22)

Let liS calculate the partial derivative with respect to z/x from
(8.8.20) with a view to (8.8.22):
(8.8.23)
We calculate the value of the derivative ov/o (ZiX) 1,1 "'"'0 by (8.8.15)
and determine the quantity (1 - v!)~ 111 -0 by using (8.8.7) and
(8.8.16). After the corresponding" substitutions into (8.8.23), we obtain the equation
(8.8.24)
We shall show that this equation has the same Corm as the one
obtained when using the doublet distribution method to soh-e the
problem on the flow of an incompressible nuid over a flat plate of
inrlDite length installed at right angle:.; to the direction of the freestream velocity. We can determine the velocity potential for a plate
that is a part of a wiug in section AH with the coordinates ZA = -c.
ZB = c, and over which an incompressible Ouid 80\\'s in a lateral
direction at the velocity v = V ...a (Fig. 8.B.:i) with tbe aid of Eq.
(2.9.16). We shall write the latter in accordance with the coordinate
system chosen in Fig. 8.8.3 in the form
'fdoub = y/[(z -"Il)2 -\- y2J

(8.8.25)

This expression determines the potential at point P (y, z) produced by a two-dimensional point doublet with a unit moment

a60

Pf. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of

Airfoil and a Wing

(M = i), If the moment of the dOllblet differs from unity and the

doublet distribution ovcr the span of the platc is set by the function
M(ll), the velocity potential induced by the doublets on the wine;
sE'ction dll is
~
(8.8.26)

The \'elocity potential at point P due to the influence of the douhlets located alollg the span of the plate on the section from ZA = - r ;
tozn=cis
(8.8.27)
The vertical component of the velocity v
face of the wing is

v,.-_o=(OlJlrlOUh)
y

iJ!I

'/~O

,=[~ l~
{/y

Since the component

plate, we have

M(II)Y,dl l

_c (Z-Tll:Tg~

vI/CoO

~-

=
,1-",0

CM(IJ)d~1

!c (z-J[)-

sur-

(8.8.28)

docs not change over the span of the

(k)
"__
"
( -d
. __ ,
~

= ()ffdoub,'{)Y on the

\~

,11 ('lld11 .-... 0

(Jz.:: c (z -

I!J~

(8.8.29)

Differentiation yields
(8.8.30)
A comparison of Eqs. (8.8.24) and (8.8.30) reveals that they are
both of a single type, therefore it is possible lo take the dou blet
distribution function m(h) in a .supersonic linearized f10\\' of the
same appearance as the corresponding function M(ll) in an incompressible flow,
To determine the form of the function i11('l), we shall us!:' the
solution of the problem on ftnding the potenthd function for a plane
plate over which an incompressible fluid nows in a laleral direction
(see Sec. B.2). According to this solution, the velocit.y potential
on the plate is determined by formula (6.2.7). The relevant potential
difference on both sides of it is l\cp = 2VJfall - T. The now of an
incompressible fluid near the plate is considered as the result of

:~;::ao~~~~o~:: ft~~~~~: f6.3~~)rd ~ns~~~,!~~~~et:hendt~trt!~~t~~di!i

doublets lor a plane plate in a non-circulatory floUJ of an incompressible
fluid is equivalent to the potential diflerence l\ff. Having in view that

Ch. S. A Wing in

C!I

Supersonic Flow

361

the doublet distribution function m(h) in a compressible flow hasthe same form as for an incompressible one. we can consider theexpression for this function in the form
m(h) ~ L ]f H' - It'

(8.8.31)

where 112 = cot".! x and L is a proportionality coefficient.

Wc shall lise Eq. (8.8.21) to fmd the coefficient I... Inserting
(8.8.22) and (8.8.31) into it, we ohtain
o;V... =-o;'2/,

.. a;/a

"'

-cot

('1-':,,2 +'lh-l'),,~.. nVeot~~-h2dh

y.

(8.8.32)
To simplify the calculation of the coefficicnt L. we can int.egrate
(8.8.32) along a longitudinal coordinatc on the wing. Having in view
that along the x-axis the coordinates z ~ 0 and y = 0, we determine
the value of I v/(1 - v".l) .+- t.h- 1 v 11/ .... 0 in accordance with (8.8.7)
and (8.8.16), and the value of a Yaby (8.S.7). Integration yields
:fl,').

, V1

aV ... ",_nL ~

(1

a'zcoV"X)sin2rpdrp

(8.8.33)

The integral
n/'

Vi

(1

o:''J.cot.Zy.)sin2q:d<p~-=E(k)

(8.8.3\)

is a complete elliptic integral of the seeond order with the parameterk=]fl-a"cot'x

(8.8.35)

The values of inLegral (S.8.34) arc determined with tlte aid of Lile
previously calculated tables depending 011 the parameter k.
The doublct distribution can be expressed by function (S.8.3)
provided that m(h) is replaced by (8.8.31) and with account taken
of the value for L determined from (8.8.33). As a result, we have
ill (I, t) ~, V cot' x - h'

;;'7.)

(8.8.36)

Let us find the component of the induced velocity pro(Juced by

the doublets on the surfaco of the wing for y = O. From (8.7.3),
we have
(8.8.37}
i.e. the potential of the doublets on the wing is determined by the
magnitude of the vertical component of the velocity induced by the

362

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

"Sources. A comparison of (8.2.12) alld (8.7.1) reveals that .11(, 1;;)

can be considered as a function similar to the function Q(t 1;;)
determining the distribution of the sources over tho surface of a
wing having a given planform and angle of attack. Consoquently,
if we take into account that ill (8.7.1) the number It is included in
M(s. 1;;) in accordance with (8.2.7), (8.8.36), and (8.8.37), we can
compile the equation

(crdoubl,=o=llM(S. ~),..,(L\--'",~ l;.~

(8.8.38)

where h=:~/; (or h ".oZIX).

The component of the induced velocity due to the doublet$ is

u.=( a!f~;uh },_o=

~I:~ .~(x

Vcot2K-*)
(8.8.39)

The corresponding value of the pressure coefficient with a view

to the possible signs in front of the square root is

p=

2(:",-;{")

= _

~.: = E (k~l~::::x

h2

(8.8.40)

where the plus sign determines th.e pressure on the bottom, and the
minus sign 011 the upper side of the wing. The field of pressures corresponds to a conical flow relative to the pertex of the wing at which the
pressure coefficient p = const for all the values of z/x = const.
TIle lift force acting 011 a triangular willg consists of the force
produced b~.. the pres'mre on the hottom surface, and of the suction
force eqnal to it in magnitude and caused by the rarefaction on the
upper side. The elementary lift force acting on area dS = O.5xdz
(see Fig. 8.8.1) is
dY, _ 2 (p -

p~)

dS -

(p -

p~)

x d,

(8.8.41)

The total force is obtained as a result of integration over the entire

surface of the wing S ..... = Xli cot x:
Y,_ ) 2(p-p~)dS

The lUt coefficient is

(8.8.42)

'w

(8.8.43)

Ch. 8. A Wing in Supersonic Flow

963

After integration, we have

C'a =

2a:t cot x,'E(k)

(8.8J.4)

For a conical flow, the centre of pressure o[ each triangular element issuing from the apex is at a distance of two-thirds of the altitude from the apex. Therefore. the centre of pressure of the entire
wing is on the root chord at a point that is at a distance of t\\'othirds of the chord froID the apex. Accordingly, the coefficient of the
pitching moment about the wing apex is
mi. = -c'acp = -(4/3) an cot xlE(k)
(8.8.4S)
For a triangula ." low aspect ratio
a ' cot x <t:. 1, ana we can take the
E(k) ~ 1. Consequently, for snch a
r U. = 2an cot x; m'll

wing he _ a/2). th.e quantity

value of the elliptic integral
wing we have
-(4/3) em cot i(
(8.8.46)

l':xpressing cot x in tcrms of the wing aspect ratio All' = 4 cot x,

we obtain
(8,8,46')

If the sweep angle x is chosen such that i{ """ n/2 -11"" and, consequently, the Mach linc coincides with the leading edge. we have
cot x = tan ~ "" and 0.' cot i( = cot !l"" cot X = t
In the given case, til(! elliptic integral E(f..:) '-, :t '2. therefore for
a triangular win~ with a sonic leading edgc, wt' luw(>
(8,8,47)

Since
coLx=lanll ... ",1,J!M;,-1
we obtain

C,. -"

4a. V M;" -, 1
(8,8,4g)
This value coincides with tile lift coefficicnt for a thin sbarpnosed airfoil in a linearized snpersonic flow.
We shall show that the lift coefficient of a triangular wing with.
supersonic leading edges is expresf:led by the same relalion (8.8.48).
In accordance with (8.3.:14). the pressure coefficient for the wing in
the region between Mach cones is

PI . .- a'

(1--...!. sin-I" /-

20x
)/1

_Nt

:1

112 __

~~

1_0 2

(8.8.49)

and on the section between the leading edge and a Mach cone (see

(8,3.23)1 it is

i, ~
where n = 18nx/a.' t and

2a/(a' V 1 - n')
= Z t8nx/.z; = h tan x.

(8,8,50)

364

Pf. I. Theory. Aerodynollmk5 of In Air/oj! Ind I Wing

FI".8.U
Wings with supersonic trailing and side edges (zo = hoI:
"-"'1raKona) wing will,

hl'orut

pl"t~):

<I

dov~ta'J;

b-h'lragona) win!: wtlh a vee-sbaped appendagf' (rhom-

c-pl.'nh.gomti wing; d--hna,onRI wll1g

According to (8.8.43), (8.8A.9), and (8.8.50), the lift coefficient is

Cll

=2

'j'n Iplldo-2 1Ip'l.ldo=

v

4c

./_
0:' r t-n

;, [1 (1-+,'..-. V n;=:: )00-1 dO]

o

Integration yields the relation clia = 4ala' that coinci(les with

(8.8.48).
The methods of calculating the flow over triangular (delta) wings
can be used to determine the aerodynamic characteristics of lifting
surfaces in the form of tetragonal, pentagonal, and hexagonal plates
with supersonic trailing and side edges (Fig. 8.8.4). The flow over
them is characterized by the absence of zones of mutual influence
of the tail lind side regions confined by the intersection of Mach
cones with the wing, i.e. when the flow at the side and trailing edges
is supersonic. As a re~;ult, the coefficient of the pressure on the \ving
surface is the same as at the relevant point of a triangular plate.
The formula for calculating it is chosen with account taken of the
kind of leading edge (subsonic or supersonic). The lift and moment
coefficients can be determined by integration according to the pre9sure distribution.
We shall give the results obtained for a tetragonal wing: with
a subsonic leading edge

ells =
m'a '-

(:'~:;)~x/k)

[(1- e)-J/2cos-le-eJ

~;40:e~O~. ~l) [(t~-:;:I' cos-Je- 8~4-=:~)2]

(8.8.51)
(8.8.52)

Ch. 8. A Wing in a Supeuonic Flow

1"'":+

SSG

(=a I-t:~ !a.~

FIg. I....

Curves characteri~iDg the change In tile derivative of the lift coeflicic.>nt (a) ami
centrHlfpressure cocfllcient (b) for a tetragonal wing

with supersonic edges

cv~",--- (1-~nCl' (1/1~,tt

mz. =

cos- t nl-

vb cos-in)

3(t=~:1Cl' [tt~~)~f(i1.!~;;!/~
(t+:~V-~:~nt

(8.8.53)

COS-Inl

cos-1n- 1':",t1 ]

(8.8_51)

where = {Xt - Xo)/Xt = tan xJtan XI; n 1 = tanx3/a.' = e.n; Xu

and Xt are tbe dimensions shown in Fig. 8.8.4.
For dovetail wings (Fig. 8.8.4a), the quanti.ty e is positive, and
for rhombiform plates (Fig. 8.8.4b). it is negative.
The relations for C"II and m~a allow us to determine the centre-ofpressure coefficient c p = xp/xo = -rnz/c ,I
Figure 8.8.5 sho\,,-s curves characterizing the change in c:a and cp
in accordance with the above relations. The dashed lines in this
ligure determine the values of the aerodynamic coefficients in the
limiting case when tIn = cotx1a.' = e (a sonic trailing edge).
A salient point appears on the curves (Fig. 8.8.5) at a valua of
n = 1 (when cot )Ia.' = 1). i.e. when the leading edge is !:Iunic.
The coefficients c"a and cp behind the salient point (with a snpersonic
leading edge) diminish with an increasing M "".
Let us consider another limiting case corresponding to sufficiently
high values of cotx1cx' 1 (n 4:: 1, "t <t:: 1) at which the surface
of a Mach cone is Dear the root chord. A glance at formula (8.8.53)
reveals that the parameter e does Dot virtually affect the coefficient
ella' and a dovetail or a V-shaped appendage (see the diagrams of the

366

Pt.

r.

Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

wings in Fig. 8.8.5) alters the lift force of the wing almost in proportion to the change in the area of the plate.
It is not difficult to see that for e = 0 formulas (8.8.51)-(8.8.54)
yield the values of the relevant coefficients for a triangular wing:
cVa = C""4. and m:ra = m'a4.. The calculations by these formulas
can be simplified if the tetragonal wings differ only slightly from
triangular ones. In this case, provided that I I <: 1, we have
(8.8.55)
.9. Flow over a Hexagonal Wing
with Subsonic Leading
and Supersonic Trailing Edges

Let

115

find the aerodynamic characteristics in the more general

!~~~ o~ti~e~~n~t kad~~la=dg~~p~~s!~~~cta~ii~g aeli:rnw~~~8~9.1)~

Such a kind of the trailing Adges excludes the influence of the vortex
sheet behind the wing on the flow over it.
To determine the velocity potential,let us use the results of solving
the problem on the flow over a triangular wing with subsonic leading
edges. Let us consider point A with the coordinates x, z in region 1
confined by the leading edges and the Mach lines issuing from points
G and D. The velocity potential at this point can be expressed by
analogy with (8.6.1) with the aid of the following formula:

~'~ _....!.... \
I

2:t.0'

j'

VC:r

Q,I" tld,dt

e:p

a'l(z

Q2

+&'1' 'A~

2'

(8.9.1)

in which (1 is the region of integration on the wing surface, dIP,

and alP, are the additional potentials determined by expressions
similar to the second and third terms on the right-hand side of (8.6.3)
when integrating over regions (11 and (12 (hatched in Fig. 8.9.1).
Taking into account that Ql = 2). V 00 = 2 V 00, we can write
Eq. (8.9.1) as follows:
,
.v~g r r
d,dt
92
tpl= - - n - J.,J Y(z e2 a'~(lI Q"
(8 . . )
where in accordance with (8.9.1)

Q=1-(~IP2+d'P,)[

a:"" tJ

y(z

,)2

d'~'I(J: ~)l

]-1

(8.9.3)

For our further transformations, we shall introduce a charaew

teristic system of coordinates whose axes rand $ coincide with the

Cfl. 8. A Wing in a Supersonic Flow

367

Fig. a,t.t

Hexagonal wing with subsonic

]Nding and supersonic trailing
edges

directions of the Mach lines issuillg from the vertex of the wing
(Fig. 8.9.1),
r = (M",,!2a') (.r -

a'z),

= (M",,l2ct') (x

The characteristic coordinat;:>s of point A(XA'

rA = (,v",i2a') (x,\ -

a'ZA). SA

+ ct'z)

ZA)

(8.9.4)

are as follows:

= (M",/2ct') (XA + a'z-\)

(8.9.4')

Let liS convert Eq. (8.9.2) to the characteristic coordinates rand s.

From (8.9.4). we fmi!:
r

+s =

Consequently,
x - S = ;rA
a' (z -

~)

= a' (z..\ -

(M ",,:a')x, r -

I =

(a'iM "") ((r.\

= -M ... z

+ SA) -

z) = -(a'/l"I "") !(r,\ -

(r

(8.9.4")

+ s)1 }

s,d _ (r _ s)] (8.9.5)

Introdncing these expressions into (8.9.2) and taking into account

that. an area element in the coordinates rand s is do = dr ds X
X sin (21l_) (Fig. 8.9.1), and that the integration limits are SB
and S..\. rc and rA, we obtain an equation for the potential function:

(8.9.6)
We shall express the coordinates 6D and rc in terms of tIle coordinates rA and SA of point A. Since the equations of the leading
edges in the coordinates z and x are % = x tan x. then in accordance wiLh (R.D.4"') these equations in the coordinates rand s are

a6S

Pt.

I. Theory. AerodYl"lamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

transformed to the form:

T = 8m for the starboard leading edge: z = +x cot x
r ~ ,/m fo, the po,t I.ading edge: '~-x cot x

(8_9_7)

where m = (n - 1)!(n + 1) and n = tanxJ!a.'.

Therefore the coordinates TC and SB can be expressed as follows:
TC = scm = sAm and SB = 1'Bm = TAm
(8.9.8)
Substituting SAm and TAm for
after integration we obtain
q>i= -

4~~:Q

TC

V(rA

and

Introducing into (8.9.9) the values of

also the quantity
m ~ (n -

SB

in (8.9.6), respectively,

mSA) (SA

1)/(n

rA

and

m"A)
SA

(8.9.9)

from (8.9.4') and

+ 1)

(8_9_10)

we find
(8_9_11)
where h = ZA!XA (or h = ~!~).
By comparing Eq. (8.9.11) with relation (8.8.38) for the potential
function at the point being considered, we see that for matching
of the results, in (8.9.11) we must assume that
(8_9_12)
Hence, at point A located on the wing in region T, the velocity
potential is
(8_9_13)
Accordingly, the equation that must be used when determining
the potential function on the wing has the following general form:

v"" (n+t)

q>I= 4nM ... E(k)

II
a

dr
ds
VrA-r' VSA-S

(8.9.14)

Let us use Eq. (8.9.14) to determine the potential function at

point A in region II that is conHned by the Mach lines issuing from
points D and G, the tips, (side edges) and partly the trailing edges.
We shall write Eq. (8.9.14) in the following form:
q>II =
B~'

~:;~~~k~)

rA

"A

rK

sD'

J vr~r_r J

Vs:S_s

(8_9_15)

analogy with (8.9.8):

SB' =

TB,m = TAm

(8_9_16)

eh.

8. A Wing in e Supersonic Flow

869

Point K is on a tip whose equation is z = U2. In the coordinates

rand s, the equation of a tip in accordance with (S.9.4W) is

r - S - -M .li2
Therefore, for point K, the coordinate is

(8.9.17)

rx - SK - M.li2 - SA - M.1I2
(8.9.18)
Taking also into account that SB' = 'Am, after integration of
(8.9.15) we obtain

fJI[I= 1X:;~~t:) J./[rA-(sA- M;')] (sA-rAm)

(8.9.19)

Introducing instead of rA, SA and m the relevant values from

(8.9.4') and (8.9.10), we find

Til = I::~~)

n"';c,1'--(l---2-'-A)""("':"'~-T-'

-n-,."")'-

(8.9.20)

The velocity potential for point A in region III is

~A

r ..\

Till

~~:;::.;;;

II

"I('

r~r_r

l"s~:-$

(8.9.21)

'0'

Points K' and G' are on thn tips whose equations are z = 1I2
(the plus sign is for the starb031'(1 find the minus sign is for the port
tip). In the cooruinates r <'lid $, the equations of the~e tips in accord.
ance with (8.9.4) have the form:
r - s = -M colf:!. [or the starboard tip
(8.9.22)
r - S = 1)1 ""lI2 for the port tip

Consequently. for points K' and G'. we have. respectively:

I':K'

= SK' -

SG'

rG' -

M_1I2 = SA - .lHCOll21
M.li2 _ rA _ M.1I2

(8.9.23)

After the integration of (S.U.21), with a view to the values of t.he

limits (8.9.23), \\'e obtain
~----uo~---,",~

'Plu=

a:':;~::~k~) V(rA-sA~~'

Mil) (sA-rA M;')

We introduce into (S.9.24) the values of

SA

'PIll "'" 1X1;::~~~,t) 1!P-~4z~\

By calculating the partial derivatives witll respect to
the components of the disturbed velocity It = u(P:J{h A
2~-Ot ~

I~

(8.9.24)

and 'A from (8.9.4'):

(s.n.25)
XA. we lintl
~II .'''' I, II,

pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of lin Airfoil and a Wing

370

Ib)

<a)

FI~.

8.U

/~'
<, "~'.:.
g

WlDgs with subsonic leading

edges and tips and with supersonic trailiDg edges:

<I-hexagonal wing wilh a dovetail;

.,./
b_plate with a straight trailing"
edge (a ~ntagonal wing)

li

,,/ ",
'"
X

..

mo'
~
.

1--&--+---1---,

FIji!. B.9.3

Dlstribution of the quantity

:1'~ =p~~fa;la'i)/awr;:r ~:~

subsonic leading
tion AA)

edges

(sec-

lJO

60
80 100r.
X"(xjb)100

III) and determine the pressure coefficients in the corresponding

regions on the bottom and upper sides of the wing:

PI~

Ir~'

::A; .. _ 2C1.:'('~2)X.-".~,;"",'='"
l'.r~c"t";<-z}.

PI! "-' - v2". ::.~I =- nt.~k) ,~/ 2;:\-!~1~~,d~ZnA~) ) (8.9.26)

I
Pll! -- - ~~". . 8::;1 :.-,0
J
Hf're the plus sign on the right-hand side of the equations corresponds to the bottom side, and the minus sign, to the upper one.
The above relations for calculating the pressure coeRicients can
be lIsed not only for triangular wings with a V-shaped appendage
(Fig. 8.9.1), but tllso for similar wings with a dovetail Hnd wings
with a straight trailing edge (pentagonal plates shown in Fig. 8.9.2).
The change in the quantity I1pla. = <Pb - Pu)/a. near a tip 8S
a function of the distance from the leading edge (in per cent of the

Ch. 8. A Wing in ~ Supersonic Ffow

371

(h)

O.761--t-,ij'---l

Fig. 8.9.4
Curv~s chara('t~ri:ting lh~

coefficients fur

;1

change in the lill (4) and eentre-of.prl'ssure (b)

pt'nlHgonal wing t

cllOl'(l) caku\atf'il by tile above formulas for a pl'ntagonal wing with

1.11 is showll in Fig. S.!.Li, On the surface of the tip Mach
COlle, <I pressure discontinuity is observed due to the action of the
cor[1el" point of till' wing. The preSS\lfe is constant on the part
Lctween the tip <llId the tip ~lilch conc.
We lise the known PI'{'ssurC tn determinc the lift ;'\1u\ IllOllH'nt
coefficients:

M".

CII"

q~;,,"

---* ,\.\

(Ph-p',)d,nl;

(H.D.27)

~w

where Sw alld bl) are the area ilnd the root ChOftt of the wing, respcctiYcly,andph and Pit nre the codfjcienls of tllP prt'~slll'e on the
holtom and upper sides determined by formulas (8.\I.:!\i).
Arcording to the VAlues or nil;! and tv;,. we ClIli dclCfllline the
centrf'-of-pressllre coefficient c" == dWbl) """ -nt z;, cy,,' Figure 8.9.4
shows theoreticnl CIIl'\'es charactC'rizing the Chl\11gc in t' ll a and t'p
for a wing in the form of a pcniligolllli plntc. III this flgllre. the parts
of the curves for which "",liM!, - 1 : Aw tally. correspond to
subSonic leading edges. A feature or the graphs chAnn:terizing the
change ill c!J~ is the ahsC'ncC'
noticeable salient point!l- 011 the corresponding curves in the transition to snpersonic l(>ading edges (Le_
whell AwV M;, - 1 = ')..~, tan y.).

or

372

pt.

r.

Theory. Aerodynamics of an AirFoil and a Wing

'.10. Ffow over a Hexagonal Wing

wth Supersonic Leading
and Trailing Edges

To calculate the now over arbitrary planform wings (including

hexagonal ones with supersonic leading edges) in regions I and /I
(Fig. S.iO.ia, b) we can use the corresponding results for a triangular
wing with the same leading edges (see Sec. 8.3).
According to these results, the pressure coefficient for point
A (XA, ::::,d in region I between the leading edge and the Mach lines
issuing r'rom the vertex of the wing and points D and G on its tips
is determined by the formula
(8.10.1)
that has been obtained from (8.3.23) provided that a has been substituted for 11.. In the same condition, we find the corresponding
relation for the pressure coefficient in region /I confinod by the Mach
lines issuing from t1Hl vertex and the same points D and G. Dy
(8.3.34.), we have

pu= a'~ ~t-n~ (T-sin-'V~~-=-:~2)

(8.10.2)

The flow over the remaining part of the hexagonal wing

(Fig. 8.iO.ie-h) can be calculflted with the aid of Eq. (8.3.1) for the
velocity potential of the sources and sinks. We transform this equation to the following- form in the new varia bios rand S [see (8.9.4)]
(8.10.3)
where rA and SA are the coordinates of point A on the surface of the
hexagonal wing.
The coordinate lines rand s arc directed along the Mach lines. The
wing surface is divided into eight regions by these Mach lines, as
well flS by the lines of weak disturbances issuing from points G
and D, and also from intersection points G' and j)' of the coordinate
lines r anri s (the '1ach lines) with lhe tips. For each of theSE! eight
regions. tile velocity poll'ullal is calculated with the aid of Eq.
(8.10.3).
Let liS conside(' arbitrar~' point ;1 in region 1/1 (Fig. B.10.1c).
Wht'!n determining thc velocity potential for this region, we must
take into accounL the sources both on the surface of lhe wing (on
areas 8 1 = ADl/J~;I' and 8 2 = A'/J 2D) and olltsi(le of it (area
S, ~ A'DD"),

Ch.

e.

A Wing in e Supersonic Flow

Fig. UO.t

Hexagonal wing with supersooic icadiDg aoil trailiog edges

T' .S,

373

874

Pt. I. Tnaory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

t:'sing (8.2.13), let \IS write tbe expres.<;ion for

A (x, o. z) in the form

(Pill

at point

(8.10.4)
On the wing area SI + Sz. the sollrcestrength is known and equals
Q = 2v = 2cx V.... therefore

IPtlI ;:'"

-:v. . ))l(X

~)~d!'2(t ;I~

S,

a;l.~""
1

) ) V(x

s,

-", 's,J )/(.

~):;d;,~(Z ~}~
Q<;.

I)'

0 '

,)d,d(

(8.1 .4)

a"(x .,)'

where Q (G. ~) is a function determining the Law of source distribu

tion in region Sa outside the wing.
We can perform integration if we know the function Q (G. ~).
To determine it. let us use the boundary condition (8.t.20). in accordance with which the potential function on plane :d)z in the region
between the tip and the Mach line issuing from point D is zero. For
point A I belonging to this region, the condition of the equality to
zero of the potential function by analogy with (8.6.2) has the form

O.

rr

-al'.

" - , - -'s!

-""2:( 'S3

V{.1"

d,d(

l(x -- ~)I

a;'t{1

;1 2

()(S. pd~d~
. ;)2 a;'1.(t __ ~)t

A comparison of this equation with (8.10.4') reveals that to calculate the velocity potential at point A(x. 0, z), it is sufficient to
extend integration to region S1 in the main formula (8,10.4), i.e.
.
':tI'
d;d:::
<phI "'- - :t'" SIJ l/(x
~)~ a;/~(z ~lt
(8.-10.4")

lr

By this formula, the overall action on point A of the sources on

sections SI of the wing area and Saof the area outside the wing equals
zero (see 1171).
Using expression (8.tO.4~) transformed to the form (8.10.3) in
the coordinates r. 8. we obtain
(8.10.5)

Ch. 8. A Wing in a Sl.lper~onk Flow

37~

where in accordance with (8.9.8) for point D~ on the starboard tip,

we have
SP3 = rDim = rim
(8.10.6)
We find the lower limit rA' of the integral from the equation
z = lI2 for the tip. In the coordinates i and s, this equation has the
form of (8.9.17). Consequently. the coordinate
rA' = SA- - M.1I2 = ' A - M.1I2
With a view to (8.10.6), the integral

where m = (n - 1)/(n
Henel'
,

crIll

+ 1); m=
-2cttroo
:1..'1", V~

(1 -

'.

m)/(n

(8.10.7)

+ 1).

--

ri,r J,/r-s,vll
rA-r

By calculating the integral, next inserting into it rA' from (8.10.7).

and taking into accoullt expressions (8.9.4') for rA and SA, and
also the val lies of m and ni, we lind the potential

qlill=-.:

:t

~(~:nz

{V/(l-2z A) l(IA,a'zA)-a'l(n+1)11'~,t

2(%A-~;,-tanXI)tan-1

J,/ 2(X'~~(:'zA~){I!('l2~\i)Cl',}

(8.10.8)

We determine tIle derivative 8q: IlI/8xA and nnd the pressure coefficient:

(8.10,9)

The velocity potential for point A in region IV (Fig. 8.1O.1d)

is determined by the action of sources distributed over area AJOTR.
We divide this area into two parts, namely, SI = OTRQ and SI =
= OQAl. and find the potential at the point being considered as the
sum of the potentials due to the action of the sources on areas St
and S~. By using formula (8.10.3), we obtain

~iv = ~~;: s.""S:!

1j l't". d"~;'A

'l

3'16

Pt. 1. Theory. AerodynamiC5 of an Airfoil lind

'J.

= :~.
'"

J v'~-' -

II

vr~\r_r
-

J vr~-r 'J'J ll::-,

FA

:;:

'T'

Wing

'A

(8.10.10)

We determine the integration limits ST' and SJ' with the aid of
(8.9.8). For point l' on the starboard leading edge and point J'
on the port one, we have
ST'

= T'T,/m = rIm,

SJ'

= rJ.m = rm

(8.10.11)

With a view to the:se vflJues of the limits, we calculate the inte.

graIs:

Accordingly,

wiv=

-2V~

nM. lim.

rR

__
r - sAm

r,4.-r

d,.

_2:~.V-in '. }t/r~~~m dr

o

where ra

is determined by formula (8.9.23):

ra

M.1I2 = SA - M.1I2
Integration and substitution of the values for SA and rA from
(8.9.4'), and al m = -iii = (n - 1)/(n + I) yield
,_ -2a.v. {( _ t
)[_
- I " /'(.:-+'t")7:(.".-=eT;'JA"'I,
CJIIV- ,,'n 1"1-11.'
XA z" anx1
tan V (1 11.) (z,,+o:'s,,)
8ft -

+ tan-1 V 2(z:~:;s~~ (l!'~!~1)J

++ V(l

2<.)(2( +,,' )

,,'I(n+I)] (n+I),,'

+(x,,+ ZA tan Xt) tan-I V (~1+1;){~:+~':~)}

(8.1012)

Ch. 8. A Wing in a Supersonic Flow

377

upon calculating the pressure coefiicient PI\' == -(2: V,.,) D~i\ .taXA
and using here the formula tan-! x - tan-I y ,-" tan- 1 [(x - yH1 -T+ xy)l, we nnd

Let us consider region V. For point A in UIi:-; region (Fig. 8. to.1e),

the potential is
(8.10.11,)

By this formula, the velocity at point A is induced by t.he ::;ource~

on section ANPU of the wiug area. The iUller integral in (8.10.14)
whose lower limit SN' = rm. is

Consequently.
-:laV." y~
:t,U"",

!JA 1,i- r -

hA,m

dr

" r .... -r

'u
Since ru= SA- JI"",l':2, then. going over to conventiollal coordinates :c and y and taking into account that III = (n - 1)/(n + 1),
and
= -m, after integrat.ion we find

<Pv = ~:: ~~

{M." y7(Z-A-----'~-,)-,[~(X-A--.a-'-z,-,)-,,-,'(I!---'-)~-.'.!.',

M""(:~tzA:~D;tl)

tan-I

V (.rA-. a'z:)~o.,l{,:

After finding the derivative with respect to

the pressure coefficient:

1).1/2}
x.....

(8.10."15)

we determine-

Pv=-*~=~
1/2) (II
(//2) (I.

1)
1) a.'

(S.10.16)

378

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of en Airloil and a Wing

In region VI, the velocity potential is determined as follows

(Fig. 8.10.1f);

In accordance with (8.9.4) and (8.9.7), the limits or the integrals

in expression (8.10.17) have the form

sE~""'Omr,

SE1=TEl-

M;l =rA,- M;l

r u;' =- r E { = sF-tim = sElim

rS I

S .... -

= (11m.) (rA, -

M.l:2)

(8.10.18)

Moo1l2

As a result of integration, we establish the corresrondin~ relation

for (f"I in the Yariable' TA, SA_ LSing th~ir dependence on XA
and ZA. we find the velocity pot~ntinl liS ~ fUllction of thcse toordinates. By calculating the derivath'c 0'1 \(i'u.r,\ and inserting it
into the formula PVI = -2 (arp"./iJ;t . d. V"' we obtain the following
.expression for the pressure coefficiellt in the region bcing considered:
-p,'! =

- -4?:
- = [ tan-I
:ta' V1-n~ .
(8.10.1 [I)

For point A in region VII (Fig. R.10.1g), we have

Ch. 8. A Wing in Supenon;c Flow

~J'

379

'A

- .~~: jn

l/r:r,_r

1/8:'-S

'\'~

'A

- .~~: rwJ Jrr:r_r ~

'w~

BV~rA-Mool!2.

1/::-$

rJ.--(1!m) (rA-

(8.10.20)

.V;l) Jt

(8.10.21)

sv,,--=mr, sw~=r.:m, rw""'sA,-M..,':2

The following pressure coefficient corresponds to the potential
(8.to.20) calculated according to the "allies of the integration Hmits
(8.10.21):
P"II ~ [tlm-t ) / t_11 ) / '
:ta.' l'1-112

1-11

.1.-\. -a.;:.!.

x'\'j'a.z,\

-tan-I

1/ z..\ ~~~~~ ti'~)(~,'(I~):"1l

",tan-I

V,r(:r,\->-IZ~'(~'\~" ~~~~:,~~._(;).'

-tlln- J

l/,r,~".;, 1'/'" ~:~=~:~:~

'II

(8.10.22)

LelliS now consider region Vll/ (Fig. S.W.tlt) for wbose points
the region of integration simultaul'!Ousl}' intersects regions Q 1 and
9 2: disturhances manifest. tllemscl\,cs in these rcgioll~ t.hat are pro-

duc-ed by the flow ovcr both tips DE and GH. To cn,llIatc the velocity
potential for point A t.hat bf'longs to rl'gioll VIII, it is sufficient
to extend integration in COI'mIlIA (t'UO.3) to thl' region S = 8 1 + S2
hatched in Fig. 8.tO.th. Hf're the integral calculat(ld o\'cl'regLon S2
in formula (8. to.:l) must be tukcn wHh the oppo~ite sign. i.e. with
the plus sign. Accordingly. we hR"(-'

<f\ III ---

_ ..;tJ....
:f.JJ,,-

-l

Here

.~.~:

.\

S~

J"
51'

,/(r.\

drd~

l'.r,\

d:~~"A

r)t~,\ "SI

$/

(8.10.2:J)

880

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamic:s of an Airfoil and a Wing

j) 1/{rA d~)d;$,\_$) J v(rA_~~)d;SA

.,. )f . d,,"
+\\
d,d,
-*

01

o~

'y

y(r,\

d,
yr,,_r

s)

s~

'y

r) ($A

d.

'03"' V(rA

$)

~1.1 1/ s,\-5

'r

d,

"rl;i }/r .... _r

r) (SA

5)

'r '"
&KI

(8.10.25)

VSA-S

Tbe integration limits have the following values:

TF~ =
TFi

= SA- M fJ<JU2, SL1= tnr,~ SFi= SPI= rA- M ooli2)(B.10.26)

tnsFi'o;ms" = m (rA- M ... IJ2), SKI = rIm

TH1

provided that
SFI = rA- M""lJ2,
THI = SA- M ... 1I2
(B.1O.26')
With D view to these values of the limits, we calculate integrals
(B.10.24) and (8.10.25), and then find the velocity potential (8.10.23).
The following press1lre coefficient corresponds to this potential:
-

_~[

P"lll-- C(.'~

-1an- 1

_I

i l .. " ..

/(x,\

l/I-"~ tan~n V

~~.;: V'::~~::~~

- tan-Ill'

+1an- 1

et'sAH-(lj2)a'(n

i)

a~. ZA)(~

V ~-=~ V ~~~::::

!~;: 'II z.4.:~~~~'!.~'~~)(~::(I~)

i) ]

(8.10.27)

The above method of Cr.llcltlating the pressure distribution can

be related not only to hexagonal wings with a V-t;haped appendage
(see Fig. B.9.1), hut also to other planforms, namely. to a wing with
a dovetail and a pentagonal plate (sec Fig. 8.9.2) provided that the
tips a:re subsonic, while the leading and trailing edges are supersonic.
The co1'l'esponding change in the quantity apia. = (Ph - Pu)/a.
near a tip with the distance from the leading edge (in per cent of the
chord) evaluated for a wing with a pentagonal planform at M..., =
= 1.61 is shown in Fig. B.10.2. The coefficient apia. is constant
in the region between the leading edge aud the Mach cones issuing
from the vertex and tips of the wing, on the section confined by the
tips and trailing edges, and also by the Mach waye reflected from a
tip. A break in the curve cliaracterizing a change in the pressure
drop coeRicient occurs on the Mr.lch lines and is a l'esult of the break
in the configuration of the wing tip.
The found pressure distribution sud formulas (8.9.27) flnd (8.9.28)
are used to determine the lift, momeut and ccntre-ol-pressure coeffiden ts. Figure B.9.4 shows curves characterizing tIlc change in the
values of C'II and c p for a pentagonal wing. These values should be

Ch. S. A Wing in

.!I

Supersonic Flow

3S1

fig. 8.10.2

Distl'ihuliul\ of the quantity

~l/~=le~;;:~~1 ~1~~ a\\"~th

supersonic lea(liDg I'liges

(s~c

tioo :1.4)

determined provided that i ...VM;' - t > I.", tlln XI' i.e. if the
leading edge is supersonic. If a wing- has subsonic iealling edges (see
Fig. 8.8.1), Lhe flow oYer Lhe section of the surface ilt'lweell the eligts
and the Mach lines issuing from points E and }{ is aHect('d llr a \'ol'tex
sheel. The calculation of lilis flow is associated \\ith solution of
integral equation (8.2.t6) anf! the u~e of boundar~- conditions m.1.15)
and (S.1.1G). Such a solution is treated in drtail in Itil.
8. t t. Drag of Wings
with Subsonic Leading Edges

Let us consider the calculation of the drag of SW('pt wings with

subsonic leadin.g edges ill a supersonic flow at an angle of aUl\ci-.. We
already kno\\' that the disturbed flo\\' normal to the I!'luling edge is
subsonic near such wings. Such a no\\' is all('ntied I)y the o/;er,flow
of the gas from the region of increased pressure inlo the region where
the pressure is reduced and is the calise of the corresponding force
action on the \ving. To calculate this acLion, we cun lise the results
of investigating the disturhed Ilow of an incompl'essible fluid near
an airfoil in the form of a nat plale arranged in the flo\\' at an angle
of attacl, (sec Sec. G.3).
The drag coerficient for a thin winq with subsonic iea(ling edges
in a supersonic now is

(8.11.1)
in which ex T is the coefficient of the \\'ing sllction force depen(ling
on the sweep anglo Y. of the leadin~ euge and the number M ... :
C XT
= T/(q ""Sv.-)
(8.11.2)
\\'here T is lhe suction force, q~ = p>Vcoi2 is the \-elocity hea(I,
anf!' S", is the> area of the wing planform.

