Written

Discourse
The Distance Delta

International House London and the British Council

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Written Discourse
Summary
In this section we will start by looking at what discourse analysis is. We will go on to focus on
different categories of cohesive devices. We will then be looking at written discourse and in
particular at the characteristics of different genres in different contexts.

Objectives
By the end of this section you will have:

Identified cohesive devices and considered how to categorise them.

Identified typical features of a variety of written genres.

Considered the effect context has on language.

Practised answering an exam question on cohesion.

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Contents
1. What is Discourse?
2. Cohesive Devices
2.1. Grammatical Cohesion
2.1.1. Reference
2.1.2. Substitution
2.1.3. Ellipsis
2.2. Conjunctions
2.3. Lexical Cohesion
2.3.1. Lexical Sets / Chains
2.3.2. Repetition
2.3.3. Consistency of Register
2.4. Parallelism
3. Coherence
3.1 What is Coherence?
3.2 Relationships within and between Sentences
3.3 Theme and Rheme
3.4 Broader Relationships within Texts
3.5 Schema and Script
4. Written Genres
5. The Importance of Context
6. Terminology Review
Reading
Appendices

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1. What is Discourse?
Historically, language study focused on the sentence as the basic unit of discourse.
Sentences such as There are three cats in front of the house were used for translation
practice. The main problem with this is that there is no context, making it hard to see the
relevance of the cats and the house. In addition, it could be argued that these types of
sentences are contrived and unnatural, although of course, it can be useful to study isolated
sentences from a grammatical point of view.
Discourse Analysis as a separate field of study evolved in the 1960s and 1970s. It focused on
stretches of authentic language produced in context and used for real communication,
rather than decontextualised single sentences.
More recently, Discourse Analysis has also evolved to include the study of how language use
and speech acts vary between cultures as well as between different contexts within the
same culture, and how the interpretation and production of language is affected by
environmental and situational concerns.
Many people find the term Discourse Analysis hard to define. What we are really
concerned with is whole texts e.g. letters, conversations, reports, etc., and the links between
utterances and sentences (in spoken and written English respectively). This means that
elements below and above sentence level are involved. So, under the wide heading of
discourse we look at:

How we organise conversations or texts, following conventional sequences of functions.

For example, if we buy something that does not work, we do not just go back to the
shop and say Please replace this toaster. We go through a particular sequence of
functions such as giving factual background information, stating the problem, waiting to
find out what the response is etc.

How we order information in and across sentences according to whether we understand

information to be either new or familiar to our reader or listener. For example, in the
question, Wheres the stapler? the speaker clearly expects the listener to understand
which stapler they are talking about.

How we make texts and conversations hang together through using, for example,
words like pronouns, demonstrative adjectives, definite articles and certain kinds of
conjunction. (See subsection 2 on cohesive devices).

How we interact in conversations, for example, how we show that we want to speak e.g.
by leaning forward, how we compete with other people to speak e.g. Yes, but and
how we introduce new topics into a conversation e.g. Anyway, after that I.

How we vary the language we use, and how we interpret what we hear, according to
who we are speaking to, where, and for what purpose. Whos serving?, for example,
means very different things on a tennis court, at a dinner table and when spoken by a
customer in a department store.

Suggested reading for a basic introduction to Discourse Analysis

Cook, G. 1989, Discourse, Oxford University Press, Chapter 1, What is Discourse?
McCarthy, M. 1993, Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers, Cambridge University Press,
Chapter 1, What is Discourse Analysis?
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Thornbury, S. 2005, Beyond the Sentence: Introducing Discourse Analysis Macmillan,

Chapter 1, Unlocking Texts & Chapter 2, What Makes a text?

2. Cohesive Devices
In this section we will be looking at features of discourse that help texts hang together
through the use of formal links called cohesive devices. A cohesive device is one that
contributes to the coherence of a written or spoken text, and provides the listener or reader
with the means to see the relationships within and outside the text. These devices can be
put into four main categories:

Grammatical Cohesion

Conjunctions

Lexical Cohesion

Parallelism

Here are some examples:

Milan is in the north of Italy. It is quite close to the lakes. (grammatical)

I like football and swimming. (conjunction)

The film was incredibly boring. In fact it was so tedious that I fell asleep. (lexical)

Pisces: Are you excited? You should be. Are you inspired? You will be, soon. Are you
ready for a different kind of experience? You had better be. (parallelism)

Now we will look at each area in more depth.

