Introduction :

Can you believe that the ultrasonic waves are used

for cleaning purpose???
Learning Objectives :
On completion of this chapter you will be able to:
1. Describe the different methods of detecting ultrasonic waves.
2. List out the properties of ultrasonic waves.
3. Define cavitation.
4. Explain the method of determination of velocity of ultrasonic waves in liquid using
acoustic grating.
DETECTION OF ULTRASONIC WAVES
Ultrasonic waves propagated through a medium can be detected in a number of ways. Some of
the methods employed are as follows:
(1) Kundts tube method:
Ultrasonic waves can be detected with the help of Kundts tube. At the nodes, lycopodium
powder collects in the form of heaps. The average distance between two adjacent heaps is equal
to half the wavelength. This method cannot be used if the wavelength of ultrasonic waves is very
small i.e., less than few mm. In the case of a liquid medium, instead of lycopodium powder,
powdered coke is used to detect the position of nodes.
(2) Sensitive flame method:
A narrow sensitive flame is moved along the medium. At the positions of antinodes, the flame is
steady. At the positions of nodes, the flame flickers because there is a change in pressure. In this
way, positions of nodes and antinodes can be found out in the medium. The average distance
between the two adjacent nodes is equal to half the wavelength. If the value of the frequency of
ultrasonic wave is known, the velocity of ultrasonic wave propagated through the medium can be
calculated.

(3) Thermal detectors:

This is the most commonly used method of detection of ultrasonic waves. In this method, a fine
platinum wire is used. This wire is moved through the medium. At the position of nodes, due to
alternate compressions ad rarefactions, adiabatic changes in temperature takes place. The
resistance of the platinum wire changes with respect to time. This can be detected with the help
of Callendar and Garrifiths bridge arrangement. At the position of the antinodes, the temperature
remains constant. This will be indicated by the undisturbed balanced position of the bridge.
(4) Quartz crystal method:
This method is based on the principle of Piezo-electric effect. When one pair of the opposite
faces of a quartz crystal is exposed to the ultrasonic waves, the other pairs of opposite faces
developed opposite charges. These charges are amplified and detected using an electronic
circuit.

PROPERTIES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES

(1) Ultrasonic waves are having frequencies higher than 20 KHz and hence they are highly
energetic and their wavelengths are small.
(2) Due to their small wavelengths, the diffraction is negligible. Hence, they can be transmitted
over a long distances without any appreciable loss of energy.
(3) When they are passing through a medium, at discontinuities, they are partially reflected and
this property is used in Non-Destructive Technique (NDT).
(4) When the ultrasonic wave is absorbed by a medium, it generates heat. (5) They are able to
drill and cut thin metals.
(6) At room temperature, ultrasonic welding is possible.
(7) They mix molten metals of widely different densities to produce alloys of uniform
composition.
(8) Using ultrasonic wave, acoustic grating can be formed in a liquid.

ACOUSTIC CAVITATION
In general, cavitation is the phenomenon where small and largely empty cavities are generated in
a fluid, which expand to large size and then rapidly collapse. When the cavitation bubbles
collapse, they focus liquid energy to very small volumes.
Thereby, they create spots of high temperature and emit shock waves. The collapse of cavities

involves very high energies.

Power ultrasound enhances chemical and physical changes in a liquid medium through the
generation and subsequent destruction of cavitation bubbles. Like any sound wave ultrasound is
propagated via a series of compression and rarefaction waves induced in the molecules of the
medium through which it passes. At sufficiently high power the rarefaction cycle may exceed the
attractive forces of the molecules of the liquid and cavitation bubbles will form. Such bubbles
grow by a process known as rectified diffusion i.e. small amounts of vapour (or gas) from the
medium enters the bubble during its expansion phase and is not fully expelled during
compression. The bubbles grow over the period of a few cycles to an equilibrium size for the
particular frequency applied. It is the fate of these bubbles when they collapse in succeeding
compression cycles which generates the energy for chemical and mechanical effects.
Cavitation bubble collapse is a remarkable phenomenon induced throughout the liquid by the
power of sound. In aqueous systems at an ultrasonic frequency of 20 KHz each cavitation bubble
collapse acts as a localised "hotspot" generating temperatures of about 4,000 K and pressures in
excess of 1000 atmospheres.

Application:
The acoustic cavitation is useful in the cleaning process. This type of cleaning has proven to be
the most effortless, quick and efficient method of cleaning known today. The applications are
virtually limitless. Ultrasonic cleaning is state-of-the-art technology. It utilizes a digital generator
powering transducers submerged in a tank of hot water. The transducers vibrate at a frequency of
40 KHz creating millions of tiny bubbles that form and implode. This repeated formation and
implosion creates a gentle cleaning action known as Cavitation. Cavitation has the ability to not
only clean the surfaces of items, but also penetrate into the difficult to clean internal and crevice
areas. It is the safest and most gentle form of cleaning. Ultrasonics will not scratch, pit or
damage items the way that conventional cleaning methods can.
Ultrasonic cleaners accomplish the cleaning task within seconds. It can remove build-up of dirt,

grime, grease or soot. Hard-to-clean areas such as the grooves of club heads, the lettering on the
heel, and the grips also become clean, adding longevity of use and luster to the club.