3B2

pt. I. Theory. Aerodynllmics of lin Airfoil lind II Wing

~:. tt-:'~~leulation of the suc

tion force for a triangular wing
with subsonic leading edgl!s
To detarmine the force T, we can use tbe relations obtained in
Sec. 7.6 for an infinite-span swept wing. This follows from the fact
that in accordance with (7.6.18) and (7.6.19), the suction force
depends on the change in the axial component of the velocity in the
close vicinity of the leading edge of tile airfoil being considered, and
also on the lOCK 1 sweep angle, and lloes not depend on the behaviour
of this velocity far from the leading edge.
t:sing (7.6.18), we obtain
T-2:tp_ V Tl_7;.7'.=n"'''"x---;M''';''

'I" c'.!dz

(8.11.3)

where c is a coefficient determined from (7.6.19).

Let liS determine the drag for a triangular wing. For this purpose,
we shall lIse expression (8.8.39) for the disturbed volocity. Assuming
that cot~ = z, xJ.e. we fi1ld

u
where xJ.e is the

di~tallce

to the leading edge, z and x are the coor-

diI~i~~d~fci~:~i:~t :~u~h~f'~:rrn~:if7.g:1~)1~~d taking into

that

lim

c1

account

(xlxl.,) = 1. we have

r-%).e

=[ :~';,

r :c~~ll,.. ~:;:rl~;~~)~(~_~':'~:')

-+[ ;~~~

rzeotx

Introducing this expression into (7.6.18) and integrating. we find

T~ ~po.:'lt~ [~~.~

r2V'l-."7""","",'-".---;M;<.,, '"Jzdz
o

= Jlpoo;tx

[:v~;)rfV1+tanaK

M!.,

Ch. 8. A Wing in 0 Supersonic Flow

383

Flg.8.tt.1

Cliange in the factor J. T in

formula (B.H.5) for calculatin({
the suction force
The suctioll force coeflicil'lll hy (8.11.2) is

C~.l'

.\'~/'~r:tV1-.

. [ 'I...

Iflu:!x-,l1;'

18.11.1)

Taking into account expr('ssioll (8.8.-H) for cUa' WI! have

(8.11.4').
According to this formula, tlw suction forcc coefficient is proportional to c;a' i.e. CX,T ;:"- CT~.,. The proporl ionality coefficient,

equal to CT = (1 l4:t)
1 -;. tan~ Y.
M-;" for U lriallgular \Yillg,
ehanges when goillg O\'cr to another plan form and depeuds not only
on x and M <>:>, but also on the t<lper ratio llw .111(1 the aspect ralio i.\\"
Investigations show, however, that the illflul'uce of thr.se additional
parameters is nOl great. and the suction force for (Ill Mhitrary plauform wing CAn be calculated \\ith the [lid of (tU1A').
With a supersonic leading cilgr. (M"" co:; y. > 1), ilnd also wh!'11 the
leading edge becomes SOllie (tall x - cot!l ~" l/M~ - 1). \.he
Sllction force coefficient equals zero. With a subsonic leadlJlg Nlge
(Moe cos x < 1), the quantity C).'.T .- 0, hilt l'xpr.rimental in\pstigntions show that its /lctual value is lo\\"!:r than the c[lkui[ltrd one.
This is especially noticeable at large angles of allack or sweep \\'hpil
local sep[lration of the flow (bllrble) occlIrs ill the \'icinity of Ihe
leading edge and no further growth of thl1 SHCtiOIl is obser\'l'Il. The
decrease in the suction force can be taken iuto HCC01lllt by the correction factor d r in Accordance with \..-hich
000

Experimental data on the change in the qUlI.lltil.y.i T ar('- contained

in Fig. 8.11.2. According to these data. the sllction forc(' at. snhsonic
velocitil's lowers less than in !'lupersonic flow upon an increase in the

384

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of

.!In

Airfoil end a W;rtg

angle of attack because at such "elocities the separation of the flow

from the leading edge is Jess noticeable and the suction is greater.
According to experimental investigations, at subsonic velocities the
correction factor in (8.11.5) is determined by the formula (see [181)
(8.11.6)
Xo suction force appears on wings with a sharp leading edge, i.e.
the coefficient ex. T = O. Let us consider the total drag of a wing,
which in accordance with (8.11.1). (8.11.5), and (8.8.44) can be
written as
c Xa

=ctcllil

-Cx . T =

4."l<:!~t 12!~ (k) y.

fiT Ji1-

cot'x(M!..-1) 1

Having in view that the aspect ratio of the wing is

AII' = 1~(Sw = 4 cot x

(8.11.7)

[2E(k)-.6. T Ji1-cot 2 x(M!.-1)

(8.11.8)

obtain
C"'a=

:~:.

Let us consider sonic flow. If M "" _ 1, then E (k) _ 1. and,

sequently, the drag codticient is
cx;)=c~/(nAw)

COD-

(8.11.9)

Expression (8.11.9) coincides with formula (G.4.1G) for the coefficient of the induced vortex drag of a finite-span wing (provided that
15 = 0). Hence, the physical nature of the drag force arising in a flow
over a triangular wing with subson ic leadin g edges is due to induction
by the vortices formed behind the wing. Accordingly, the quantity determined by (8.11.8) is called the induced drag COf'i'ficienl.
If the leading edge is sonic (t.an z = V M;" - i), the second term
in the brackets in (8.11.8) is zero, while E (k) = E to) = n/~; consequently, the induced drag coefficient is
(8.11.10)