2.1.

Grammatical Cohesion

Grammatical cohesion is concerned with the ways in which clauses and sentences are linked
by grammatical connections such as reference, substitution, and ellipsis.
2.1.1. Reference
A referent is a device that refers to something which has been mentioned before or will
come later or is even outside the discourse but is something all parties are expected to
know. Pronouns are typically used for reference, as are demonstratives and articles. There
are three main types of referents:
Anaphoric Reference
E.g. I live in a large flat in Istanbul. It has two bedrooms.
The word 'it' in the second sentence refers back to the word 'flat' in the first sentence.
Cataphoric Reference
E.g. At the beginning of a story:

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She had been complaining again. Mrs Jones never hesitated in calling the police when they
had a party.
In this case she refers forward to Mrs Jones because they are one and the same. Cataphoric
reference is often used by writers to create interest in the story and encourage the reader to
continue reading. Rather than naming Mrs Jones first, the writer has chosen to refer to her
as she first so that the reader wants to read on to find out who she is.
Exophoric Reference
E.g. The Queen is expected to give a speech today.
The Queen has not been mentioned before in this piece of discourse and no further
clarification follows. This is because it is assumed that the person to whom this comment
has been addressed knows very well which queen is being referred to. Something referred
to outside the discourse is called exophoric reference.
2.1.2. Substitution
Substitution is a device that can be used to avoid repetition or shorten phrases by
substituting a word or phrase with another one. Determiners are often used for this purpose
e.g. both, another, more, several, neither, enough, little, none, few, some etc.
Adverbs of time and place such as then and there are also used.
E.g.1. I need a pen. Have you got one?
Here the word one is a substitute for the word pen.
E.g.2. Have you been to the new Armani shop yet?
No, I'm going there next week.
E.g.3. See you at 8 o' clock.
Yes, see you then.
'There' is used as a substitute for the new Armani shop. 'Then' is used as a substitute for 8
o'clock.
2.1.3. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is another device that is used for shortening words or phrases. In this case they are
simply omitted.
E.g.

Would you like a cup of tea?

Yes, I would.

Here the reply has been shortened from 'Yes, I would like a cup of tea, to ' Yes, I would'.

2.2.

Conjunctions

Also known as linking words or phrases, these are used to show logical relationships
between and within sentences and also between paragraphs. They give coherence to a text
enabling the reader or listener to make sense of what they are reading or hearing. Some
examples are: however, firstly, if, for example.

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As an experienced teacher, you will already be familiar with a range of these link words, so
we will not go into detail here. In the Distance Delta course materials unit on Spoken
Discourse we look at the wider area of Discourse Markers.

2.3.

Lexical Cohesion

2.3.1. Lexical Sets/Chains

E.g. The audience were very appreciative. The crowd gave the orchestra a standing ovation
at the end of the concert.
In the second sentence 'the crowd' is used as a substitute for 'the audience. They are partial
synonyms (people watching an event) and are used to avoid repetition.
See Appendix 1 for a coursebook example, which aims to introduce learners to the principles
of this.
2.3.2. Repetition
E.g. Pasta is one of the most famous Italian foods. In fact, most Italians eat pasta three or
four times a week.
Key words may be repeated throughout the text, especially when we want to emphasise
something.
2.3.3. Consistency of Register
E.g. The patient presented with a ruptured spleen.
This is medical register. If the text continued: He has a consistent bellyache, we would find
the use of bellyache inconsistent with this register and the result would not be cohesive.

2.4.

Parallelism

This relates to a repetition of form, rhyme, rhythm or sound, which is used to create a link
between clauses or sentences and can be used to reinforce a message. Consider the
following examples:

Election Pledges

We will reduce taxes.

We will increase spending on education.

We will abolish the death penalty.

We will give teachers a pay rise.