ACOUSTINGGRATING
Principle:
When ultrasonic waves are passed through a liquid, the density of the liquid varies layer by layer
due to the variation in pressure and hence the liquid will act as a diffraction grating, so called
acoustic grating. Under this condition, when a monochromatic source of light is passed through
the acoustical grating, the light gets diffracted. Then, by using the condition for diffraction, the
velocity of ultrasonic waves can be determined.

Construction & Working:

The liquid is taken in a glass cell. The Piezo-electric crystal is fixed at one side of the wall inside
the cell and ultrasonic waves are generated. The waves travelling from the crystal get reflected
by the reflector placed at the opposite wall. The reflected waves get superimposed with the
incident waves producing longitudinal standing wave pattern called acoustic grating.
If light from a laser source such as He-Ne or diode laser is allowed to pass through the liquid in a
direction perpendicular to the grating, diffraction takes place and one can observe the higher
order diffraction patterns on the screen. The angle between the direct ray and the diffracted rays
of different orders (n) can be calculated easily.
According to the theory of diffraction,
d sin n = n

-----(1)

where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, is the order of diffraction, is the wavelength of light used and d is the
distance between two adjacent nodal or anti-nodal planes.

Knowing n, n and , the value of d can be calculated from eqn. (1). If a is the wavelength of
the ultrasonic waves through the medium, then
d = a/2
or
a = 2d

-------(2)

If the resonant frequency of the Piezo-electric oscillator is N, then the velocity of ultrasonic wave
is given by
v = N a = 2Nd

.......(3)

This method is useful in measuring the velocity of ultrasonic waves through liquids and gases at
various temperatures. From these measurements, many parameters of the liquid such as free
volume, compressibility, etc., can be calculated.
Check Your Understanding:
An ultrasonic beam is used to determine the thickness of a steel plate. It was noticed that the
difference in two adjacent harmonic frequencies is 50 KHz. The velocity of sound in steel is
5000 m/s. Calculate the thickness of the steel plate.
Answer : d = 0.05 mm.
Summary :
On completion of this chapter you have learned the following:
The different methods for the detection of ultrasonic waves are
i) Kundts tube method,
ii) Sensitive flame method,
iii) Thermal detector
and
iv) Piezo-electric detector.
When ultrasonic waves propagate through a liquid, alternate compressions and rarefactions are
generated at any point. Rarefaction results in sudden drop in pressure causing growth and
collapse of cavitation (gas) bubbles. This phenomenon is known as cavitation.
Due to the periodic vibration of the ultrasonic transducer inside a liquid, compressions and
rarefactions are produced. This variation in density and consequently the refractive index act as a
diffraction grating for any light passing through it and hence such an arrangement is
called acoustic grating.
Activity :
Try to collect some materials by searching through internet.

Suggested Reading :
1. P.K. Palanisamy, Engineering Physics, Scitech Publications Pvt Ltd, Chennai.
2. N. Subrahmanyam and Brij Lal, A Text Book of Sound, Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd., New Delhi.
(And some other open resources from internet)

ULTRASOUND AND ULTRASONIC TESTING

After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
Define the acronym "NDT."
Explain how sound is used in NDT to find flaws.
Explain how sound is used in NDT to measure material thickness.
Why is it important to understand sound?
There are many uses for sound in the world today. We have already
mentioned a few. Musicians can benefit from a greater understanding of
sound, architects must understand sound to design effective auditoriums,
detectives can use sound to identify people, and many new types of
technology apply sound recognition. Another use of sound is in the area of
science called Nondestructive testing, or NDT.
What is NDT?
Nondestructive testing is a method of finding defects in an object
without harming the object. Often finding these defects is a very
important task. In the aircraft industry, NDT is used to look for internal
changes or signs of wear on airplanes. Discovering defects will increase
the safety of the passengers. The railroad industry also uses
nondestructive testing to examine railway rails for signs of damage.
Internally cracked rails could fracture and derail a train carrying wheat,
coal, or even people. If an airplane or a rail had to be cut into pieces to be
examined, it would destroy their usefulness. With NDT, defects may be
found before they become dangerous.

How is ultrasound used in NDT?

Sound with high frequencies, or ultrasound, is one method used in NDT.