For a very thin wing (x _ :t/2), we may assume that. cot. x ~ 0

and E (k);::;I E (1) = 1. In this case, expro.."8ion (8.11.8) coincides
with (8.11.9).
In addition to triangular wings, formula (8.11.8) may be applied
to wings having tho form of tetra-, penta-, and hexagonal plates with
subf\onic leading edges, and supersonic trailing and side edges

~~~~sl ~::o i~i18. ~1~8t)isPf~~~~~t~~~~' (~~8.1e1t).agonal

wings, the coelti-

en.

B. A Wing in ~ Supersonic Flow

3Se

8.11. Aerodynamic Charaderistics

of a Rectangular Wing

Supersonic Dow over a thin IinHe~span rectangular wing at a small

angle of attack is characterized by the influence of the leading super80nic edge and the SUbSOllic tiPJ> (side edges) on the disturbed now Ilear

the surface. The simultaneous influence of the leading edge nnd one
tip is present within the limits of Mach cones issuing from wing corners 0 and 0' (Fig. 8. t2.1a) if the generatrices of tllCSC cones intersect
outside the wing. If these generatl'ices intersect on the surface of the
wing (Fig. 8.12.1b), in addition to regions II and 1/' where the in4
nuence of one tip is obsef\ed. zone [II appears in which both tips
act Simultaneously on the disturbed flow.
In region I on the wing between the leading edge and the Mach
cones, the disturbed fiow is due to the influence of only the leading
edge. Here the pressure cocfficiC'ol is determined br the formula for
a flat plate:
(8.12.1)
p, = 2IVM!. - 1
We shall use the method or sources to calculate the disturbed flow
in region II (Fig. 8.12.1a). The \'elocity at point A in this region is
induced by sources distributed OVCI' wing section ACOE. The total
action 01 sources BCO lind OBD 011 point A is zcro, and, consequently, integration in (8.10.3) \llust or performed OY('!' region ABDE.
Aecordingl~', the velocity potential at. point A is

rr _d_,_

-al...

.\~

:l.U""

,.~ l/~":'$ r~,

_d'_

r";.\-r

(8.12.2)

Point F is on the leading edge whose equation is x = O. Hence,

by (8.9.4), for this edge we have
r

= -(M .,/2).,

= (M ./2)

(8.12.3)

Consequently. the equation of the leading edge in the coordinates r

and 8 has the form
r =-8
(8.12.4)
Therefore, for point F. the coordinate rp = l' = -So
Point B is on the Up whose equation is z = O. Hence, by (8.9.4),
for this tip we have
(8.12.5)

a8S

Pi.

I.

Fig.8.n.t
Heclangular

Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil lind II Wing

wing

ill

linearized :>upersollic now

We can thus write the equation or the tip in the form

(8.12.6)
For point n. the coordinate Sn"""' rll' - r;...
Performing intcgration in (B.12.2) with a vicw to the limits rl' ="
= -s and Sa ,-. r.\, after introducing the values of r,\ and S;.. from
(8.9.1'), we obtain

cpil

~- -~~roo

[V,.. %(xA-a'z.d

'~'7 t,Ill- 1 V.r.\(t~~~'zJ

(8.12.7)

Let

liS

calculate the corr{'sponding pressme coefficient:

PII -. _. (2/V....,) dq;h

iJx,\,'

::a~(l.

lan-I! /

J' \

~'~~\.\

(iU 2.8)

On the houndary of Lhe Lwo rcgiou.<: 1 aut! 11 separated hy " Mach

linc, the pressnrc coefficient detrrillined by (K,12.8) eql1<lls lhe
value (8.12.1). indeed, since the eljulltioll of this boundary is Z .. I -'
:.."'" :t ..\. tan Il"" . xA':a', from (8.1:2.8) \\'e lind
P~l -- (!J.Ct/na') n'2 -- f~
It follows from (8.12.8) that <It. the tips of the wing, the pressure
at the points along Ihe lines whose equation is z/x =- const is constant. These lines can be considered as the gcnel'fltriccs of conical

surfaces ;\11(1. C'ollscqllelllly, lile flow in the illdicat.ed region or thl)

wing can ue cOllsidl'red conical.
Let liS calc.1I1<ltr the aerodynamic coefficients of a wing. The lift
force actil1g 011 fill clement of area of \.he end part of the wing is

(8.12.9)

Ch. 8, A Wing in

,\ giallce at

Fi~.

;!I

aS7

Super$onic Flow

8.12.t{/ ren'ab that the elementary [lren. is

ciS

-,~

(R.12.1fl)

d'l

wlltwc y is the allgle IllcnsnrCfI rrom the Iring lip,

Introducing illlo (8.1:!.!) tlte \'alll('~ of

tit(> ndllc o[ dS from (8.12.10),

we have

,~:I:~. p,,;.;"

d}'

(\Ilrl

Inn-l.V

Ph and -Pu [rolll

.~lIhSli\l!tillg-

"my

fK.tZ.8),

rUI

<:.I.r,\,

1.~~~;~::1;'1' CI:~~'

Di\'idillg lili:-; l'.\pn':<."iull hy till' product or the wing Iwea con lined
\\"illlill tile ,\Ial'll ('0111' U3 11
b~ :.!Ct') n.nd the velocity head (qx=
' ""'' p . J'~, :2) Hlid pl'l'forming illlcgl'iltioll, we ohillin the lin coefficient
for till' \ring lip!':

Intl'gl'alion

by pal'ls yiclds

c;

:!a; l/,lf~ - 1

:20: a'

(8.12.11)

Lei liS (1I'termin(J Ihe lift cOl'ITirif'nl ('III fOJ' lilt' l'lId parts of I.he
wing rt'latt!d Lo its tol,1\1 art'a S"
fb:

(N.12.1I')

i."

~..:

l h.
The lilt cot'fficil'nt for willg st)ctinn I ri!latl'd to llil'
s('clioll is
whl'l"l'

Hl"Pil

5, of this
(,'\,12.t2)

Till> liFt cot'fricicllt fOI' this St'c1ioll I"t'lalvd tn

face

lot,lI \\"itl~ Slll"-

Lilt)

is

(:II-C,~ .~:,

"

(':,

S\\- .. ('~\,I\:

'I'll(' 1011\1 lift cuelTici('1I1

('11,,-

Cull

('Ill

}/.,:Z-I

The wave th',lg coeITicil'll1

"'"H

'3CII "

SII')

c.; (1-

1..)

;.,,1..

(H.12.13)

j,-;

(1-

~;"\\" I?J'~ -t)

(8.12.11,)

/IJ~,,-.I

) (8,12.J5)

i,~

(J:t

(1-

2;. ....

ass

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodyn"mics of an Airfoil and a Wing

FiCltl.l

To tbe determination of the

aerodynamic moment for a rectaDgular willII'

We can calculate the cocrricienl of the moment about the z-axis

according to the known data on the pressure distrihution and the lift
coefficients for individual parts of the wing:
Ill.,. = Mz/(q ... Swb)
(8.t2.1U)
The moment Jlz. of the pressure forces distributeu over the surface of tbe wing can be found as the sum of the moments of the lift
forces about the z-axis acting on variolls parts of the wing (Fig. S.12.2).
Taking into account that on the trhmgnlar parts of the wing the
point of application of the lift force coincides with the centre of mass
of the area of the relevant part. we hAve the following expression
for the moment:

(8.12.17)
where yep, yep, and Y n are the values of the lift force calculated
for parts CDB (IlEF), EFCH, and ADB (GHE), respectively. By
(S.12.ft) and (8.12.12), we ha,'e

Y'l':." c~ P"'~';;"
'1'

Y1

:":CIl

(J-~';;"

SII '- -*'

,pooV!.

Sll

Ija;

p... v!.

poo~!, Su

-,-Sf:t,cn :'-: ""(i7"'"'-2-(SW-.'Js n

Yll-=c~ r ...~';;"

SI1"--'

)!I ..

(S 12 IS)

Introducing (8.12.7) and (S.12.1S) into (S.12.16) and taking into

account the value S II = Sw/(2'J..w a'), we have

m,"~

jI';:''::'

(1- JAw

v~~-,

(8.12.19)

Ch. 8. A Wing in a Supersonic Flow

389

The coeffieient. of Ihe centre of presSUI"e is

e .,
"

-11

:li.,,-

.T;' _ ~.'~

V:ur=T _.:!

3(2i, ... ,1.11;'.-1-1)

(R.t2.20)

If the number iff '"' for the flow oyer the wing shown in Fig. 8.12.1a
is reduced. then Ilt a certAin nine of this /lumher the lip )l;lch cones
int.ersect inside Ihe wing. Here regioll 1/1 appear::: (see Fig. 8.1!!.1b)
in which the disturbcd flow i!< 11ff('{'ted hy Ihe )eiltlillg supersonic edge
(Inti both subsonic tips. The nature of the fluw ill rcgiolls I and II
(/I') is the liamc m: ill the corre!lpolldillg zolles I and II (II') of the
wing ,.... hose diagralll is shtJ\\'II in Fig. 8."12.1C1.
Let us consider the now ilt point ;I of region I I I (sec Fig. 8. U.lb).
'fhe region o( iufluencc of the sOIll'te.'> 011 thi~ now coillddcs with
wing s(.'('tion ABDD' IJ', The )AUer can be l'cpl'f!Senled il!< the Slim of
area~ IIIJDD' ami A Hn' /I'. With this in view aud 3t'cortlillg to
(8.10.3), the velodty polenti:'!.1 at point Ii is

We can (lelerllline tho integla!.ioll limits directly from Fig. 8.11.1b.

Hence,

We c-8lcltlate the lirst two integrals by 811alogy wilh (8.12.i), and

the othcr two independent I~' of each other because the regioll of
integration is a pllralll'liogram (see Fig. B.12.1b). \\,ith this ill view,
we have

f~ill"".o ~'t:::'"'

{-V('A .. SH)(SA

+ V2r.A(SA -'A) -('A

I'A)

_tan-ll/8";,~A) -:-2V{SA

(tan-I

$}I)

V~

SU)('A 'D')}

(8.12.21)

Examination of Fig. S.1:1.1b reveals that thc coordinate Slf ~-' SD'
and in accordance with (B.t2.1), the quantity SlY :- -'0" Consequently, 8H -- -I'D' '"=, -I'D"

390

Pro I. Theory. Aerodynemks of en Airfoil end eWing

Poinl 8' is 011 the starboard lip whose equation is z : , l. From

(8.9.4~), we can lind the equation of thb; tip in the coordinates
T and $:

T-s-=-M""l

(8.12.22)

lIen('e for point 8'

TD'

M...,l

'': $0' -

s,-\..;..

M",,/

(8.12.23)

Ar.cordingly, we have
SI-[ . ~

-TD' -- -SA

I- M ool

(8.12.24)

Introducing into (8,12.21) the ('oordinales TA and $,\ from (8,9.4')

and TD' and SJt from (B.12.23) and (8.12,24). we find

<pill-":~{Vl(xA

+ Va'zA (XA

a'zA) -'

-Iall- I

XA

o:'ZA)

o:'lHl

[t1111-1 ],/

V l"A~z:'ZA

ZA)O:'

(l"A(;-a~~)a: a'i
(8.12.25)

]}

Using the formllla p . -(2IV 00) Oq:i 1l 18xA' we nnd the pressure
coefficient as a result of simple transformalions:
PHI ,_.

~:,

Illn- 1

J'/ ~.,~'~\.~

l/ (;c,\(-~-cr.:~~t'.a'l

+ :

(8.12.20)

The !irst and second terms in this expression arc the pressllre
coefficients PII and PI!' for the tip pal'ts of tbe wing, respectively,
while Ihe lhird term is the pressure coemrient Pl fol' region I where
there is no i.nfluence of the tips.
The flow over a rcctanguJal' wing is of a slill more intricate natUl'e
if it has a low asped ratio and the quantity A\\"VM"oo - 1 < 1.
In this case (see }o'ig, 8.12.1e), new wave I'egioll~ appear that are
formed as a result of intersection of tile disturbance wa'"es incident
on and reflected from Ihe tips. For example, the disturbafl('es tra\'elling from section OH or the port tip reach the starboard one on sertion
0' H' and o\'crit propagatea)ongMadllinesO'O"-Il'H'" in the opposite
direction, This gives rise to lie\\' Wflye zones IV and V in \vhich the
naturo of the flow changes subsluntially. This now ('an be ca1culflted
by using the method of sourcc..'! set out above and taking into consideration the indicated inll'kale nature of formation of the disturbance zones.

en.

8. A Wing in a Supersonic Flow

391

(a)C~c-~

FI" 8.U,]
Curvl's rhnr!lct~ri7.ing thl' chungc
ill the clerivativ(~ of the lift
fOITl' coeflicienl (a) and Ihe
cenlr("of-pressufl' cOl'fiiricnl (b)
for II I"C("tanr,rular, winl! (tIl!'
aspect ratio J. w
"~I!)

The known pressure (Iislriblilion and formulas (8.9.27) and

(8.9.28) are used to calculale the coefficienls of the lifl force and
moment, while the expressions c p = -mra/cyOl anti c.'a .; CU: Ya
are Hsed to calculate the ('oeHidents of the ("entre or preSSUi'e and
drag or the wing being cOllsidCl'ed. ClIl\CS ('harnctel'izing thc change
in the Wt nnd centre-of-pressure roeffidents of a rectangular wing
with a varioHs aspect ratio havc been rOllstnlded in Fig. 8.12.3
lIccording to the I'esults or such calculations.

8.13. Reverse-Flow Method

L('t liS wnsidct, one or the methods of (lC'roilYII<llIlk. iUH'stigaliolls,
the rel'erse-now method, Ihal eslablbhl':< I'elalions betwc(>n the
ael'oelynumir ("hararlerislics of thin wings wilh all idenlical plflllrOl'lll
and locRteel in oppositely clirecte(l flows.
Let liS nSSlIllle !llat Olle of such \\"IlIg~ is In 1'1 forward flow at the
flngle of ntta('.k ai' und the othel' ill fill rel'n'se no\\' fll the l\J1gle of

892

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamic5 of an Airfoil lind" Wing

,~'d ~,~
--J~--X --~:=;==r-.0,,,

~~t&-ctl~!planation

Pz,z

,I

9~
ilJ'O<:J

of the reverse now mctho(l:

J-torward now: 2-fIIVl'I'Sl' Aow: 3-eomblned flow

attack az (Fig. 8.13.1.). A('col'(liug to IIII' thcorr of linearized now,

the excess pressure at a point of the !'urrace is p - P.., = -p..,l'"..,u,
while the pressure increment between Ihe boltom and upper sides is
!lp = Pb - PI.I = pooF.., (u u -

Ub) """

poY ... !lu

(8.13.1)

The magnitude of l.he drag force produced by the pressure increment is dX. = !lp adS. A(('ordingiy. the force for wing 1 in the
forward now is
(8.13.2)
X. I =
ilplCtI dS

jj
s

and for wing 2 in the reverse flow is

X,,-

Jsj t..p,",dS

(8.13.3)

The magnitudes of the pressure increment !lPt. !lpz and of the

local angles of attack a 1 a2 are measured at the same point..
In the following, we shall disregard the suction force that can
develop on the subsonic leading edge. This does not change the
results. Since the flows in the vicinity of the wings are nearly uniform, by superposing them we can obtain a new flow with parameters
satisfying the linearized equation for the velocity potential. We
shan perform the superposition so that the free-stream veloe-ities
are subtracted. Now the contour of the new wing 8 (Fig. 8.13.1)
coincides with the configuration of the given wings 1 and 2, but the
camber of its surface is different.
This camber is determined by the local angle of attack a l equal
to the sum of the angles of attack:
(8.13.4)
III accordance with (8.13.4), the vertical components of the velocity 1,-. at the corresponding points of the surfaces are added. The
horizontal velocity components upon superposition are subtrafted,
therefore for the combined wing 8 we obtain !lUI = !lUI - !lua.

Ch, 8, A Wing in

<)

Supersonic Flow

393

lIenee the pressure ill('fement betweC'll the hot tOlll [llld liPPE'\' ~ide~
of this wing is llp3 = pOO\T<c~lIJ -- f!;.;.I"" (J.1I1 -- J.II~), /)1" by
(S.t:l.1),
The drag of wing 3 is
Xo'

Isi (~P.

-' ,\pJ

i'.

'J dS

A drag ill a wing is (l~ociated \\itli il di:ilurued JhJ\\ bcllillu it.

The latter is an illlillitely long YOI'tex sheet l'CI~t off the trailing edge.
It is clear from physical eOllsitieralions that lilt'lc i~ 1-'1Iid 1'01'1'esponuence bet.ween the disturbed !>tal.c hehind lhc wiug mHl Ihe dl'ag
force, Particul<1rly, the fo!'ce Xu and the di!lturbed sLalc behind
wing 1, as well (IS the force X a:l and the disturbed state hehind wing ;2
arc in such correspondence.
The flow near wing 3 ohtained as a result ai' snperposilion of the
flow panel'll!! Ileal.' ,,"iug 1 aud wiug 2 has tlie propert) that the di$w
turbances ahead of it are the same as for wing 2, and behind it. the
same as for wing;J, Ilellct', the dn:lg fOl'l'c of combined wing 3 e1luals
the diUerellce between the drags of wing:-: 1 and 2. i.('.

X8.3=Xul-Xa~=)) (ll.Plal-:lp~a~) dS

(B.i3.i)

s
Equating the right-hand sides of (8.1:.1.6) (lud (S.I:1.i), we

JJl1p,~dS= .\. J' j,p:a,dS

B

ohlaill

(8.13.8)

This relation is the fundamental e:lpre.~sioli of the rerer,~e-!l()u;

method,
Going over to prssure ('oefficients in (H.1J.i' Wi' (',111 write lhb
relation as
(S.U.';)
~p.a, dS ~ )
dS
s
s
where the pressure increment coefficients are ill!; -- ~b - PIC
aud Apt = Pn - Ph'
Using our right to choose the angie of attack arbitrarily. I('t us
adopt the same eonstant values of al and al for all points 011 1\ wing
surface, I.e. a 1 = a2 :- a. We therefore find frolll (8.13.S') that

j)

J,p,a,

J) ~jil dS= ~')s ll.pzdS. or Y

aL

l'a2

lIence, the l'cYerse-f1ow method allows us to establish that the lift

force of a flllt plate ill forward (Y at ) anu j'fWerSe (l"a:l) flow is tlie same'
at identical angJc~ of sltRe" and frec-stream vclodties.

9
Aerodynamic
Characteristics of Craft
in Unsteady Motion

III the steady motion of craft, the aerodynamic forces and moments
are indepencient of time and are determined for lixed rudders and
elevators and for a gh'en altitude and \'clocity only by the orientation
of the crart relative to the \'eJocity vectOI'. Ullsteildy motioll. when
a cralt experiences acceleration or deeeleratioll aud vibrates for
various reaSOIlS, is the most general CDSI.'. In inverted motion, this
is equivalent to an ullsteady now of air 0\,('1' a craft. With such
a flow, the aerodynamic properties of a craft Me due noL only to its
position relative to the frce-stream velodty. bul al.so depend on the
kinematic parameters characterizing motion. Le. the aerodynamic.
coefficients arc a rum~tioll of lime.
In unsteady now, II craft experiences udditionul forces and moments. Their magnitudes in <I. Illlmb('r of ral'lCS are quite small in
comparison with those eUcollllteL'ed ill stea(ly lLlotion. Particularly,
in an Axial accelerated supersonic flow o\'l'l' II body. the drag grows
only insigniftcantly, which may be disregarded in praelice (according
to Frankl),
~"any important problems relating to the motion of cruft, including
unsteady motion, eon be solved by using tile aerodynamiC' chlll'ur-teristics for 0 steady flow. A number of problems, howe\'er, lire solved
only hy Iinding the aerodynamic cbaructeristirs with account taken
of the unsteady natllrc of the flow.
The major problems include that of the dynamic stability of
a craft. A rrart has dynamic sLability in gh"en flight conditiolls if
the- de-\"iatiolL of the kinematic parameters produced by disturbing
fon"es dimini:shes with time ~o that the disturbed motion attenuates
ami tendl'! to the iniLial programmed mght.
11 this rondition il'! not realized, we have dynamic instability of
a <'T<lrt. Dynamic stability (or instability) is investigated on the basis
or the eqllations for distllrbed motion including time-dependent
aeroilrnamk chllracteristks (what IU'e called non-stationary aerodYlIIlInic characteristir.s).

Ch. 9. Aerodynilmic: Ch",r",derislic:s in Unste"dy Molion

Tht' COIH"Ppl of

395

conlrollabilit~,

i.l'. till' <lhilily Or a Cl"llfilo respond

10 Ihe ('olltrols <lnd rhange it~ po~iti(ln ill spacc ilnd llw l"Ol"l"eSpOllilill!;:
Ilight ch81'ar\('rislin; sllfficienlly ntpidly ami witholll Ilppredahle
vibratiolls. is a~!<oriat'd with the ("onrep\ of slallility.
The proilipm of t'ontl"Ol b solvcd on lhe basis of equatiolls o[ mol ion
ilH'iHdillg 1I0n-statiOn<l1'y (,harmterislic:< of a (,],llft wilh a('('oHllltaken
of Ihe 8('lio11 of tht' l'011II'ol smf:l('cs. These pl"Ohlem!< illcllldc Ihe
ill\"l,~tigaUoll of nil 1l1l~lcady Ilight fOI' cstablishing ami (,\"HlliatiHg
Ihe- manol'unabilHy of a naft. i.1!. ils ahi\il~' 10 dlllllgC its speed.
direelion of Ilight. lind o!'icnlnlion in :opu('(! withill il gi\'en in\(']"\"al
of limc.

9.t. General Relations for

the Aerodynamic Coefficients
Thl' ;Wl"Od~'Hmll ic for("('." Ill' menu'HI." a("\ ing 011 a (Taft depend 011 Ihe
kinematic "ariabl('s ('hal"lll"ll'rizing ils 11lo\iol1. FOI" a giVI'1I ("ol1[igmalion and I1llilllllc H of a naft. IIwsc fOITl'S and mon]('llt!< i.HC delcrmiliNI by Iht' night \"(.'lority v
-V", (V"" is the free-strcam \"('Iorily ill it1\'l'rled now), the angu\;ll' Ol'il'ntatioll fl'llltiyp 10 the velo("ity
Y('("tor V (the ang-I('." a anll ~), the angl('~ of dt'nt'("tio[] of till' fonlrol
slllfarps ul"l"llllged in Ihrl'l' mutually P<'lTl'[1(iinlinr plaues (15,. f>"
tllld 0" arc Ihe l"lul(I (,]" clcvator. Mid aill'I'OIl angil's. l"e~p('("ti\"C'y).
and al!<o the llUgU];11' \"I'lodties of l'ol;dion ,Iholll thl' bodr a"',(,S
(0" QII' Q,. Fig. \1.1.1). 111 lIclditioll, ill Ihe gl'lH'nl\ case il is lle('(':osar~' to Illkl' into M('("OUlll Ihl' inl1lll'[]('c oj" Iht' <lllgHI;]]' ;111(\ lilll'aJ' ,1("1'(,h'rMliOll:< (~l.,
dO.,.dt. ~~!I
dO!1 cU. ~2,
dD,'dl. i' '"
dl"x1dl).
of thl' raIl' of dlilllgl' in Ihl' nngh." of atln('k ;111(1 111(' :<idl'slip 1111g1e

(~

da.'dl.

()f (1t'\"Il'("lion

6a
11

i3

dr1cll). alill al~f) o{ litl' l"ah' of ('IUlllgl' ill lin' llngll'

of 111(' rOlll]"ol :<1ll"fal''':O

(5,

do, dl.

~"

dOt.ell.

- doll.dt). AI"(,OI'dillgl~', Ilu' rollowillg gl'lll'l"al i"l'l;l\i()l1 holds

I"or('(' or mOll1l'llt:

/. (1"""

'" "'"

II, ct, ~, 0" Oe.

1\. D.,., n!I'

~ ..~. '0" 6", 6". ~(,. b!t" ~U

fOI"

~!:,

(!l.I.l)

The 8l'1"ollynllmk fOrl'c ami 1l10111('n\ rocHkients are funl'lions of

dimcn."ionl('ss Yflriablt's rOl"I'ClSpollding to the dimcll:<iollnl quantities
in lt'latioll (\1.1.1). As ('.\alllrl('~ of ~l1('h Yilriahl(>s ("()]'l'l'sponding
to tlt<' wloeil\' I' ~ 8nd altitlldl' II. we rnll ('ol1sidel' Illp :'-.Iafh I1llmlwr
M""
1'.". a,~ allll Hl'.\llOhl:- numher lie
l'O<"fp",,"I~ (hl're ( I " .
P ",. (111(1 I'''' ,11'l' 'hl' ,"pl'ed of ~Oll nd, Ihe dt'n:oi I y, ,11111 lilt' d ynami(' vbeo."ity, l'l""Pl'('tlwly, of tlte air at Ihl' flltitll(ll' /l, ;llld l i:o a typi('ai
dimen:oioll of the ('["aft).

396

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of

,In Ai.roil

and a Wir:g

~~;i:~;~ion of kinematic variables charact4!rizing the motion

of a craft
W(' can write the other dimeu:;ioilless variables in the following
form:

~,(. ",,,.6'('.'JIV .. ~-;'I.V .. ~~~liV~

~,).l""""~xl:Voo. C/~!J'

.
V
{:lI l iV"", 00:'- Q:l'I'"", cV",~'.::V,><I
""

(9.1.2)

w~ = Q;,<F'V~, (\III = QylZIV~. W z =-= Q.LZ/V;"

Hence. for an aerodynamic coefficient in auy coordinate :;;ystem.

we h8\'e

c=:/z('V"" Reo<:. a. P. b rt b,. 611 ,

V.... ~. P. 6r , t\. 1;;.,

W X

;\I.~, ~'/' ~.)

(})iI'

W,'

(0.1.3)

The variables M .... 'X, p, 6" 6,., ba (}).~, wY ' and (})z detel'mine
the coefficients of the aerodynamic, forces and moments due to the
instantaneous distribution of the local angle!!i of attack. Here the
variables M ..'" IX. p. b r be' and fia characterize the forces and
moments depending on the velocity, the angle of attack, the sideslip
angle, and the coutrol surIace angles. while the \'ariables (})X' (}),1'
and (})z determine the forces and moments (Iue to the change in Ule
local angJes of attack caused by rotation.

~. ~. 6r- e a ~.~, ~II and ~z deterThe time deri\'atives

mine the additional forces of an inertial natutc and appearing upon
the ilccelerated Illotion of a body. Thb motioil ac,eeleratcs the air
particles on the surface in the flow.
When investigating the motion of craft characterized by a sIllall
chauge in the dimensionless kinematic variables. the aerodynamic
coefficients are written in the form of a Taylol' series in which thesecond-order infinitcsimals may be retained. Assuming the nnmber
Re... to be fixed, we shall present. particularly, such a series for the

V. . .

i i

Ch. 9, Aerodynemic Cherecteri\tics in Unsteady Motion

397

Ilortnnl force coefficient:

c y =C"o

"uoo'-l;l/~. "('~i\'l: :('~,"'~-c~r ..\br .,c,~-"-6~':.r~'j.Oa

:, c;;x A(,)>: . c::'" I\(,ly . c;;': !1(.),

..

r~r a~r -;-

::e ~b"

-c

~ "" i\ -t-"

. C~<l :l5a

+/)!I/\~/},(U.o:'

L1(:J"

~c;;""u~('J." ..\()Jy-;"

c;, . .

C,,' 1\(;'.

(B. i..)}

Hel'e Ihe coeffkielll r'l~' the derinltives

dr,/oM .... ~ =
= iJc y O'7.., cO . dC!l'rJ~ and otitcrs are cakulaled for ('erlain initial
,"alum: of the vArinhll'''. If Ihl'~e "allle1= equal zero, Ollf' 1IH1~l a!<~nllle
'0-

uu. .- ,;,

thAt j.-x -:-.~ a,

('te.
TIll' deriva\iv('!< call Iw eon;:i(It'I'l'd II~ til(' I'alc~ or l'iHllIgtl in II ('ocfficient or allY fOl'CP or tllOlllt'li1 dC'pellding 011 the Illllililer lJl "" Ihe
angle or allnd, 01' lhe !<itle:.:\ip allg-Il'. Ihe cOlIll"ol surface 1lllgles. Ihe
anglilal' aud lillcat vt'loeilie!<, alld .. 1"'0011 their tinll' deri\ .. li\p:;.
Till' derivative!'- ill'illg ('oll~idl'n'tl arc aerodynamic t'harnd(,I'i.'<lies
used in til(' Lllycsligalion of a flight and lir:;t of all ill ~ol\'ing~tnhility
proulem.'" Thi::: is why such ch<lrflrlpristirs <Ire ll~\I(tlly ('ailed stability df'rivatives.
The ~tahi1ity t1eri\'alh'e~ in (9.1.:;)
al'e dC'tel'mined In" the \'all1('~ of the 0'"'"''''0'''''''
va("labies al Ihe poiut of a traj(>clor~' for
\,ol\1ident being c.on:<idcl'ed 1:-: t'XP;-\ll<!('<! illio a
molion. the \'alue~ of th(.'~e copffi("iC'nls (Ire
\'alues of the killemntic \"llriahJe." nl a
dependent on the Iii.<:tory of the motion,
the preceding period. In an Apprl'ciable Illlntber
problems of
practical interest. we call determille tIle Iii\\" of motion heforell(lll(\
with a high authenticity and thereby .::;ub1=tanliall~r .::implify the
im'estigalion of nOIH:lationary 8erodyu(lmk ('.hardC\eri.<:tiC'!<. The
calculations arc t'impliflCd, particularly, if tlte kinematic variables
determining the nature of motion dlange harmonically, j.e. the
values of t.hese pnrametcrs can be written in the form

q,

q'J cos PIt

(9.1.5)

where qi is the set of dimensionless kinematic variables, qi is tho

amplitl!de, and Pi is the circular frequency of the oscillations.
In accordance with (1J.1.5), the time derivative is

q,

= dq,ldt = -qlpj sill Pit

where we hflve introduced the Stroubal number

pt

= PllIV ...

(9.1.6)
(9.1.7)

398

Pt. I. TI-.eory. Aerodynamics 01 an Airfoil and a Wing

For cxample, it l/;

a, qi .- aD (thc amplitude of the o~dllatioll~

with rc!!pect to the angle of atlilck),

,..- p;, and Pi
PI1.' thCII

<i; _.-

(dC1.;dt) iT""

~. pi

a_.

a.'''''CloCOSPq.t,
-a.op~\'inpl1.t
(9.1.8)
Important :o;ulutiolls from a praetiral vil'wpoiut have been obtained
fOl' the partkuhll' ra~e oi harmonir oscillations, They allow one
to tleterminc the hasic aerotlYllnmic characteristics for the uJlSlearly
1lI0tion of willg~, boelies or revolution, and separate kinds of aircrart..
Expres!!iolls m.C{) and W,1.4) for the Ilprodynlllllic cOl!lTiciellts
relate to n cmf! with an undeformcd (rigid) sllrfnce. It must be taken
into IlcrollllLlwrc that in rcul condiLions such u !'Ilirfuce may deform,
lor exnmple. hecausc of bending, which leads to all additionnl change
ill t.he 1I0lH:tilliollllry chllracl.eristics. Com":idered bclow are problems
011 the dl'termillaliOIl or sllch chuf(lcte>risLics withouL acconnt Laken
of cil'formillion, i,c. for inelastic bodies in a flow. The resulLs of
iuvl'stigating Illislellrly~flow aerodynamic ('.haraeLeristics for tllc
more gl'llcrlll ca~r of drforme<I ~HfrllCe$ art' gi\'en in 11. 1!Jl.

9.2. Analysis
of Stability DerivaHves
and Aerodynamic Coefficients

The' nr~l Sl'\'t'll t.erm.,; iLl Eq. (n.tA) drlt'rllline thCl static, <Iud th"
J'enHliniug oues, the d:O'liamic ('umpollcnts of tht' aerodynamic copfiiril'nls. T!w slntk cOlllponetlt~ correspon(1 to s\(lHly conditiolls of now
uYer II crnH ill which its velocity is con.sl;llIl, whilt, the angle of
iltt Il('k , lhe Sidt'!'lip Ilugle, nnd also Lhe conlrol lllll'face angl~s Me
lixed. Thc dynamic ('omponClIls I\ppettr ill llo/l-sllltiollilry ll1otiOIl
fltte-udell by accclElratioll Of dcceh!I'alioll of the flow OY('f II CI'lIft, it!!
rot.tltion, and a chll.ngt ill time of tile conLrol surface angle$.
In accfll't1l1n('e with thc above, the Ilrl'inlli,'cs
cr" cg. IIIld e~r
a"'e ('a~lcd. slatil~ stl.lbilily derivatives. 11IIt!!lll' remaining ones, (c'i:x

cr"".

e~'''', ~,e;,. l'te,), thl' d)'namic stabiliL)' derivatives.

,\!< Cllll he S('('ll f('olll (9.1.4), the lIt'I'odynamif corrr.c;i{'ub are detprmillPd by thc('ol'l'e!<ponding first am.! second order stability derivatives.

c:

ee,

The !irst ordt'r OJle'S include the va:nes or 1 ",. q,,~,

c:~ and
the second ol'der Olles, ~ :- a~elld)a a~, ~'~:o: _. iJ~c'l '00 aw.~, el.c.
All anaJY!:lis of (9.1.4) rcyeuls thot the aerodynamic coefficients
tIre d{'termilled by two groups or dt'rivllti~e!', one of which depends
on the control surface yari?ble.s (ct'. ct', ... ), while the other
~Se;cOn\l~e~~~e:t!()Il~I~f~~~ ~'tl1~e' ~o;;tr~~~ ~:~~n;!I~II~e 0:0a tfl~e~;l~i~~!

eh. 9. Aerodynamic Characteristics in Unsteady Molion

399

in the angle of attack and sideslip angle upon deflcc1ioll of tile control
surfaces. The values of the IInglc-,,1';t and B eorre"'[lond to the position
of static equilibrium of a craft.
To retain the gh'cll flight conditiolls, Ihe control
fixed in p:ace. Such a flight wilh "!i.\ci!" conlrol surfaccs
conlrollablc. Its conditions arc dClerrninrd COlllril'lf'ly
bilily dt'ljvaliH's lhoi {]('I1(,1H1 011 III(' illirill~i("
properlies of a crart if ("onirols Hrt' ,,/lsl'lil or an' 1"1.\('(1 ill
Derinlthcs surh as c;1, c~, c~" . . . , dl'lcl"lllil1('(1 l1S a
diffcrcntiil\.ioll of 1111' iH'l"odYIl;lmic coeiTicielli!-l wiLh l'('Sp(l(~l to
Ct, ~. f),. (sialic ~Iabilit~ (I('rivaljn':-;) relate III the tirst group of
dcrhalives. The partial (Irri\alin's of the coeJTiriPlits with respect
to olle of the vuriahlt's (o)~, u),/, (,l: form lIw S('{"olul gt'OIIP of whal
w(' call rotary (It'riYaliy('S (rot' n:ampl(', c,;<; c,~:"
~I/.~': . . ,), This

ci" c;;: cz,.

acce-

grottp also indlldl'!-' dNlnlliy('s !'imilnr lo

luul illso
ilS Ihe:! pill"tiaJ t[CI'jYlllin'!-l of thc a~ro-

leration dericalircsilcll'rlllillt'(1

II,YII:H~tj(" ("()d~icienl.'"' \\"ilh n'.'"'llccl to onc of lhr pm'nllll!tl'fS

ttl,.,

(o)lj'

or

i' 00,

11OH-sLaliollilty distmll11l1ces al'C tinite, nOIl-lintMil;.: hCC'OHlf'S

H lIoticeahle rcaltlrt'. II is r('I"I('clt'd in expilll:=ion m.J..'!) where tlH.'fe
arc .">('\"1.'.011 s('eonti-ot'llt'r Il'nll!'. Till' InllN' are:! (I('\('rminctl hy stability
cI('d\'aliv('s of lite ~('l'()ull onl('f (fm ('\,Illlplt', ('~~f, nnd <;"'.) Ihn! ill'e
}f 1111.'

ill lit(' fOIll,th gl"OUP,

In,('stigalioll!-l :-;ilow Ibnt 111(' illfilll'lIl"l' of 111(' dl'ri\'(1ti\'c~ Oil tht'
1)(,t"o(lynamir ('ocfficicilis is 1101 lit,' ."allll' and lilill ,1 pti1Clic,1I :-;igniliciluCI' i.s n f('altlre of only a parI of ,~\lcl, d(,l"i\nli\I'~. among \\lJieil
-"ecolld ordl'r drl'i\"ath'C'~ rOI'1lI a qllill' :-nlitll fractioll. This IlIfl1l('I1(('
is illlillyscd illl'1lt'h spC'cilic 1:11.'"'(' dl'r(,lIdiltg Ofl 110(' <1t'l"od.\"ilnlllic \,lliligUt"Hlioli of a {"raft alit! the comtilioll." of ils Illolioll .. \s ,,('slllt. \\1'
lind the (Im'i\'nti\('S whirl! thn 1I('I"OII,'lwmic (:Ot'I"I"I("I('I1I:-<
lite COI"r{'spondillg fotcf's and 1l101lH'nts) d~rend 011 ;tlld litl'
of
which of them Illay be ignored. FOI' pac-II cOl'lficil'ill. \\e (:,111 rC',C'al
lite charactl'l'isLic lrcud ;tfi."oeiated wilh ."lIcil it j"('Lllioll. \,pL II."; {'OtlsidC'f, for eXllmple. the IOllgillldil1,d (a.\ial) force ("ocHicielll. the
{'xpression rOl' \Yhich will b(~ writtell ill lile [Ol"ltl

c.-.;,'-c.\\l

c::~'J.~

C.~()''J.I\.. c.;':o,:

{.~~~2., c.~br~l\r

c~;'fli

(!I,~.I)

\\"hC'r(~ c.'o is Ilu' \'allle' of C.,. lIt 'J.

. ~ .. 6" .- Or - 0, (~\ .. " (~/I(,

are tliC sc(:ollfl-or(ll'r parlial (Icri\'(llin's hf UJ(' iOllgitltllinai fnt,C~'
coetTicielll. wiLh rl'spct:t 10 'J.~", .. -:xfl" (for cxnmpll', <:~
:c.

()~c.ttlh!).

ill [lccortianct' witb cxprl'ssioll W,2,1). the longitudillal fOI"('(l cU('lTiis 1\ qlllllttily not (iC'P(,IUlillg Oil tlt(' rotary dl.'fjvati\"('s or the

dplll

ilC"(,I'IC'I'atiolt dcri\alins. Tlti.~ qllantity is I)etl'fmillcd in the f01'1II

400

pf. I. r"eory. AerOdyn.mics of .n Airfoil .nd Wing

of a qnadralic df'pendence on the angle of attack and the sideslip

angle, as well as thl' elevator and rudder angles. Here the components
oi the coefficient c.;: depending on the derivatives c~ and c!i are
of siguiflcance when control surfaces are present in the form of movable wings or empennage whose deRoctioll may lead to a substantial
change in the longitudinal force.
The normal force- coefficient call be writ ten ill the form of Ihe linear
relation
cII = cuo -:- ~ + 0/6
(9.2.2)
where CliO is the ,"alue of cII at a = ~ = O.
Relation (9.2.2) is suitable for small \'alues of a and 6e The larger
these angles (beginning approximately from values of 10), the more
does the non~linear nature of the dependence of the coefficient c,l
on them manifest itself. The Ilon~linear nature increases with a
decrease ill the aspect ratio of the lifting planes, and also with an
increase in the ~fach number (M _ > 3~4). In accordance with
(9.2.2), when determining the norrold force coefficient. no account
is taken of the innuence of the sicleslip. rudder, ele\'ator, and aileron
angle..'1, and also of the rotation of tile craft and its acceleration. At
the same Lime, when a movable wing (empennage) is prosent. the
quantity c~r6(' differs appreciably from that for conventional control surfaces. In the latter case, this quantity may be negligibly
small.
The lateral force eoefficient c~ (in body axes) can be calculated by
analogy wiLb Lhe normal force coefficient cII ' i.e. by using formula
(9.2.2) in which the angle of attack and the elentor angle must be
replaced with the sideslip and rudder anglcs, respectively:
ct. = c~~ !. c~r6r
(9.2.3)
According to this expression, when ~ = 6 r = 0, the lateral force
coefficient equals zero, which corresponds to symmetry of a craft
about the vertical plane xOy.
The pitehing moment at a given number ./JI"" for a night depends
mainly on parameters such as the anglo of attack a and the elevator
angle Be. the rate of change in I.hese angles and lie. and also the
angular velocity Qr. The influence of other parameters. in particular
of the sideslip angle, the aileron angle. and the angular velocities
QII: or Q~, is not great and is usually disregarded.
In accordance with the above, for the pitching moment coefficient
we can obtain the following linear relation suitable for small values
of the indicated variables Cin a body axis coordinate system):

mz",...;m zo :

nl~a;-:.m~6e+m:ZCl)z+m~-i-m:eie
(9.2.4)
= 6.= Cl)z= a= 6.= o.

where mzo is the moment coefficient when a

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Characteristics in Unsteady Motion

401

A glance at the above expression reveals that the pitching moment

eoeBicient is determined by two Ittatic stability derivatives m~, m~
and three rotary derivatives m~=,
m!e.
By analogy with the pitching moment, the yawing moment may
be considered to depend mainly on the sideslip and rudder aJlglee p
and 6 r. the rates of their change in time Bn and also on the angular
velocity Qz. Such a relation exist.s for axisymmetric craft. If symmetry (s disturbed, however, account must also be taken of the influence or the angular velocity Ox' This can be done. for example,
with the presence of a non-symmetric vertical empennage when
the upper panel upon rotation about it.s longitudinal axis creates
a lateral (side) force that produces an additional moment about the
vertical axis.
Deflection of the ailerons also produces a certain yawing moment,
which is associated with the longitudinal forces differing in value
on horizontal wings upon deflection of the ailerons (this is similar
to the appearance of a small pitching moment upon the deflection
of the ailerons on vertical wings). Investigations show that such
an additional yawing moment is usually very smal1 in modern
aircraft. Accordingly. the yawing moment coefficient may be expressed by the following linear relation:

mi,

P,

inti

m~p"":,,, m.: r 6r -i-- m~x(o)x

.. -

m~Y(Uy +- m~~ ':- m~rt

(9.2.5)

In accordance with this relation, the yawing moment at p =

= 6, = . , . = 0 equals zero. This is always observed in aircraft
symmetric about the plane :rOy. By (9.2.5), the yawing moment
coefficient is determined by t.wo static derivatives
m2' and four

mu". me,

me,

and m]r_
rotational deri\'atives m'il".
A rolling moment (a moment aboul lhe Jongiludinal axis Ox) is
due to the asymmetry of the flow caused by sideslip and control
surface deflection angles or rot.ation of the craft. For a given craft
design and a definite flight. speed (number M ""), this moment can be
considered as a function of the angle of attack a;, the Sideslip angle p~
the elevator, rudder. and aileron angles 6e 6,. 6 and also of the
rotational velocities Qx. Oil' Oz' Accordingly. the rolling moment
coefiicien t can be written as

mx =- m!~+m!r6r+m:a6. +m~Pa;~-:.. m:~ra;6r

+ m:6 "j}6e -[- m:xw#t

:--- m:"wy -1- ma;IIt;T.WII -:-

m~zpw"

(9.2.6)

According to this expression, the rolling moment at p = 6 r '""'"

= 6. = ... = 0 equals zero, which corresponds to an ideal design
of the craft produced without any technological errors. When study-

402

PI. I. Theory. AerodynamiC5 of lin Airfoil lind. Wing

ing the motion of a real cralt, I'articularly rolling motioll, account.

must be taken of the presence of such errors, especially of those associated with inaccurate wing installatioll, which has the maximum
influence 011 the rolling moment.
Inspection of (9.2.6) reveals that the rolling moment is determined
as the function of derivatives Dolt only of the first, but also of the
6r , . ). Therefore. such
second order (mf. m", .. , m~j!.,
a function is non-linear, which o{.curs even with small angular values
of Ct, ~, 6e, 6 r, 6 and sDlall ....elocities (I).x> (I),. 00 2 , At the same
time. tbe rolling moment coefiil:ient when performing approximate
calculations may be found without taking into account tbt> influence
of the rates of change in the anrle of attack and the sideslip angle,
and also of the acceleration. th:s influence being negligible.
All the derivalives determining the aerodynamic coefficients are
functions depending mainly on the number M "'" and also on the geometric configuration and dimensions of the craft. In a more general
case, these derivatives depend on the arguments determining the:
aerodynamic coefficients, particularly on the angle of attack and
the sideslip angle, the augular '.'clocit jps and the rclevant accelerations, and also on the acceleration or the translational motion. Such
a relation is found separately in '~lIch casc for a gh'en kind 01 motion
of a craft.
A part of the considered stability (lel'ivatives characterize the
aerodynamic properties of a craH regardless of the action of the control surfaces ~c~, m~, m.~', ... ), whert!m~ the other part is associated
with their deUection (c~e, m~r, m~". m~,' . ... ). EaC'h 01 these derivatives has a physical meaning (l1ld lllay be helpful in studying the
motion of a cralt.
The static derivatives c~ and c~ {h(ll'i\(tl'l'ize the pl'opcrty of a
craft to change the normal and Interal fol'(,cl' depending ou the angle
of attack and the sideslip angle, wh('reM the del'i\'athes c~ and
t1r characterize the same property, but a:;~odated with the deflection
of the corresponding control surfa('es. These del'ivatives are important
for controlling the motion of the centre of mass of a <"-raft in the
longitudinal and lateral directions.
The static second-order derivatives ctit., c~~. c~~. and c~~ determine the additional increment of the longitudinal fOl'ce due to denection of a craft through the angles (% and ~. and also to the COIltrolling action of the control surfaces. The derivath'es c~6, and c~6r
characterize the inOuence on the longitudinal force of the intel'action
of the angle of attack and the elevator angle, while c~G, characterizes
the influence of the sideslip and rudder angles lin accordanre with
this, the quantities c:GeCt6e, and c~Grp6, in (9.2.1) are call('d inter-

m:

action terms 1-

mr.

The static stability derivatives

m~. and m~ charact('rize an
important property of a craft such as the stiffness of its longitudinal,

Ch. 9. Aerodynemic Chllracteristics in Unsteady Motion

403

sideslipping, and lateral motious;. while the deriyatiyes lII~e. mLr,

m~r, and m~a rharaderize the effecti\'Cne!>s of the rfJl'rcspollding
control surface.
The rotational dcrivatiw!' act on the mot iOIl likp damping variables, and th'y arc called, rpsp'cti"cly, longitudinal damping coeffIcients (m';'z, m~, m~e), yawing damping coefficients (m~Y, m~, m~r),
llllli rolling damping coeffici(,IlLS (m~:r).
The componcnts m~:rwx in (O.2.5) and nt~YWy in {O.2.G) art', rl'i'pectiv('ly, the coeffit"ienls of the spiral yawing and rolling momen(.S.
These moments appear Derause a craft combines translational motion
with rotation about the axes OJ' and Oy, i.r. performs spiral motion.
The investigation of this complicated motion is associated with the
calculat.ion of the rotary (spiral) derivatives mV' and 111';11.
Formula (9.2.6) for the rolling momcnt coefficient includes inLeraction terms determined by second-order stability derhati\'es. For
example, the derivative m~B is related to the change in th' rolling
moment caused by the additional angles of attack 011 the port and
starboard wing panels during flight with side-slipping. A .~iD1ilar
eff('ct charact('rized by the derivath'e m~'h is; pro(lnced by deflection
of the rudder. An additional rolling moment may also be caused by
a change in the sideslip angle upon deflection of the elcvators. The
magnitude of the lateral moment depends on the 1:iecolld derivative
m~6e. Rotation of a craft about the Oy or Oz nxis may lead to an
additional change in the angle of attack and the sideslip angle on
opposite panels of lifting surface!'> and to t.he rel~"nnt spiral rolling
moments characterized by the derivath-es 11I.~w'l and m~w;.
From t.he more general expression (9.1.4) for the nerodynamic coefficient, we can ilee that it also depends 011 the other stability derivatives
that were liot taken into account in the considered expressions.
In separate kinds of motion, the innuence of such derivnth'es may
be substantial.
One of tbes;e motions is associatC'd with tIl(' rolling of a naft at
a sufficiently high angular velocity n.,.. Snch rotation produc's
the Ma,gnlls effect consisting in that with the pr('scnce of an angle
of attack and a sideslip angle, forces and moments appear that are
proportional to the products aO x or ~O:r' the direction of the forces
coinciding with a normal to the planes containing the angles a and ~.
Accordingly, the increments of the lateral force coefficients are
.dcr = c?'~'awx, and of the normal forc,e ones are /)"c/I = ce~'~~(I)r' The
increments of the yawing and pitching moment coefficients are, respectively, /)"m ll = m~"':ca(l)x and /)"m r = mr"'~~w.~. In these expresSiODS, the quantities c?~)~ and m~"'t are called the Magnus stability
derivatives.
-'
The origin of still another group of forces nnd moment!> is a!'sodated with the simultaneous rotation of a craft abont two axes and
is of a gyroscopic nature. Gyroscopic forces and moments are pro-

".

404

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of en Airfoil and

1I

Wing

fIg. 9.3.t

To the conversion of the aerodynamic coefficients and their

stability derivatives from one
reduction centre to nnother

portional to the product of two angular velocities. For example.

upon the simultaneous rotation about the axes Ox and Oy. these
additional forces and moments are proportional to the product
Q."Qy. and the corresponding aerodynamic coefficients. to the product of the dimensionless variabJes CilxW v ' This is why the derivatives
of a coeHicient with respect to Cil:.:Cil Il (c~~~jl" m~,~Wrl. etc.) are known
as the gyroscopic stability derivatives.
9.3. Conversion
01 stability Derivatives
upon a Change in the Position
of the Force Reduction Centre

Let us consider the conversion of the pitching moment and normal

force coefficients, and also of the releYantstability derivatives calculated with respect to a reduction centre at point 0 for a new position 0 1 of this centre atadistanco of x from 0 (Fig. 9.3.1). A similar
problem is solved, particularly, when determining the aerodynamic
eharacteristics of an empennage relative to the centre of mass that
is the centre of rotation of a craft in flight and coincides, consequently, with the centre of moments.
Assuming that the pitching moment (',oefficient at Ct = Q% = 0
.aquals zero (m:o = 0) and that the airspeed is constant, let us form
a general expression for this coefficient relative to the lateral axis
passing through poiDt 0:

mz=m~Ct-i-m.~~+ m~)~wz+ m;'z~z

(9.3.1)

in whichl thel derivatives m~, m~ . are known.

We can obtain a similar expression for the new reduction centre:
mzt =

+ +m:r1(j)d +m.:;l~~~

m~}al m~f~1

(9.3.2)

Here the nerivatiYes m~!, m~ll . are to be found in terms of

their corresponding values obtained ror the reduction centre O.

405

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Charflcieridics in Unsteady Motion

For this purpose. let us first consider the relations between a.

~I" and

al'

~I'

OOll'

ii,

001"

;'%1' A glance at Fig. 0.3.1 reveals that

'XI = ex

+ l1ex =

ex -

(I):;;

where
= xII, 001' = Q;lIV., and, consequent.Jy, ~I = ~ - ~:;..
The angular velocities and their derivatives do not change upon
a change in the reduction c.eotres, i.e. 00:1 = 00 and ~:I := (.,1"
Using these relations. let us reduce the formula for the moment
coefficient:
mz =

m~lexl + m~I~1 ~- m~%IOOIi + m~':I~'1

(0.3.3)

expressed in t.erms of the new kinematic pal'ametcl's (for point 0 1)

to the form
m%

= m~la ....,... m~l~ + (m;:1 - nl~lx) 00. -;. (m~'zl - m~;) ~z

(9.3.4)

By comparing (0.3.1) and (9.3..'..) we find

With this in viow, expression (9.3.3) acquires the form

mz =

m~al -T m~1 -i- (m:'z 7 m~x) WZ1 -:-. (m~)z -T- m~.i) ~zt

(U.3.S)

The obtained moment coeftident can be expressed in terms of

its value found for the now centre 0 1 by means of the formula m. =
= mn + e,i' (Fig. 9.3.1). Here formula (9,3.2) ca.n be substituted
for mu. and C,l written in the form of a relation similar to (9.3.5):

e" = c;al-:-'

e:a

l .;..

(e:" -: e~x) 00:1 ...;. (e:'" .~. e:z) W.t

(9.3.6)

By comparing tile expression obt.ained fol' In: = m%l T cux with

the corresponding relation (9.3.6), we find formulas for the stability
derivatives relative to point 01:
m~l=m~-e::X. m:{J=m::+(m~_c;")X-C~2. }

m~l= m~- ~r. nl~ft=m:~z + (m:-e;")"i-c:x~

(9.3.7)

The new stability derivatives of the normal force coefficient are

obtained by comparing Eq. (9.3.6) and ao equation similar to (9.3.2):
CIII

=c;lal ~.e:~~1 -j.c;pOOzt + e'~il;"1

406

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and Wing

in which we assume that cY1 = cy (because upon a change in the

redu('tion centre the aerodynamic force does not change). The coroparbson yields
c:l=c

y.

ci,=~,
c(:u =
yl

c;ll=c: z +c:x

C;I ..!....

yl

JX'
Y

(9.3.8)

Similarly, we can convert the aerodynamic characteristics for

rear arrangement of the new reduction centre.
9.'. Particular Cues of Motion
Lon.WI.... and Latera. MotIons

To simplify our investigation of the moliOIl ofa controllable craft

and farilitate the finding of the required aerodynamic characteristics.
including the stability derivatives. we shall usc the method of resolving the total motion into individual components. The possibility
of resolution into longitudinal and lattoral motions in principal
is due to the symmetry of a craft about its longitudinal axis. The
longitudinal motion (pitching motion), in turn, consists of the
translational displacement of the centre of mass in the vertical flight
plane (the trajectory differs only slightly from a plane one) and
rotation about the lateral axis Oz. In stich motion, good stability
in roll is ensured. and variables such as~. '\'. COX' and COy may be considpred negligibly small (the surfaces controlling rolling and yawing
are virtually 110t deflected).
Upon lateral motion in the direction of the axis Oz, the centre of
mass moves. and the craft experiences rotation about the axes Ox
and Og (here the control surfaces function that ensure yawing and
rolling motion).
When investigating longitudinal motion, we usually consider the
aerodynamic coefficients in the form of the following functions:
cx=cx(M a, 6e).
c,=O.

cu=c!I(.IJI_, a, 6e)

.:..

(9.4.1)

m:-==O, m,,=O. m,=mz(M ... a. 6e, a. 6,)

To study lateral motion. we use the coeBicients in the form of

cu=c,,(Moo. a, 6e),
m~=m:r:(Mool a.
mil

mil (M ...

P.

P. 6n

c,=cz(M ... ,

P.

6 r)

btl br bat CO,r, Wg , Wz>

W X1

wy

W. 01')

(9.4..2)

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Ch3r ... cle,i$flc~ in Unsle ... dy Molion

407

It mus\. be had ill view that longiLudillal motiolL is studied ilJde~

-pendently of lateral motioll, whereas the latter i.<: ('onsidered with
.account taken of the parameters of longitudinal motion. which are
.determined beforehand. PaltkLllarly, the magnitude of the rontrol
normal fotTe

ey

is found.
Motion of the Centre of Man

and Rotation about

If

The division of tile total motion of a craft into these two modes
is possii)le H we as:;umc that Lhe control sy~tem functions perfecti)'
and during the entire Ilight ensufCS the equality of the moments
M '" My, and .11 z Lo zero. Such a craft and its control system are
con~ider('d as inertia/ree (falil-response). Tbe ftsslllnplion 011 the absence
of incrtia signilies that wilen ('ontrol surfaces arc defiected, the angle
Qf attfl.<'k Hud the sideslip angle instantaneollsly (or sufficiently
rapidly) ttl.ke Oil yailles corresponding to a statically stable position
()f the craft. In these t'ondilioml, the motion of its centre of mass
in tile plane of flight i,o,: ill\'C~tigated independently. When performing sneh 111\,p!>tigation. we ~hall wrile the aerodynamic coefficients
ill the form
c_~=c",(,Uo<, ct,~,

op,

0,). cy'='c~J(Moo. ct, 6..)

,,_,,(M~, ~,Ii,)
my = y (Moe. ~. 6r), m, =

"I

1
J

lrI z

(Moe,

ct,

(9.4.3)

op)

Assuming that mil -== m z '-'---' 0, we can find the elevator and rudder
angles cOfl'csponding to tile requiri'd angle of attack and sideslip
angle. aud to the given traje{'tory.
The possibility of Ilsing sllch a method of in vestigation of the
trajectory is based on the low sensitivity of displa('ement of the centre
of mass to the rotation of the craft about this "entre up \0 the in.tant
Table 9.4.1

Motion

PHelling and rolling

without
Pitching
rolling
RoBing withuut
pitching
Motion without
pitching and roIlina

. I
+
+

",
+
+

"

'. " "

"

+
+

+
+

408

Pi. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil find .. Wing

when the craft occupies a position of statically stable equilibrium.

This motion due to denection of the control surfaces or random disturbances can be studied independently of the longitudinal motion of
the craft. Table 9.4.1 shows the different modes of these motions and
the corresponding control surface angles 6e 6 r 6 the angle of
attack ~. the sideslip angle ~. and also the angular velor.ities U~,

Q9+h~i;lvestigation

of a particular mode of motion can be simplified

by excluding the i.nDuence of accelerations. This is justified in practice when the motion develops sufficiently slowly. When it is necessary to take the acceleration into account. one can introduce a correction to the aerodynamic coefficient in the form of a term equal
to the product of the first stability derivative with respect to the
acceleration and the relevant dimensionless acceleration.
Ptkhlnl MotIon

Of special inlerest J:.; pitching motion, which is called the principal

mode of motion. Longitudinal oscillations that are described quite
well by a harmonic function surh as (9.1.6) usually appear in this
motion. According to this law. the time derivatives of the angles
of attack and trajectory inclination are

~= A sin Pr.t.t,

fr=Qz=Bsinpot

(9.4.4.)

where A. B are tile amplitudes, and Pr.t.. ptj are the frequencies of
oscillations of the corresponding derivatives.
We can consider three modes of motion each of which is described
by a harmonic function.
The first mode (Fig. 9.4.14) corresponds to the condition ~ = o.
6 = Uz = B sin Pot. In this mode. the axis of a body, coinciding
with the dire(tion of flight (~ = 0), performs harmonic oscillations
along the trajectory.
The second mode of motion (Fig. 9.4.1b) is characterized by the
fact that the axis of the body retains its orientatiou along the trajectory so that Uz :0_' ;. = O. Here. however, the angle of attack c.hanges
to follow the harmonic change in its derivative ~.
The third mode of motion (Fig. 9.4.1c) is characterized by a rectilinear trajectory with the angle between the axis of the craft and
the trajectory changing sinusoidally. In this case, the angles Band ~ are equal and coincide in phase s~ that ~ = fr =. g". Important derivatives in this motion are c~ + C:" and m: + m:,:.
All these three modes of motion, which are of a quite intricate
nat.ure. arc encountered comparatively frequently. Two other modes

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Characteristics in Unsteady Motion

~~;tr~~~ar

4()90

cases of motion of a craft:

o-at a zero angle 0' a\tack: to-wilh conSlanlori<'nUilion or Ihl' crart 10 = eonstl; C-il)WlIf
a straight ttajeetor,.

Flt-'.U

~Iodes of motion of a craft:

II-perfect loop; b-Ircc 'all

are simpler. but are encountered less frequently. }o~ach of them allows
one to understand the distinction between the modes of motion
0 and ~
U. 0, = O.
characterized by two conditions: ~ '--' O. 01'

'*

'*.

and accordingly to gain an idea of the derivatives m~ and m:,r.

The three modes of sinusoidal motions jndieateu abo\'e ('.an be
treated as combinations of these two modes.
The first of them (Fig. 9-".2a) is characterized by the fact that the
angle of attack between the instantaneous direction 3 of the vector

410

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

F 9.4.3

Banking of a craft

-V .. and body axis 1 does not change and, c.onsequenlly, the derivative ~ = O. In this ruotion, however. a varying angle (t forms
between fixed direction 2 and axis 1. Therefore Qz = dO/dt O.
In a particular case when OJ = canst, the trajectory in Fig. 9.4.2a
characterizes the motion of a craft performing a perfect loop.
Figure 9.4.2b shows n second mode of motion corresponding to
the r.ollditiol1s ~ 0 and Q" == O. This maHan may occur if free
fall witll a \"olocity of w = gl (where g is the acceleration of free
fall) is superposed all the longitudinal motion. Here the angle {t
between the fixed direction 2 and body axis 1 remains constant,
while the angle ex changes (between the instantaneous flight direction 4 and axis 1). Consequently, the derivath-es .fr = Q" = 0 and
~ 0; in the gi"en case the derivative = const.
In a more general c{lse (for exam~le, in sinusoidal motions), it is

a.

necessary to use botla derivatives m~ and m~:. If one of the considered modes of motion dominates, onl~' one deri"ative is significant, and it is exactly what should be used. Figure 9A.3 shows
a wing for which translational motion along its longitudinal axis,
at a ZOI'O ;,mgle of attack. i:; supplemcntcd with rotation abollt this
axis at the angular velocity Q x = dy/dt, The nen-zero variables
oW,:l' aud ~)x correspond to this mode of motion. If the rotation about
the axis Ox is steadr. then 00_" 0, while the derinlh'e 'ro", = o.
9.5. Dynomlc SIoblllty
Definffion

An analysis of the derivatives of the aerodynamic moments

with respect to (X or ~ allows us to establish the kind of static stability. This analysis is not sufficient for estimating the flight performallce of a moving body, however, because it does not allow one
to establish the nature of the body's motion after the removal of
.a dieturbance and to lind the variables determining this motion.

Ch.9. Aerodynamic Characleristics in Unsteady Motion

411

Actually, if we know, for example, that the derivative m; is

negative and that, ('ollsequently, thE! centre of pressure is behiud
the -centre of mass, we can arrive at a conclusion only on longitudinal static. stability. But we cannot establish, for example, the
amplituuc- of oscillations of the angle of attack at a certain value
of the initial disturbance and how it changes in time. These and
other problems are studied by the theory of the dynamic stability
of a craft or of the stability of its motion. This theory makes it
possible, naturally, to study not only the oscillations of a craft,
but also the general case of the motion of a craft along its trajectory
and the stability of this motion. The theory of dynamic stability
uses the results of aerodynamic investigations obtained in conditions
of unsteady flow in which, unlike static conditions, a body experiences tile 8('-1ioll of additional time-dependent aerodynamic
loads.
Tile eOllcept of dynamic stability is associated with two modes
of motion of a craft, namely, undisturbed (basic) and disturbed.
Motion is said to be undistu.-bed (basic) if it occurs along a detlnite
trajectory at a \'elocity varying ac('ording to a given law at SUHldard parameters of the atmosphere and known initial parameters of
this motion. This theoretical trajectory described by specUle flight
equations with nominal parameters of the crait ami control system
is also ."laid to be undisturbed. Owing to ranrlom disturbing factors
(gusts of wind, interference in the control system, failure of the
initial conditions to correspond to the preset ones. deviation of
the ac-tual parameters of a craft and its control system from lhe
nominal ones. deviation of the actual parameters of the atmosphere
from the standard ones), and also because of disturbances due to
deflection of the control surfaces, the basic motion may he violated.
After removal of the random disturbances, a body moves during
a certain time according to a law differing from the initial one.
This motion is called distulbed.
If the forces or moments produced upon a deviat.ion from undisturbed motion are such that they return the craft to its initial trajectory, tile motion is stable, otherwise it is unstable, Figure \'.5.1a
shows a stable flight in which a craft after leaving its trajectory at
point M because of a disturbance continues its motion with a constantly diminishing deviation from tile initial direction of flight;
Fig. !).,j.lb shows an unstable nigllt charac.terized by an increasing
deviation.
In the general case, the motion of a craft is determined by kinematic parameters that are functions of time such as the velocity
V < (I), the angle o[ attack a: (t), the sideslip angle r. (t), the components of the angular velocity lQ,\, (t), Q lI (t), Q: (t)1, and the pitching, yawing (course angle) and rolling angles [tl' (t), ,/1 (t), and
y (/}I.

412

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynemics of an Airfoil and a Wing

I'~~,
,'/

v/

'.~

r:'L'/'7

FII. U.t

llodes or motion

0' a crart:

I-Slabll'; '-Unslable;

b.-amplitud.1' oj OIIClUatLons

Let us assume that the values of the same variables Po., (t), a O (t)
etc. correspond to a given undisturbed motion. If at sufficiently
small initial deviations (at the initial disturbances) 6.V::." 6.ao, ...
(here 6.VO"" = V.;: - 1"'"". /!ao = a'o - aU ... ) the subsequent
deviations /! V00 = V 00 6.a = a - aO do not exceed certain
preset values, tho motion is stable. Jf these deviatiolls increase
unlimitedly, the motion is unstable. A flight may occur when the
deviations neither attenuate nor increase: here neutral stability of
motion is observed.
Such a defmition of stability is associated with investigation of
the response of a craft to disturbing actions provided tliat these
act.ions impArt. initial deviations to the variables of the undisturbed
flow, while the following motion is consideNd already without
disturbances. [n such motion, the control surfaces remain flxed.
This mode of disturbed motion due to initial disturbances of the
variables is called proper or f1'oo. The proper motion of a craft can
conditionally be considered as a new undisturbed motion.
The stability of free motion of a craft can be iO",'estigat.ed by
analysing the differential equations describing this motion. If the
lateral variables and the time derivatives of the longitudinal variables
in the undisturbed flow are not great, we may consider longitudinal and lateral motions independently and, consequently. study
the stability of eac.h of them separately. When t.he nature of motion
changes abruptly, for example. when a manoeuver is executed.
such a resolution of motion into it!! component.'! is not justified.
and the solution of the system of equations of longitudinal and
lateral motion must be considered jointly. This solution makes it
pos.'!ible to establish the nature and influence of the aerodynamic
coefficients on stability in the most general form.
If the intensity of action of random factors is not great. the disturbed
trajectory differs only slightly .from the undisturbed one. This
allows one to use the method of' small perturbations that is based
on linearized equations.

v:..

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Characteristics in Unsteady Motion

413

SW,1I1ty ChlradlirlsHcs

Let 11$0 consider the characteristics of dynamic stability, and also

the rolt' and place of the aerodynamic coefficients (stability derivative~) in investigating the dynamics of a flight using the example of
translational motion of a craft also performing rotation (oscillations) abollt the axis 0: (Fig. 9.4.1c).
We shall write the equation of such disturbed motion in the form
(9.5.1)
where
4,

= -m?;qocSlIJ t

43

= -m~qocSl/Jf

4 Z=

-m~q ... Sl/J: }

19.5.2)

Here J: is the principal central moment of inertia of the craft

about the axis 0% that is one of the principal central axes.
Taking into account that m~; = mi, we obtain for the sum of the
coellil'ients

19.5.3)

With a view to the value of the coefficient

written as

R3

(9.5.1) can be
(9.5.4)

Assuming that the coelficients 41 are constant, we find a solution

of Eq. (9.5.4) in the following form:
a=C,ePlt +CzeP2t
(9.5.5)
Here PI and P2 are the roots of the characteristic equation p'l -iT 42) P + 43 = 0 determined by the formula

+ (41

Pt,2= --O.5(4 j I .IZ:!) YO.25 (ad-a:Jz

a3

(9.5.6)

We flOd the constants C1 and Cz from the conditions' that can be

determined by the deril'ati\'e ~ = ~o and the zero disturbance

a: = 0 at the instant t = O. For these eonditions, the constants are

Ct =Cz=O.5~IO.25 (a, ~1Z:!)2'-aal-t/2

and the solution becomes
a=O.~b-le-l.lj (i!'-e-W)

where b = YA~ - aa, A = 0.5

(41

+ 42)'

(9.5.7)

414

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 an Airloil and a W,ng

Let us consider static stability when the derivative mr; < 0

and, consequently, a 3 > O. If we have in view here that in real
conditions the damping moment is considerably smaller than the
stabilizing one and that therefore I aa I > Ai, we obtain the relation
(9.5.8)
in whiell Ii =. V \ as \ - A~.
Examination of (\).5.8) reveals that the change in the angle of
attack has the natUl'e of periodic oscillations. Since the quantity ~'1
is always positive, these oscillations are damped ones; consequently, we have to do with oscilJatory stability.
Let us consider the characteristics of this stability. The period
of the oscillations is
T=2n(\m~lqClOSlJ;1_Ab-1J2

(9.5.9)

and their frequenc)' is

W = 'l.n/T= (\ m~lqcoSlJ;I_Ar)1/2

(9.5.10)

The oscillation frequency is influenced mainly by the degree of

static stability, whereas the influence of damping is not great.
The nature of action of these factors is different. An increa~e in the
degree of static stability leads to a higher. frequency, while an increase
in damping, conversely, leads to its diminishing somewhat.
The logarithmic decrement is
e ~ A,T
(9.5.11)
where
(9.5.12)
The larger the coefficient m'i (or m~:), the greater is the logarithmic decrement and the more rapidl~' do the oscillations damp in
time.
One of the important characteristics of oscillatory motion is the
time to damp to half amplitude:
(9.5.13)
When investigating oscillatory stabilit.y, the quantity A.j Cilll be
considered as an independent characteristic of this stabilit.y called
the damping coefficient. A glance at (9.5.12) and (9.5.13) reyeals that
its magnitude does not depend on the degree of static stability m~.
Let liS consider the wavelength of oscillations
(9.5.14)

Ch. 9. Aerody""mic Characteristics in Unsteody Motion

415

In prflctice, it is expedient to ensure aerodynamic properties of

a mo\"ing hody !'ol1ch that the damping coefficient is ;:ufIicien1.ly
great because here the time t2 is short. although the wfI\"e!ellgth
grows somewhat, which is not desirable. Good prflctire dktfltes
decreasing of this length. To do this. it is necessary to incff'ase the
stabilizing moment. ' .... hich. in turn, leads to such a po~iti"e phenomenon as a decrease in the amplitUde of oscillation.
In the Cfl.!'.e being considered, a body ha.!'. ;;tfltic stahility lhat
also producf's in it longitudinal oscillatory stability. A similar analy.
sis can be performed for the cafie when such static stability i!'o absent, Le. when the derivative m't > O. Solution of (9.5.4) yields
a relation for C/.. lndiratillg the undamping aperiodic nature of motion.
Hence, static in~t8bilitr also gi\"es rise to inst.ability of Illotion.
In this case, agreement ran beobsel"Yed bet,,'eenstatic ouri dynamic stability or instability. Such agreemE'nt is not obligflt.oI'Y.
ho,Ye\"er, for the g(1Tleral rase of motion of a craft. One Illny lJave
a statically stable (Taft thnt, howewr, doC'!<nothavedynamic stability and in its telH..Iellry to the position of eqnilibrium will perform
oscillat.ions with an incrE'm:ing amplitude. S1]ch cases are observed
in practice in some airrraft at 10\\'-spce(! flight. and al~o in flying
wings with a small sweep of thfl leading edge.
It ron:::t be notcd that tllC overwhelming majoriLy of aircr ...ft
owing to special devices have static st.ability, i.e. the ability to
respond to distmbau('es so as t.o reduce their magnitude at the
initial instant. This property is of Illnjor practical sigllil]rance
regardless of how an aircraft behaves in the process of di::tllrbed
motion. Free development of the Jisturbances ifi lIsnally attellded
by denection of the control surfaces to retmn the ,,-raft to its preset
flight condiliolls. The use of these control ~l1rfaces ifi a necessary
condition for ensllring the preset motiOH of a statically unstnble
(with fixed control surfares) aircraft.
The concept of stability presumes the existence not of two separat.e kinds of stability-static and d:ynamic, but of a single stability
renecting the real motion of a craft in time and its abUity to retain
the initial flight c.onditions. Since the dynamic coefficients of the
eqllations depend on the parameters of the undisturbed flight, tho
s1lme aircraft can have different dynamic properties along a tra~
jC'clory, for example, its motion may be stable on some sections
of the trfljectory and unstable Oil others.
unsteady motion is described by equations whose dynamic coefficients depend on the design of the craft. Unlike craft of the aeroplane type, such coefficients for bodies without an empennage. or
with all only slightly developed empennage (fin assembly), correspon<] to unstable motion characterized by slow daropiTlg of the
osrillation.<:. This requires the use of means of stabilization that
('Ilsure gl"NllE'r dampillg.

9.6. Basic Relations

for Unsteady Flow
AerodynamIc Coefflclenb

Let us consider a flat lifting surface moving translationally at

(~ = 0) and of an
angular velocity Qy. The projection of the area of an aircraft or its
separate elements (wings, fuselage) onto the plane xOz may be such
a surface. The aerodynamic stability derivatives obtained for this
surface are very close to those that would have been found for real
bodies in an unsteady flow.
The normal aerodynamic force, and also the pitching and rolling
.moments are due to the pressure difference dp = Pb - Pu on the
bottom and upper sides of the lifting surface (Fig. 9.6.1) and are
.determined by the formulas

.a constant velocity in the absence of sideslip

y~.\ lllpdxd"

M.~ llllpxdxd"

(5)

(8)

M,~ - .\'jllp,dxdz

(9.6.1)

(S)

in which integration is performed over the area S of the lifting

surface.
Let ~lS introduce the pressure coefficient p
(p - p ... )/q ..
= 2 (p - p ... )/(p_lf'!_> and the dimensionless coordinates

xIx,. and ~

zlx,.

(9.6.2)

related to the length XI!. of the Iifti ng surface.

Now we obtain the following relations for the force and moment
coefficients at any unsteady motion of a lifting surface with the
dimensions l:

Ch. 9. AerodYnAmic Characteristics in Unste.!dy Motion

417

FI,. U.t

To the determination of the

aerodynamic coefficients for a
lUUng surface

Here So and ~I are the dimensionless coordinates of the leading

and trailing edges of the lifting surface, respecthely.
For a non-standard coordinate system in which the axis Ox is
directed from the leading edge to the trailing one, the signs in formulas (9.6.3) should be reversed.
Let us fmd relations for the aerodynamic characteristics of the
lifting surface cross sections. For the normal force, longitudinal
moment, and rolling moment of a section, we have, respectively
dY=

6.pdxdz,

:l:"n

dM:T = -

dJlz = )ll.pxdxclZ,

..y

:TQ

6.pz dx dz

(9.6.4)

The corresponding coeffidents are as follows:

(9.6.5)

where x' is a chord of a lifting surface element in the section z =

= const being considered.
We calculate the integral in (9.6.5) over a given section from the
trailing (Sl = XI/XII) to the leading (So = XO'XII) edges. W<can
27-(l1'15

418

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 IIIn Airfoil /lnd

/I

Wing

represent the difference of the pre~sure coefficients in (\).6.3) and

(9.6.5) on the basis of the Taylor formula [see (Q.1.4)} in the form
of a series expansion in terms of the kinem8tic variables:
q,-,,(,).

q,-w.(,}-Q.(t)lIV_

q3=(o)z('t')=Q~(t)lJV_, gt=~=daldr, q~=~.,=d(~,)d;;

(9.6.6)

g3=~~=dw:/d'f: 't'=V...t/l
(here 1 is the characteristic geometric dimension).
This expansion has the following form:

.lP=~
(pqlqj i-p~jq,)=p<'+p~~+p~),"OOx
i_I
(9.6.7)
where p(J. = ap(J., pn ~= Ai, etc. are the derivatives of tile difference of the pressure coefficients.
By (9.6.7), the aerodynamic, coefficients call be written as
cy =m z =.

,Ej (c~lql+ c-ilq;)

f:"

(m1;Qt+m:"Qj)

(0.6.8)

'. I

m.,= i-;;1 (m:iq,

-r- m..~!q,)

In formulas (9.6.8) for the nOli-stationary aerodynamic c~effi

cients expressed in the form of series, the \'alues of the stab1l1ty
derivatives that are coefficients of q; and
mnst correspond to
Ac('ordingly, the reie"ant
expansion (9.6.7) for Ule quantity
derivatives take on the following value.~;

a;

C;' =

q;

c~, c~:r:, c;z;

m~l=m~, m:"; m~'~;

m:' = m~, m~3:; m(.~z;

C~''',

c:.

m~'=m:, m~:>:,
. . .

m:1 = m~,

m:)z
.

m::E, m:z

Assuming that the craft length XII has been adopted as the characteristic geometric dimension, we obtain from (9.6.3), (9.6.7) and
(9.6.8) expressions for the derivatives of the aerodynamic coefficients

in terms of the derivatives of the difference of the pressure coeffi-

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Ch",racieristics in Unsteady Motion

419

cients:
2.x 2

1/(2.~1r.)

1=p

~I

C:i=-t

2.J2 1/(2... /1) ~o

JP~id~d{, C~'=7

JP"id~d~

~I

li(2J:/I)i o

m;i~-~ ~

jp'Il~dsd!;,

~l

ii

m~i~

~Z

J Jp;lsd~ds
o

2.x 2

m~i=--f-

IIIZs/,) i.~

I
o

19.6.9)

iG

li(2~k)

~l

"x 2 1/(2.th);0

1p'/iSd~dt;,m:i.o.--;'
~l

J
0

JP?i~d~tl~

!1

The above expressions are linear relations between the aerodynamic

deriv~tives and the dimensionless kinematic vDriables gj and go
that ensure quile reliable results provided that the values of these
variables are small in romparison with unity.
III linearized problems 011 the IInsteady flow O\'er lifting :"lIrfares,
such relations are exact for a harmonic law of the change in the
kinematic variables (see 14, HI]).
Let us consider some features of the slability derivaU\cs. Sinre
we arc dealing with motion in the absence of sideslip and an angular
veioeity about the axis Oy (~ ,..-. 0, Q v = 0), here the deri-..'atives
of the aerodYOiunic coefficients wi th respect to the parametl?rs ~
and Q y evidently eqllal zero. In addition. we have excluded the
coeHiciellts of the longitudinal and lateral forces (c,., c,) and also
the yawing moment coefficient m" from our analysis because inde
pendent in\'cstigations arc devoted t.o thew. It mllst be had in vjew
here that when analysing the stability of a craft, these qualltitief-'
are of a smaller practical significance.
For a lifting surfaco that is symmetric about plane xOy and movE'S
translationally in the absenr.e of rotation (Q x = 0), the prcssure is
distributed symmetrically; therefore, the corresponding derivatives
equal zero: m'l/ = 0,
=
(i = 1, 3).
With rotation about the axis Ox, the pressure is distributeu asym
metrically about symmetry plane xOy, hence the aerodynamic loads
produced by the angular velo("ily ul.~ are also asymmetric, and,
consequently, the following stability deri-vatjy(,s eqllal zero in this
case:

mil

c:~ = 0,

c~ ... = o~

m~t = 0,

m~'' = 0

420

Pt. t Theory. AerodynamiC5 of an Airfoil and a Wing

C.uchy-LilFilnge IntaFill

Let us consider the basic expression of the theory of unsteady

now relating the parameters of the disturbed now (the velocity.
pressure. density) and the potential function <tl. For such a flow.
curl V = O. and. consequently, the local velocity vector can be
writ.ten in terms of the potential function as V = grad l>. With
this in view. the equation of motion (3.1.22") can be given thus

a g~~d (lJ -+- grad X; =

grad p

(9.6.10)

Considering that the gas flowing over a body is a barotropic ftuid

whose density depends only on the pressure. i.e. p = p (P), we can
introduce a function P, assuming that
P

= Jdp/p (p)

(9.6.11)

Accordingly.:

(9.6.12)

(lip) grad p = grad P

We can therefore write (9.6.10) as
grad (iJ<P18t
V'/2

+ P) =

Hence we obtain an equation suitable for the entire space of

a disturbed Dow near a lifting surface including the vortex wake:
iJ<P18t
V'12
P = F (t)
(9.6.13)

where F (t) is an arbitrary function of time determined with the

aid of the undisturbed fiow variables for which 84J18t = O.
Assumisg that V2 = V!. and P = P .... we fmd
F (t) = V~/2
p~
c.onsequently,

(9.6.14)
8(/)/at
V'12
P = V'~12
p~
This equation is known as the Cauchy.Lagrange Integral. For an
incompressible medium. we have po. = I' = const. Therefore. P =
= pip ... and Po> = p oo/p 00. Hence,
iJ<P18t

+ V'12 + plp~ = V'~12 + p~/p~

(9.6.15)

For an isentropic flow of a compressible gas in the region of a con...

linuous change in the thermodynamic properties, we have pipit. =
= poo/p'!" (where k = cplc~ = const is the adiabatic exponent).
A3 a result, we obtain
p= k:1

of,

Poo= k~1 ~:

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Cn",,,cte.istics in Unsteady Motion

421

Therefore, tIle Cauchy-Lagrange integral will aC4.uire the follo\ving form:

(9.G.lu)

Assuming that the now over a body is nearly nniform,

linearize Eq. (9.6.16). The square of the velocity is
V 2 = V~
V;, -:- 11~ = (V <Xi -;.- uf .;- [,,2 + w~

where u, v, and ware infmitesimal components of the disturbed

velocity (u <".< V <Xi, tJ 11 0<, and w <t: V..,). Excluding the secondorder infinitcsimals, we obtain V2 = 1'";;.,
2V ... u. In a nearly
uniform flow, the excess pressure p - p", = p' of the gas at any
point in space is also small. With this in view, we find the linearized
value of the dilicrcnce of the functions P - P.... For an isentropic
flow. this difference is
p - P ~ ~ [k/(k - 1)[ (pip - p~:p~)

We uetermine the ratio p,'p from the I'ulillbat equation pip'! =

in accordance with which
pip = (p ",,,(pco) (plp ... )(h-l)!'"

= poo/p':."

Introdllcing p = poo

+ p'

into this expression, we obtain

pip = (p_ip..,) (1 --:- p'ip ",,)(11-1),11<

Expanding this expression into a binomial

an accuracy within linear terms that

f07~:(1
Accordingly,

k~i

serie_~,

*)

p - p~ ~ p'.'p~ ~ (p - p.)/p"

",,'e find with

(\l.o.Ii)

Hence, a linearized expression of the Cauchy-Lagrange integral

suitable for investigating nearly uniform um;leacly flows has the
form
([I.6.1S)

where!f = <D - Woo is the arirlitionai disturbance potential (<too is

the velocity potential of the undjsturbed flow).
In the above form, the Cauchy-Lagrange integral holds both for
a compressible and an incompressibJe Duid. Equation (9.6.18) has
been obtained for a coordinate system whose axis Ox is oriented
toward the trailing edge. If the axis Ox is oriented in the opposite
direction, the sign of the derivative with respect to x has to be reversed:
(9.S.18')
p - p~ ~ p" (V ~ o~/o. - o.lot)

421

Pt. 1. Theory. Ae.odynllmics of lin Airfoil lind II Wing

Let us introduce the pressure coefficient p, the difference of its

values for the bottom and upper sides I1p, the dimensionless potential q.., and also the relative coordinates and time:

p-(p-p~)lq~, t.p~;;,-p"
S=x!x",

~=zlxl"

1')=ylxlt"

1"

y, z, t) - V""XIt,q) (s,

q> (x,

't-",V..,t/x"

S,

(9.6.19)

't)

When these dimensionless quantities are taken into account,

the Cauchy-Lagrange integral becomes

p-

-2 (aq,18'

+ 8q,lihj

(9.6.20)

Having in view that from considerations of symmetry, the velocity potentials on the upper and boLtom sides are identical in magnitude, but opposite in sign, i.e. cp (x, y,!, t) = -cp (x, -y, z, t),
we obtain the following formula for flp:
t.P""Pb-P"~ -4 (8<j;M+ oq;I8<)

Let us represent the expressions for Cf. and

dependences on qj and

qi:

q;:" ;=-1
~ (~qlql+ip'llg,);

(9.6.21)

IIp in the form of linear

I1p=~ (p"lql-",pqlqd

(9.6.22)

;=1

We shall insert these relations into (9.6.21) with a view to the

aerodynamic coefficients not depending on the time:
3

(p'l;q,+p;iq,)

i=-1

-4[~

(0:;1 q,.I. D:;' ql)

i~l

+ ~ (~'1lql +;P1i ~~l )J

(9.6.23)

For harmonic time dependences of the kinematic variables (ql =

= qt cos Pit). the derivative
iiqll{)'r=q~= _(pt)2q,

where P: = PiX,JV.., is the Strouhal number (t = 1, 2, 3).

With a view to the obtained value for q'/o we find the following
expressions for the derivatives of the difference of the pressure
coefficients from (9.6.23):
p"l = -4

[a~(lila~ T (pn~q;;IJ; P~' =

4(O~;'los-i-q;",) (9.6.24)

Ch. 9. Aerodynllmic Chllrllcteristics in Unstelldy Motion

423

In ac-cordanec with the above relations, the "allies of p'li and P;f
are determined by the derivative.'! of titu dimensionless potential
functiou with respf'ct to the rele\'(\nt kinrillatic parameters.
Wave EquaHon

Let liS obtain an equation \Yhi~h the veloelty potential <p satisfies.
For this purpose, we sllall transform the contimLity equation (2.4.2)
with account taken of the expres.<;ions
up

or.

fu -7'w'

op _

IJp.

'* t1z. *

ay---;;Z'Tg'

ap." 1

iJp

az--Qi'a;

=
(9.6.25)
These expression.'! relate to it barotropic fluid for which the
density is a function of the pressure {p = p (p)l, and the square of
the sp(>ed of sound a:! = dp/dp. By (9.6.25), the continuity equation
becomes

+.-%_: a~ (iJ~;y _~.~+~)+~.~

+~,*+~.~-=O

(9,6.26)

Let liS exclude the dynamic variables from Ihis equation, ret.aining only the kinematic ones, To do this, we shall use the Cauchy
Lagrange integral (9.G.18') from which we shall find expressions for
the pressure derivat.iv(>s with respect to the corresponding cOordinates x, y, oZ, a.nd also the time t related to the df>nsity:
(lip) opfax, (lip) opioy, O/p) apia,
For this purpose.
with respect to x, 1/,

\\'C

Z,

sholl differentiate (9.6.18) consecutively

and t:

+*~e;rV~ ~~~-~~)

+.-%-

=~(V= d:2:y

+'*-=Pf(V~ iJ:~t
+.*--,~(Voo

aaY~I)

;,":t)

(1l.6.27)

u:;t - ~~~)

We shall write the relation for the square of the speed of sound at;
in a linearized fiow on the basis of the Cauchy-Lagrange integral.
Since
P-P.

424

Pt. 1. Theory. Aerody"~mics of an Airloll "nd a Wing

then with a view to (9.6.17) and (9.6.i8'), we have

aZ = a!,
(k - i) (V"" acp/ax - 8cplat)

(9.6.28)

We can represent the velocity components in (9.6.26) in the form

V. _ V _

+ &~/&X,l

V, -

a~iay,

V, -

a~/a,

(9.6.29)

Let us introduce (9.6.27)-(9.6,29) into continuity equation (9.6.26).

Disregarding second-order infmitesimals and assuming that the
density ratio p,,jp ~ 1, we obtain
(i--M!')

~:;

-I ::; 7

~:; + 2~:oo .~-

aL . ::~ =0

(9.6,30)

where M"" = V ""Ia"", is the Mach number for an undisturbed Dow.

The obtained equation is called the wave one. It satislles the velocity potential III of an unsteady linearized flow. If in a body-axis
system of coordinates, the longitudinal axis 0:& is directed from the
nose to the tail, the sign of the term (2M ",,/a .... ) a'1.~/8x 8t in (9.6.30)
must be reversed.
With a view to the notation (9.6.19), the wave equation in the
dimensionless form can be written as follo'\\'s:
(1-M;,)