In this case an election manifesto repeatedly uses the structure we + will + infinitive to
reinforce the promises that the politician makes.
They are rich. They are famous. They are young. They are Hollywoods new stars.
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The first three sentences use the pattern they + are + adjective, a grammatical and
rhythmical pattern, to create interest in the readers mind as to who these people are.

TASK 1: Cohesive Devices (25mins)

Look at the question below from the old DELTA exam from June 1999. Please note, this
question is not used in the new Delta examination. We have included it here as useful
consolidation of cohesive devices.
Write an answer for Task 1.
Check Appendix 2 for the guideline answer.

Question 2
There are two authentic texts for this question:
Text A: The Beginners Guide to the Internet published by Which Online (p.27)
Text B: Global Economy an article from the Eastern Daily Press (Monday March 1, 1999)
Task One (20 minutes)
Look at Paragraph 1, Text A.
Identify and comment on each type of cohesive device used in this paragraph. Include
examples from the text in your answer.

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Suggested further reading on Cohesive Devices:

Bolitho, R. & Tomlinson, B. 1995, Discover English, Macmillan Heinemann, Cohesion
Byrne, D. 1979, Teaching Writing Skills, Longman Handbooks for Language Teachers,
Appendix 1, Cohesive Devices
Cory, H. 1996, Advanced Writing with English in Use - CAE, Oxford University Press,
Cohesion
Thornbury, S. 1999, About Language, Cambridge University Press, Cohesion
Thornbury, S. 2005, Beyond the Sentence: Introducing Discourse Analysis Macmillan

3. Coherence
3.1

What is Coherence?

Scott Thornbury (2005) defines coherence as the capacity of a text to make sense. For
example,
My grandmother loves pickled eggs. They are always on the stairs in her house. She keeps us
all well-dressed. Also oranges cost a pound a kilo.
Grammatically there is nothing wrong with this text pronouns agree. It is all in present tense
and there is a useful conjunction also. However it is meaningless overall and no amount
cohesive devices will help it make much sense.
While cohesion relies on the devices examined above, coherence appears to depend on our
expectations of a particular sequence of discourse. In this sense coherence depends on the
viewpoint of the receiver/reader and largely they shared context.

3.2

Relationships within and between Sentences

The first sentence in the extract above could be followed by, There is always a big jar of
them in the kitchen. (Giving more details/additive sentence) OR This is because it brings
back memories of the old days. (Giving a reason behind situation/causal sentence) OR
Surprisingly however, my grandfather cannot stand them. (Making a contrast/adversative
sentence) OR She is going to buy some more tomorrow. (Providing a sequence/temporal
sentence).
Similarly, it could be preceded by, Its strange what some people like to eat.
In each case, the topic has been established and there are lexical clues as to what might
come before or after.

3.3

Theme and Rheme

As a rule, information in discourse is presented in a predictable sequence. First we have the

given information the topic and next we have what the author wants to say about the
topic, the comment. These are also referred to as Theme and Rheme. This sequencing
occurs within sentences and enables us to divide sentences into two parts. For example,

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Ice cream sales have rocketed. Analysts say that this is because of the hot weather.
Topic (theme) Comment (rheme)

Topic (theme) Comment (rheme)

We often put new information at the end of a sentence for impact and this enables us to
continue talking about it. In the example above, the writer goes on to talk about the fact
that sales have rocketed.

3.4

Broader Relationships within Texts

What we have discussed topic within sentences, texts clearly have an overall topic also in
as far as they are about something. The fact that the text is unified by an overall topic means
it is coherent.
For example, look at the following items:
floods, water levels, river, roads, sandbags, rescue workers, rise, rain, flow, pumping station,
Surrey, Home Counties, to subside, forecast, reaction, environment agency, government,
residents, funding
It is possible to produce that the above list of words comes from an article about flooding in
southern England. Keywords can help understand what the text is about. Much of the
meaning of texts is carried in lexis and keywords are typically although not exclusively
nouns.
Imagining the same article, it is possible to see two threads of lexis. One thread appears to
be about water and flooding and the second thread appears to be about response to the
flood. These are lexical chains. (see Cohesive Devices above) Although the article is about
flooding we can tell that it provides two strands of information, about the floods themselves
and about flood response.
Clearly the sequencing of these words is also important. In a situation where more rain is
expected and roads are cut off we might expect the article to start with information about
water levels, about location and about expected impact. The words, water levels, river, rise,
Home Counties would come early in the article and words like government, residents,
reaction, would take second place coming towards the end of the article. This kind of
internal patterning meets with our expectations that subjects will be dealt with one at a
time and in priority order.