Basically, ultrasonic waves are emitted from a transducer into an object
and the returning waves are analyzed. If an impurity or a crack is present,
the sound will bounce off of them and be seen in the returned signal. In
order to create ultrasonic waves, a transducer contains a thin disk made
of a crystalline material with piezoelectric properties, such as quartz.
When electricity is applied to piezoelectric materials, they begin to
vibrate, using the electrical energy to create movement. Remember that
waves travel in every direction from the source. To keep the waves from
going backwards into the transducer and interfering with its reception of
returning waves, an absorptive material is layered behind the crystal.
Thus, the ultrasound waves only travel outward.
One type of ultrasonic testing places the transducer in contact with the
test object. If the transducer is placed flat on a surface to locate
defects, the waves will go straight into the material, bounce off a flat
back wall and return straight to the transducer. The animation on the
right, developed by NDTA, Wellington, New Zealand, illustrates that
sound waves propagate into a object being tested and reflected waves
return from discontinuities along the sonic path. Some of the energy will
be absorbed by the material, but some of it will
return to the transducer.
Ultrasonic measurements can be used to determine
the thickness of materials and determine the
location of a discontinuity within a part or structure
by accurately measuring the time required for a
ultrasonic pulse to travel through the material and
reflect from the backsurface or the discontinuity.
When the mechanical sound energy comes back to
the transducer, it is converted into electrical energy. Just as the
piezoelectric crystal converted electrical energy into sound energy, it can

also do the reverse. The mechanical vibrations in the material couple to

the piezoelectric crystal which, in turn, generates electrical current.
Your Turn - Try this normal beam test
A pulse-echo ultrasonic measurement can determine the location of a
discontinuity with a part or structure by accurately measuring the time
required for a short ultrasonic pulse generated by a transducer to travel
through a thickness of the material. Then it reflects from the back or
surface of a discontinuity and is returned to the transducer.
The applet below allows you to move the transducer on the surface of a
stainless steel test block and see the reflected echoes as the would
appear on an oscilloscope.

What the graphs tell us?

The ultrasonic tester graphs a peak of energy whenever the transducer
receives a reflected wave. As you recall, sound is reflected any time a
wave changes mediums. Thus, there will be a peak anytime the waves
change mediums. Right when the initial pulse of energy is sent from the
tester, some is reflected as the ultrasonic waves go from the transducer
into the couplant. The first peak is therefore said to record the energy
of the initial pulse. The next peak in a material with no defects is the
backwall peak. This is the reflection from waves changing between the
bottom of the test material and the material behind it, such as air or the
table it is on. The backwall peak will not have as much energy as the first
pulse, because some of the energy is absorbed by the test object and
some into the material behind it.

The amount of distance between peaks on the graph can be used to locate
the defects. If the graph has 10 divisions and the test object is 2 inches
thick, each division represents 0.2 inches. If a defect peak occurs at the
8th division, we know the defect is located 1.6 (0.2 x 8) inches into the
test object.
What if the thickness is unknown?
If the thickness of the object is unknown, it can be calculated using the
amount of time it takes for the back wall peak to occur. The thickness of
the object is traveled twice in that time, once to the back wall and once
returning to the transducer. If we know the speed of our sound, then we
can calculate the distance it traveled, which is the thickness of the
object times two.
What happens when a defect is present?
If a defect is present, it will reflect energy sooner also. Another peak
would then appear from the defect. Since it reflected energy sooner than
the back wall, the defect's energy would be received sooner. This causes
the defect peak to appear before the backwall peak. Since some of the
energy is absorbed and reflected by the defect, less will reach the
backwall. Thus the peak of the backwall will be lower than had there been
no defect interrupting the sound wave.
When the wave returns to the transducer, some of its energy bounces
back into the test object and heads towards the back wall again. This
second reflection will produce peaks similar to the first set of backwall
peaks. Some of the energy, however, has been lost, so the height of all
the peaks will be lower. These reflections, called multiples, will continue
until all the sound energy has been absorbed or lost through transmission
across the interfaces.

Ultrasonics are sound waves with frequencies above 20khz.

GALTON WHISTLE
First they were produced by Galton.He called his Instrument the galton whistle.It consisted of a brass tube 2 mm in
diameter and it was operated by blowing in a jet of high pressure gas.it consisted of a piston.on moving it the resonant
cavity's length varied,on varying the length the resonant frequency too varied.Thus the resonant frequency depends
on the length of the tube/pipe.But this could produce only up to 30khz.
MAGNETOSTRICTION METHOD
the main principle for this method is when a ferromagnetic rod made of material like iron or nickel is subjected to
alternating magnetic field applied parallel to the rod,there will be a small elongation or contraction in its length.this
change in length is proportional to the intensity of the magnetic field and nature of the ferromagnetic material.
so the length of the rod changes for each half cycle of the alternating current which means the frequency will be twice
the frequency of alternating current..
when the natural frequency of the rod matches with the frequency of the alternating current resonance occurs and
amplitude will be maximum and ultrasonic waves are produced.In this method frequencies up-to 300KHZ can be
produced.
PIEZOELECTRIC OSCILLATOR
The main principle of this is the inverse piezoelectric effect..according to the piezoelectric effect,when one pair of
opposite faces of a crystal like quartz is subjected to pressure the other pair of opposite faces will develop electric
charges and if the pressure is replaced by tension then the charges will be reversed..the inverse of this effect is that if
the pair of opposite faces are subjected to alternating voltages then the other pair of opposite faces varies in its
dimensions,i.e. it expands or contracts periodically thus generating elastic waves.When the natural frequency of the
crystal matches with the frequency of the alternating current,resonance occurs and ultrasonic waves are produced.In
this method frequencies upto 500MHZ can be produced.