~~~ + ::~ + ~;% -,2M~ iJ~~'f

-M:O

~~

=0

(9.6.31)

To determine the aerodynamic characteristics of a craft. it is

sufficient to solve wave equation (9.6.31), finding the potential of
the disturbed velocities <ii. The sol\1tion for the function qi must
satisfy the boundary conditions on the surface in the flow, the
conditions on the vortex sheet, and also at infinity.
The boundary condition on the surface of a craft reflects the requirement of a now without separation (a smooth flow), in accordance
with which the normal component of the velocity on the wall is
zero. This Signifies that the velocity of the disturbed flow 8cp/8y +
+ Qx% + n z:& must cancel the corresponding component ('LV,., of the
velocity vector 11..., on the surface in the flow. Consequently,
&~/&y + !l. (I) z + !l, (t) x + a (t) V _ - 0
19.0.32)
or in the dimensionless form
(9.6.32')
aiP/ihj + "'. ) , + "'. ) ~ + a ) - 0
The condition on the vortex sheet form6(1 behind a craft is stated
as the requirement that there be no difference of disturbed pressures
on its upper and bottom sides. According to this requirement, we
obtain the following expression on the basis of the Cauchy-Lagrange
equation:
&~"I&t -

V ~ &~biaX - 8q>.i&1 -

Va 8q>.!&x

(9.6.33)

Ch, 9. "'.rodynamic Characteristics in Unste<ldy Motion

425

or in the dimen.!;ionless form

iJCpb/iJ-C -

iJCPb/iJS = iJ~u/a1: -

iJ~uiiJ;

(9.6.34}

In accordance with the condition at infinity. we assume that the

fluid is undisturbed, i.e. all the disturbances produced by the craft
vanish. Accordingly, the potential of the disturbance and its (Ie
rivatives equal zero, i.e.
<p = u<plux = iJ<pil)y = o<pliJz = 0
{9.6.35}
9.7. Isle Methods 01 Solving
Non.,s.aflonary Problems
Method of Sources

This method is Olle of the most widespread ones in the theory of

Dow over craft or their isolated elements (";rings, fin assembly,
empennage, body). It establishes expressions relating in the general
form tile required potentiill function <p satisfying wa,'e equation
(9.6.31) to the geometric parameters of a lifting surface and to the'
values of the derivatives off/ay at points on it. The physical meaning
of the method of sources was considered in detail in Chap. 8. We
shall give a general scheme of the derhalion of a formula for the
potential cp as applied to the conditions of supersonic unsteady
flow over a preset lifting surface.
The basic idea of the method of sources consists in replacing
a flat surface with a system of continuollsly distributed sources of
varying strength that induces the same field of velocities and pressures as in an unsleady flow over the given surface. This metJl0d
is based on the expression for the retarded potentia) 01 a stationary
Ouctuating strength source at the instant t (see (2.9.14)1:
tp* (x*. y*, z*, t) = qlr* }

r'-Vx"~ y"c z"

(9.7.1}

Here q (t) is the varying strength of the source determined at theinstant t' = t - r*la oo (where a oo is the speed of sound).
lience, this strength q (t - r*la",,) is taken for the instant when
a sonic disturbance wave emerges from the source and reaches point P
with t.he coordinates x., y*, z* at the consifh.!l'cd instant t
Wig. 9.7.1).
When selecting any doubly differentiable function q; (n, expression (9.7.1) satisfies wave equation (9.6.31).
Let us assume that beginning from the instant t = O. point sourcebegins to move 1rom point 0* at the velocity 'V"". Hence, at.
any instant t, section 00* is filled with sources changin!l according

428

pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and

o!I

Wir.g

FI.. U.t

'To the determination of the velocity potential of non-stationary sources

to the law q (t - t*), where t* is the instant a source originates at

a point N (Fig. 9.7.1). The retarded potential at point P (x*, y*, z*)
.due to these sources can be written in the form

,.

Ip'(x*, y*, z*,

t)=J

f,q(t-t*-f)dt*

(9.7.2)

where r' = V(x* + V..,t*)'l, y*'1. + ZU is the distance between

points P and N, t; and t; are the integration limits taking into
.account the sources from which the disturbances arrive at point P
at the instant t.
Let us consider a moving coordinate system for which x = x* +
+ V..,t, Y = y*, and z = z*. We shall assume below that =
= a ... (t - t*) - r', In this case for V.., > a.." we call hnd the
following expression for the potential:

'2

tp'(x,y, z,

t)=....!...r~...!..ql(.!!.)dr1-i-....!...I.!.q1(2)dr2.
a"" J
,J
,
II ...

rl

II..,

rl

II..,

(9.7.3)

where
rt=V(x M..,r.J2. a'1(yz-!-z2.)}
M._V.la "'=VM~-1

(9.7.4)

The upper limit of the integrals ,; = a.., (t - tn - r' is determined by the instant t~ at which point 0 moves to point E on normal PE to the Mach Jine. The first term in (9.7.3) takes into account
the innuence on point P of the sources on section AE (the leading
Iront of the sound wave), and the second, on section BE the
trailing front of the wave).
Let us consider the case when a source is located only at moving
point 0, and at the instant t point P is infiuenced by the disturban-

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Characteristics in Unsteady Motion

427

t;

t;.

ees from the spherical waves occurring at the instants

and
We shall find the polential at point P by formula (9.7.3) as a result
of a limiting process, assuming r ll _ O. We slu\U presume that

q(I,)_--,-lq,(-'L)a".
9(t.)---,-'Q.(-'-'-)d"
a",,;~
a..,
a... ~ a..,

(9.7.5)

whflre tl = t - At1; tl = t - Atl: At l , Atl are intervals during

whir-h the signal is transmitted from the origin of coordinates to a
point (x, y, z) with the wave front and its real' surface.
With a view to (9.7.5). we have the following expression for the
velocity potential:
q(x, y. z, t)=q(t,)/r ..q(t2)/r; r=Vr a'2(y2-:. z :!) (\:1.7.6)
Here q (tt)/r determines the potential due to the source at point A
and q (t,J/r, at point B (Fig. 9.7.1).
We consider that at the instant t -= 0 sources with a strength of
q (.r;. z. t) appear simultaneously on the entire area occupied by
the lifting surface. The potential produced b)' such sources at a point
with the coordinates Xl> Ylt " can be written itS
q.>(XI'

Ylt

Z't

t)= })

'(;T.~. ~1)d1"rJ"~.

J.\' ='-"'-""'=
,,~

IJI

wllere r = V (Xl
xr'"
,,'2 Iy~
(Zl
411 is a conditioliRl elistance between the points (Xl' JIl. Zl) Rnd (:1', 0, z).
The integration regions 0"1 (Xl' Yt. ztJ find 02 (Xl' Yh ZI) are the
parts of plane ;1.;OZ confined within the hranch of the ~1Rch (characteristic) cone issuing from the poinl (Xl' Yh Zl)' This branch is determined by the equation
a'2y i :...= (Xl - X)! - a'2 (ZI _ Z)2

As a result of dHferentiating <9.7.7) with respect to the coordinate Yl. we find an expression for the strength or a sonrce:
q(x,

Z,

t)...:_*[i.lfJ'(;T~:ll.z,.nl,-=o

(0.7.8)

The instants tl = t - Atl and t2 = t - At2 in (9.7.7) are determined according to the following values:

AtI=I.~:~(XI-X-";... )

1
t

AI,~~(x,-x; -i;)
r -'" V (XI

.x)~

a'~ {Y: . (Zt

z):!1

Relations (9.7.8) and (9.7.9) are derived in lt9).

(11.7.9)

428

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

When solving problems on the unsteady flow over flat lift.ing

surfaces, we may assume that Yl :~ 0 because to determine the aerodynamic characteristics, we must find the values of the potential
function on thi:; surface.
The velocity potential cp [see (9.7.7)1, in addition to the conditions
on the surface of bodies, must satisfy the conditions on the vortex
sheet and at infinity, and also the Chaplygin-Zhukovsky condition
in accordance with which a flow does not bend around a trafling subsonic edge, but is cast off it. In accordance with this condition, disturbed velocities near such edges change continuously, therefore the
derivatives {}q;I{}x, iJcpliJy, and f}(pl{}z are continuous. The ChaplyginZhukovsky condition for the supersonic flow over a lifting sudace
with suhsonic trailing edges is Ilsed in the form

.!~~~

*~.- ~;:

L-_x*

lim cp (x, D, z, t)

}
cp (x*, 0, z, t)

(9.7.10)

:t_;;*

where x* (z) are the coordinates of points on the trailing edges,

and cp (x*, 0, z, t) is the value of the potential on these edges.
Vorte:.: Theory

When solving problems on the unsteady incompressible or subsoJlic compressible flows over a body, it is good practice not to seek
directly the velocity potential satisfying the wave equation (as in
the method of sources for supersonic velocities), but to use what is
known as the vortex theory, which does not require the finding of cpo
According to this theory, the disturbed motion near a lifting surface
can be studied with the aid of a vortex pattern including the bound
and free vortices that produce the same distribution of the velocities and pressures as the given surface in the [Jow.
Let us consider a non-stationary vortex pattern using the example
of a lifling sHrface with a rectangular planform (Fig. 9.7.2). The
motion of such a surface is characterized by a constant velocity V 00
and small velocity increments due to additional translational or
rotational modes of motion. These velocities cause a change in the
local angles of attack, and also in the angle of attack as a whole,
which results in corresponding changes in time of the lift force
of the sections and, consequently, according to Zhukovsky's formula, of the circulation r (t) as well [see formula (6.4.6)]. This circulation is due to the rectilinear bound vortex core Ilsed to model the
lifting surface with a rectangular planform.
Assume that the circulation during the time M changes by the
vallie ~r. In accordance with the Helmholtz theorem. in an ideal
fluid the circulation of the velocity over closed Contour C (Fig. n.7.2)

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Char<3c:terisiio in Unsteady Motion

429

fig. 9.7.1
Vortex system:
l-Hfting surtac:p.. 2_.bm.md \'Qrlrx
with "arymg circulation,

or non'$!nl!onan

"orIlC~S

fig. 9.7.3
Vortex pattern of rectangular
lifting surface

passing through the same particles does not depend Oil the time.
Cool:iequently, when the circulation r (t) changes, a
of free
vortices with the circulation -l1r appears behind the
surface
that compensates the change in the circulation up to
initial
value. Accordingly, a vortex sheet forms behind the lifting surface
that consists both of longitudinal vorL ices parallel to the vector VoD
and moving along with the flow, and of lateral (bollnd) vortices that
are stationary relative to the lifting surfact'.
The intensity of vortex filament distribution in the sheet along
the longitudinal axis Ox is l' = -dr/dx = - (ill' '>0) dr/dt. It follows from coupling equation (6.4.8) that the circulation is proportional to the Jift force coefficient clI . Wilh a lineClf d.epcnden~e of c li
on the angle of attack (c~ = c~a). the circulatIOn IS also a linear
function of '=', i.e. r = r"'a (where ro: = dr/do. = const), Therefore,
the strength of the vortex sheet 'V = - (fa./V~) daldt depends
OIL ~he rate of change in the angle of attack.
Figure 9.7.3 shows a vortex pattern modelling a rectangular
lifting surface. It consists of straight bound vortices with a vortex
sheet cast oft thr.m.
For Il lifting surface of an intricate planform, the vortex pattern
consists of a nnmber of bound vortex filaments each of which is
replaced with several discrete bound vortices from which a pail'

430

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodyn.mics of IIIn Airfoil .nd III Wing

Fl. 9.7.4

Vortex model of intricate lifting

5urface;

l-\Iiscretc obliQlW h()l'Seshoe 'V()ttex; 2'_vorlrx tflanlt'lIts C01\$tsling

or d iO'Crele ()bUqu" vorl ie('/!; 3-vQI'tl'x
shr~t

of free vortex filaments is shed. Such vortex patterns are called oblique horseshoe vortices (Fig. 9.7.4)
Let us consider the Kutta-Zhukovsky theorem aUowing us to
determine the aerodynamic loads acting on a surface element in
unsteady flow. This theorem relates to circulation flow that is attended by the appearance of a trailing vortex and circulation over the
contour enveloping the lifting surface.
According to the Kutta-Zl)ukovsky theorem, the pressure difference on the bottom and upper sides of a surface clement in a linearized flow is
(9.7.1l)
AP=Pb-Pu=P ...'\'V""
where '\' = (1/V..,) iJl'Ji)t is the linear strength of the bound vortices,
and V 00 is the yclocity of translational motion.
Formula (9.7.H) is an application of the Kutta-Zhukovsky theorem to an arbitrary unsteady flow over a thin lifting surface and
indicates the absence of the influence of free vortices on the aerodynamic loads. From this theorem, particularly, there follows the
absence of a pressure difference on a vortex sheet consisting of free
vortices.
Let us write the strength of a vortex layer in the form of a series:

1-V.

(1"Q,+i'Q,)

(9.7.12)

1=1

Introducing this quantity into the formula for calculating the

difference of the pressure coefficients
~p - 2 (Pb-p.)/(p.V!,) - 21/V.
(9.7.13)
we obtain
(9.7.14)

Ch. 9. AerodYnolImic Characteristics in Unsteady Motion

Flg.9.7.S

Vortex model for non-circulatory now:

l_lifting

~"rrac~:

!l11ached ,or1iC(>s

2-,jisrFete

431

t:'
\

d('~("d

Comparing this expression with the second formula (9.6.22),

we find expressions for the derivatives of the pn'ssure coefficient
difference in terms of the corresponding derivRtives of the linear
strength of the hound vortex layer:
(0.7.15)

The above relations are exact if the kinematic variables c.hange

harmonically.
For circulation problems, the Chaplygin-Zhukovsky coudition all
the passing off of the flow from the trailing edge of a surface and
on the finiteness of the velocity at this edge is satisfied. According
to this condition, the strength of the bound vortices on the trailing
edges is zero, i.e.
"V (x, z, t) = 0

(\).7.16)

\Vhen hodies move at very low spccd:-l, or whell o."diJaljoll:-l occur in

the absence of translational moLion, a scheme or non-circulalory Ilow
is realized. I-Iere no wake forms behind a body, and the circulation
over an arbitrary contour enveloping the lifting surface is zero.
Accordingly. a vortex layer equivalent to the lifting surfRce is
represented as a system of closed vortex filaments of constant strength
(Fig. 9.7.5). Some results of studying non-circulatory flow, in particnlar the derivation of Zhukovsky's theorem for such [low, are
given in (1, 19].
9.8. Numerical Method of Calculating
the Stability Derivatives for
a Wing in an Incompressible Flow
Velocity Field 01 lin Oblique
Horseshoe Vortex

The numerical method of calculating the stability derivatives

for a wing in an unsteady flow is based on its replacement by a vortex lifting surface which, in turn, is represented by a system of
oblique horsheshoe discrete transient vortices.

432

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and Wing

~':ii::~' h.orseshoe
J,

vortex in an ullSteady flow:

t-tree vorliets

Let us consider the velocities induced by such vortices. With

,non-stationary motion of a wing, the circulation (sl.rength) of a bound
vortex varies with time, i.e. r = r (til)' In accordance with the
condition of constancy of the circulation over a closed contour,
this change in the strength is attended by the casting off of free
vortices carried away behind the wing together with the flow. The
velocity of casting off the free vortices equals the free-stream velocity V""' while all the vortices are in the wing plnnc xOz. The axes

l!l~h;h~r:~~ev~~~~;~h~~ ~~:;eo~~~ec:e!:r~~~e~ff1t~:dv~nfF~~~ ~~8~li

at the instant of shedding equals the strength of the bound vortex
at this instant.
Let us determine the velocity induced by a bound vortex of
strength r (to) = rv cob (where r is the dimensionless magnitude
<of the circulation, and b is a characteristic linear dimension) at
point AI (XII, 0, Zll)' According to the Biot-Savart relation, the
magnitude of this velocity is

W=r~~~ol(cosat-:cos~)= _v:-rr. ~Dc:Sa~":"~~~~tK

(9,8.1)

where Go = xo/b, to = lo/b,

The relevant value of the velocity produced by the free vortices
is determined by the formula

W-=

_v;;r (~.~i:~+~~t.:.~:)

(9.8.2)

where 10 = lo/b.
The total velocity induced by the bound and free vortices is
W = W' + W-, [t will be more convenient in the following to

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Characteristics in Unsteady Motion

Fig.

433

'.1.1

To tbe determination of the

velocities induced by a "..ortex
~heet and free vortex filaments
of varying strength:
1.

:-tr~e

vortlcell

use the dimensionless value of the velocity:

/1/ (0'

Co.

co ~ ');1...!-cn~a2

x) = W' (4:t/V ""f) -

u'" (~O. SOl x) = IV" (4;tIV,.,f) _ _

;Q filS Y.

(lTo:~:'

~, ~in Yo

_:. 1 ~~C~S;:!)

(U.8.3)

(9.8.4)

The corresponding value of the total dimensionless velocity is

w(So. So.

x)=WC'i:tIT'""I')'''''W't;OI~' %):....1/1"(;0,~. x) (9.8.5)

The values of the geometric parameters determining the induced

velocities (the cosines of the angles aI' a z. Bl' ~z) depend on the
coordinates of point .l/lxo (ao), <:0 (~o)l and the angle of inclination Y. of an oblique vortex (Fig. 9.8.1). These yailies are given in [4].
Let us consider an elernentaryvortexlayerofwidth dx at a distance
of x from the bound vortex (Fig. 9.8.2). The linear strength of
this layer at the instant to is determined by tile magnitude of the
derivative
'\'(x, to) = '_V:-.dr~!:l);

tl - to-t,

(9.8.6)

We shall write the strengths of the free vortex ftlaments fl (x, to)
and f t (x, to) in the section x = canst as functions:
f.(x. to)=fo(to

X-O.;:llI n Y.)}
"051

f 2 (x, to)=fo(to- x . 'v~tnn:<)

(U.8.7)

The elementary velocity dV' induced at point .1I (x o, ~o) hy

a vortex layer with a strength of dfo = Y (x, to) d.-r is determined
26-G17H

434

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 an Airfoil "nd " Wing

with the aid of the Biot-Savart formula (9.8.1):

dV' = _ d\'~.~~/Gl

(cos a'

~ cos aN) =

X~I(::) ~l;/~~:~' ~:':~:;j

By integrating with respect to from 0 to infinity anJ going over

to dimensionless coordinates, we obtain
(9.8.8)

Here the cosines of the angles a' and a" are determined from
Fii. 9.8.1 as (l function of the dimensionless coordinates 0' S.
the angle)t, and the relative spall of a vortex To :...: la/b.
The velocities dV; and dV~ induced by elements of the free vortex
filaments 1 and 2 are determined by the Biot-Savart formulas (see
Fig. 9.8.1) as follows:
dVi'-"O -

I" ~~r~d.r

dV~= _ I'~~i:rd.{:

The geometric variables in thefie expressions are determined with.

the aid of Fig. 0.8.2. For example,
sin

W~

(0.5l, - ")/,,,

',= VT(x,--C;x)"~,"(0".5""'1,----',",)"

We find the values of sin ~~ and r z in a similar way. Integrating

with respect to x from -O.5l o tan x and 0.5l o tan x to 00 and passing
over to dimensionless geometric variables, we obtain

(9.8.9)

The total velocity induced by the bound vorlex, the vortex sheet.
and the free vortices is
(9.8.10)
V~W'+V' 1-1';+1';
Let

liS

consider a harmonic change in the circulation

1'0 (ll
V ""br sin pt

(9.8.11)

where p is the angular frequency and r is a dimensionless constant.

In accordance with this Jaw, we ShAll write the circulation (R8.11)
in the form
y (x, lol -' -bfp cos pl1 = - V..,p*f cos (ptl) - p*il (n.R.12)

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Characteristic~ in Un$teady Motio"

435

W(' shall reprl's('nt formulas W.H.7) for the circul:tttOllS a:; follows:

fd.r,

to)

V .. bl' sill

[JI (/0-

.r_

".~I~L'Ilr.

LI

rd.r. (0 ), l'"brsin[p(t o-' ')_:~I,:'I""X)]

lulroducillg the StrouhaJ number p* '- up V,,, <llId lhe di1llellsjoJl~
less qllanlities 6"'=' .r.b ami II) 0.... in /J, \\"l' obtnill the gl'llcl"alized
~xpression

(9.8.13)
wllere the l11illliS :;igll correspollils to til(' (!U8ntity 1'1' and the plus
sign 10 j'".
After illscrlillg the obtained \",I/u{'s of the strength'\' (,t., to) and
of til' circulations ]'1(~1 Cr, 1'1) ililo (9.8.8) nn(1 W.8.9), respectively.
\\"{' lind cxpressiolls for the indllced velocities W', V', V;. and V;
ill the integral form for (\ h;lrmonic (sinllsoidal) change In the circulatioll. It is not difficult to see that the total induced velocity
l'
IV' -- V' : r; .. r~ call he represented ill a general form
in terms of the dimen.<:ionless velocity fUlIction v (So. ~o. x, p., to):

r--, '~~r

(S!I,

~!I'

X,

(9.8.1-1)

P*. to)

wher!', in tnrn,

v'" Vl1)(~O' ~o. x, p*)sinpto-!vl:.')(~tI, ~o' x, l'*)c()spl~ }

t;(]):....; w' (~o. to, x)-+- p*v;' (~o' ~o, x . .fI*) :, [,."; (So So' x, p*)
(U.S.1:'!)
v12 ) "~P*V2 (~, 1;0' x, p., : v'2 (~. ~, x. p*)
We determiue the dimensiolllc::,s velocity w'
W,oS.J), and
we find I,he func~ions v;, t-';, t'~. and u~ from an
of illtegrals
W.8.8) and W.B.9) after introducing inlo I.hem, respectivelv, tile
harmonicalJy clullIging quantities y (x, to) and rIO) (I, to).
The above relations describe a sinusoidal change ill the strength
of a bound vortex. If this change is cosilillsoidal, i.e.