3.5

Schema and script

Clearly it is the reader/receiver of the information that needs to make sense of it. In our first
example there is assumption that pickled eggs are rather old-fashioned, the sort of thing an
older person might be fond of. In our imaginary article about flooding, there is an
assumption that the reader/receiver knows that environment agency is the responsible
government body. Where it is unlikely that the reader would know, the author would need
to be more explicit. In this sense a text is giving unity by the fact that the reader and the
writer share the same schemata.
Scripts are the order in which we expect things to happen. For example, get up in the
morning, have breakfast, go to work. Where this script is not followed, for example in some
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societies you might have breakfast at work or after an hour of work, there may be
misunderstandings.
Take a look at the following text:
Ive just bought a car. Its a 1990 Mazda MX5 Eunos. Its red with the old-style flip-up
headlights and black soft top. Obviously, its got only two seats but theres a small space in
the back where you can put your coats and some small possessions but the boot is a
reasonable size for the sort of car it is. The engine is in good condition and its only done
50,000 miles but there is a little bit of rust on the bottom of the doors and Ill have to deal
with that soon so its as good as new.
In this brief description of car we can see that the following expectations are met:

The description starts from the general to the specific and from the whole to the part,
i.e. that it is a car, the kind of car and next the features of the car.

The exterior of the car is described before the interior and those items closer and in
front of the new owner are described before those items which are further and behind.
So the colour, headlights and soft top come first, then the interior space which
surrounds the driver and next the back of the car and the boot.

The current condition is described first, the engine and the rust on the bottom of the
doors, and its future condition is described next. It will be as good as new.

In each case this fits in with what we expect of the text. Any deviation in organisation, the
script, would cause difficulty in following the text.
For a very clear exposition of coherence read Chapter 2 and 3 of Thornbury S 2005 Beyond
the Sentence Macmillan.

4. Written Genres
In this section we will concentrate on features of written discourse.
Generally we can distinguish one piece of writing from another by the characteristics of that
writing. For example, it is possible to distinguish an extract from a formal letter from an
extract from a novel because they are laid out differently, the content is organised
differently and they use different kinds of language; the novel may contain direct speech
whereas the letter probably will not, and so on. We can say these are two different text
types or genres.
These terms are used rather loosely in ELT literature; in some books a text type is a broad
category e.g. a letter; and genre is a sub category of that e.g. a letter of complaint. Other
books refer to genres and sub-genres. Because of the apparent interchangeability of these
words it is best to give examples of what you mean when using them. Our main concern,
though, is the differences between texts and how these can be useful in teaching.

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Tricia Hedge classifies writing into six types: (Hedge, 1988 Writing, OUP 25)

We ourselves may have little experience of writing some of these genres, but we may need
to prepare our learners to write them either for professional reasons or as a requirement in
public examinations.
If we are teaching our learners how to produce these different genres we need to be familiar
with their typical features and have teaching ideas for dealing with them. Some genres may
be more formulaic than others. However, we will need to take the following factors into
consideration:
Content: What type of information is included e.g. factual, opinions, personal etc.?
Organisation: How are the ideas organised and in what order? Is there are any typical
pattern to the organisation which reflects the genre? How are the paragraphs divided? What
type of cohesive devices are used?
Style: Is it informal, neutral or formal?
Grammar: Are any particular tenses / structures used e.g. passives in a type of scientific
report?
Lexis: What kinds of words are used e.g. adjectives in an advertisement? Are any words or
fixed lexical expressions common in this genre?
Layout: How does the text look on the page? Are there headings or addresses? Is there a
title? Are points numbered? Are bullet points used?
Example
What are some of the key features of a book or film review? Authentic examples may vary
and some magazines develop a highly idiosyncratic style in their reviews but a possible
model of the genre may include:

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Content

Brief description of the plot without saying what happens at the end

Comments/evaluation of the film, actors, director, effects etc., good and bad points

Introduction/background to the story

Recommendation (positive or negative)

Organisation

A beginning that grabs attention by witty comment, shocking statement, interesting fact
etc.

Two/three paragraphs giving some information about the plot/director/actors.

Final brief recommendation, positive or negative.

Style

The language should be neutral in style, and relatively impersonal even though it is
subjective it should not be presented as such.

Language (Grammar and Lexis)

Present tenses may be used to describe the plot.

Precise descriptive vocabulary e.g. adverbs, adjectives particularly

Layout

Paragraphs to divide up text, each paragraph with a clear function.

Possible accompanying still from film, poster etc.

TASK 2: Investigating Genre (30mins)

Look at the review provided below and see if the notes above are reflected in this
particular review.
Find specific examples of style and language which typify the genre.
Do the same for another review from a newspaper, the internet or a coursebook; does it
fit the characteristics of the genre?

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Life of Brian:
A beautiful film, a perfect comedy, and a gentle triumph of silliness over pomposity, selfimportance, and intolerance - "Life of Brian" could be the best British comedy ever.
In Judea, a mother tends her newborn child. Lo, from the East three wise men appear to
pay tribute to the infant - but they want the stable next door: in this one is Brian Cohen
not Jesus Christ!
Rolling forward 33 years, Brian joins the People's Front of Judea, a wannabe terrorist cell
out to undermine the occupying Romans. Brian gets roped into their plot to kidnap
Pontius Pilate's wife but they run into another terrorist gang on the same mission and
everyone is captured while squabbling among themselves.
From the opening scene and the belting Shirley Bassey-esque score, this is Python par
excellence. This is the "Catch 22" of cinema, and in its politics, like Joseph Heller, the
Python crew refuse to spare anyone. Always threading in and around biblical stories, the
plot never contradicts or denies the Bible, it just pokes fun at the hangers-on, charlatans,
and pompous officials that organised religion often attracts. This playful subversion is
hilariously shown in the scene where Brian escapes from the Romans by posing as a
preacher. At first he is mocked by a crowd of jaded messiah seekers. Then they seize on a
bizarre interpretation of his words and proclaim him their Messiah. Brian denies it, only to
be told, "I say you are Lord, and I should know. I've followed a few"
ForAfurther
teaching
ideas see:
true comedy
classic.

From the BBC Online web site 23/02/01

Clementson, T. 2005 Natural English: Reading and Writing Skills Pre-Intermediate Oxford
University Press
Cory, H. 1996 Advanced Writing with English in Use - CAE Oxford University Press, Unit 4,
section 4B
MacAndrew, R. and Lawday, C. 1999 Cambridge First Certificate Writing Cambridge
University Press, Unit 8
ODell, F. 1996 CAE Writing Skills Cambridge University Press, Unit 10
Philpot, S. & Curnick, L. 2007 New Headway Academic Skills Oxford University Press
Stephens, M. 1992 Practise Advanced Writing Longman, Unit 10
Stephens, M. 1996 Practise Writing Longman, Unit 12

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TASK 3: Identifying Features of Different Genres (30mins)

Choose two of the following genres and make notes about the key features of that kind
of text in terms of content and organisation, style and language, and layout.

Narrative (short story)

Letter of application for a job

Discursive essay

Report

See Appendix 3 for suggested answers and some reference books for teaching ideas.

Suggested additional reading for this subsection:

Holme, R. 1996 ESP Ideas, Longman, Chapter 2
Richards, J. 1990 The Language Teaching Matrix, Cambridge University Press, Chapter 6
Thornbury, S. 2005, Beyond the Sentence: Introducing Discourse Analysis Macmillan,
Chapters 5 to 7