W.8.16)

1'0 (I) -' V""bf cos pI

t!ten we hilve
y (,t., to)

r I (2) (x,

10) =

= bJ'p

sin pI".., 1/ ,p. sill (pt -

p*~)

F",ur CO!' Ipttl- p* (S=FO.5Io tllli x)1

(9.8.17)

Wilh H view to the above, instead of the lirsl of expressions (9.8.15)

we have the general relation
t;

= ~.(I) (So,

;0.

x, p*) cos pto -

[;(2)

(So. ;u, x, p*) sin /Ito (!J.S.iS)

436

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

One of the important problems in unsteRdy aerodynamics is the

one on the harmonic oscillations of craft with small Strouha) numbers (p* _ 0). For such numbers
u(1)

(So,

~, x,

O)=w'

a(~:) Ip*_Q = vi! (~, ?t. x,

TV, Ip*_O
+ :;! 1,>*-0

0)

(9.8.19)
(9.8.20)

The last derivative is used directly for calculation of unsteady

now parameters. The rmding of this derivative, and also of other
functions determining the dimensionless induced velocities is
described in (4),
vortex Model 01 Wing

A vortex model of a wing in the form of a nat lifting surface

in an unsteady circulatory flow is shown in Fig. 9.8.3. If a wing
has curved edges, they are replaced approximately with a contour
formed of segments of straight lines. Hence, in a most general case,
a lifting surface has breaks.
Let us divide the entire area of a wing into zones by drawing
sections parallel to the axis Ox through the breaks in the contour.
Let us further divide each segment l6 between the breaks into
strips and number their boundaries from right to left (the boundary
having the number p = 0 coincides with the tip of the wing, and
having p = N with the longitudinal axis). Usually the values
of the width of a strip lp,"_l differ only slightly from one another.
Let us consider the strip between the sections p and p - 1 in
any of the zone.'i 6. We shall denote the dimensionless coordinate
of the leading edge in the secHon p by So. p, Ilnd of the trailing one
by
The relative chord of the section is

No

G.,.

s.p -

bp = bplbo =
So l'
Lel us assume that a strip consists of n cells. For this purpose,
we shall divide each chord in the relevant section into n parts by
means of points with the coordinates
' P '~".p~0.5b. (1-<0'7)
}
G. . ,p-t =So'P-I";- O.Sbp _ l ( 1-cos7)

(9.8.21)

v=O, 1, 2, ... , n
The cel1s arranged along the line v separating them along the span
of the wing form panels whose number is the same as that of the
cells in a strip (n). We shall designate the boundaries of the panels

Ch. 9. AerodYr"lamic Charilcterislics in Unsteildy Motion

fig. U.l
Vortex model or
J-wlng: 2-obli(Jur

il

437

wing in rill Ilnsteady circula.tory no\\":

h",.,w~h"~

'-<!TI,X; .:I-c,II,: "-slrl,,: .) 'J>IlIJl'ls;

hy \I {for the leadillg edge 'I' """" 0, for the tl'uiling one v = "J. We
shall designate the coordinates of points at till' intersections of
the lines v and p by the subscripts v and p.
Hydrodynamically, the plane of the wing is eqlli\'alent to a Yortex
surface that is approximately depicted by a system of bound discrete
vortices. Each of sl1ch vortices evidently consists of oblillu('" horseshoe
vortices adjoining one alJother, while the total number of these
vortices coincides with the number of cells in whicll they are accommorlatcd.
We shall characterize the bound vortex filaments by a serial
number fL counted from the lIose. Let liS introdll!:e (or the sections
dividing the plane of the wing along its span, ill additiOIl to the
numbers p, the serial number k conn ted from a tip where \\'e a~sume
that k = O. Accorrlillgly, O:::;;;;k ~ ,y,
We shall denote the points of intersection of the lines fl and k
by the SIII1IO subscripts, \\.'e consider here tllllt the coordinates of
points on the leadillg edge ill St"!ction k and the magnitude of the
chord in this section bk (pl of each lOne 6 arc known.
We shall determine the posit.ion of discreLe YorLices a:o follo\\"s.
We separate the chords in the sections
ilnd ~"_I with points
haYing the (:oordinates

;h

~p." . So.I:-: O.5b" (l-cos 2!~nI:1)

~Il'''-I ~c ~o.h-I -- O.;)b"_l ( 1- cos 2~~:- I

j.I ~--'

I, 2, ... ,

It

:1)

(9.8.22)

488

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and 011 Wing

Poinls with identical !J.'s coincide with the ends of discrete VOl'
tic.~s. WI' hal'e the followillgrelatiolls for the dimensionless coordinates of the middles of the oblique bound vortices, tlu'!ir spall lA'''-l'
and sweep illlgl('s tan x~: L,:

~::tl

05(~h

S)II, )-=O.5(oh..j~h_l)

o 2;) (b" ; b,,_11(1-cos

t:,~_,=-O.5(l:"

1,.J..t,I.It_I)'

2"'2:;1

n)

i~'h_'- I~b:-l =tJl,"-I-~)1 I,

(9.8.23)

tan x~: ~_I' - (~. "_I-~" ,,)l(bll, "-1- bll,")

jJ.~1. 2, ... , Il; k,...l, 2, ... , N
The coordinates of the centre of another vortex symmetriC about
plane xOy 011 the port half of the craft and also the sweep angle arc
as follows:

o~: t.1

=s:: ~-Io crb~: L. =. -t:: L'}

crt h . h-I "".. l h . 1,_1. crx:::t_."""-'X~:tl

(9.8.24)

where the l'ariables for the port side of the wing al'e designated by
the faclor o.
For a wing with rectangular edges, the sweep angles of the bound
vortices arc constant (x ... : const.) , and each of t.hem transforms
into an ordinary straight horseshoe vorlex. H a wing plane has
breal(s in its contour, then the corresponding breaks are present in
the vorLex filaments too.
The circulation of obliq\le and conventional (straight) horseshoe
vortices along tile spall is constant, while Iree filaments parallel
to the axis Ox are shed off the ends of the bound vortices. The free
filaments propagRte downstream, and when the flow is circulaton'
they pass away to iurmity. In addition, when the circulation of
the bOllnd vortices changes with lime, free vortices of the relevant
strength are shed off tltem.
The vortex model being considered is very convenient for computerized calculations of a Oow. This is due, flrst, to the suffkiently
simple relations describing the disturbed Oow near a wing. and,
second. to a number of important properties of the system of algebraic equations which the solution of the problem is reduced to.
One of these properties is that the diagonal terms in the matrix of
the equAtion coefficients play a dominating role; the solutions
themselves hllve a great stability relative to the initial conditions.
A significant Ieature of computerized calculations is also the fact
that the usc of oblique horsesl1oe \'orUces instead of the cOllventional ones leads to suhst.antiall'limpliflcation of the calculations and
to more accurate r('slilts.

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic CharacieristiC$ in Unsteady Motion

439

Calculation of Circulatory Flow

System of Equations. Let u:; JT'p['esl'lIl the dimensionless cil'clIlation of the oblique hOl'scshoe \"Orte:\: rl"~' 11_\ = r~. I;, /,_11 (1'"",bo)
in the following form:

1'".,.. A-I ('1')",,"

~t [1':1, h. II-I qi (Tl ; r~i.~. II-I ql ('tl]}

q, ....... ct.

(1)."(",

(9.8.25)

(Il,,; T=l'",I-'bo,

or in the expanded form

f ... , II. II-I

(T).~'~ r~, Ii. II-I a..!. r~. h. h- I ~+. r:~ II. II-I (O).'(}

+ r:~II. 11_\ wx-:-l':~ II. h-I

(I).

:..

(9.8.26)

r;~ II, II_I ~z

where r:~ Ii. A-I arc dimensionless functions not. depending on the
time; the only Hme-dependent \'ariables are qi and q~.
We shall assume that tbe kinematic variables change according
to harmonic rl'lalions (9.1.5) and (9.1.6) which CIUI be represented
in terms of t.he dimensionless Lime T as follows:
qi :..:
cos prT,
-q'{pr sin ptT
(9.8.27)
wllcre qT are the amplilllfle \a.llIes o[ the yuriables not depcnding
on lhe time, pi '-' P1bo:l l "" is the StroulHd nllmber (Pi is the angular
frequencr), and T '--' tV",lb o'
With a view to (0.8.27). the circulation (9.8.25) is expressed as
follows:

q;

qr

r ll . h. 1,_1 (-t) =

f q1 [r~i. k.

k-I

1-=-\

cos ptT

-r~~ II, Ir-l pt sin pr"t] (9.8.28)

Ily (9.8.6)
3

'\'(s~: ~_I, "t)= V"'" ~... f/Tpi {r~i. II, II-I sin (pt (T-~~: :_1) 1
j'l

(9.8.29)
where S~:hlt_l is the longit.udillul coordinate or the middle of nn
oblique bound vortex.
The expressions fol' the circuh\lion of the rree \'orlic.es (9.8.7)
have the rorm

r 1 (:!) (6~::- t."t) <..-= V ,,-bo.~

qi fr~: It. II-I cos {pi [T- (stt: :-1
i_I
=FO.51". h-I lun

xt:: n_I))}-r~l. h, II-I pi ~in {pi /T- (st::!-1

+0.51/1> /,_\ UIIl )(~: Z-t}HI

(9.8.30)

440

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynllmics of lin Airfoil lind II Wing

Introducing (9.8.28). (9.8.29). and (9.8.30) into (9.8.1). (9.8.8).

and (9.8.9), respectively, we obtain for a certain control point

!;;;~~e~: :r~\e~~ltsh~f'~ie~7v~~~ v~nsd~,c~~ev:l:'c~:!~~o~"W~'~h~ii :;s~::

that the control points are at the centre of the lines drawn through
points with identical values of '\I (except for the forward and the rear
points), i.e. at an identical distance between the free vortices. Hence
the coordinates of the control points (indicated by crosses in
Fig. 9.8.3) are determined by the relations
~~: ~- 1 = 0.5 (fv. p + sv. P-I)'--= 0.5 (0. I' :.. So. 1'-1)

I
1

+0.25 (bp---:-bp_il (1-cos2f!-)

(9.8.31)
0.5 G,,; ~P_I)
'\'=0,1,2, ... , 1l-1; p=O, 1,2 .. , N
The relative value of the total induced ,'cJocity at this point
v = (W' + V' .-!. V; + l';)/V > is determined by the dimensionless velocities vtl) and ",(2) that are evaluated in accordance with
general relations similar to (9.8.14.) and (0.8.15).
Let us designate by octl) and OV(2) the additional velocities at
the control point being considered prociuce{1 by an oblique vortex
located on the port half of the wing symmetrically about the plane
:zOy. The coordinates of the middle of such a vortex are ~::-l and
-~~::-l" The values of out I) and OI~2) are determined with the aid
of (9.8.1), (9.8.8) and (9.8.9), account being taken of the change in
the direction of the coordinate axes and the transfer of their origin.
We shall add these values of the corresponding dimensionless
velocities V(I) and ut 2) for symmetric motion (for qi = ex, w z, and
~~:

f.-I =

even functions r~~II.II-1t rt~It.II-1) and subtract them for asymmetric

motion (for ql = W", and odd derivatives of the dimensionless circulation). We shall determine the total velocity at a control point with
account taken of the influence of all the other vortices, i.e. calculate
it by double summation of the induced velocities over the number
of strips N and panels n. This velocity is determined by the values
of. the derivatives of the dimensionless circulation r:~k.lI~l and

r:~II,II_1'

To find them, we must use the condition of flow without separation in accorrlance with which the total dimensionless velocity at
a control point induced by the entire vortex pattern of the wing
equals the undisturbed component determined by Eq. (9.6.32'):
vv, I'. P_I = Vv.;~ 1'-1 = (W' +- ,"....L. V;': V;) V
=

-W",S~::_l-WzS~::_I-Ct

(9.8.32)

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Characteristics in Unsteady Molion

441

The kinematic variables in this equation can be represented in

the form of a harmonic relation:
(9.8.33)
By satisfying Eq. (9.8.32) with a view to (!).8.:~3), we obtain t.he
following three systems of linCllr alg~brlli('~C]lInlionsfol'lh() required
derivatives or the dimensionless circulation
.v

-it ~

r~~".11-1

and

r~I~II.II-l:

"

~ (V~I.) ~t: I~:}- loV[.I.)~: I~':' t- I) r;/. /.. h_1

1I=1J.l..-1

..

.v

+ t ~

"

~ (v;.~) t':~.:. t, - I =crv~.2.) ~': ~':. -I)

11-\ J.l.. I

(0.8.34).

+p~ ~ ~ (l)~l,):::~}-I crv;.I'):::I~~~-I)r;:i,It,)'_1 --0

1I=1J.l=1

p=O, 1, 2, ... , .IV; v=O, 1, 2, ... , n- J;

k=l, 2, 3, ... , X

The quantity v~~P.P_l is dcterminecl in accordnnce with Eq. (9.8.32)

as follows:

We find the dimensionless variables in

relations

(!).8.3~)

with n vie\\' to the

V~I.)~:';;~II=V(Ll(~:~:~-:::L ~~:~:~::' 11,.k_1> %t::t._j,pt)

(21J.l. h, 11-1_

vv.

1>. 1'-1

_1I

(2)

u, II. /I-I ,.1'. I,. h-I )L. h

p, p-h '-v.I'. 1'-1> h.},_t,x, . 1,-1,

(G'v.

II) )1. II, It-I __

ov".p.P_l

(I) ("!:IL, h. II-I

-1<)I,h_l.

Oll~~)'~'::':'lh-1

,..1'. h. ii-I

"~:::.I;-t:)o.,,\.. I)'I'_I'

_1I

,-.

/"

".1,_1'

1/

'"

p,)

1(9.8.36)0

Pi

v (2 ) (i~~: :~:

;:1,

LII.,,_I> -x~: ~- I, pi)

O~~~'. ~,:

:::1,
I

442

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodyn/lmin of an Airfoil and

011

Wing

Tbe dimensionless geomet.ric parameters in these relations are

determined in the form

s~::::~:l

;'-t-S~:~-t' ~~:;::~:I=C~:~-l-I;~:~-I
h-I -...."h. 1,_t1bo= !;It. /.-1 -~".I<;
IIlI<

(9.8.37)

;{i::~-I=: t::=:-~::~; CJ~t::~:;:::

~~,~: :;-1 :.,~: t-t

El;Ich of the tltree systems of equations obtained includes (n - 1) N

linear atgebraic eqll<ltions, whllrcas the number of unknown deriv-

d:lt..k-l

atives r~~It.Ir_' and

is nN. To close the system <l.nd obtain
as mnny equations as there arc unknowns, we must satisfy the
Chnplygin-Zhulwvsky condition by which the strcngtll of the nearest
bound \'ortex to the trailing edge in each section k, k - 1 must be
zero. Ih~flce, according to t.his condit-ioll, the derivatives can be
taken equal to

r!;.~.h_II,,=J.I.::":O' r!:~,h_IIJ.I_J.l.=O' q,

'" (,)." wz (D.8.38)

Proceeding from (9.8.:11.) illHI W.H.:IS), W~ !ihall compile tllree

syst.ems of equations for determining the derivativt's of dimensionless circulation, taking into accouJll the ~pecilh: values of ql and
The first sy~t[)m is lIl'led rOt' calcllJRting the deriviillves

q;,

r:.

lI

It_I, r:.I,.h_l:

J..
~
4:l LJ

~~

(V(2)J.l.It,k-l. OT(2) II. I"h- I )

-I
V,I'. p-I

L
Io=JJ.l'--i

p.*
-4i""LJ
L.J
h~lll

((1)).1,11.1,-1
l-\.,p"p_!

l_av(I) II.I,.k-l)r"

\.1'.P-1

J.I,h.I,-1

v,p.p-I

-1\

r;,-,.I,.h-I-

_I

"" "

,y ,:~,~,(v\',):;:,~:t-'+av\'.':;::;';'c')r:"'.H
p*

_~ (LV.)/~:I:'-'lh-I+(JV~,I');"'I:~f' .1)r~,h.k_I=O

"=Iw-I

r~, h. /<- t I,( ~II. -- 0, r~. I"

p

h-IIJ.l=". -= 0

',0,1, 2, "'. N; v=O, '1, 2, ._., n.-l:

k-t, 2, 3, ... , N

(9.8.39)
II

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Characteristics in Unsteady Motion

\\'(, HIIII Lht' {I('rivatives r:~~I/.I'_1 alll' r;:~1<.h

the :<c('olld sr:<lt'm:

"

.\"

-+,- ~
I,

~ (l:\.I,)r,:I~.:.f'-1
I"

---f ~

as a rcsult of ~olving

ot:V,)::::::~'-I) r;;~

I,. 1<_1

"

.\"

-I

~ (v~.~) :,'''I~':' :,-1

Ot';.2.) ::: :,'_: I' - I) 1';;',' II. II-I

11.- I

I,~

,\

/I

.Z~ '~(v~:'):":I~.:.i'-I, (:w~.2.)::"I~:.t I)r;~~"

~,_d

...!...p*

443

I'

II

1<-1 \

(9.8.40)

L ~: ({;~.I'):":I~'_:t"-I.i-ot:V,):.':/'II'-I)r~,':"." .- ()
k __ II'=1
p=O, 1,2 .... , /I;; ,,---,0. 1.2. ... ,11-1;
1.'--=_1, 2, :l, .... ,y

III qs. m.8.:3\J) <11111 (\l.HAO). we IHlYf' cho~f'1I tIll! pill:'; sign in tllC
parenthesC5 hCCI1U5C Wfl nre considerillg symmetric rnoliOlls in wllic-II
the distrihution or the circulAtion O\ll' tllf' span is I\J~O symmetric.
The thil'd syslt'm of, efjlHltions aIJo\\"~ lIS to determinn the dedva-

r;::",..

ti\'('s
I, 1 1111(1 I";:~II.I'-l chnrncterizing the 11~~mmetric Ilature
-of motioll of n crllrt. Choosing t.he millll5= sign in (\J.H.34). we call
wl"it(' thi~ system as
s "

-b- ~

(0\.1,)

i:: ::: !,-I _(JC~"I.)I~" /'.:. i' -I) 1';':.' 1:.1:_ I

,,=11'=-1
.\'

--:G- L

"

~ (d"2.):,:/:~t'-I-OO~"::,I:::i:~!' I) r;~:'I'.

~-I [.1

.\"

1
/I

I;~' 1'\ (U\.2.) ,',': I~:" t'

.\'

4- p* k~1

1_ cltF) :,': ::.

(1J.8.41)

f' -I) r~~

.

1';;1 (~V.)~,: ~,... ~.- 1-1JlV.1f': /~.:.I' I)r;':~ I,. I, _1,,"0.0

r~:;

/,,/,-1

I"

I'

.c.

0,

r;i: II. II-I

11"-"" ~tJ

"._0,1. 2, .... .Y; \' 0,1,2, ... ,

I.: 1, 2. J, '.', .y

11~1;

444

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodym'mics of an Airfoil lind a Wing

We find the dimensionless geometric variables in Eq~. (9.8.39)(9.8.41) from (9.8.37). The solution of these equations allows us to
determine the derivatives of dimensionless circulation for an unsteady flow O\'er II; wing at llrbitrary Strouhnl numbers.
Let us consider the problem of motion at low Strouhul /lumbers
(p! -+ 0), which is of major theoretical and practical signifIcance.
In accordance \vitll (9.8.19) and (9.8.20), we have
V~_I.)~: l~~ 1"'_1 = V~: ~: ~::; V~~);:;~ I' - J = p'tiJv~?) t:~:. II, -l/iJP't

Introducing these expressions into

lowing systems of equations:

*'

.'1

"

~ ~ (v~:~: ~:lav~:~: ~:l)

(9.8.:~4),

r:,', I., "_I =v~~ P. p_1

II~I"-"I

r~j, I,. 11_11"""" .. =0,

\'=

1, 2, ... , n-1

(V.8.42)

we obtain the fo]-

(9.8.43)
p=-""' 1,

2, ... , N;

k=--,l, 2,

a()v~~.)::: ~.: I"-I/apt) r ,,'~' /'. 1,-1

.. ,.V

II

} (9.8.44)

r~i, II.k-l 1),=".=0; p-=" 1, 2... , N;

v-I. 2. .... n-l k~I.2 ..... N
Consequently, the pl'oblem on the oscillations of a wing with
low Strouhal numllCrs reduces to solving six (instead of three)
systems of equations but simpler ones than for arbitrary values
of p~. The first system of equations (9.8.4;~) contains no derivatives

r~:k,k-l and is solved iudppendently of system (9.8.44) for the

derivative r~l.k.k-l' Its value is used to calculate the right-hand
side of the equations of t~e second system (9.8.44), the solution
yielding the derivative r~~k."--l'
The dimensionlE'ss coefficients of equation (9.8.43) and (9.8.44)
are determined from the relations

(9.8.45)

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Characierisfics in Unsteady Motion

-,(E~::::~::' ;~:::~-::.
ih-~:!.):::

!:..t-

111 .1.-19

illl:!)

up!

(S~:!:~-.:. a;t~:~:~,~l.

445

y.~:LI)

-x~:Ld

It,ll-I.

Let liS write Eqs. (9.8.43) and (9.S.44) with account taken of the
specific yalues of qj and Q-h and also of the nature of motion. i.e.
symmetric or asymmetric.
The system of equations for determining the derivati . . .es r:,l.It-l
has the following form:
....

11

::t ~

1,=111-1

p-:J,2, ... ;.\";,=1,2 . ...

k=.1, 2 ... X

We find the derivative r~."'"_1

equations:
"

or

Z Z (tfv":;: ;:l:-O"vr.:;: ;:1) rff,

.\"

(9.8.46)

n-1;1

solving a second system of

.:.

k. k-I

k=II-I=1
=..;

I
I

l~,I<,k_IIII-=II.--'O;

.v

Z (v~:;:~:l:a~:~:~>:b r'~.It.h_I=-1

11 (011(2)11-, A, A-I

~ ~

v,

p~Pt-l

.a

c.lJ.2)1\, h,

v,

It-I)

P8pr- 1

(9.8.47)

k=IIo1=1

;.;

r'~,

h, 1:-1

p=1. 2, .. " N;
k,..-=l. 2, ... , iY

r:,II,:k-ll"'=II.=O;

,\,.=1.2, ... n-1;

We use a third system to find the derivative r:~Jt;.Jt;-I:

1

4i" ~

,11,1:-1
",,11.,11-1
0;
v,p
\
hn (~.JI.JI_l+(JVV.p.p_l)rll.II
_l=-SV.P_l I

'~I .~I

r~~

II,II-dll

~II- ..:: 0;

p=1,2 . ,1'f; v=1. 2 ... n-l; k=1.2, ...

.vJ

(9.8.48)

446

Pt. I. Theory, AerodYnllmics or an Airfoil "nd a Wing

A fonrth system of equations is intended for cair.ulClting

r~~II.II-1:

(9.8.49)

r~: 1<, 1<_11..._,..=0;

1'.--1,2, .. " N; . . . =1, 2, .'" n-l;

k_1. 2..... N
We compile a tifth system for oetermining the dedvatives r:~ k.

\:

(9.8.00)

A sixth system of equation!:', given below, allows

r~~ Il,

II_I:

to find

~ (tIv;~:~,:l-ovt:;:~:~)r~~k,/r-1

k _I II_I
j\.

=-

"(

k~1 11~1

", :~!rl

ov<2111,1<,1<-1

r:,,,,h_,I"~'I1.=O;

ilt,(2)J.I,k,It-I)

~"'j:r-I

-0

p=l,

2, ._.,

k=l,

2,

r~~It,h_1

(9.S.01)

N; v=1,2, _._, n-1;

.. , N

AerodynaMic Chllr.cterlstlcs

The val lies of the circulation derivatives r~~Jt,h _I anti r~~u-I

call he llsed to calculate the di~tribution of the pressure coefficiellts,
and according to them, the wing slability derivatives.
Here we calcula.te the difference of the pressure coefficients for
the bottom and upper sides in the form of the series (9,(j.~2):

en, 9. AerodynamiC CnaracterisliCl in Unste<'ldy Motion

447

In uccortlance \\ith Zhukovsky's formula (!J.1.15), we Ilan'

JP:....2y,
,;,.\. '''.. 2"Y~.";

,21';";

{JUl .

pfJI: .. 2yfJI;,

,2"\",".

p,~: .., 2~'

(11.8.33)

Let liS consider fI cell containing II point with the coordinates

i.:t-l' ~:Ll Jor which we slUlll calcldate the pressure. We determine the strength of fI bound vOl'tex at Llli~ point by the appropriate
value of the circulation related to the interval Letween tlw control
points ~~1l,1<,1<-1
~~::~;-1 - ~~:-::~"I in the s(,(,tioll ~:::~-l:

Let us wrile the strength of the vortex layer and the circulation
of a discrete vortex in tim (orm of the series W.i.'12) ltnd Hl.8.25):

Introducing these exprcssioli!> into (0.8 ...)1), we oblaill relations

for the uerivatives

'--- r~i, II, I, _ J' :-"s~"

h, k-l

(\1.8.56)

With account taken of these deri\"atiw:::, the expressions for the

streng~h of the vortices arc determined by the quantities P~:h.""l
and P~:II,II-1 (9.8.53). Let us introduce them into formulas (9.H.5)
in which
is replaccd wilh series (0.8';)2), the vltluc of XII is taken
equal to bo and x' to the local chord b h . h -l:

dp

(!l.8.;')7}

448

Pt. J. Theory. Aerodynamics of en Airfoil and a Wing

Let us replace the coefficients on the left-hand side of (3.8.57)

with their expressions in the form of series similar to (9.6.8):
,

Cy

~ (C;'1iql-f c;'liq,)
1-'
3

~ = i~1 (m~qlq,+m;q'ql)

I
l

(9.8.58)

m~= ~ (m~qlql'"l"'m~llql)
i"",1

A3 an example, let us write the right-hand side of (9.8.58) for the

normal force coefficient in the expanded form:

Two other coefficients, m; and m~, are expressed similarly. As

a result of the indicat.ed replacement of the coefficients cY' m~.
and m~ in (9.8.57) with series and of a transition from integrals
to sums, we obtain the derivatives of the aerodynamic coefficients
of the sections in the following form:
11;o1l"

Cy~lh.JI-1=~ ~
k,1I.-1

r!I,JI.k_1

11=J.14

C;~IIt.'Il_1=~Il~" r!I,Il,k_1
h,ll-t

(9.8.60)

11=110

(9.8.61)

(9.8.62)

We obtain the stability derivatives fot a wing as a whole by

using the following relations for the total aerodynamic characteri&-

Ch. 9. Aerodyni!lmic Chi!lri!lcteristic;s in Unstei!ldy Motion

449

ties of a wing:
1.J(2b o)

C.,= ~~;
lTI:

~ c~b(C)dC

t./(-:b.l

'J

~-; s:

mx= ~.~bo

m;b:!(~)d~

lol(Zb g )

~.

(9.8.631

c;b(gd~

\\'e can express the coefficienls cu' m" and m" for a wing in tlte
form of series (9.6.8), and their correspond ing values c~, m;, and
m.~ for the sections in the form of en.S.S8), After using the deriv;..tives (9.8.60)-(0.8.62), we obtain the stability deriv<ltives for a wing
as a whole (c~J, l , m~I, m1 f , mZ', and mii ).
Going over from int,egrals to sums, \\"e obtain for symmetric
motions (q/ = a, (r)t):
mil =
= 0
(9.8.64)

ci

mil

c: 1.: L
l

c: =
1

11,,-1
X

1l=1l.
ill. 1I-1

~ r~i. II,

JJ,=Il.
l1~il

;'_1

(9.8.65)

~~! ~ 1/1, II_I ~ r~J, II,

1,=\

I'~jlo

(9.8.66)

For asymmetric motioos (qj=w,,):

C;i=C~I=O

(9.8.67)

m~l=m~'=O

(9.8.68)

(9.8.69)

450

Pt. L

Th~ory.

Aerodynamics of lin Airfoil and. Wing

Let us write these expressions in the expanded form with account

and also of the numtaken of the corresponding values of q, and
bers of the bound vortices ).1.0 = 1 and Il. = n closest to the leading
and trailing edges.
For symmetric motions (q/ = a, CI):):

q"

m.~ =m~ .=m~~ =m:~=O

(9.8.70)

(9.8.71)

(9.8.72)

th,II_I

m~: _ ~b! ~
/,,-1

n.

~ r~, It. A-l~: t

w,

4b3 ~
=-s;;;
LJ

h;1

"~I

11=-1

",=1

171:'=

ih

, 1<-1

..;, <iI:
LJ rl~.

t,""

(9.8.73)

",-1

mz

.10-1

It, 11-1'0,"" It-I

1
t

(9.8.74)

~~ ~ III. h-l ~ r~: It, II-IS~: Z, h-l J

For asymmetric motions (gj = 6):<)

(9.8.75)
n!

m~~= ~b! ~ lit,

11_1

A=I

m",

4b~

=-s;:;- L:
Ii-'I

L:

r~~ II. II_I~~: ~_I

).1=1

h.h-j

n~.1:

(9.8.76)
k

h r).l,II.II-lt).l.It-t
).I.

" ... :1

The to\.al values of the aerodynamic coefiicients can be determined according to the found stability derivatives, using (9.6.8).

Cn. 9. Aerodynamic CnllrillcierisliC$ in Un51eilldy Motion

4~t

Delorm.tlon of Wing Surface

The above numerical method of aerodynamic calculations related

to a wing with an undeformed (rigid) surface. In real conditions,
however, such a surface may deform because of bending or deflection
of the control surfaces. The flow over a wing with account taken of
its deformation is considered in 14, 19].
The magnitude of the deformation can be expressed in t.he form
~

(" C, .)

= 10

(., C) 6 (.)

(9.8.77)

where 10 (E, ~) is a time-independent function determining the

changing form of the surface, and 6 h) is a time-dependent kinematic variable characterizing the scale of the deformation.
In addition to 91 (q1 = a, 92 = w;e, 93 = Wz ), we can also adopt
the dimensionless time function q4 = 6 h) as a variable determining
the unsteady flow of a deformable wing.
The right-hand side of expression (9.8.26) determining the circulation will

additional~y

include

the sum

r~.It.It_16 + d.It.It-16

Iwhere the derivative 6 = (d6Idt) boIV",,]. This will lead to a corresponding change in the aerodynamic coefficients, the general
expression for which can be written in the form of a series

ca

+ J~ + cW.<w", + c";.< ~'" + c'"w z

+ c;':~z + c06 + cig; c = I1p,

cv' m",. mz (9.8.78)

The deformation of a wing changes the boundary condition of
flow which instead of <9.6.32') acquires the form

~= -a('t)=w:t:(-t)~.-wz('t)~

+ ~,' 6 (.)+10 (;, 0 i(.)

(9.8.7!l)

where (8/0/8") 6 ('t) + h (6, ~) ~ h) = uJV"" is tbe dimensionless

vertical component of the velocity of an undisturbed fiow due to
deformation of the wing and damped in unsteady [Jow by the disturbed stream.

WiLh a view t.o (9.8.79), we shall write a system of algebraic equations for determining the circulation derivatives ~i,It.It_l and

r7,~It.1t -1 which are then used to lind the derivatives of the aerodynamic coefficients, and their local and total .... alues with a view to the
deformation of the aircraft. The results of solving this problem are
given in detail in 14, 19].

pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamic5 01 an Airfoil and a Wing

4ei2

Influence of Compressibility
(the Humber .tI 00 )
on HOon-Statlonary Flow

In deftnilc conditions, the cvalu<ttion of the influence of compressibility on non-stationary linearized flow can be considered by
solving the problem of incompressible (10\\- over a fictitiouS lifting
surface. The solution of such a problem allows us to find expressions relating the corresponding aerodynamic characteristics of
a ,ving in an incompressible and compressiblc flows and take into
account the influence of the number M ",. To consider these condi
tions, let us use differential equation (9.6.31) for the additional
velocity potential Cf of the disturbed non-stationary flow of a com~
pressible fluid lthe symbol'(f is given in (9,u.19), where it is assumed
that x" = boL
We determine the dimensionless coordinates in (9,6.31) in the
form S = xib o, Y[ = y/b o and 1; = z/bo.
Let us express the dimensionless velocity potential (p equal to
<Jl/(bV",,) in terms of its derivatives q>qi = bfpl8q, and CPq, = O'f'/aq,
in th' following form (see 14, 19:

q; ~ ~,-o.

'-I

l<p"q, j-i-<P"q,(T)]

(9.8.80)

where ~o is the velocity potential of stationary flow over a wing

with a finite airfoil thickness at a zero angle of attack.
Let us introduce the functions 'P. 1jlQI, and 1jlQ'/ related to the
velocity potential and its derivatives by the following expressions:

If:; ='qic~SWG~.P:k-21fq;sinWG

}
(9.8.81)

",q, =k-2"'''lcosw~-p1-1'1j)ql.sinw;
Cfo='tJ,lo, w=M:"k- 2pt

where k = Vi - M:l,.
After the corresponding substitution for the derivatives in (9.8.80)
of their values from (9.8.8t) and then introducing cp into (9.6.31),
we obtain the following three equations:
kZ

a;i~Q t- a;~~Q

=0

a2w~;
_I.
a~2
.

821l'Q;

k2

a7;:i

a~~:i + a~!:i +(pr)2M:'k-~ql = 0

-1-

"TI,

+~,
a~2
T

+ a~o

k'l

. .

(p')2M ' k-2.""1

i

...

't'

=0

(9.8.82)

(9.8.83)

Ch. 9. Aerodvnamic Characteristics in Unsteady Motion

4fl3

Considering one of the ba::;ic ca.o.;(>s or Do\\' that is characterized

by low Strouhal numbers (pi ~ 0), inste;'1I1 of Eq (0.8.83) we
obtain
(').8.84)

Let us consider a rigid lifting sHriace. Instead of the flow of a compressible fluid over it, we sha11 study the flow of an incompressible
fluid over the transforme(\ surface. The coordinates of points in the
incompressible flow are related to the coordinates of the space of the
compressible gas hy the expressions
XIC ,...,.

xlk,

YIC

= y,

Zic

(9.8.85)

in the dimensionless form

tiC =

Ile/bo.le =

Tllc

~IC -= Zie/bo Ic

=
'=

Ylcfbo,lC

= 11k,

(9.8.86)

i;Je

Let us change the pl;Ulform of the given lifting surface. nsing the
relations between the coordinates in the form of (9.S.S6). In accordance with these relations. the dimenSionless geomotric variables
of the transformed surface can be written as follows'
(U.S.87)

where
edge;

and ~a are the dimensionless coordinates of the leading

blc = bIClbo.lc.
b = blb o, blc = b/k
For the centre and running chords in (9.8.87), we have introduced
the symbols bo and b, respectively.
For wings with straight edges, the planform is usually set by
dimenSionless parameters, namely. the aspect ratio Aw = lo:'bm,
the taper ratio 11,,
bolb l and the sweep angle of the leadillg edge
la. The corresponding dimensionless geometric vari(lbles of the
transformed wing in an incompressible Oow are:
=0

Alcw = /cAw. 11IC,"'" = 11"" Ale ....- tan Xo,le = Aw tan

xo

<0.8.88)

where Ale,lV = l!cibm,lc, Aw = lJbm, 11lc,w = bO,IC/bl.ICI and Ilw =

= bolb l
Figure 9.8.4 shows the given and transformed wing planes. The
transformed plane retains its lateral dimensions and is extended in
a longitudinal direction in accordance with the relation $Ie =
~

xi]ll - Me..

4154

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

(a)

FI.9.U

Geometric dimensions of a wing:

a-given \\"Ing In a CQmpresslble now; b-tranMormpd wing In an IncompreSSible now

Let us go over in Eqs. (9.8.82) and the first equation (9.8.84)

to the new variables Sic. 1"]lc. and Sic related to S, 1"], and S by
expressions (9.8.86). As a result, we obtain

(9.8.90)
Let us now consider the motion of the transformed lifting surface
in an incompressible fluid. Let us write the disturbing potential
of the flow over the surface as follows:

cDlc=k

[Illo + t~l (/lI~~' IC q;, Ic+<P~cj, lCq.;, IC)]

(9.8.91)

where $,c is a dimensionless quantity equal to the potential related

to the product bo, Ie V "". Everywhere in the disturbed region of the
flow O\'er the surface, the potential must satisfy the continuity
equation
(9.8.92)
Introducing (9.8.91) into this equation, we obtain equations
which the derivatives of the potential of the non-stationary incom-

Ch. 9. Aerodynillmic Chillfillcter;s!io in Unste~d)' Mot;on

4ee

pressible flow over the transformed wing mllst satisfy:

8~o;tlrq. it

,j2'I"

ie

,j~f~ T~
Q2;it _~ q2:~t +
Ie

ie

~o;

i)"::~L Ie

II,

(9.8.9:1)

= 0

By comparing Eqs. (9.8.8{1) and (Y.8.Y2), and also (9.8.90) and

(9.8.93), we find that the functions "1'0. "1''11. and ""ril determining
the wlocity potential for a wing in a compressible Dow, and the
functions Ih $t~ic. and <Dl~'e determining the potential lor
a transformed wing in an incompressible Dow satisfy the same
differential equations. It is shown in 119T that the boundary conditions are identical. Accordingly, the values of these functions at
the points related by conrlitions (9.8.86) are also identical. Le.
1jJ"/

(~, 11. ~)=~~,te(Ste, 11t;. ~Icl

1jJ'ii, Ie (S. 1),

6) =

(1)~i. Ie (~Ic. lll e ;,c)

(9.8.94)

where
~=~Ie.

t)=lllcfk,

bO-=b!Jk

Consequently, for finding the potential function and its derivatives for a compressible flow over a given lifting surface, we must
solve the equivalent problem on the unsteady incompressible flow
over a transformed surface with the corresponding boundary condi
lions, The formulas obtained allow us to directly calculate the
relevant values for the given surface in a compressible flui(\ accord
ing to the found aerodynamic characteristics in an incompressible
flow for the transformed surface. Particularly, the formulas relating
the differences of the prcssllfe coefficients ~md their derivatives
have the following form:
tlPo=tlPO.lc1k.

pqi

,-,""p~ci.