5. The Importance of Context

In this section we will consider the role that context has to play in language use.
In our daily lives, almost all language we encounter or produce is contextualised. We rarely
hear, read, say or write anything having little idea of the subject matter, what went before,
or who and where the people involved are. Exceptions might include the initial seconds after
switching on the TV or radio, or overhearing someone speaking on a mobile phone, but
these situations are few and far between. Almost always, language taken out of context is
meaningless, or at least puzzling. If I ring a friend and say Shall we split the bill?, I risk
confusing or puzzling (or even insulting) him; saying the same thing as we finish our meal in
a restaurant, I can be certain that he knows I am suggesting that we each pay half of the bill.
In the section above, we saw how genre governs features of texts such as layout and
organisation, content and selection of appropriate grammatical structures and lexis. This can
be summarised in this way:

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(Socio-cultural) context

Genre /text type

Function of the text

Style / register

Language chosen

Text

Therefore, selecting a portion of a text at random and looking at the aspects lower down the
diagram, it would be possible to infer elements of the context for which the text had been
produced, and what genre it belonged to; similarly, giving someone details of a context
would allow them to make very educated guesses about what type of language and what
texts they would probably encounter therein. This has important implications for the
classroom, where learners tend to focus on the bottom features of the table and neglect the
importance of those at the top. To some extent, this is a result of the teaching they receive
which focuses on the accuracy of the text produced and its ability to communicate a
message accurately, rather than considering aspects of context.
The function of a text, essentially, fits in to one of the following five categories:

referring (transmitting information)

expressing feelings

regulating (making requests, ordering, warning etc.)

interacting (maintaining social relationships)

playing (word jokes and punning etc.)

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The language chosen to perform these functions, and the conventions observed, vary from
language to language, which can lead to non-standard utterances from learners or
utterances which are inappropriate to the context. For example, English tends to use quite
flowery language to perform some regulatory functions e.g. Im very sorry to bother you,
but I was just wondering whether you might be able to, which can cause difficulties for
learners whose language performs this function using more direct language.

6. Terminology Review
The terms below all refer to aspects of discourse. Can you define them all? There is an
example provided.
Example: ANAPHORIC REFERENCE
In discourse analysis, the use of pronouns, determiners, synonyms and so on to refer back to
something already mentioned e.g.
A: I love your new sweater
B: Thanks. My girlfriend knitted it,
It refers back to your new sweater.
1. ELLIPSIS
2. DISCOURSE MARKERS
3. REGISTER
4. CATAPHORIC REFERENCE
5. GENRE
6. EXOPHORIC REFERENCE

See Appendix 4

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Reading:
If you would like to explore this area further:

Suggested Reading
Cook, G. 1989 Discourse Oxford University Press
Thornbury, S. 2005, Beyond the Sentence: Introducing Discourse Analysis Macmillan

Additional Reading
Allison, D. 1999 Key Concepts in ELT: Genre in ELT Journal 53/2 Oxford University Press
Baigent, M. 2004 Natural English: Reading and Writing Skills Upper-Intermediate Oxford
University Press
Bolitho, R. & Tomlinson, B. 1995, Discover English Macmillan Heinemann, Cohesion
Brookes, A. & Grundy, P. 1998 Beginning to Write Cambridge University Press
Byrne, D. 1979 Teaching Writing Skills Longman Handbooks for Language Teachers,
Appendix 1, Cohesive Devices
Celce-Murcia, M. & Olshtain, E. 2000 Discourse and Context in Language Teaching
Cambridge University Press
Clementson, T. 2005 Natural English: Reading and Writing Skills Pre-Intermediate Oxford
University Press
Cory, H. 1996 Advanced Writing with English in Use - CAE Oxford University Press, Cohesion
Harmer, J. 2004 How to Teach Writing Pearson Longman, Chapter 2
Harrison, R. 2001 Better Writing (International Edition) Garnet Education
Hedge, T. 1988 Writing Oxford University Press, Types of Writing
Holme, R. 1996 ESP Ideas Longman, Genre-Switching
Hopkins, A. & Tribble, C. 1989 Outlines Longman, Unit 12 for teaching ideas
Hopkins, A. 1989 Perspectives Longman, Unit 14
MacAndrew, R. and Lawday, C. 1999 Cambridge First Certificate Writing Cambridge
University Press, Units 2 and 13 for teaching ideas
McCarthy, M. 1993, Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers Cambridge University Press
Naylor, H. & Hagger, S. 1999 Cambridge First Certificate Handbook Cambridge University
Press, Chapter 2 Unit 7 for teaching ideas
ODell, F. 1996 CAE Writing Skills Cambridge University Press Unit 10 on teaching ideas
OKeefe, A. McCarthy, M. Carter, D. 2007 From Corpus to Classroom Cambridge University
Press

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Parrot, M. 1993 Tasks For Language Teachers Cambridge University Press, Classroom-based
Task 11
Philpot, S. & Curnick, L. 2007 New Headway Academic Skills Oxford University Press
Richards, J. 1990 The Language Teaching Matrix Cambridge University Press, From Meaning
Into Words
Scott, M. & Tribble, C. 2006 Textual Patterns John Benjamin Publishing Company
Stephens, M. 1992 Practise Advanced Writing Longman, Unit 10 on teaching ideas
Stephens, M. 1996 Practise Writing Longman, Unit 12 on teaching ideas
Thornbury, S. 1999, About Language Cambridge University Press, Cohesion
White, R. 1987 Writing Advanced Oxford University Press, Unit 12

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Appendices
Appendix 1: Coursebook material

Return to text.

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Appendix 2: Exam Question on Cohesive Devices

Guideline Answer
There are two categories of cohesive devices used in the paragraph:
Category 1: - Grammatical Cohesion
There are 4 types of grammatical cohesion found in the text.
1.1 Nominal Reference/Substitution
Line 7/8 - Cataphoric reference one of the strengths of the web refers cataphorically to
that it is very easy to publish.
Line 10 - Anaphoric reference this refers anaphorically to the fact that it is very easy to
publish.
1.2 Pronominal reference
Line 4 - it refers anaphorically to the www (line 1).
Line 7 - its refers anaphorically to the www (line 1).
Line 8 - it refers exophorically to our understanding of a dummy subject.
Line 12 - their refers anaphorically to ordinary people (line 11).
Line 13 - You refers exophorically to the reader/addressee.
Line 14 - who refers anaphorically to businesses small and large.
Line 15 - you refers exophorically to the reader/addressee of the passage.
1.3 Conjunctions
Conjunctions of addition
Line 2, 4, 12, 14, 18: and
Line 13: also
Line 15: as well as
Conjunctions of consequence
Line 9: because (of)
1.4 Ellipsis
Line 3: (being) part, notice board
Category 2: - Lexical Cohesion
2.1

Parallelism/consistent feature of register

There are two feature of parallelism/consistent feature of register found in the text.
Feature 1:
Line 3/4 - part + noun x3
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Feature 2:
Line 2 - attractive and easy
Line 12/13 - interests and enthusiasms
Line 14 - small and large
Line 18 - newspapers & magazines
2.2

Lexical collocation

Line 2 - easy to use

Line 5/6 & 17 - traditional publishing
Line 6/7 - with completely new possibilities
Line 10/11 - plenty of contributions
Line 12 - share their interests and enthusiasms
Line 16 - a selection of information
2.3

Lexical sets

Lexical set related to the web

Line 3 - Internet
Line 8 - web
Line 9 - publish information
Line 16 - a selection of information
Lexical set related to publishing
2.4

Lexical repetition

Line 6, 9, 17 - publish/(traditional) publishing

Return to text.

Appendix 3: Identifying Features of Different Genres

Following are some features of genres and references to teaching ideas. Please note that
these do not include references to coursebooks, where you may also find useful material.
Short story
Content and organisation

A beginning, a middle and an end with the following features:

o

Beginning: background, setting, location, participants, feelings

Middle: events, often a problem arises, a solution to problem is found

End: outcome, evaluation

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Style and language

If it is based on a personal experience, an informal or neutral style is appropriate. If not,

a neutral style.