IC/"}

p'li = p;ld' lelk =SlcM!,p~1.IClk3

We use these data to fmd the diffcrcllcc of the pressure coefrlcients

at the point of the surface being considered in a compressible flow:

(9.8.96)
Taking (9.8.96) into account, we can obtain the aerodynamic
coefficients of a wing in a compressible flow. while by nsing (9.8.84)

4fi6

Pt.

r.

Theory. Aerodynllmics 01 en Airfoil end II Wing

we can establish the relation between the stability derivatives of

this wing and also of the transformed wing in an incompressible
fluid:

C~i=C~i.IClk
Y
Y. ic

mq'=mqi,lelk2
x
x, Ie
'
m:' =

C;'-=(c,ii.,C-.U2mQi.,e)/k'l
V y, Ie
"" ~,Ie
2 I )/k'
m;'
=- (m~i,le
,:....M
x
x

"".:Ii:

m~:'l~elk. m~; =~ (m::'I~e

where
[.:Ii: =.

~~, IcIe S~.,\ ~ic p;~' ic~le;le d~ie d~tc

w,

J = 2110 ,ie
z

S .... Ie

j' jr p'li,IC2
de. dr
ie
Ic .Ic

~Ic

s\\", Ic

(9.8.97)

-M!,!z)lk 3

(9.8.98)

The following formulas for the coeIfLcients of the normal force

and pitching moment for ql = ell = 0 correspond to the relation
I1p~ = I1Po"e1k between the values of the difference of the pressure
coefficients in a compressible and incompressible flows:
(9.8.99)
With a view to the stability derivatives (9.8.97) and the values
(9.8.99), the total normal force and pitching moment coefficients
or a wing in a compressible flow have the following form:
(9.8.100)

Welcan write the corresponding rolling moment coefficient m.

in the form of the third of expressions (9.6.8).
9.9. Unsteady Supersonic Flow
over a Wing

Let us llnd the solution of the problem of an unsteady supersonic

flow over a wing in the form of the velocity potential q:l (Xl' Yl' Zl> t)
of a transient (pulsating) source (9.7.7) satisfying the wave equation (9.6.30).
Let us consider the expression for such a potential for harmonic
oscillations of a wing when the kinematic parameters vary in accord-

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Characteristics in Unsteady Motion

4'57

ance with the general relation

q,

q; exp Opt)

(j

=.0

cr, l'J.~,

fJ)1)

W.n.!}

It follows from (9.6.32) that the h011ndary conriiliOlls 011 a wing

also vary harmonically. The derivative of the velocity potential

on a wing (9.7.8) (let liS call it the now Jown\\"ash) om he expressed
by the harmonic function
(0.\J.2)

The required disturballcc potf'ntial is related to the downwashes.

~~rJ~~~~ul~i~~'~~~~~~: (~.~~~~ti:: f~l'~~~~: t~

are determined in ac-

: =t/21 =/~\~l~ ~ ~/:,~::!'~i ~jJ~~'(aa]'2)}

~~ ~

(9.9.3)

After introducing (9,9.2) and (g,9.3) into (9,7.7) for a wing (assuming that y -'.co 0), we obtain
Ip(XJ, Yl' ZjI

,I

rr
JJ

t)=, _ _ Hee iP1

~

eI(%"

[.:;;t(;t.,.1/.
Z)] pO
vy

to)

Xe- jP(.~'~~:'::"'" (eiP ":C!.""! e-;P .,,,,-:~,,.1 dJ/=

Taking into account that the sum in paTell theses on the righthand side equals 2 cos (pr,a",a'Z), aIHI the (]lIantilies
p* = pbo/V""

(I)

= p*Jl;,'-x"1

(9.9.4)

we obtain the foHowing expression for tile velocity potentia!:

fP (xt.
X

Yll %1'

t) = -

rr ['.
au (x,

JJ
a(x"

-k He q$e
]

y, z) y=l

iN

- ,....:.'cos
-,) ('"')
d, d,
"oJlx> - , -

(8.Y.5)

:,)

whel'e r = V (Xl x)Z a'Z [y~ -;- (ZI Z)2J.

With a view to the harmonic uature of llloLion of the wing, wecan write the potential function as follo'..-~:
fP(x. y, Z,

t)=V""bO.~(Ql"jqJ
;=,1

= V""bo He eil'!

j~l

l-rp1j9J)

q; lip"} (x, y. z) -;-- ip*Ql"j (x, y, %)1

(9.9.6;

4ea

PI. !. Theory. Aerodynemic5 01 en Airfoil and ... Wing

where
qJ -= qje iP !,

1j '""" dqJldr:= (dqj/dt) b,/V"" =

ipjqje iP !

(9.9.7)

In accordance with (9.9.6). the partial derivative of the potential

function with respect to y is
a'l'

Ty (I, y,

Z,

.
t) = V""ho Re e'p!

h3

_[ flIp'll

qj --ay(x, y, z)

;=1

+ip*

&:!I~j

(x, y, z)J

(9.9.8)

Inserting this ucrivatiye into the left~hand siue of (9.9.2), we

.obtain the following relation for [OIP (x, y. z)/oyly=o:
[ ;: (x, y.

+ip* 8:U'" (x, y,

Z)]

(9.9.9)

Introducing this expression into (9.9.5). substituting (9.9.6) for

the velocity potential on the left~hand side, and taking into account
that
e - ;"'~,-l;) = cos CIl (:t"l -x) _ i sin W (Xl-X)
b~

bo

obtain relations for the derivatives of the potential function:

XCOSW(.1'I;:.1'),p*[ uti (x.

y. z)Jv=o sinw (:t";,;.1')}

x Cos (
<qlqj (x,

y, z)

= -

j J {[~ (x,
G(..-,. z,)

ay

,
W(:el-:e)
t [Off"l (
XCOS-b-.--p; ~ x, y, z

)J

b:~""

) d.1'rd Y

y. z) JII=O

IIl(II-.1')}
JI_oSlO-b-.-

X cos b:;.. d.1'rd, .

(9.9.10)

Cn. 9. Aerodynamic Cnaraderi~tic~ in Unsleady Motion

4~9

For ullsteady motion wit.h small Stroulwl numbers (p. -- 0,

w _ 0). Eqs. (9.9.10) acq\lire the form
:t

'P qj (x, y, z)=

!I

{.I', y, %)111

j (!J.n.10')

_..!... ~ ~ [iJ~'lj

cpqJ(;r, y, z)"'"

~ (/.

-*}) {[
_ M; (:, -Ii
'"b o

ii::)

(.c, y,

[}!<f2
(
iJy

dX,d'

)] y=u 'rr d, }

I , y, %

I
I

Let liS introduce the rlimcn~ionless coordinates (9.6.19), adopt.ing

the centre chord (XII = bo) as the charact.eristic geometric dimension:
S = x'bo, TJ = yJb o ; = zlbn
(9.9.H)
Considering tbat to determine the aerod:\tnamic loads it is sufficient to find the value of the potential function on the wing (y = 0),
let us express (!J.fl.W') in terms of the dimensionless coordinates
as follows:
q>

'1(,

"

0 t)
'_1

--'-jjcr []
(il]

:1

ll"{'

d,_d;
r

(H.U.12)

We can use the found derivathes q.qj and \foi, to determine the
dimensional valuc of thc velocity potential:
fP(Sl' 0,

~d = VOI>bo.-~ IIfQj(SI' O. ~I)

qj..!-q,q)

1--1

Equations (9.9.12) allow

liS

(s\, (), ~tlqjl

(H.U.13)

to find the velocity potential at

fi:i~~~r~~~:n~~~10;\I~)e \:.~ '~~t~~~l t~~~e n~~irdo~~~~~~!sSd~~~~~~~~dl~;

the derivatives [Drp'/j /811],1_0 tlnd [acp'jIDTjI ..=o. The values of these
dowllwashes must satisf)' the boundarr condition (9.6.32) on the
wing {l} = 0) in accordance with which we have

a~ala'l ~ -1,
a.p./8tj - 0
18.., = -~1' aq.-=181l'= 0
alw:1811 = -SI'
8~I/DTj = 0
{l(pW_<

(j ~ I)

(9.9.14)
(9.9.15)
(9.9.16)

480

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics 01 lin Airfoil lind eWing

In addition, the values of the downwashes being sought must

corrcspond to the value of the potcntial function on a vortex sheet
(9.6.34). In theoretical investigations, (9.6.34) is replac.e<i with
the following condi~ion on a vortex sheet:
'I' (s, 0, t,.) - <p Hi', 0, ,', .'); . ' - . - (s' - OJ (9.9.17)
that allows us to detflrmine the velocity potential ~ at a point of
the vortex sheet (x, z) from its value directly behind the trailing
edge of the wing (at a point with the coordinates x* and z* = z),
but at a different instant t* < t. It is shown in 1191 that condition
(9.9.17) corresponds to the requirement of the absence of a pressure
differencf' on the vortex sheet.
Let us expand the left-hand and right-hand sides of (9.9.17) into
the series (9.0.f)):

Jl ['1"1(0, 0, Cl q, (')'eq>"'(s, .
0, "q,(.)[
=

['1'"

i""l

(s',

0,

"q'(")e-cpo, (s',

0,

"q,(.,)]

(9.9.18)

where by (0.9.1), we have

gJ (t) = qje iPt ,
qj ("C"') ,,-, qje;P{l-(X*-X)}VooJ;

qj ('t) = iqjpe iPt

9} ("C*) = igj p*eiPlt-(Z.-Z)/Vool

After introducing the values of qj and their derivatives into

(9.9.18), we obtain (without the summation sign)
<p" (s, 0,

"Hp'q>" (s, 0, "

=e-jp(~'-~lCfQj(~"', D, ~)+ip*e-tP.(i-~lcp;J(~*, O,~) (9.9.19)

Since e-tp*(~*-b=,cos {p'" (s*-E) - i sin (p" (,*-t)J
or at low Strouhal numbers (p* _ 0)
e-ip*U*-U=

1-ip* (~*-"

after introduction into (9.9.19) and separating the real and imaginary parts, we lind the following expressions for the derivatives
on the vortex sheet (excluding the term with p.!):

'1'" (s, 0, ,) = <p" (s', 0, "

}
<p;' (s, 0, , , - ~... (s', 0, p - (s' - S) cp" (s', 0, t)

(9.9.20)

Beyond the limits of the disturballce cones (a Mach cone or wave),

the supersonic flow remains undisturbed, hence the potential function is constant, Therefore, the additional disturbance potontial

Ch. 9. Aerodynemic Characteristics in Unsteady Motion

461

!1~1~:J designations of the coordinate systelll$:

Q-connonlional U. O.

~);

b-lr3Mrormrd

(1.1'

o.

tt'; '. ~-C'hlraC'terjslic coortllnal"-B

in this region, including t.he Mach wave, equals zero, Le.

~ (.. ~, " t) - 0
(9.9.21)
Simultaneously el"erywhere in plane xO, except Cor t.he wing
and the wake vortex behind it, the condition is sat.isfled that
q> (<. 0, ., t) - 0
(9.9.22)
according to which the function lP is continuous and odd relative
to the coordinate Y ('11).
Let us consider Eqs. (9.9.12). Their usc for numerical calculations is hindered by that if the <,quality ;1 - ; = a' (~l - ~)
holds, the integrands have a singularity of the order of ,-1/2. It is
therefore necessary to transform Eqs. (9.9.12) to a form convenient
for snch calculations. To do this, we shall introduce a new system
of coordinates (Fig. 9.9.1.):
6t - 'Ia', ~t -~, ., -
(9.9.23)
The wing in the new system of coordinates is shown in Fig. 9.9.1.
from which it can be seen that the lifting surface has been made
shorter, while tho transverse dimensions have been kept unchanged.
'It. and ~I
Equations (9.9.12) transformed to the coordinates
have the following form:

et.

Cl'QJ(SI.t.

O. tl.d=--i-~
\" [ .~qJ]
_, d;~dtt
atJ
"I
111Tt
(9.9.24)

462

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamic$ of an Airfoil lind II Wing

To simplify the solution of Eqs. (9.9.24), we shall introduce

the following relations for the derivatives of the function q> used
for small Strouhal numbers (p* -+ 0):

~'I(s" 0, ,,) - F'I (s" 0, ,,)

q>~J(1>

0,

S!)=~J (Sh

0. t;,,)-

M;~t ~J(Sh

}
0, SI)

(9.9.25)

After inserting the value of CPqj (9.9.25) into the first of Eqs.(9.9.24).
we obtain an integral equation for determining the derivative pqj:

F"i(t

_t, I,

0, )__ -'-rr[.!!:.!...]
JJ
,

1, t

8'1t

"

11t=O

d',dC,
rt

(9.9.26)

"
Let us introduce (9,9.25) into the second of Eqs. (9.9.24):
rJ (SI, h 0,

~t. 1)-

M!,;,t.

pqJ(I,

It

0,

~I,,)

M!,(St',t- St )

[.!:L!...]

Ct

81)1

} dS!dtt
Tlt-O

rt

Substituting for the derivative Fl J on the left-hand side of the

equation its value from (9.9.26) and having in view that by (9.9.25)

""] "I-O=-= [""]

[~
~ T1t=o
we obtain an expression for finding the derivative Fqj:

F~J (t_1,

to

0') =
.",1.

_..!..
f r [~]
d~!r,d~t
IE J J
8Tl'
Tlt~O

(9 9 27)

..

"

We perform our further transformations in characteristic coordinates (Fig. 9.9.1). namely,

+"

r - Is, - s",,') - ,,, s - (S, - s"",)

(9.9.28)
selected so thal only positive values of the variables will be used
in the calculations. The value of ~o.o.t representing the displacement of the characteristic system of coordinates is determined as
shown in Fig. 9.9.1 (the coordinate lines from the displaced apex 0'
pass through breaks of the wing at the tips).

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Characteristic$ in Unsteady Motion

463

Fig. 9.9.1

To the Dumerical calculation

of a wing with combined leading
and supersonic trailiDg edges in
an unsteady Row:
I . JI-resions 101 fmdlnG: HlP down.

wa~ h

Equations (9.9.26) and (9.9.27) acquire the following form in thecharacteristic coordinates:

;,
F) (rjt

&F~)
i i~'[.~

1 "..

0, $j) =-

-z;:

(9.9.29)
]
11,=0

drtls
V(r1-r) ($I-S)

For further transformations allowing us to eliminate the singularity in Eqs. (9.9.29), we shall introduce the variables

v = Vr

1 -

T,

VSl -

(0.9.30)

Equations (9.9.29) acquire the following form in the variables

(9.9.30)

(0.Y.31)

where
(9.0.32)
To perform numerical calculations, we shall divide the region.
occupied by the wing into separate cells as shown in Fig. 9.9.2.

464

Pt. l. Theory. Aerodyn<lmics of lin Airfoil lind

II

Wing

Let h stand for the width of a cell in characteristic axes. This quantit~' is the dimensionless distance along the r tor s) axis between the
edges of a cell for points n, n + 1 (or i, i + 1), respectively. It is
equal to
hi ~ 1I(2Nb,)
(9.9.33)
where N is the number of parts into which the wing half-span l/2
is divided.
Letrandsbe the coordinates of a fixed point (point P1 in Fig. 9.9.2)
at which we are finding the velocity potential (or its derivatives),
and m and i be the coordinates of the running points used to perform
Dumerical integration. Accordingly,

= rh,

rl

'I

$h, r

= mh, ,

= ih

(9.9.34)

Assuming that the functions D J and E J [see (9.9.32)1 within

a cell are variable, let us write Eqs. (9.9.31) in terms of the sum
of the integrals over all the cells:

f'l(r" 0, ")~ -~

1"

(r" 0,

"')~

;:-1._1 'Vtm..-I)II'V(i+l)1I.

2}:B

m..,Oi-O

'VUiii

'Viii

D,dvdu
(9.9.35)

';-t;-I'V<m+I)iI.'V(i+t)h

-f :B:3 J

1II=01-0}f"iiii

J
JIiii

E,dvdu

The integration regions including the projection of the wing onto

the plane T) = 0, the vortex sheet, and also the sections of the disturbed now outside the wing and vortex sheet are replaced with a
sufficiently large number of whole cells producing a conditional
wing with toothed edges (Fig. 9.9.2). A cell should be considered to
belong to a section of the integration region if its centre is on this
section.
Inside a cell with a sufficiently amaH area, the derivatives Dl
and E J can be assumed to be constant and equal to their values
at the centre of a cell. Accordingly, Eqs. (9.9.35) can be written
in a simpler form:
Jill

(rh $h) =
t

-~ ~

Dj nt. iB;,

m,

i, i

m-=li=1

;, (rh, 'h) ~

-~

E;. ,. ,8;. m. i.;

m=I{=ot

(9.9.36)

Ch, 9, Aerodynlmic Chlrlciefistics in Unsteady Motion

where
D; .. ,=D,I(m-1/2)".

(i-1/2)hJ

E; .".,=E,((~-1/2)h. (i::-1I2)"J __- - !~

B; .. ;., =(V r-m-i- I-Vr-m)(V ,-;-1-1 s- I)

488

(!I.!l.:17)

Formulas (9,9,36) allow us to determine the values of F"J and

pqj and, cOllsequently, the derivatives of the velocity potential

(see expressions (9,9.25)1 if within the entire region of source infiuence (including the wing plane, vortex sheet, and the disturbed
flow outside of them) we know the quantities D},m . and E Jm1
(the flow downwashes), and also the values oC B;,m,";.i (the kernel
functions).
The dowilwashcs arc determined differently for the following
three regions: (1) the wing, (2) the disturbed region confined by the
leading edges. tips. and surface of the Mach cones issuing from the
corresponding points of the wing (cn(l regions). and (3) the vortex
sheet,
Let us consider the dowllwashes in each of thl'sc regions, having
in v iew the case of small Stroullal numbers (p* _ 0). For a wing
with supersonic (or combined) Jeading and supersonic trailing
edges. it is sufficient to know the downwashes on the lifting surface
(section I in Fig. 9,9.2). They are determined by boundary conditions (9.9.14)-(9,9.16). in accordance with which

d,'.:,=-I(j=I);

Ij,'.:,=h(m-i)/2 (j=2)}
'.' (j=3)

d,'.~,= -~'h (m;.i-I)/2-~""

EWlli=M~(h(m+i-1)/2-i-~o.o,d/a.'

(j=1)

E\'~i={M~lh(m-i-i -1)/2+-,. '. ,]/(2<%'))

"h (m-I) (j = 2)

il)'.l..= -M:" Ih (m+i-I)/2l-!. '. d'

(9.9.38)

(9.9.39)

(j=3)

Section II (Fig. 9.9.2) between the characteristic axes, the leading

edge and the Mach lines issuing from the vertex of the wing is occupied br an undisturbed flow region; hence, all the downwashes equal
zero and, consequently.

(9.9.40)
Let us determine thE! now downwashes in disturbed region III
between the leading edge, the tip, and the Mach cone issning from
the points of a break in the wing contour (Fig. 9,9,3). The velocity
potential in t.his region (outside of the wing and vortex wake behind

466

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

fig.....J

To the numerical calculation ot

a wing with subsonic edges in

an unsteady now:
III,

IV-~,Ions

down~.. n

for

IIndlng

thf

it) in accordance with condition (9.9.22) is zero. Therefore, from

(9.9.29). we obtain the conditions for region Ill:

0)

(9.9.41)

01
These integrals can be written in a somewhat diDerent form:

[
',
J -"
- '- r
J D,--'
-~O I""""
. / - 1E, .~ ~O

o
V't- r
VII-I

j'-'-'
- rD,-'-'-~O
Y'l-' 0

YSI- a

,,11 - 8

yr1-r

r./' r
(,

r '1-'

'0

E, ./'
r

St-I

~O

(9.9.42)

(9.9.42')

The obtained equalities are Abel equations whose righthand

sides identically equal zero. Hence it follo\...s that the inner integrals
for $ = $1 IEqs. (9.9.42)] and for r = Tl IEqs. (9.9.42')1 equal zero.
Accordingly. we obtain the following equations for determining
the down washes D~lIl) in region III (Fig. 9.9.3):
"

I D~IlI)

.,-h
~,

\'

~,:~

D~I1I)

ds

=_

"-~

VSt- 1

ii

dr

V't- r

= _

1
0

!
I

DJ

ds

VII-I

r,-h

Dj

ds
V'I-'

(9.9.43)

Ch. 9. Aerodynemic Characteristics in Unsteady Motion

467

The

Assuming the values of the down washes in the cells to be constant

and going over from integrals to sums, we find in accordance with
the variables (9.9.30) the following relations for determining the
downwashes in a cell (point) with the coordinates r 1 = rh and $1 =

=sh:

D~lIJ) (rh, sh) = ~lll) (rh, sh):-:- -

:;:-1
~I D j I(m-O.5) h,

(i-O.5)")B;.ml

;::-1

L;

E j [(m-O.il) h,

m.,...\

(for points to the left of the axis

(i-0.5) "IB;.

sd;

.1-1

D~IlI)(rh, sh)= -i~1 D J [(m-O.5)h,

.-1 E

E}lIl) (rh, -;;h) ~ - i~1

[(m-0.5) h,

('-0.5)hIB; .
(i-0.5)"IB, .

s,).

(\1.0.45)

(9.9.46)

(for points to the right of the axis

In Eqs. (9.9,45) and (9.9.46), we have introduced the notation
B;::,

"1=

Vr-m-i-1- V;: -m,

B;, {

Vs--m -;-..1- V:;- i

(\}.9.47)

According to the above relations, the flow downwash at a point

is determined by summation of the downwash values in all the
cells in the corresponding strip m = const (or i = const). The
calculations are performed consecutively beginning from the cell
at the vertex of the wing where the down wash is determined by
formulas (9.9.38) and (9.9.39). Let us now calculate the downwashes
on the vortex sheet behind the wing (region IV in Fig. 9.9.3). We
shall lind them from condition (9.9.20), which we shall write in
the transformed coordinates
q>qj(St, 0, sd=-"rp"J(st, 0, ~n
' .
rpqj (St, 0, ~t)='P~j
0, ~D-(l'(St-5tl'P~J

m',

}
(0.9.1,8)

Pt, I. Theory. Aerodyn~mics of ~n Airfoil and II Wing

468

where ;: and ~r. = ~ are the transformed coordinates of points

on the trailing edge.
Relations (9.9.48) can be represented with a view to (9.9.25)
and the characteristic coordinates (9.9.28) as follows:

~';(r"

0, s,)

~F'I(

<p l(rj, 0, Sj)=F

~"

";", ";-")
r*!-s*
$*-r*
1(-,-2-'
-2-)

(r,f-$,) f"1 ( ";-,, , ";-"

.of ex' [ r\-:,sl-;(r*-:-s*)

]F l(
q

r*~-~*,

(9,9.49)

$*;r.)

Thestl relations hold for the conditions

(9.9.50)

where $* and r* are characteristic coordinates of points on the

trailing edge.
In addition to (9.9.49), we can use Eqs. (9.9.25) for the vortex
sheet, which with account taken of (9.9.26) and (9.9.27) have the
form

(9.9.51)

Replacing the derivatiYes 'l'qj and CP1J in (9.9.5f) with their

relevant values from (9.9.49). we obtain integral equations for
determining downwashes on a vortex sheet (region IV in Fig. 9.9.3):
-

2~

rr

1~

j'",I

o 0

(l

DJ -:r~d~';;;d'~=
l/(rl-r) (sl-S)

(Ej...,.,,~d~';;;d'~=c

l"(rl- r )

(SI-' S)

(9.9.52)

Cn. 9. Aerodynillmic ChiliTilicteristiC5 in Unsteilldy Motion

469

Both equations are solved in the same way. Let U5 consider as an

example the first of Eqs. (9.9}i2). We shall isolate on section IV
a cell with the sides h and the characteristic coordinates $1 = sh
and r 1 = rh. We shall write the left~hand integral of the eqnation
as the sum of four integrals:

',I'D,
'0 U

d,d,

_.''('

7]-h

'l-h

Il

i 1"::__ i

d,

~)

Ylrl-r)(sl-s)

'I

Y~I-~

'l-h

V,

v<'-, + i
0

'1

V:t

'l-h

~l

Dj

d,

rl - r

'I

1":"_, i

Dj

7]-/1

"1
_$

''I'D, Y

v:"-,

l/~r_r

(9.9.53)

q-h

As we have already indicated, the entire integration region should

be divided into cells and the tlownwashes assumed to be constant
in each of them. We determine the coordinates of the cells by means
of the integers m, i, rand (Fig. 9.D.3). Csing (0.9.30), we go over
to the variables v and u:
V Z = (, _ m) h,
u~ = ($" - i) It
!n.9.54)
The first of the integrals (9.9.53) has the following form:
'l-h
'l-h
Vii
Vi;

y~s_$ )
~-I

DJ

Y(i-rn)h

~,,~
1

y::-r

=..

.1

;:_1

du

Y(;-m+lJh

~
1

)_

2du

.\

D, dv

1""trir_rn)h ~

2D J dv

Y<r_m+l)h

'::--1 ;-1

(9.9.55)
;=1

"'~I

where B r.m .. is an influence function determined by the third

formula (9.9.37).
For the second and third integrals on the right~hand side of (9.9.53)~
we obtain the relations:

(9.9.56)

(9.9.57)

470

Pt. I. Theory, Aerodynamics of an Airfoil lind

whel'e

Br,m.;,.=~~~::~~~;~~:

II

Wing

B;,;,;,

(9.9.58)

For the fourth integral (9.9.53). we have the formula

d.

't

d,

sl-h l~ )-h Dj~=4hD/(rh,

(9.9.59)

sh)

By summing all the above values of the integrals, from (9.9.52)

we obtain relations for numerical calculations of the down washes
in a cell \vilh the coordinates rand ;(Fig. 9.9.3):
;-1 ;_1

If,I\') (rh,

sh)=

-ih Fqj {r*h, s*h)- ~

~ DJ(mh, ih)Br..1I 7, i
(9.9.60)

E~!\') (rh,

+ cr.;h

sh) =

--iT,- [iT, (~*h. _s*h)

(r-i s_r*,_s*)F rt , (r*h. s*h)]-

EJ (mh,ih)Br.1II .... t

111=1 "=1

(9.9.61)
We perform numerical integration by double summation over
all the cells within the confines of an inverted Mach cone issuing
from the point being considered (rh, sh) excluding the initial cell
(at the vertex) at which the downwash is determined. Its magnitUde
is found consecutively beginning from the cell on the trailing edge
(for the starboard side) and i* (for
with the smallest coordinate
the port Side). The coordinatea of points on the trailing edge are
related to the coordinates
by the expreS5ioD9

r'"

r. s

(9.9.02)

The calculations are performed as follows. The smallest values

of the coordinates r* and s* are used to determine the nerivatives
FIJj (r*h, s*h). pi) (r*h, s*h) for the first cell, next the above rela
tions are used to calculate the down washes and innllence funetions
for the entire region within the Mach cone issuing from the adjacent
cell (with the coordinates rand 8).
After this, double summation of the products, of the down washes
and the innuence functions is performed, and the required vaJues
of the downwashes at a point with the coordinates 'r and"8 are found
by formulas (9.9.60) and (9.9.61). Passing along a strip = ronst
(S = con.sl) to the following cell with the coordinates ((8
f) h.,ri.

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Characteristics in Unsteady Motion

471

we repeat the calculations and find the corresponding value of the

dowm.... ash in this cell. By performing similar calculations, the
dowilwashes can be found on the entire vortex sheet behind the
wing.
The values of the downwashes are used to determine the derivatives f"li and pij at each point of the lifting surface. Xext q:.'Ij, CPqj,
and the corresponding values of the velocity potential cp are found
(9.9.13). This quantity directly determines the pressure coefficient
and the difference between its values on the bottom and upper sides
of the wing [sec formulas (9.6.20) and (9.6.21)1.
The difference of the pressure coeHicients (9.6.21) can be written
as the series (9.6.7). The derivatives p'l} and pqJ in it arc determined
in terms of the values of F'II and Fqi; by using (9.6.24) and (9.6.25),
we obtain the following relations:

~) =

p~i (~, ~) =

p'l I (1;,

+M!,a'

+-

~~~' ~tl

'3.\ {-a.'FQj(~tt ~t)

[~ iJF(;l~(;t,
M";,

af i

(/;a

;11 _ C

(9.9.63)

aF'Ij~;t, ~t)]}
a.;t

-I

Hence, to find the derivatives of the difference of the pressure

coeHicients pljj and pqj determining the value of /lp (see (9.6.2t)l,
it is necessary to calculate the derivatives OF'll/iJ'St and fJFqjlfJ~t.
There are different ways of calculating these derivatives. In aerodynamic calculations, particularly, the method o[ differences is used,
in accordance witll which

":::i ~ '':;~J +

[p'lj

(r+ 1, s,

i)-i'i (r. 5>1

(9.9.64)

The derivative fJFqj/fJ;, is calculated in a similar \....al'. As a rewe can write the following relations for the values of p'lj and

s~lt,

pqj:

p(IJ(~, ~)~-~[F'I}(r-:-1, $-;' l)-P'lj (r, $)1

pqj(~, ~)= :~a {_a.'Fflj(r, s)

+":;;- lp7 (r-i-l,

j

;~-1)-Fqj(~,

(9.9.65)
s)]

PI. l. Theory. Aerodyn~mics of !In Air/oil ~nd

472

!II

Wing

To improve the accuracy of calculating !he derivatives (9.9.65),

it is necessary that the values of

pill

and J7lj be found hI more cells

than the number in which p'j) and pqj are found. Hence, in this
case the interval 6.~t can be increased m times (where m is an integer). Accordingly, the derivative

iJ:S:'

~h

IF'll (r+m, s+m)_pllj

(r,

s)]

(9.9.68)

We determine the derivative arJ/ost i.n a similar way. With

a view to the new "alues of ap1j/oSt and aF'j/OSt, we change formulas (9.9.65) for the derivatives p1) and p';j. We use these derivatives
to find by meanf' of (9.6.9) the derivatives of the lift force, rolling
moment, and pitching moment coefficients. As a result of substitutions of (9.9.6::1) into (9.6.9), where we assume that Xli = boo we
obtain relations for these derivatives that can be written as follows:

'. ~

i. +M'_C~2.t
~ }

aCg=cV.ha~y=c~l.t.

(9.D.67)

a'c~:=c:.:h a'3c;Z = c:l, t+~_c:l.t

(9.9.68)

(9.9.69)
The following symbols have been used in these formulas
11<2bo)

~t

-1/{2bo)

'D. t

c~. t = 4b~').'"

.~

)
~Q.

c~:!. I = 4b5~~2A\\' [:~

'"

~t

-1I(20Q) lo. t

'tl

ds i dbt

it

)
-//(21)0)

;J~;t.

iJF

11(2&0)

C;l,t= - 4b~~l).".

1/(2bo)

/{(200)

r(St. bt)dstdbt
t

it

.:.
iJF(1,

(9.9.70)

;i:' ~t) d~t d~t

-1/(200) fu. t

iJF"-~t ~t) ~i dS i dbt]

Ch. 9. Aerodynllmic Chllrllcteristics in Unstelldy Motion

C;~t= 4b~~:A".

't

If(2bn)

OFWZ,!t,

47$

~!l d~t d~t

-1.'(2b,,) ~o, t

c;l. t =

4b~~~ZAw

"

1/(2bo)~!

{o,

F Z (~l' ;d dS t d~t

. 1/(2b,,) ~u. t

c;i.

4b~~~2A\\" [;~

t=

(9.9.71)
~i

I!(:lb u)

.~

iJF(":~tl' ~t) ~d~1 d~t

-1/(2b,,) ~o

1/(2bul~:
)

",

)'

(IF

za~~' ~) Sd~dCJ

-1/(2boY.to,t

m;, t = 4b~~:2A\\"

;t

1,'(2b o)

.~

aF'l ~t ~t) ~t dSI dS t

-1/(2b o)t o.t

mft. t =

--

4b~~~3Aw

ti

1/(2b ol

i J Fa (~t. sd ~t dS dst
l

-1/{2b,,) ~o. t

m~2, t =

1{(2bo)

4b~~~'A". [;~

tt

.:.

oF

(9.9.72)

~~:. ~t) ~I d s! d~l

-l!( 2b o) to, t
1/{2bo)

,i

J J

iJFabt

t:t)

1/(2bu)

't

(0'

s~d;t d~t]

-1/( 2b o) to, t

4bS~:ZA'"

m;'\ =

of z~i:' 'I) 1 dS t dSt

-11(2b o) ~o, t

m~'{. t =

4b~~~8A'"

it

1/(2bo)

J F Wz (Sh stl St d~t dSt

-If(2b o) ~o, t

m;'~z.t=- 4b~~'Aw [;~

l/(2b o)

~t

J .J

(lFWzii:'

(9.9.73)

~t)Sld5tdSt

-1/(2bo) '0.1
1/(2bu)

tt

til

) J of Zi)~:' ~t)

-1/( 2bo) i o, t

s~dStdSt]

474

Pi. I. Theorv. Aerodvnamics or an Air/oil and a Wing

1I(2bo)

~t

-1I(2b o)

i o. t

m;~1 = _ 4bii~~2}.w

rn:t

,~

et

1/(2b~)

4bij~:aA."

-1I(2b,,)

m;{ = _ 4b3~:3A.".

(0)

aF

1:.

1/(2bn)

~t

i o t

~:~. St) \;t ds t dS t

(9.9.74)

(St. 1;d St dS l ds,

1I(2b o);t

-1!(2bo)

i o. t

[.~~

-1I(2bo)

FWx

:Q

fJF xa~':'

tt>

St

dt dt t

~,

1 J" x.~:. ~.) t.'. d dt.]

(9.9.75)

It must be taken into consideration that the velocity potential

cOn the leading edge is zero. Consequently.
(9.9.76)

Accordingly,

it
)

aF

Ja~tlo 'I)

ds, = Ft , (st. ~t)

~~. t

i~

"
of

J~i:~t) StdSt=stF'Ij(st,

St)

!io.t

.t

-J

F"J (St. i;;d

dS t

lo.t

(9.9.77)

'J~

ilF'I J (st>

~t)

,.,.. A: _,. t;-F" (t.

--.;-,-'ot5tu'et-~tSt

lo.t

.,
-

\ F'J (S"
~o: t

t.) t. dS.

.)

'=" ...t

Ch. 9. Aerodyni!lmic Chi!lri!lcteristics in Unstei!ldy Motion

..

) of'' i ~~:'

471i

~I) sf d~t .= ~t~F'I j (st, ttl

,:

lo.t

) Stp"J (s" ~t) d61

to.t

In a similar way, we shall writ.e the relevant. expressions related

to the derivatives pili. Let us go over in (9.9.70H9.9.75) to the
characteristic coordinates sand r (9.9.28). Assuming that the velocity potential (or the [unction D) is const.ant in the cells and replacing the integrals with sums, with a view to (9.9.77) we obtain
relations for numerical calculations of the derivatives of the aerodynamic coefficients.
These relations, used for finding by (9.9'(i7) t.he correspondin.g
derivatives of the aerodynamic coefficients of t.he lift. force ~. ~,
C~I, and also for determining from (9.9.68) the derivatives of

c::,

the pitching moment coefficients

sented by the relations:
C:. t = 4bg~'"",,. h

m:;, mi, m~;. m~;:

FrJ. Cr*,

can be repre-

s*)

;.
C:t, t = -

4bg~~~;.w

liZ ~

~ pi" (T, $)

4I>!a"),.. h
Cy,2t=--,,-

{a'
",.,i -,
M!, f.C'. ~r,

- ~ [(;:'+S*)hI2+s.", . i F"f',

r.

-')
S

(9.9.78)

s') +h ~ ~ F"(r, s)}

s ,

C;,'t = 4b3~';"w h ~ p"'z (r*.

s*)

;.

c;t,
c:i.

= -

4bB~~~l.w

h'1.

~ hPj,), (r, "$)

s

4bB~~11...

h {;:

"" ;:-

i'z (r*. $*)

(9.9,79)

476

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynsmics of an Airfoil and sWing

,.
+h~~F"'(;:, SI}

m~. 1 = 4b~~~%}'w h {h r* +8*) h/2 -:-~. o. tJ Fo. cr*, $*)

"-h~,~r(;, S)}
m:I,t= - 4b~~:'AW h'l ~,~ [(r~s)hJ2-:-o.o. t1 r(r, "8)
;

~hJo.'JAw h { +

m,2.t- - - , , -

a'

M:7.,

'"

1-* +s-"') h/2

~ (r

(9.9.80)

"

- ~ ((r* + 5*) h/2+~. o. t]2 F~(r", s*)}

,.

The aerodynamic derivatives of the rolling moment coefficient

are calculated by the following formulas:

m::t= m~f.

m~:Il
=
x2, t

4b~;S).w h

h rls.-r*)h!2j F'"x(r*.

;*)

"
4b~~:3)...... h h h ({s-r) hJ21 F\i):Il (r, S)
Z

4.f;~o.'3"W
I~

h {~
'V [(s*-r*) h:2J
M~ LJ
.'

,.

F~X(r* :;*)

- h [($*- r-*) 1I/2J [(r* + ;-*) h/2 +~. o. tJ F"'x (T*,

'i-h ~ ~
s

l(s-,)h!2J FO, (r',

,O)}

s*)

(9.9.81)

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Ch~racteristic5 in Unsteady Motion

477

If we take the wing span l as the eharacteristic dimension when

calculating the rolling moment coefrlcient, and the half-span lI2
when determining the kinematic parameter {J)z, then the new values
of the rolling moment coefficient and the corresponding derlvatives
are determined by the relations

mz1 = Inzboll. m~fl = 2m~:t:: <boll)'!., m~t" .1m:.>; (boll)s (9.9.82)

By analogy with (9.9.69). we shall give the following working
formulas for the deriva~i"('s:

..

a.'m~l' = rn~;:lh a.'zm;~1 = (m~et)l ,-- M!.. (rn:f.lth

m~et....,... - 8a.'Aw (boll)~ II ~

(9.9.83)

,(s- r*) h/2)l"-.: (r*, s*)

(m;r,lth = -16a.'Aw (boll)~ h {:~ ~ Us* -r) 1112J

(9.9.84)

"

,.

+!o .. tI F"'(i",

"h

h ~~ 1(,-r)"'2J F"'(;:, ')}

s
In the above relations, the symbol
the cells along the trailing edge, and

signifies summation o\'er

th;~symboL S~. double sum-

s
malion o\'er all the cells on the lifting surface.
When performing calculations of the total aerodynamic characteristics. one must have in view that these calculations are carried
out in the system of coordinate axes depicted in Fig. 9.0.1 (with
the rule of signs indicated in this figure). All the geometric quantities are measured and the pressure coenicients are found in the
system of coordinates whose axis 0% passes through the vertex of
the wing (see Fig. 9.11. t). When the mean aerodynamic chord bo
is taken as the characteristic dimension, the aerodynamic coefficients
and derh'atives are found by converting the value.~ of c", mz, mz,
and their derivatives by the following formulas:

Cfl.A~-'C!l' C~.A=C:t c~.A=c;bolbA

c:.z'AA. = c:'zbolb A C;.zAA = c;z (bofbA.)2

(9.9.85)

478

Pt.

r.

Theory. Aerodynamics of lin Airfoil lind II Wing

mz,A=mzbolbA

m~'A=. mzbolb m~,\=m~(bolbA)2

A.,

(9.9.86)

m;'zA,A =m:z (bolbA}Z. m;'zAA = m;z (bolbA)

m:t. A =m:tbolbA. m:;AA=m:t(bolbA)'l', m::AA=m::t (br/bA)3 (9.9.87)

In the above expressions, it is assumed that

aA=(daldt)bAIV"",

wz.A=QzbAIVco

~z, A = (dQzldt) b).IV!.. ~:t,

A=

(dQ.)dt) b~/V!'

} (9.9.88)

9.tO. Properfles
of Aerodynamk Derivatives

Let us consider the general properties of the aerodynamic derivatives as applied to finite-span wings with a constant leading and
trailing-edge sweep. Investigations show that at low Strouhal
numbers (p* -+ 0) the value of /I derivative is a function of three
arguments: kAw = AW V 1 - Mi." tan Xo, and 111l" These arguments,
called similarity criteria, are determined, as can be seen, by the
aspect ratio All'. the leading-edge sweep angle Xo, the taper ratio 11",.
and the Mach number M co. For an incompressible fluid, there are
two such arguments: Aw tan :>:'0 and 11,," If a rectangular wing is
being considered, it is necessary to assume that Aw tan XO = 0 and
fill' = 1; for a triangular wing. flw = 00.
Diagrams characterizing the dependence of the stability derivatives on the similarity criteria for wings with a taper ratio of 11w = 2
in a subsonic flow are shown in Figs. 9.10.1-9.10.10 as illustrations.
The mean aerodynamic chord bA has been taken as the characteristic dimension when_ calculating the data in these figures (the
kinematic variables ;"A, W:.A, c:,z.A, the coefficient mt.A)' This
makes the dependence of the aerodynamic derh'atives on the geometric parameters of the wing more stable, the results approaching
the relevant quantities for rectangular wings.
When CAlculating the rolling moment m:tl, we chose the wing
span l as the characteristic geometric dimension, while for the
kinematic variables W.xl and ~Xl we took the half-span l/2. The
origin of coordinates is on the axis of symmetry, while the axis Oz
passes through the beginning of the mean aerodynamic chord bA
When nece5sary. w(' can convert the obtained (lerivatives to another
characteristic dimension and to a new position of the axis Oz.

Ch. 9. Aerodynllmic Chllrllcterisiics in Unstelldy Motion

Fig. Uo.t

~~ea:~~: i~al~buela~~~n~t: s~t'it

ity derivative c~ for a wing
in a subsonic Dow

Fig. '.to.l
Change in the quantity kC:,z'AA
detennining the
derivative

~~;i~~t~~~

Fig. '.to.l

a wing at subsonic

valuesofyc:~At and k Sc:6.z

~g:rd~:r;~~i~~ o~h:he c~o~~~~ie~~
'with respect to oX..%. !for a
lifting surface at M"" < 1.

clI

479

-480

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of .an Airfoil "nd " Wing

'flg.9.1G.A

k't:'

k't;,t.

ValUE>9 of
,z:..1 and
A
determining the derivative of
Cy, A with respect to (l)t, A for a
!!Ubsooic now over a wing

'flg.9.to.S
-Change in the variable kmx~3.:1
determining the derivative of
the rolling moment coefficient
with respect to (l)xl for a wing
at M",,<t

fig. 9.tO.

Values

of

k2(m~fl)2
change in
coefficient
for It wing

k'(m;f1h

and

characterizing the
the rolling moment
with re.!lpect to ~l:l
in a subsonic flow

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Characteristics in Unsteady Motion

481

r-'--'-- ------~?y

FI'II.9.tU
Function km~ A determining
the derivative m~ A for a wing
in a subsonic flow

-1.2

f--;---"-

/(m~~,'-----'-----'------'------'---""

Flt 9.tU

valuesofk3m~AAl
d~termining

the

and k'm~AA2
dC!rivative

m~AA for a wing at subsonic

veiocities

FI'II.""o.t
Values of km;.zAA determining
the derivative m~~:...A {or a wing
atMoo <1.

'---'-~

Pt. J. Theory. Aerodynllmics of lin Airfoil lind

482

II

Wir"l9

0.',--,--",_

"
Fig. '.tUG

Variables

k3m~lA~

k3m~~~:\'}

anc!

characterizing

the

change in the derivative m~ZA'\

for a wing at J/", < 1

-{J.2

~~F::/p"'~

-o.'1I--f""~-=.J,
-O.6L---'-"'--'--~_-'---_-"

According to the data shown in Figs. 9.10.1-9.10.10, the aerodynamic deri"fltives are determined as follows:

..

(kc~)/k, C~,AA = [(k3C:;'-AI) + M~ (k3c:;'-A!!}JIk3

(9.10.1)

c:::...'\ = (kc~.A A)lk, c;~.Z:...A = f(k3c;'.~t)+ M~ (k3c~~Al)J/k3

(9.10.2)

m~ln = (km~I)/k,

m:r =

f(k::m~fl)l + ~'JI!. (k!m~~t}Zl!k2

(9.10.3)

m~.A = (km~. A)/k.

m:.AA =

[(k3m~1.1) ~

(9.1u.4)

m~:A..A = (km~AA)/k. m~ZA A =

[(k3m;'ZA1)

c; =

M!,

(k3m~,AA2)l/kJ

+ .U:'" (k3m~ZA~)J/k3

(9.10.5)

We can nse the graphs (Figs. 9.10,1-0.10.10) to find the stability

derivatives for the entire range of suhsonic numbers M """ including
an unsteady incompre~sible flow (ld "" = 0, k = 1). The data of
these graphs point to the increa.se in the lifting capacity of the
wings when going over from an incompressihle (iJl = 0) to a compressible fluid (Moo < 1). Here the stability derivatives at M"" < 1
can be calculated sufiiciently acclIr(\tcly according to the PrandtlGlauert compressibility rule c = Clc (1 - M;,,)-1/2, where c and CIC
are aerodynamic yariables in a compressible and incompressible
fluid, re~per.ti\'ely. The lower the aspect ratio, the smalJer is the
action of the compressihility, i.e. the smaller is the influence of
the number M"", < 1. This is riue to the fact that the disturbances
introduced into a flo\\" attenuate with a decrease in the cross-sectional
dimensions of a wing. i.e. \\'ith a (lC!crcase in the aspect ratio.
Xear the tips of a wing in a slIhsonic flow, the air flows from the
bottom side where the pressure i!'l- higher to the upper one. This leads
00

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Characteristics in Unsteady Motion

483

to lowering of the lifting capacity of the wing. The intensity of such

ov('rnow grows with a decrea~e ill the aspeet ratio of a wing; consequently, an increase in this aspect ratio improyes the lilting capacity.
An' analysis of the illfillence of tile leading-edge ~w,eep flngh.' "1.0
shows that it.s growth leads to an appreciflble riimillislling of the
d('rivative c~ for a wing wit-h a high aspect rfllio. At small aspcct
ratios.. the influence of the angl(' Zo is virtually absent hecause in
this case nen an illsignilicant change in "1..0 leayes the planform of
t.ilt' wing almost ullchanged.
A change ill thc lapC'r ratio II,," at ~iven Yalues of AIV and 1.0 has
H slight effect Oll the lifting I':aparities, especially for low aspect
ratio.!; of a wing. Tlw {'xplana\ion is that. fit Moo < 1 most of the
lift force is protillc('cI by the lifting surface near the leading edges,
which is I!~pcciall,.. noticeable with low aspect ratios. A lar~e "aIne
of the tap('!" ratio II\\" (at 'i."
1':01l.<:t) corre:.<ponds, as it w('re, to cutting off a p~Ht of the poorly liflillg taU surface of the wing.
All anlllysis of tht, fOHlld v<lIlIes of t hc centre of pressurE' coefficieut
e!)
.f r b o .- m; ..\ c y .. \ (whcr{' ,I"p is lhe {Iistance to the centre
of pres~UI"e from the front or the llIelln aerodynamic ('hard) allows
liS to ('onclude that the quantit~' c l ' grows with an increase in the
S\\"P{'P all~les (the ("entre of prc!'slIl"c is displaced llIore noticE'abIy
to the tllil). Tht, aspe('t ralio nf[pcts cp in the same way liS the angle
ZO). At 10\\ "fllu('s of A,... how en!" (of the order of 0,5 and below),
tht position of the centre of pressure dot's not virtually challge.
Thl' Iteriv<ltiws m~\"\ Hud m':i l that. chflracterizt' damping in
oscillatory motion grow with till increase in the aspect ratio i.w ,
This indicates all increas(' in the damping upon longitudinal ullstefidy
motion Ml(1 rollillg of the wing. Thl' Ilbovp graphs allow liS to condudt' that the influ('llce of the swel'p angle and taper ratio on the
dumping of low-aspect-ralio \\"ill~S is r('lath'C'ly SITIHU. The abovelllcntioned tlerivativps together with thc quantit.y mf ..\ characterizing" the 10llgitudinaJ static stability grow with inerellsing subsonic
nllmhl'!"s MOL .
.-\erodynamic {h'riYatiycs cappC'd willI dots dept'lul gn'tltly 011 the
flSPCCt ratio A" ill the slIbsonic region. ThE' vahles of the tieriYHtives
grow with an incre<lsing nUlllher Jf
The challge ill the dotted
derivatiyes, Lc. in the aerodynamic characteristics that an' pnrely
IIllsteady. is especially great at near-sonic ,elocitics. At numbers
Jl", --+ 1, the lllugnillldes of tll(' dt'rjYati\"cs with dots gro\\ ilppreciaLly. and their signs change. ;\ typical fcature here j!-l the growing
influence of the wing plan form 011 the aero(\ynamic \'ariabIe~ for
a non-stationary 1Il1steudy flow.
The dat.a characterizing the chang-e in I.he non-stationary derh'atives for a wing at supersonic L'elocities arE' prescnted in Figs. \1.10.1"1U. "10.20. According to these data, the stability de!"i\,ltin-s are tleterc.

484

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of.,n Airfoil end ., Wir.g

FIg. to.U
Value.!! of a;'c~ determining the

c:

stability derivative
for a
wing in ~a 8Uper.sOniC now

~9."O.U

Change
in the
quantity
Cf.'c:,!"AA determining the derivative c~~\ A for a wing at su
personic velocities

Flt,9.tO.U
Relations

a:flc;~A2

for

a:'3 c:'AA1

and

charac~ri~ing

the
change in the derivative of t,he
coefficient ell with ~spect to
fora wing atM", > 1

aA

_ _ _ _---=C"'h.-'-'."A:::'",o:::!dynamic Chllraeleri$tics in Unsteociy Motion

485

",---,-/r""

'.'f--7i"--";-f----r'+----P-e..-

0.6

Fig. 9.10.14

Values

a'3 ..<:':.-ii\

of

nnd

a'3c;.Z:\.~ determining the deriv.

~.tive of

cy

",:ith respect to ~l"\

In:1 s.upefSOD1C

now

O\'er

<1

winlf

..

Fig. 9.10.15

functiun (L''''.~';''' rilarad(Orizlug till' rlLangt in the dcrhative, of the rolling- momt'nt
\'oe)Jlci~nt with re~p('('l 10 w.Y\
for <l \VIIlI{ at ,W",. > I

a.'m:?'

Flg.9.f0.t6

Values of
',/.'2

a'2(m~'I\]h

and

(m;jqh characterizing the

change in the ucrivathc of the

rolling moment coefficient with

~~~~~~nl~ 81;~ ror 11 wing in a

-O.1J'

486

Pt. I. Thllory. Aerodynamic5 of an Airfoil and a Wing

Flg.9.tO.t7
Variable a'"t~.A
determining
the derivative m~A for a wing
atMoo > 1

-J r---t---'<::6"""'--t----j

a'mtA,

.,
.,
Fig. 9. to. t8

Valu~s of a/3m~~AI

11

m.~t.

for

It

wing in a

'Ilf

.5'V"_hlrl.X:

l'l..-:~'
'
_ ....

r_

'II

and

a'3m ~\2determining the deriv-

ative

L"1. ,

a'h;~

.0

I,w"

l.........

J.

,l",km4~0 4 IJ I

-0.5

"

SUpeI'llonic flow

10

,I~

, .s:-.
,

Fig.9.to.t9

~~~g d::l~a~I';:.1 m:.~AA

for a

""~

IS

a'A""

a:.\ w

'1",~2

,If--

FUnctio~ a'~~zAA (j)dewrmining

~,

a,Jml,t ...
10

Aw/aJlX.-O

'\
'\

./

Ch. 9. Aerodyn&mic CharecterisliC5 in Unsteady MoHon

487

fig. 9. to.10

Varia~1(!5 ':\: 3m;.'~~ and

a'3m~:;;:...'.t characterizing
change in the derivative
in a supersonic !low

the

m~:zA"\
-1.~

mined with the aid of formulas (9.10.1H~UO.5) in \...-hich the quantity k = V 1 - M;" is replaced with ct' = VJroo - 1.
The graphs allow us to arrive at the conclusion that the lifting
capacities of wings at MOD> 1 grow with an increase in the aspect
ratio. although to a smaller extent than at subsonic velocities.
Particularly, for a rectangular wing (XO = 0), the increase in ~
wben M">O > 1 occurs only up to Aw = 3-4, and then the derivative
~ remains virtually collstant. For triangular wings. the constancy
of t1, is. observed beginning from ct'}.", ;:e, 4, Le. when the leading
edgi-s transform from subsonic into supersonic ones.
The derivatives of longitudinal and lateral damping (m~.AA and
m~"\<t). as with subsonic velocities. grow (in magnitude) with an
increas.e in the aspect ratio. Their change for low-aspect-ratio wings
is only slightly influenced by the sweep angle ami the taper ratio.
Unlike tile case when M", < 1, at supersonic velocities the derivath-es nt~:AA and m~fi, and also m~ decrease when Moo increas.es.
The dolted aerodynamic derivatives change to a smaller extent
under the influence of the wing aspect ratio at Moo> 1. But they
grow in magnitude at supersonic flow near values of Moo> 1.
For these velocitics, as when Moo < 1, a sharp change in the magnitude of the non-stationary derivatiycs is also attended by a change
in their signs.
At large numbers Moo (Moo;:e, 2.5-3.0), the aerodynamic derivatives with dots decrease, tending to zero at Moo _ cx>. The influence
of the planform on their values is not so great at the usual velocities (sllb~ or supersonic), but becomes considerably greater in the
transonic region where the number M;>o equals unity or is somewhat
largel" than it.

.f.B8

Pt. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil and a Wing

9.11. Approzimate Methocls for

Determining the Non-Stationary
Aerodynamic CharaderlsHes

~~~::::a:::" Harmonicity

The harmonicity of oscillations, which is the basis of the met.hod

of calculating non-stationary aerodynamic characteristics set out
above, reflects only a partial, idealized scheme of unsteady flow over
a craft.. In the general form, such flow may be characterized by
other time dependences of the kinematic parameters. At present,
methods have been developed that can be used for unsteady flows
described by any functions. But owing to their great intricacy, it
is not always possible to use them in practice.
It is therefore necessary to have Jess strict and sufficiently simple
methods of calculating the total and local nOll-stationary aerodynamic characteristics. One such method is based on what is called
the hypothesis of harmonicity (sec (191). By this hypotheSis, an
aerodynamic coefficient for unsteady flow is represented by series
(9.6.8~ in which the stability derivatives c'lJ, rfii, and others are
functions of the mean angle of attack "0' the Mach, Reynolds, and
Btrouhal numbers for a given wing.
In the Hnear theory of flow of an ideal fluid, such a relation is
limited to the Mach and Stronhal numbers. According to this theory,
the aerodynamic derivatives depend very slightly on the Strouhal
number for low-aspect-ratio wings of any planform at all numbers
Moo when the latter aro large. We can assume that in a first approximation this is also true for any other time dependence of the kinematic variables. But no\\" with any function describing wing motion,
the stability derivativ('s can be takfln from the results of calculations or experiments obtained for a barmonic change in the kinematic variables, and the values o[ these variables can be determined
on the basis of their true time dependences for the given mode of
motion.
This is the essence of the harmonicity hypothesis. It allows us to
obtain more accurate results when the stability derivatives depend
less on the Strouhal number. When solving problems on the flight
stability of cralt, t.he Strouhal numbers p* quite rarely exceed values
of 0.05-0.07. Consequently, ill practice, we may use the non-stationary characteristics for p* -+ 0 with sufficient accuracy and, therefore, proceed in our calculations from the harmonicity hypothesis.
The harmonicity hypothesis allows us to obtain more accurate
results if the change in the kinematic variables can be represented
by a smaller number of terms in the Fourier series corresponding
to a narrower spectrum of frequencies characterizing this change.

Ch. 9. Aerodynamic Characteristics In Unsteedy Motion

489-

When studying non-stationary now oyer craft, researchers use

rather widely what is known as the steadiness hypothesis. The
content of this hypothesis consists in that all the aerodynamic characteristics are determined only by instantaneolls values of the
angle of attack.
The local values of the pressure coefficients nre the same as in
stationary Dow at an angle of attack equal to its true value at the
given instant. According to this hypothesis used in the linear theory,
the aerodynamic coefficient is

c,

(t) ~

Cll"

(t)

(9.11.1)

where ex (t) is the true angle of attack at the giwm instant. anll c;
is the stability derh'ative ill steady now.
If a craft rotates about its lateral axis at the angular velocit) ilz,
the expanded hypothesis of steadiness is used according to which
c,(t) ~

<':"

(t)

+ C:'w, (t)

(0.11.2)

Experimental investigations show that the hypothesis of harmonicUy yields more correct results than that of steadineS5. This is
especially noticeable for wings with low aspect ratios. An incre-ase
in the aspect ratios is attended by Jllrger errors because at large
values of Aw the dependence of I.he aerodynamic derivatives on the
Strouhal number becomcs more appreciable. This is not taken into
account in the approximate methods.

'.......w_ . . . .

According to this method, in a stationary supersonic Iin(>al"ized

Dow over a thin sharp-nosed airfoil, the pressure coefficient at a certain point is determined according to the local angle of inclination
of a tangent to the airfoil contour ex - ~=-- (for the upper ~ide).
and a. - ~J. (for the bottom side), Le. the corresponding yalue of
this coefficient is the same as that of a local tangent surface of
a wedge. By formulas (7.5.20) and (7.5.20'), in which we assume that
~N = ~ on the bottom and ~1. = -~ on the upper side of tht' uirfoil, at the corresponding points we have
;;b-2("+~)Il'M~-I. p.~-2("-~)!VD1~-1

(~.11.3)

where ~ is the local angle of inclination of the contour calculated

with a view to the sign fol' the upper side of the airfoil.
With account taken of these data, the differencl' of the pressure
coefficients on the bottom an(1 upper sides is

!ip =
where ex' = VM!. - 1.

Pb -

Pu =

4a./ex'

(9.11.4)

490

Pt. I. Theory.....1I,ocIyn.. mics of lin .... irfoil lind II Wing

tJ.p can also be applied

to non-stationary fiow if instead of a we adopt the value of the
local summary angle of attack determined from boundary conditioll (9.6.32) in the form
It is presumed that formula (9.11.4) for

as = -v/V ... = a + 00:;; - oo;X

(9.11.5)
where; = x/b o, "i = 2zll, and 00:1:1 = O:l,U(2V ... ) [with a view to the
chosen coordinate system, the sign of OO~X has been changed in
-comparison with (9.6.32)1.
Let us write tJ.p in the form of a series:

tJ.p =

+ plXlOO:l:l + pl~ooz

pGa.

(9.11.6)

Substituting for tJ.p in (9.11.6) its value from (9.11.4), but using
from (9.11.5) instead of a, we find the aerodynamic derivatives:

al:

po. = 4/a',

plXI

4Z1a', pf>lz

= -tU/a'

(9.11.7)

According to the tangent-wedge method. for all wings we have

(9.11.8)

Knowing the quantity (9.11.7), we can find the stability derivatives:

c~=

1~
j j tpd'iii;

Awlb o

c;~~

rI?-

'.v.;bo J l~'dxdz

x~

m A t ij.

mlCfJ =

__ -

--f- j j pmJ,'lzdzdz

(9.11.9)

Oi"o

A6

m~='~

ri"r pGrdzdz.;
-- - '"

).6

mz~=~

lli'l~ p"'--zxdxdz.
o~o

OiQ

We locate the origin of the coordinates at the nose of the centre

chord of a wing (Fig. 9.11.1). We adopt the centre chord bo as the
characteristic dimension for m~ and OOz. and the span land halfspan u2, respectively. for m X1 and 00:.: 1, For such a wing. the equations of the leading and trailing edges in the dimensionless form are
all follows:
x__~
(t)u.+t)71",otan'l.. :Z
}

__

0 - 110 -

(9.11.10)

4'1U'

XI=1!-= -1 + (l1;~t _

IJ~;:-t '-.,ot:nX)i

cn. 9. Aerodynllmk Ct-lIrllcleri$tics in Un$leady Motion

491

fig. '.H.t
Diagram of a wing ill the calculation or stability rlerintiVl's
accord in\.! to the mcthorl 0['
i(lcul w~'dgcs

Let us write the ratio of the ccntrp chord to the span and the
aspect rat io of a wing:
b,ll~

2'lw'['w (~w -i- 1)1,

Aw ~ 1',8 - 2~wl1l(~w+ 1) b,l (9.11.11)

The tungl'nt of the sweep angle along the trailing edge is

tan Xl = tan 'l.o -

(2b o") (1 - 1hl",)

Introducing (9.11.10) and (9.11.7) Into m.11.9).

stability derivatives of a wing:

tl:....+,~~"'~3 (

i.\\

t~1I '/ n ) ~J

(9.11.12)
W('

obtain the

(9.11.13)

III the part.icular C(lH' of rectangu lar wings for which tan Xo = 0
and 1'jw = 1, we ha .... e

(9.11.16)
m~f' = -2/(3a'}

(9.11.17)

m~~= -2la', m~= -4/(3et'}

(9.11.18)

492

PI. I. Theory. Aerodynamics of an Airfoil <lind a Wing

For triangular wings (T]w = co and Aw lan 1.0 ....., 4). we have

c;=4/a.',

m;r =
l

c;:,--,S/(3a.')
-1f(3a')

m~= -8/(3a'),

m~'~".- -2,~'

(9.11.19)
(9.11.20)
(9.11.21)

It must be noted that the tangent-wcdgt> method makes it possible to determine only the aerorlynnmic derivatives without dots.
The results obtained coincide with the accurate solutions according
to the linear theory for inl'lniLc-span rectangnlar wings, and also
for triangular wings with supersonic leading edges, at small Strouhal
numbers (p* _ 0). For linitc-aspect-ratio wings, the tangent-wedge
method yields more accurate solutions when the numbers M.",. and
the aspect ratios ).w are larger.

1. Se.d,?v, L:1. Sirn~lari!y and JJtmeM,tJllal .1Iet/jod.< !II Jlechal!!(~, tran;:. by

Klsln, \ltr Publtsbers, \Ioscow (1982).
2. Sedov, L.1. A Course Of ConUJII./Um .1fecllanics, ,"ols. 1-1\-. Croningen, Wolters-NoorthoH (1971-1972).
3. Kbrislianovkh, 5.A. Ob/ekanie tel guzolll lirl baLldkh skorustyakh (HighSpeed Flow of a Gas over a Bodr), !'\auch. trudy IsAGI. vyp. 481 (194U).
4. Bclotserkovsky, 5.:\1. and Skripach. A.K. AerodLnamiclll.'s1rit protZIJOd/!!le

~!~~~~~t,~:s :f~aC:!ft ~n~{~/\Vr;~ a~"s~~Ub~~IJ~!~'v~~~i:~::t\!~~~~~i:~:~

(1975).
5. Loitsyansky, L.G_ Mtkhallika ~hidk('s1i i ga:a U'luid \lC{'hanics), Xauka,
Mosco",' (1970).
6. Pred\'oditelev, A.S., Stupochenko, E.\"., 10110\", V.P., Pil'!Shanov, A.5.,
Rozhdestvensky, LB., and SamuIJov, E.\'. Termodir/llmid~l'skfl' funk/sit
vozdukha dli/a temperatur ot 1001) do It 0')1) K i datl"flil nt O.U(}l dft 1000 atmgratiA-i luakt.ii (Thermodynamic Functions of .\ir lor Tcmperatures from
lova lu 72 01)0 K and Pres~ures irom 0.001 to tOOO atm -Graphs of Functionsl,
Izd. AN SSSR, Moscow (1960).
7. Prerlvoditelev, A,S., Stupocbenko, E.V., Samu"1lov, E_V_. Stakhanov, J.P .
Pleshanov, A.S., and Rozhdestvensky, LB. 1'llv/ilsy fl'rmJdinamlc!teskikh
fu.nktsii vozdukha (dlya temperatur 01 61)(}() do 121/1)'1 K r dav/tali ot 0.001
do IIJ(hI atm) [Tables of Thermodynamic Functions of Air (for Temperatures
from 6000 to 12 000 K and Pressurcs from U.001 to 1000 atmll. lzd, .'\N
5SSR, Moscow (1957).
8. Kibardin, Yu.A., Kuznetsov, S.I., Lyubimov, :\. :'01"., andShumyatsky, 11. Ya.
Atlas ga:odinamiclltsklJ.-'/ funktsit pri hol'slti!.:11 skor08tyakll i vysokikh temperdturakh lJosd/Uhnogo potokll (A tlas of Gas-Dynamic Functions at High
Velocities and High Temperatures of an Air Stream), Goscnergoizdat,

ltloscow (t961).
9. Kochin:N.E" KibeI, LA" and Roze, ~.V. Teordi(/reskdya gidromekhanika
(Theoretical Hydromechanics), Parts I, II, Fizmatgiz, Mo!lCOW (1963).
10. Fabrikant, I.Yn. Aerodinamika (Aerodynamics), Nauka, \losco\\' (t964).
11. Arzhanikov, N.S. and 5adekova, G.S. Aerodinamlka hol'shikh skorQstel
(High-Speen Aerodynamics), Vysshaya shkola, Moscow (1965).
12. Irov, Yu.D., Keil, E.V., Pavlukhin, B.N., Porodenko, V.V., and Stepanov, E.A. Gazodiaamicheskie Junktsii (Gas-Dynamic Functions), lI-Iashinostroenie, Moscow (1965).
13. :,!khitaryan, A.:'>1. Aerodinamika (Aerodynamics), \lasninostroenie, :\Ioscow
(1!"!jfi).

494

References

14. Krasnov, :'<l.F., Koshcvoi, V.:'i., Danilov, A.N., aRtI Zakharchcnko, V.F.
AerodtlUlmlka raktt (Rocket Aerodynamics). Vy:oshaya shkola, Moscow
(1968).
15. Rakhmatulin, Kh.A., Sagomonyan, A.Ya., Bunimovich, A.!', alld Zn
rev, J.~. Gazova/la dtnamtka (Gas Dynamics), Vysshaya shkola, Moscow
(1965).
16. Arzhanikov, N,S. and Mal'tsev, V.N. Aerodlnamika (Aerodynamics).
17.

~~~a~iiik~~~EJ.:95:~YIO

t8.

r:~J~v,

kalleihnogo razmakha 11 8zhtmaelllVIII potake

(A Finite-Span Wing in a Compressihle Flow), GOSl.ekhi:tdat, Moscow

A.A. and Chernobrovkin, L.S. Dinamlka p<dtta (Flight Dynamics).

).fashinostroenie, ).Ioscow (t9iS).
19. Belotserkovsky, 8.)'1., 8krlpacb, n.K., and Tabachnikov, V.G., Krylo
to Ilntaldonarnom poloke gaza (A Wing in an t:n~teady Gas jo'iow), Nauka.
)roscow (19il).

Supplementary Reading
COllt8nt, H. and }-'ricdl'ichs, K.O, Supersonic FlO!I' alld Shock Walln ::O;cw York.
Intcrsciencc (1948).
Ginzburg, l.P. Aerodtnnmlka (Aerodynamic~). )'Ioscow, Vysshaya shkola (19661.
Hayes, W.D. and Probstein, II-f.'. lJypl:r$olllc Flou' Theory. New York, Acnllemic
Press (1959).
Krasnov, :-;.Jo'. (Ed.). prlkladllaya aerodlnal/Ilka (Applied Aerodynamics).
)lnscow, Vysshaya shkola (19i-i).
Kuethe, S. I-'oundaltoll$ 01 Aerodynamics, 3rd ed. !':ew York, Wiley (10iG).
Landa.u, L.D. and Lifshils, E.ll. .1lekkallika sploshnykh sred (Continuum :'I-fe
cha.nics). Moscow, Gosl.ekhhdat (1968).
Liepmann, n.w. and Puckett, A.E. Introduction to Aerod/ln/lmiCl 01 a Com
presslble Fluid. Xew York, Wiley; London, Chapman & Hall (1948).
Liepmann, n.w. and Roshko, A. Elemellts oj Gasdynamic8. New York, Wiley
(t957).
:'I-liineThomson, L.).I. Theoretical Aerodynamics. London, :'frac)'lillan (1958).
).lironer, A. I!.,'"gintertng Fluid }Jeckaldc8. New York, llcGrawHiIl (19791.
Oswatitsch, K. Gas J)YIU.UnICB (English version by G. KUerti). ~ew York,
Academic Pross (1956).
Schlichting, 11. Boundar" Layer Theory, 6th ed. ::-Oew York, )"lcGrawHill (1968).
Sednv, L. TU:o-DtmelutOlfal Problems til /{ydrodynamics and AUf/dynamics.
new York, Wiley (1965).

Bahcuko, K. 1., ~
Beloherko\'sky, O. M., ~3
Belotserkovsky. S. :\\.. :!~. 23, :1\)8,
411:1, lJ2i, lJat. ',33, 436. lJ5t. r.5:!,
;"55. 460, 188, 493, 4<J~
l\('rnolllU, D., 13
BUllimovich. ,'. 1., ZOll, ,~94.
Burago, G. t., 2i:i

g~:~~~~~~~.rin':i.~5~.~l3if: it~,
Cnerny. G. G., Z
Copal, Z.. :U
Courant. B., ~'J~
Danilo\', A. :'\., 19;1, 194
Dorodnitsyn. :~. A .. 19. 21, 2:1

I. Ya., 95,

S. Y.. 2:!

~alikhman. 1.. E., 19

Kilfman. T. vou, I\J
KaI'lIO\ich. E. I .. 2:!
Klil. E. \' .. 153. 1;:'7, 4!J3
K\Jd~'~h. )1. \' .. 21. 22
Khri~ti;lnO\ir:h. S. ,\ . 21, ll;iO, 27t\
:!il. 2,:1. 493
Ki~b9~~djn, Yu. ,.\ .. Ii:!, 63, (ii. 1:30.
l~ibl'1. [, A .. \!J. :!2 ..'t!, Ill. 493
Koehln, :\. E .. 19, 82. 111. 493
1\.05l1evoi, Y. N.. 19a, 494
Kr-lla;~lshdliko\"i1. E, A .. 22, 2(j~). 3$1,

Kllethl'. S., 1~~

.'t!J:'

1.. 21. 2Z, ::.06, 394

K. 0., '}!l4

JOllkoWliki, .u Zhllkovsky

Krasllov. X. F.. 193, 'JU-ll

Ellil'r, L., 13. 1'1

fahrikaut,
Falk-ovich,
Frankl, F.
Friedrichs,

2611

Juno\', ~'. P., ul. OZ, tHi, 165. 188,4113

Iro\". 'Ill. D., 153. 157, 493
l)"l'viln. Y. ~I., I'J

Ji:IlZll('!l-O\, S. I ,liZ, li3, 01. 188. 4W;!

Lallduli, L. D .. 'J!14

t~L::~t~:~:e~,. ~:. 'Jb"" 21~.i:!:!

L(!\lll. V. I.. 15

Li('\Imann. H. W., HM
Lir~hit5. E. :'I\.. '.14
Lichthill. 'I.. 13
Loit~Yllnsky. L. G .. HI. 30. 493
Lyubimo\', A. :\., ti2. 63, oi, 18S, 493

-498

Name Index

l'fal't:;ev. V. N., 238, 255, 256, 215,

278. 494
Melnikov, A. P., 19
Meyer, To, 279
Milne-Thomson, L. ~L, 494
Mironer, A., 494
Mkhitaryan, A. M., 165, 255, 256,
493

Navier, A., 19
Nekrasoy, A. L, 22
Newton, I., 32
Oswatitsch, K., 494
PavlukhiD, B. K., 153, 157, 493
Petrov, G. I., 19
Pleshanov, A. S., 61, 62, 66, 67, 165,
188, 493
Porodenko, V. V., 153, 157, 493
Prandtl, L., 19, 21, 32, 279
Predvoditelev, A. S., 61, 62, 66,
67, 165, 188, 493
Probstein, R. r., 494
Puckett, A. E., 494

Ro-dHle~tnm$ky,

I. B., 61,

Sadeko\'a, G. 5.,
Sagomonyen, A.
494
Silmuilov, E. V.,
67, 165,
188. 493
Schlichtiog, H., 494
Sedo\', L. I., 17, 20, 21, 22, 493. 494
ShuIDyatsky, B. Ye., 62, 63, 67, 188,
423

Skripach, B. K., 23, 398, 419, 421,

43t, 433, 436, 451, 452, 455, 460,
488, 493, 494
Stakhanov, I. p" 61, 62, 66, 61, 165,
188, 493
~:~e::,ovG~'l:' ::3, 157, 493

~~~~~:~ko. 'i. ~::

Jt9, 62, 66, t65,

188, 493

Tabachnikov, V. G., 398, 419, 421,

431, 451, 452, 455, 480, 488, 494
Taylor, G. I., 32

Voskresensky, G. P., 22
Rakhmatulin, Kh. A., 209, 494
Reynolds, 0 . 19
Roshko. A., 494
Raze. ~. V., 82, 111, 493

8),

67, 165, 188, 4.93

Zakharchcnko, V. F., 193, 494

Zhukovsky, N. E., 15, 21, 250
Zvercv, L :-l"., 209, 494

Ablation. 15
Acccler;llion,
result,lnt, 721
H'ctor, ,1, 113
Adiabat . .,hock, 172, 184.
.,\erodyu<llll k cociTicicnts,

airfoil. :!\)'J

conl'(.'r"ion from onc aspect ratio

I,) another, 2581T
dynamk components, 398
aud similarity method. 139"
static l'olllponcnts, 398
\lnstcaJ~' f)nw, 41(;iT
Aerodyn.amics,
~urrace5, 23
bl\lnt-no.~(!d bod it',,", 23

nblatiul!

bodie,; of revolution, 22
boullda!'r bycr. 19
classiflc.alioll, 17
continullm, IO!
control5, 22
dellnilioll, t:J
devl'iopllll'nt, t3
experimental, 15
force. t7r
high-spl'(,o, Hr, 18, 59

hulls, 22

:1tanlt~iX: 1~

incom[)rf!s!'ihle fluid, tS
interference, 23

]ow.-.sprtd. til

optimal shapl's. 24
radiating- ~a~, 131
raf't'fll.'d lCiiseS, 20

st{';ldy-statc. 20
subsonic. 18
suPQr~onic, 18, 59
tr<lnsouic. 18

Aerodynamics,
unst{,Jdy. 20. "30
win)!. :!H
Acrohyorodynamics, til
Acl'QtilcnllouYII;)mics, 18
Air.<~<' also flo\\'(s), Gas
diaLomiL: !lilith-I, 67. 69
dissoci,lting, {'(]lIation of statc, oj
dissoci:ltioll nnd ionization, 1!l2r
motion al hiJfh sl'c~d~, 111
strurtufc in dissociation, {}7
Aircra[t. 20, ,,~t Qt.,a Craft
Airroil,
acroUr1lunLic ("'("cc's, 2!)3f
arbitrnry configuration, 28.iiT
in cOlllprt'g!'ibl,' flow. 2fj!dl
drag. ~'j8
!iClitiOllS,

2,tH

in hYr)Cr~Ollic flow, 29 if.

lom!;itndinOiI forc.c. 293

2~)7

in mid-spOiLI s('ction, ::\:li

polar, 2(1)
sharp-nosrd. 2851
curved, 2r1Of
sidcslipplnJ.' win~. 2\J9rT
in supcr:'0nic flow, 285rr
symmetric. 2~)7rt, 317ft, 32tft
thin,
in incom.]lr{'.~sible nnw. 2:J4ff
in nearly uniform flow. 293
in subsonir flow, 26'IfJ.
total drau:. 2,;)
wcdqc-shap('(i. 297f

Angie{sl,
attack, 38f
babllcl', 52
in norDlal sl'ction, 30H
oPtimal. 47
1['11(', 2.'52

498

Subject Index

Angle(s),
balance rudder, 58
banking, 39
control surface, 40ir
course, :\9
downwash, 25H
span-a"eraged, 252f, 255, 257
total, 253
elevator, 407
flow def\rction, 220f
behind shock, 166, 176f, 189
critical. 176f, 182
hypersolLic velocities, 22t
and shock angle, 182
flow devinlion, see Angle, flow deflection
Mach, 16t, 212
pitching, 39f
rolling, 39f
rudder, 407
setting, 252, 260f
shock, iG7f
oblique, 176iI
and velocity, 189
sidesli I', 3Sf, 52
sweep, 299f, 363
ultimate flow, 221f

i:r~t~i, ~~~

Approach,
Eulerian, 72
Lagrangian, 71
Axis,
doublet, 102
flight path, 37
lateral, 37
lateral body, 38
lift, 37
longitudinal body, 38
normal, 38
Backpressure, t55
Balancing, lon$"itudinal, 56f
Boundary conditions, t32i1, 424
dimensionless equations, 145
linearized flow, 3tOff
unsteady flow, 451.
on vortex sheet, 3t2: 424
and wall temperature, 145
Boundary layer, 34ft
thickness, 36
turbulent core, 36

Ce~!~~~~f: 56
Centre,
aerodynamic, 50f, 55
angle-Of-attack, 51
coordinate, 240
elevator deflection, 51
sideslip angle, 58
force reduction, 404
moments, 36f
pressure, 48
and aerodynamic ("elltre, 51
conical flow, 363
Centre-oI-pressure codfici('nt, 49,
295, 297, 3S9, 483

~~~s~e~~~~er~on~~\" ~110

pentagonal wing, 3il

sideslipping win~. 302
symmetric airfoil, 297ff
tetragonal wing. 365
wedge-shaped airfoil. 298
Characteristics, 208ff
aerodynamic,
r{'ctangular wing, 385ff
triangular wing, 349
unsteady motion, 394n
conjugate, 210, 212
determination, 209r
in llOdograrh, 214, 282
first family, 210n. 2tG, 21.9, 222f
kind, 209f
nodal point, 227
ortho!l:onality, 21ar
in physical plane. 2iOr
second family, 210ff. 216. 219, 222f
stability. 413iT
Cbord,
local, wing. 259
mean aerodynamiC. 45, 262
mean geometric, 45
wing, 45
in winfO~:,ti258with optimal planCirculation,
now. 103f, 243, 430
intensity, of vortex. 236
velocity, 91n, 236, 311. 1.28f, 434
in vortex-free now 92
vortex, 439, 447
Coeilicient(s),
aerodynamic, see Aerodrnamic
efIicients
centro-of-pressure, su Centre-ofpressure coefficient
correlation, 30
one-point, 31.
two-point, 30

Clln('.
Cocflicient(s),
111;\1;11, 160, 315. 3-!U
damping, tat H
iuverted, 319
lum:il,..liu"I, tall;!
rolling, -iO~1
tip, 371
Contour,
yawing, 403
drag, IU Drag coefficient
multiply connected, 91,
simply connected, M
Lame's, 82f, 85, 87
lateral-force, 44, 400
Controllability, cra[t, 395
lateral linear deformation, 109
Controls,
hltel'.l motion. 40S
fast-response, 407
lift, ~"e Lift coelTiciCllt
incrtidrce. 407
longitudinal-force, 44, 296, 399
Coordin<lte systems,
body lIxis, 37
longitudinal moment, 297
comprl'!Sible flow, 303
curvilinear, 82iT
cylindrical, 82f
longitudinal motiou. 400
mOmcn~,
In Moment coeRicient
fix(d. 37
normal-fOl'Ce. 44, 5t. 50f. 296, 397,
flight I,ath, 37
44Sf. 456
~Oo~%ayt'~~:h!r:~~d~939
compressible flow, g03
and stability derivatives, 400,
spherical. 82r
405f
wind. 38
pilChing-moml'nt, 43, 49, 51. 363, Core(s),
401. 404f, 416ff, 448f, 456
turbulent. 36
body axis, M
vortex. 251i
pressurt'. see Prt'ssure eoelficient
semi-inlini ~e, 253
pressure-drop. 284
Correction, Prand~I-Glauert. 268
rolling-moment. 43. 40t. 416ff. Cosin{'S. dift'etion. 40
44Sf
Crah,
body axis, 44
spiral, 403
~~~~/~W~bM~y, 395
side-force, 43
fast-r{'sponse, 407
stagnation pressure, behind shock,
inl'rtiafrcc, 1,07
175
manoeuvrability, 395
static lateral stability, 57
thermal protection, 23
static lon~itudinal stability, 54f
Criterion(a), similarity, 17, 140fT, t87
suction fOfce. 3OGf, 383t
C:,r,pf!!!f~~iiy,2S;J
vortex drag, 315
wave drag, 277f, 283, 350, 387
CUrvt's,
induced, 3t5
characteristic, 8ee Characteristics
w;
equipotential, 90

y.~;~;g;;;,~om;~4.i,:,.