Direct speech, past perfect, past continuous, past simple

Descriptive language, interesting and varied vocabulary and idioms, varied adjectives
and adverbs

Layout

Paragraphs, use of inverted commas for direct speech

For some teaching ideas, see:

Hopkins, A. & Tribble, C. 1989 Outlines Longman, Unit 12
Naylor, H. & Hagger, S. 1999 Cambridge First Certificate Handbook Cambridge University
Press, Chapter 2 Unit 7
Hopkins, A. 1989 Perspectives Longman, Unit 14
MacAndrew, R. and Lawday, C. 1999 Cambridge First Certificate Writing Cambridge
University Press, Units 2 and 13
White, R. 1987 Writing Advanced Oxford University Press, Unit 12
Stephens, M. 1996 Practise Writing Longman, Units 5 and 7
Letter of application for a job
Content and organisation

Reason for writing, reference to advertisement (where and when seen), background
information about self, why interested in the job, skills, request for further information

Style and language

Formal style i.e. no contractions, use of fixed formulaic phrases e.g. I am writing with
reference to..., as you will see from the enclosed CV, my duties have included, I
look forward to hearing from you.

Appropriate endings / beginnings e.g. Dear Sir/Yours faithfully etc.

Use of present, past and present perfect

Layout

Address top right, address of receiver above opening salutation on left, date etc.

Indent at beginning (if hand written)

For some teaching ideas see:

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Stephens, M. 1996 Practise Writing Longman, Units 4 and 10

MacAndrew, R. and Lawday, C. 1999 Cambridge First Certificate Writing Cambridge
University Press, Unit 11
Cory, H. 1996 Advanced Writing with English in Use Oxford University Press, Unit 6
Discursive essay
Content and organisation

Introduction to the issue and background information

Ideas for

Ideas against

Conclusion: your opinion and justification

Clear organisation within paragraphs, topic sentence comes first then further sentences
expand on the point. Connections between ideas are important.

Language and style

Formal style: presented as factual, opinion only comes at end.

Use of connecting words (addition, contrast)

Layout

Paragraphs each with a very clear function

For some teaching ideas, see:

Cory, H. 1996 Advanced Writing with English in Use Oxford University Press, Unit 4 section
4A
Stephens, M. 1996 Practise Writing Longman, Unit 9
MacAndrew, R. and Lawday, C. 1999 Cambridge First Certificate Writing Cambridge
University Press, Units 5 and 9
Report
Content and organisation

Introduction saying what the report is about and how it is organised.

Facts divided by topic

Summary and conclusion/recommendations at end

Language and style

Depends who it is for: neutral or formal, probably a lot of present tenses, connecting
words

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Layout

Use headings to divide up content and make organisation clear

For some teaching ideas see:

Naylor, H. and Hagger, S. 1999 Cambridge First Certificate Handbook Cambridge University
Press, Chapter 2 Unit 9
ODell, F. 1996 CAE Writing Skills Cambridge University Press, Unit 6
MacAndrew, R. and Lawday, C. 1999 Cambridge First Certificate Writing Cambridge
University Press, Units 6, 10, and 15
Stephens, M. 1996 Practise Writing Longman, Unit 8
Cory, H 1996 Advanced Writing with English in Use Oxford University Press, Unit 8
Return to text.

Appendix 4: Terminology Review

1. ELLIPSIS: leaving out elements of a sentence because they are unnecessary, or because
context makes meaning clear. For example, the offer Coffee? is a reduction of Would
you like a coffee? The context makes the four initial words redundant.
2. DISCOURSE MARKERS: in spoken language, language items used to either indicate some
kind of change of direction in the discourse e.g. anyway, actually, well or to appeal to
the listener in some way e.g. Yukon? Right? A set of discourse markers are also used
to organise ideas e.g. and, therefore, because and so on. This latter group are also
referred to as linkers, conjunctions or conjuncts.
3. REGISTER: the way in which language use varies depending on context. The forms we
select differ depending on cultural, social and contextual factors.
4. CATAPHORIC REFERENCE: referring forwards to a portion of a text which has not
previously been mentioned. In Its brilliant, this song, It refers (forwards) to this
song.
5. GENRE: any piece of spoken or written text which conforms to the expectations of the
reader in terms of content, stylistic devices and language used. For example, the
features of a postcard to friends are very different from those of a radio news bulletin.
6. EXOPHORIC REFERENCE - In Discourse, referring to something not mentioned previously
in the text and which is assumed by the speaker / writer to be shared knowledge. For
example, in the utterance The Tube was down this morning, the speaker assumes that
the listener is aware that The Tube means London underground and not a length of
drainpipe.
Return to text.

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