43. 401

spiral,

CO~n~:~il~~, :o~~~t!~~n~~Y

53!w,
452f1
Conditions,
boundary,
Boundary conditioll8
Chaplygin-Zhukovsky, 428. 431
compatability, 209
at inlinity, 425
initial, 132
Cauchy's, 206
Conductivity, thermal, 831
and pressure. 63
and temperature. 631
Cant',
disturbance. 160, 315, Jt9

II'

Decreml'nt. logarithmic. 4t4

Derormation, sel abo Strain
relatin linear, 108f
relative volume, 109
wing surface, 451

Deli:O~l~tion,

60
equilibrium, 69
and pressure. 60
and temperature, 60
freedom, inert. 194
ionization, 60f
static lateral stability, 57
static longitudinal stability. 541
Ilernity(it's),
characteristic, for dissociation, 69

500

Subjec1 Index

Density(icS),
crilical, 152, 151
in jet, 153
ratio, HiS, 1 n[, 184, 188, 18911
limiting, t86
reduced mass, 157
source distribution, 3Hif
stagnation, 151, 153. 192
Derivalivcs,
aerodynamic,
and aspect ratio, 483
properties, 478ft
circulation, 466
stability, se~ Stability derivatives
time, 396[
Diagram,
enthalpy-entropy, 66f

Difr~~~~~,c~I;:,ic12~7

DiUusivity, thermal, 128

Dimensions, charact.eristic, 44f
Dissociation, 60, 189it
Disturbance(s). 159
cone, 160
propagation, 1S9f
source, 159
in subsonic now, 160
supersonic, 319
in supersonic Ilow. 160
Divergence, velocity, 86
Doublet, 102[
axis. 102
distribution [unction, 354. 358, 360
incompressible flow. 3601
supersonic linearized flow, 360
moment. 102. 354
potential function, 354f

r:w:~pe!~ic

Drag coeffiCient.
dimenSionless, 145
distribution over wing span, 341
friction, 350
induced, 252f, 256f, 261, 384
and lift coeilicicnt, 296
minimulO,17
overall. 44, 339, 341, 350

:;!!:~tt~::gai;f~~f:

disturbed region, 465it

semi-rate, 77
00. vortex sheet, 467ft
wing, 468
Dral!f' 38, 42
friction, 4/1
induced, 252
nose, 44
overall, 44
pressure. 44
profUe. 275
total. 275. 314. 384
w!lve,'276r,283

42. 140, 296

304

Edl(e(s),
combined, 463
leading, fi~~ Leading edge(s)
side, &e~ Tip(s)
trailing, see Trailing edge(s)
ERect,

:i3_~;!'n.4O:01

Sideslip, 300
tip, 301
Energy.
dissipation, 12;
oquation, 12411
particle, t24i1
supplied by conduction. 125
supplied by diilusion, 125f
supplied by radiation, 126
Enthalpy, 65
stagnation, 151, 185

Engt::Si~~t,

216
non-dissoc!ating

now, 353ft

Do~~!~h{!)~~~~~'. ~~~f

::i

tetragonal wing, 3371, 345[1

thin wing. 381
wedge-shaped airfoH, 298

gas, 170
mula

adia at, shock,

BernoulH, taU
CauchyHiemann, 97
Chaplygin, 269
characteristic, 208, 218
in hodograph, 219it
non-isentropic now. 219
roots, 209f
vortex-free now. 219
continuity, 80ft. 164, 2OOf. 423f
in Cartesian coordinate system,
81f

in dimensionless variables, 1421

flow along curved surface, 88
incompressiblo now. 81
linearized flow, 309
for potential motion, 81, 85f

Subject
Equatiol\(s),
c()ntinuit~

,
steady now, 81. 85, 88f
two-dimensional now, 81, 88
unsteady now, 81
coupling, 2M, 257
diffusion, 121
in Cartesian coordinate 5~'stem,
123
in cylindrical coordinate system,
122f
dimen~iolliess, 1/121'
aud boundary conditions, 145
i>nergy, 124ff, 175
cOllscn'ation, 105
in dimensionl(>S!; variabll's, 143
two-dimensional plane motiOD,
127
EulC')', II:~, 131i
l10w ratl', 89
!la~

dYllamic~,

fundamental, 12!J, 201, 3119

syH"nl, 1291(, ilI4
Grollll'ka's, UIII, 3G
JlOdognlph. 180
J1ugolliol. 172{
itltl'l!rn-difTt'rctltial, 25/1
kinpm;ltifs, fundanlC'nlal, 201
La1!ran!{I', 135
Lapla<'(', 8U, 2G6
Dla~s now ratt', 151m
mom{'1l111l1l COHs{'n'ation, 1M
motion,

~\~~:rll~:~;~l'iI~:~'I~S~~a\~:, 114f
cdindrical coordinates, 116r
in diml'l1siollll'~S variabll's, 142
Ili~t\lrb('ll. lin
idl'al ~a~, PI./,
invi~cid nuid,

11:'1, 2001
linl'nrized 110\\, :~()8
particlc, 10(;
potC'lltial. IH, 85f

~1'IU'rical coordillah'~, 118[f

steady now, 117
Iwo-ditlll'u"iollal, 119, 200
,'('ct,'r form, tt:H
\"i~("nu~ nuill, 11:\
\avil'r-StokC's, 112f
oblique ~hocl.. 1(;311. iG!lr
basie, 171
pnthlin~, 71
pot(,lltial function, 367ft
sp('t'{\ of SOltlll1. 2M
sto.te,
llialomic gas mixture, G!lf
dissociating ~ilS, G5
pl'rf('ct gas, liS

Index

501

Equation(s),
steady flow. 13li
stream (unction. diITcrclltial, 205
two-dimensional flow, nC!ar curved
surface, Izor
velocity potential, 201f, 2M, 309f,
37:!fI
lineo.rizatiotl, 264r
vortex, 203f
vor1ex lines, 01
wave, 1,23ff
Equilibrium,
stabll', 52
static, 521'
trim, o[ craft, 52
unstablr, 52
Exponent, adiabatic, 26, 61f
Factor, local friction, 1j2
Fall, frel', I,OPf
Fan, Pro.ndtl-~h'Yl'r \('xpansion), 280,
285
Field,
prl'~Slu'l', 326. 330
velocity, 71
Filamen1,
stream, 7/,
vor\('x, 1j2!l
st["{'n!tth. 433i
FinenC'ss. 284 .<re "Iso Hat;o, lifttoum!;
1>'low(s), .'ee rl/.," ~Iotion(s)
at angle of attack, 2~3ff. 3511
axisymmetric. 117, 2001, 222
basic kind~. 17
boundary rOllrlilion. 451
in bounual")' larcr, 17, HI
circulation (circulatory), 103f, 243,
430
caJculutioll~. 13UIT
comprcssibll'. 2r,Hf. 271" :W:.![, ;106
o"t'r circlIlar r"lin(jpr. 2101
conical, 355IT. ;I1U\
cross, 359
along: curved surface, 8~
dh;turbcd, 1120
from supPL"!:-onic sourCl', ;:\IUf
downwash. /Iji. ue als() Oownwasb
equilibrium, 1!14fr
eX]landing ril,lial, 231
expansion. 220
fictitious incompn'ssibl(', 270f
forwaru, 3!lJf
planc-parall('l. !lRi
free, 17
extl'rnal. 3.)
strl'amlirlt'. 132

502

Subjeet Inde~

Flow(s),
over ht':'i.ai,fOnal wing, 361311
hype-rsonic. over thin airfoil, 291f
incompressible, 90, 24011, 249if,
3liOr

cross, 359

over n~l plate, 243ff

velocity Ilotcntial, 105
inviscid, 1 r, 35, 200r
isentropic. 1;\8, 149iI, 222, 290f,
1120r

isotropic, 31
laminar. 28
lateral, 299
linearized, 264f. 297, 30811, 360
longitudin,li, 299
nearly uniform. 235, 282, 293
at an,de of attack, 351 It
linearized, 264
pressure, 235
veloci ty, 235
non-circu!atory, 242f, 431
non-oquilibrium, 19311:
behind shock, 197f
non-isentropic, 2t9, 222
one-dimensional, 158
parallel, 98, 249
stream function, 98
streamlines, 98
velocity potential, 98
plane. 123, 222
over plate, 24tlT
potential. 79, Wi, 20U, 356
Prandtl-:-'ieyer, 279, 285
at hypersonic velocities, 281f
limiting case, 286
purely subsonic, 275
from reservoir, 154
reverse, 39H
without separation, 132, t45
two-dimensional, plano, 133
velocity ratio. 133
behind shock, 17'1
.teild)", 73, 117, 122f, ?oor
non-potentbl, 136f
f
subsonic, 302f
stability derivatives. 478ff
over thin airfoil, 264f
5upercrilica), 177, 274ff
supersonic, 211, 282, 30811, ~53ff
over airfoil, 28SH
distuJ'b~d, :.!22ff
over finit(~-Sflan wing, 3081T, 385
Over f(>clulI.;ulilr wing, 385
Over sharp-nosed airfoil, 285,
290f

8uh~:7t~~~I~' ti:e

Flow::lhility derivatives, 483ff

ovr tetfUR'unal wing', 344
over thin plate, 269f(
over lilin wing, 315f, 3SS
unsleady, 425, 4~61T
OVl'r wings, 31Sf
over symmetric airfoil wing, 312
tetragonal, 331lT. 3431T
over tet-ragonal winsr, 331iI, 343il
over thin plate. 243
three-dimensional,
disturbed, 308
steady, 309
trans~erse, 359
over thin piate, 2/,OiI

~~~~d~~~~~~}:~I,W~9~' as5[f

axisymmetric, :.lOOf
ncar curved surface, 120f
isentropic, 222

~1:~~~e26ot1t 1~22264

spatial, 119, 211

supersonic, 211
vortex, 202
vortex-free, 219
turbulent, 28ff
quasi-steady, 31
unsteady, 73, 146, 394, 4113ff, 425.
456ff
derormable wing, 451
nnarly uniform, 421
vlocity, in jet, t50f
viscous; 17, HI
in boundary layer, 134
pressure. 110
vorte'x, 78, 202, 309

vo!~:~~fr~e~979rr, 92, 219, 309

Fluid,
barotropic, 420, 423
ideal.
integrals of lIlotion, 134ff
pre~sure, 26
i.ncompressihle. 158
inviscid, see FlUid, ideal
vi,'lcous. 127
FlUid mechaniCS, 14, 18
}>'orce{s),
aerodynamic, airfoil, 293f
body, 27
comrlex. 246f
conversion to another coordinate
sY,'ltem, ItOf
dissipative, t27
drag, 38, 42, see also Drag
gyroscopic, 403f

l'orctI{s).
lateral. :~,:)
lift. 38 . .'.::!. ::!;iOr. :.!54
((at pl;.ltc. 248, 3113
muimum. 47
Dearly uniform Dow. 236
. ,386

(;a5,
equa\.i()ll~, l2\lif. l'~')
[low from res(!l'\'oil, 1SllT
heating, 58ff
ideal, 134, 149, see 1Il.,;(> Gas, perfect
interaction with body, 15r, 18
ioniz.ation, tWf

ri;c~i~f~go~rff\~~1~,~,!)~g3!

mass, :.!7
extern;.ll, work, t2ii
OD rnOViu!! body, 25ff
normal, 38, 416[
producl!d by pressure, 293
ponderomotive, 27
side, 38, 42
suction, 24~. 382fI
correction factor, 383[
sideslipping wing. 305fi
triangular winq, 362
surface, 25f. iOil
work. 12-41
viscous. Viti
ForJ!lula. see also Equation(s)
Blot-5avart. 05
conversion, coordinate sy~tem9,
82ij

Euler. 117
Karman-T$ien, 268
Prandtl-Glauert, 26B. 302, 306
Reynold~ generalized, 33r
Sutherland's. 63
Zhukovsky. 248
Zhukovsky-Chaplygin, 247
Frequency, oscillations, 414
Friction, $I!t a/so Viscosity
in turbulent flow, 3211
Function,
conformal, 2'.Of

~~~tY:iidf~trt:Jtion. 354, 358, 360f

potontial. 79, 243, 354f, 367{1, 457,

see also Velocity potential
derivatives. 458
doublet, 3541
gradient, 80
stream, 89f, 9B, 202
Gas, see; also

Air,

Flow(s), Fluid

::l~~r~~ili:r' el!~tr~~ity~8f1945211

diatomic, mean molar rna9S, 70

diffusion, 121
dissociation, 60, tB9H
dynamics, Hi, see alsQ Aerodynamics, high-speed

mixture, 67
mean molar ru;J.~, 70
parameters, at stagnation point. 191
perfect, see olso Gas, ideal
calorically, 65
equO-tion of state, 65
thermally. GS
recombination, 60
stream, configUration, 149f
viscous. (low in boundary layer,

'34

Gradient,

~~~::r 've1!~ity,

32

potential function, 80
pressure, 107
velocity, 34

Half-wing,. inllnile triangular, rn

Heat. speclrlC, 61
Heating, acrodyn:;l1oic, 15, 18, .-':\
Hodograpb, t 7\)fi

H~b~~~~!iS~f

reverse influence, 17
continuum, 16, 20
harmonicity, <loSS!
Kbri~tianovich's, 273
Newton's, 32
plane sections, 2j3[
Prandtl's, 32[
steadines5, 17, 4S!)
expanded, 489
stresS-Slralll proportionality, 10B
Zhukovsky-Chapl)!gin, 24<10

Instability.
dynamic, 394
static, 53. 415
directional, 57
lateral, 57
Inte~o:n~~~dinal, 54f
Bernoulli, 138

COli:~;;~:rae~ies:i:~ 42t

Subject Index

Inl(~~ral(~)

Lagrallb..... , i35
motion, 134n
Intensity,
souree distribulion, 318
turbulellcl', 29
"orlcx circulation, 2361
Interaction,
body~pla5ma, 19
chemical, is, i8
lorce, 15
mechanical, 15
terms, 402
thermal, 15, i8
Interference, aerodynamic, 201
Ionization, 60, t89f
thllrmal,
Isobars, 60(
bochors, 66f
Isotherms, 66f

60

Law,
Dalton's, 69
eUiPtici58}reulation distribution.
cnergy conscrvation, 124, 165
.'ourier. 125
masa conservation, SO
momentum conservation, 164
~ewton's friction. 32
thermodynamics, second, 181
Layer. boundary, see Boundary layer
Leading edge(s), 367
sonic, 316, 363, 365, 384
subsonic, 303ft, :U6, 326, 33HI,
351ft, 355ft, 360ft, 38111
supersonic, 3031, 316. 330f, 35H,
3128, 385
swellp parameter, 3161
Length,
mixing,
relaxation, 198
Level, turbuhlDce, 29
Lift, 38, 42, ~ee /J~IJ Force. liH
Lift coefficient, 43, 253ft, 296, 315
comprf'ssible now, 27i
and draJl coeDieient, 2\l1l
nearly uniform now, 236, 238
penta(f0nal wing, 371

34

~,!:~lft~::~h1~?f.'2:3:'

304

tetragonal wing, 3641

total, 387
triangUlar wing, 3626
wedge-shaped airfoil, 298!
wing tips. 387

Linc(s).
dist.urbnuce. 160
Mach, 160, 211
waximum thickness. 36Sf
vortex, 90l
weak disturbances. 161, 182, 211
Loop, perfect, 409f

=:ro~~~~:h~m~~~c:~[~~ 395
~:if~~', static stability, 55
Burago's, 275ft
charact~risti(:s.

22, 200ft
calculation 01 supersonic fiow
parameters. 285H
and wind tunnel nozzle shal)ing.
230ft
conformal transformations. V.OH
doublet distribution. 353ft
Glauert~TrelItz. 255
Khristianovich, 269ft
mapping, 240
reverse-now, 391H
similarity, 139
small perturbations, 4t2
sourees, 317ft, 425ft

ta::!~t 0;\':(\1J~~a~9f: 2~~~

stability dllrivativl's, 4!IOr

Model, vortllx,
intricate lifting surface, 430
non~circulatory now, 43t
Modulus,
longitudinal elnsticity, 10S
shear, f09
Moment(s),
convc("!ion to another cool'(linate
sl's1Cm, 40f
destabilizing, 531
doublet. 102
gyroscopic. 40af
pitching, 38, 400r, 404f, 416i
positive, 38
rolling, 38, 4011. 416f
stabilizinl!, 52
ti1ting, 53
yawing. 38. 401
Moment coefficient. 284. 295, 388
Sll QUO Coefticioot(9): longitudinal
moment, pitchingmOlDent, r()lUng~
moment, )llwingmomllnt

~~~f~~!f::r!ofl~\;;4236.
pentagonal wing, 371

!~:~:l:j~aj~oif. 2~~f'

23tl
30'.

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Subied

lnde~

?\llmbL'r(~),

~lolllcnt

cot'fficil'n!.
tetragonal wing. 3G4f
wed""'-$haped airfoil, 298

I-HH
I'll!, f/itif.
1'.li,:1!Ji[

Pranull,
lIl'Jllolds.
Slruuhul,

Alotion{s), see (llso Flow(s)

air, at high 5-pl'etis, 14

asymmetric, 44\1[
basic, 41t
centre of mass, -~v,
dislurbl'u, 411
equations, t14iI
fiuitl,
h~Yiseid compl'cssib!c. 1131

3~);,

Openl!or, Llplaci<tn,1.tl1.' 11"

Oscillations,

11\.

damped,414
fwqu~Tlcy,

V)SCOIl!, incoIllI'I't'sslble, 113

frct', 412
stability, 412
integrals, id('al fluid. 134ft

Id',

harmonic. ;i!),.,
lollll-itudilmi, 4llS
period. 41<1
periodic, 4t4
\\'anlength, 414

irrotational, 79

latl'ral, 406i
]ongituuinnl, 406f
at low Strouhnl numbers, 444
o~~ilJat()I'Y,

414f, see fils" Oscilla-

flow, 222ft
stagnation. t91
behind norDHl1 sbock, iB'lf
slll,('rsonic Dow. calculation by
method o[ charat't(,I'islics,
285ft
5W('('I), 1t~II~ing- ('llg!', 3iGf

dampiJl(;. IiS:J

pilltiel(', 10G
!luid. 7511
I,itching, 406, 40811
U!od('~, l,08fT
I'ropl'l', Ill:!
5inu~oiadal.

Paradox, Euil!r-D'Alembl'rt, 248

Parameler(s), Sf'f' abo Characteristics,
Variables

d~~~~r~e~' ~~p('rsonic

!ion~

410

spiral, !'03
l'i!lbh'. lJitf

l'urlldl', flUId.

IIngular strain, 76, 7S

~ymmctrir, !Iltm
lI11di~lurb('d, 41 t

(']ll'n!)',12M

unstabh', 41 H
unsteady, 4'15, 45\1
(It'fodynamic dmrac\l'l'islics,
39liff
vortex-iret', 70IT

illtemi'll, LU.
kinl'tic, 124
lin('i'lr strain, ,G, 7S
molion, ,Sf!
r"ialivc \,olulI\(I JdorUHltioll.
Putlililll', "arlidl', 71, 7/1
(''lllillioIl,71
Pullerll, \\illg.

Cil:lpln:,in's
I'\('utn,\ity, 55, 57f

VOI'\('X,

I\osc. bhmled, 23
!\ozzh'.
critical s.ectiull a!'t'il, 131
two-dim ... nsionnl Slllll'rsonic,

~t~~h~~~l32J3i

hors~sbol',

:;SU

see u/sn ;"lod1:'l, \Orln.

non-statiOIlJry, /j2Sf
P('rioJ, o~cillationo, 414
Plall,'.

231ft

willt! tunnl'l, [or ~up('rs.onic flow,

2:10[
l\mnb('r{H,
diml'llsionl('ss, t7

Froud", 142, 146I

Mach. 47, HU, H'. 395
critical, 30:i
initial value. 271, 2,3f
limiting vahle-. 18Gf
bl'hind normal shock, 1M, iBO[

indepe!u.lent Y"riuble~, ~I),-,

physical. 205
l'1ah'. 241ft. su also '\in::{,,)

linl'n!'!S, 2.84
.
Jlotential, 243
rhombiform. 364
thin, 240If
at angle! of attack, 24:m
Point.
nodal, choract<.'risti('s. 2:!i
stagnation, tS5f, 191. 21>':'IJolar,
air[oil, 296

109

506

Subject Index

Polar,
craft, 46ft
&rat kiod, 46
second kind, 41
shock, 180, 182
.Potential,
additional, 310f, 313, 321
complex, 91, 1().6.
circulatory-forward Dow, 243
cylinder, 2M!
Dow over circular cylinder, 241
now over plate, 241f
ooo-circulatory now, 243
parallel Dow, 98
disturbance, 451
disturbed velocities, 424
doublct region, 356
elementary source, 318ff
retarded, 425
total, 313f
velocity, $1It1 Velocity potential
Pressure(s),
absolute, 272
critical. 152, 154f
dimensionlllss, 145
excess, 235. 265

f!a1~~~l' J~?d,

2Si!

in jilt. t52f
lineal'i;cd Dow, 265
nearly uniform Oow, 235
ratio, Hj6, tnr, 189[,
behind lOhock, 175
normal ~hock, t84
stallnation. 151, 153, 19if, 224
Bow behind shock, 1741
Pressure coarticient, 42, 172, t87t,
28lf. 390, 416
eompn'ssib1c fiow, 268, 306
conical now. 362
conversion
various Mach numbers, 271l
heX4lrOnal wing, 370, 372
hyp(!r~nic fiow, 292, 297
li.nitin~ vahlc, 186
nearly uniform fiow. 235, 293
ratio. 106, 172f, 186
reetanq'Utllr wing, 385
behind shock. 291
sideslipping wing, 302, 304
at stagnation point, 185[, 191, 268
tetragonal wing. 337. 339. 34.5f
triao!!'ular wing, 3250:, 363
Principle,
Row 9upcrposition, 105
freezing. 196
inverted dow, 16
Problem, Cauchy, 206ft

'0

Rate, mass now. 15611

spcciflc. IWi
Uatio,

"poet,

lnfluence on aerodynamic derivatives, 483

and wing lifting capacity, 482f,
487
density, 165, 112r, 18~, 188
diasociation and ionizatioD, 189ff
limiting, 186
lilt-t<Hirag, 40f, Uti also Fineness
maximulll. 47
mass vciocity, 150f
pressure, 166, 112f, 186
dissociation and ioniZation, 1891
hGrmal shock, 184
behind shock, 115
pI'U5Suro coofficient, 186
pressure recovery, across shock,
taper.

174

4s'3d

wing lifting capacity,

temperature, Hi6, 112f, 184, 1890

and
ioniution,
dissociation
189a:
velocity
(spoed),
152,
156,
271
now without separation, t:i3
and Mach nurubar, 152
Recombination, 60
Ro ion

mu tiply connocted, 9~
simply connected, 94
source influence, 3191
Helaxation. 194
diSSOCiative, HI'1.f
length, 198
in shock waves, 19611
time, 194, 199
dWociative, 19U
vibrational, 19M
vibrational, 194
Resistance, $fIfI Drag
Rotation, about centre of mass,
407
Rule, Prandtl-Glauort colnpressibilitY,482
Scale, turbulence, 30r
Sheet, vortex, Stili Vortex sheet
Shock (8), 156, 159. St'1 also Wav8(s),
shock

Subject Index
Shock(s)

adiabat, 1 i2, 184

auglc. iM)
attached. lS3f. 187
cu~\'ed. 159!
st~aight.,

tSU

cu~ved.

159, i iSr
density ratio, hl5, li2f
detached.
curved. 159f
Dow OVl'r sharp-nosed cOile. 177
expansion. t8t. 211, ~81
at b)'JXlrsonic veiocitil's, t86ff
lambda-sl.aped. 275
local. 275
Dorlnal. 159. 16Sf, t8411
in di~!odat<"d and ionil:cd gas,
t89f1
oblique. 159, 163f1, tit
in dissociated and ionil:ed gas,

18"

formation, 1!Hf
polar, t80, H)~
possibility, t8:!
IJressl,lrc ratio, 166, tn
strength. 1i2
temperature behind, 170, 172

~~&~te~~~r('i6~atio, 166, 172f

and :'.Iach number. 163
velocity behind, 166. t71
Similarity,
aerodrnamic. 13Srr
dynamic. t39, tV.f
full-scale and model Oows. t!IGt
complete, 147
partial. 146
geometric, 139
Sink.

point.
three-dimclIsional, 100
two-dimonsional, tOO
sl.rl'nglh. 100
SoUlld, 2Kicd, 67!, 142', t5H, 155,
critical. t5H, t55
local. t52
alld pressure, 67f
stal-,oalion conditions, 151
and temperature, Gil
ill undisturbed Dow, t42f
Source.
distribution density, 3l8I
disturbanccs, 159
elementary. potclltiai, 3181I
point,
throe-dimensional, tOO

507

Source,
two-dimcllsit:lnal, 99
region of innul'II('I.l, 3tO
st~englh, tOO. ~:!i
va~ying, ~25r

vorh'x,

lwo-t.limensional,

103

Span, charactcLj~tic dimension, 262

Specilic heak<,
and Ilrl.l!lSUrl'. GIr
and temlleratlll'e, OU
Speed, '11t. dj~O Velocity
fluctuation, :!~J
sound. $I!e Sound, speed
Stability.
dynamic. 3'J4f. 4tOil
free motion. ~12
motion, HI
neutrill. ;jl:!
=n\~~~~n,l~I'~I~scillatory, 415
static.
4t;.
axis)'mm(ltril' l'rait, 54
latcl'lIl. 5:t. Sif
UifL'1:'tiollal. Sir
rollill!!:. ;')';
lont,titu(Unal. s:m
und del';\tor deflection, 5(;
mar!{in.5:;'
Stability (I,'ril'alil'l's, :l97f, 418f
Bccch'raLion. :WU
and aCL'od\'lIamic cocl1icients, :~!}'iI
and control sllrfaCL'8, 402f
conv('rsioll. /,1)111
dynnmic. :I\L8
first order. 398
groullS. :199

52k

il:;:U~:i~O:~tO/l
potential runctioll, 458
rotary. 399
second ofihr. :J!l8
static. 30S, 402f
in subsonic Row, 47811
in SIIIJ('r$Onic Dow. 48311
wing, 419
Strain. $I!t abO) Ueformation
angular 76. i:-;
linear, i6. is
specific volume, fate, 78
Stream.
filamellt, H
free, 25
function, 89f, 98. 202
Streamlines. 73f. 98, tOU
family, i4, to'o
zero, 10U
Strengt.h,

bound vortex, 435

508

Subject Ind."

Strength,
free vortex

shock, 172

filam~llts,

Theory,
shoek wavc, 159H
vorwx, 42811

433f

sink, tOO
sourCl', 100, 4251f
vortex. 430, 433,435,447

Time.

relaxation. 194, t99

dissociative, t9M
Vibrational, 1941
Tip(s),
mlllle-nce on now over wing, 342
rounding, 260
sonic,3t7
subsonic. 31 i, 385

vortex layer, 430, 433, 447

\'ortel: sh~et, 429f
vortl'X tube. 91

StrN's.

friction, su Stress, shell'

nornlal. t078
shnr, 3ill'. t071
in lanlinar now, 3U
ill turbulent now, 320
Stropboid, tSOr
Sublayrr.

Tr!in~:;o~~~(;:,i.

364
sonic, 317, 365
SUbsC>1Ii<:. 317. ~28

lanlinm', 35
viseoU!:" 35
Sm'raer(!),

rontrol, 402(

angh's, 407f
discontinuity, t56, sre nlfO Shoek(a)
lifting,
llal,428
inlricate planform, 429f
rectangular, 428f
\\'a\'c, 211

wing, deformation, 45t

System(s).
coordinatl', Ue Coordinate systems
di~turbcd sources, 320
\'ortl'X, 429

T:rbl~l~~~:~ic.

29
hOmog:t'neous, 31
initial. 29f
intrnsity, 20

isotropic, :ll

scale, SOf

ilim('fI~iOllle$S, 14ft, set olso CI'itt'ria, similarity

EuleriAn, ;2
Ye~~~~~atic, 395f, r -i41

accel(>ration, 72
total. 113
aerodYIlPmic rorces, resullant. 36f,
252
mOPlenl of aerodynamic forces, re-sultant, 36f
prineil,al, h~drollynamic pressure
forces. 2-iG
velocity. 72
divergence, 7A, 86

1'h:Cf~T!'!il'nc~,

209
}Iclmhoitx, 78, 9t
Kutta.Zhukovsky. 430
Stokcs, 03r
Theory.
aerodynamic, or wing, 21
boundar)' IIYl'r, 19
finitt'-silin wing, 21
lIeat transfm'. gas-dynamic, 19

flow

vortex. 91
strength.9t

Tunnel,$, wind. 15

Variahl~.

Tl'mJ)l'rlitufll,
chal'o\tl'rislie, diSllocialion, 69
critical. 1M
ralio, t66, 172f, 1~, t8~JII
bl'hind shock. 170, 172
stagnation, 15..'iJ, 1911
T(>rm~, intl'raction, 402

ir!~~~~:l.an s:~;:~f;o~tc

supel's<lIlic, 317. 364, 366iT, 3i2ff

Trajectory, particle, see Patbline
Triangh', definit('nl'SS, 232
Trim, lawral. 58
Trimming. 55
Tube.
strl'anl, 74

over

finite-spln wing, 30811

"Ionfh'd lill(... 253
s(>rond-orci('r 11l'I'ociynamic. 293, 296,
2gA

ve;~~!~1~i~J'

additional, 323, 325f, 32811, 355

av('rage. 28
calculation, 226ff
at cbaracteristic-sllOCk
intersection. 22i8

Subject Indell

YelociLY,
at chanlctt>rbtic-surfacc
tion, 22m
circulation, 91ft
COml)lex. 97, 245, 247
curl, 7$
dimensionless, 1,33, 1,35
dheLgence. 78, 8li
lictitious. 266
fluctualion, 28
coml'ollcnt, 28
[rce-strl'am, 25

intersec-

:~J~~~,A:\g f~r440

by bound vortex, 432, 434

cOml'ound due to doublets, 362
by free vortices, 432, 434
br vurtex sheet, 434
local, 1:>4
nlludy uniform flow, 235
potential. see Velocity potential
ratio, 152. 156, 271
fictitious, 266
flow without separation, 133
aud :-'Iach number, 152
relath'l', 152, see al.-o Velocity, ratio
behinu ~hock, 166, 171
~upel';;ouic, 275, 303f
total. 2{'5
\ectol".
\'ortex flow, 89
\'ortex-indlLclld, !Hff
Vclocity pot'~ntial. 79, 9S, 103, 105,
20tf. 264f, 3721, 457
dimcusionless, 1,52
doubl('l. t03
elementar), source, 3tSr!
he"aqoual winq. :166, 36S
incomllressible flow, 266
induced by doublets, 360
linearized (low, 2G4f
non-stationary sonrces, 426f
on phlt", 2/,a
\'cctan!ular win!t, 3851, 389
supersonic unsteady flow, 425
two-dim('nsional flow, 264
on vortl'X sheet, 1160
Viscosil\".
dynalnic, 32, 63
and prC'ssur(~, 63
and temperature, G3f
snd fluid flow. 28ft
Volume. r~lative rate or change, 78
Vortcx(ices\, t03
bountl, 250, 311, 429
strenltth. 435
Iin('ar, 430
velOCity induced by, 432. 434

,2

509

Vortex(iel!s),
circulation. 1,3!1. VI'
intensity, :!:l(j(
COmponents. is
core(s). 256
scmi-infmih'. 253
strength. 2:i:{
curvilinear, \1:)

fit~~~:~~,n~i;t~~bution,

129
250, 42\l
n:{
velocity inlincl!d by, 432, 434
horseshol1, 250. I,as
obliqu , 4:1011. 137
infmitlt, U:)[
interactiOn. !l(i
layer, strC'n!:!'th. /,30, 433, 447
liM, !J5r
model (I)uttl'rllj, 428[(
point, t04
semi-iulinitl'. Uti
sheet, "e~ \- ortex sheet
source, tlVo-,-limcnsional, 103
strenQLh, 4:10. 4;tl, 435, 4/17

free.

stren~th,

~h~~~I;~: ~~~ff
tubl'. 91
str{'nlj"tll. (1\
Vortex ~h,'l't. 2:H, 25G, 312, 429
boundal"Y couditiom;, 424
stren!tth. 420f
veLocity in,hlCl'd hr, :112, 434
velocit~" potl'ntiai, 4GO
Vorticity. \"II. ("1:1
Warp, !l'olllC'tric, 25!1
Wave(s),
:Mach. WI
threc>-IiiLll('n>,ionaL, 2t t
shock. 150, see tll.~fJ Shock(s)
formation. t5!lff
inrlOitt"simnl. 182
wenk. tGI
simplt' llfC'SS\lr~. 16t
sphericnl, 427
station:lfY, 150
surfnc(', 211
Wavelet. Sf/' Line(s), weak disturbnncf'S
Wing(~l.

conditiotwL.
464
downwa~hcs.

with

toothed

edges,

465
finite-!'pan, 24!ltT, 25-'1. 258I1, 300f,
308ff
in incompressible 110\\', 24911

510

Subject Index

Winll:(s).
(inile'fpan 3n1
ill SUpt'!'sonic Do ...... :'080
hexagonal. JM, 3660. 3i2ft
with dovetail. 3iO
infinih'>span,
in plalll:' l)araU('1 now, 2491
swellt. 299
lift force, 21, 3fi2. 386
liltin/! callaeit)".
and aspect ratio, 482f. 487
and taper ratio. 483
in lineariV!d no ...... :\10n
non-l"lIiptical planform. 260
optimal planform, 258ft
pentagonal, 354. :\;0
l"t.'ct,u'g-uhu', 21i0, llSMT
QerodYliamit characteristics,
385n
inlineari7.ed flow. 386

8e~_i~ul:i~~ni~28flft""" 386
sideslipping, 2991, 302. 304ft
in sulisonit compressible now, 302f
in supersonit now. 308[1, 315, 344
surface deformation, 451
swept, 300, 341
symmetric airfoil. 312, 31iff
iclralized, 313, 317

Wing(s),
taper ratio, 263
tetragonal, 3Mi
with dovetail, 36M
in supersonic ftow, 3011
symmetric airfoil, 33tH
with vee-shaped appendage, 364f
thin, 315(
at angle of aUack, 351ft
in nearly uniform now, 351H
symmetric airfoil, 3tift
trapezoidal, 260. 262
al'fodynamic c,harac\ftistics, 34.9
lift forte, 362f
pressure field, 326, 330
semi-Infinite, 32811
suctiull forcu, 362
sym~~ric about %'-axi!l, 320r,

vortex model, 436n:

zero-tbicknesa, S12f

Work.
external mass forces, 124
tunate forces, 124f

Zone, non-1!quilibrium. 197

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