Chapter 4: Small Samples, Reading Scales, and Propagation of Errors

Motivation and Theory:

1. What kind of quantities do we deal with in science?
1.1. Basic quantities: quantities which can be measured directly.
1.1.1. So far we have restricted our attention to basic quantities.
1.2. Derived quantities: quantities which are calculated using a mathematical formula.
2. Reminder: Errors for basic quantities so far
2.1. Given a data set, we automatically calculate the mean and standard deviation.
2.2. Using probability theory, we can make statements about likelihoods with the aide of confidence intervals.
2.3. Given multiple data sets we can determine to within a confidence level whether the data sets describe dierent
distributions.
3. Are occasions where we obtain basic quanitity errors dierently?
3.1. There are two methods for obtaining the error associated with basic quanitity measurements, standard deviation or half of the smallest unit of the measuring device.
4. When should I use standard deviation to obtain the uncertainty in a basic quantity?
4.1. When human bias due to reaction time or stimuli sensativity is the limiting factor for precision measurements.
standard deviation $ Human ability is the limiting factor in precision.
4.2. An example of this is a stop watch measurement. The smallest time increment of a stopwatch is much smaller
than human reaction time.
5. When should I use half of the smallest unit of the measuring device?
5.1. When the actual apparatus is the limiting factor for precision measurements.
half of the smallest unit $ equipment is the limiting factor in precision.
5.2. An example of this is a ruler measurement. Human senses, eyesight in this case, can detect distance intervals smaller than the tick marks on a ruler; thus the spacing of the tick marks is the limiting factor in precision.
6. How do we handle obtain the error for derived quantities?
6.1. The idea is that given the error of the basic quantities we can propagate the error through the mathematical
formula.
f (x)
| {z }

df (x)
dx
| {z

uncertainty in calculated quantity f(x)

x=
x

x
|{z}

(1)

uncertainty of measured quantity x

dierentiate and evaluate textbook formula for f(x)

7. What is our mathematical formula contains more than one independent variable?
7.1. Using partial derivatives we can generalize our previous formula:
f (x) =

@f (x, y, ...)
@x

x+
x=
x

@f (
x, y, ...)
@y

y+
y=
y

|{z}

(2)

one term for each measured quantity

8. What is a partial derivative?

8.1. Partial derivatives obey the same rules as total derivatives except for we treat each variable as being independent from all others.
8.2. Examples:

d
(2x) = 2
dx
@
(xy) = y
@x
d
(3 sin()) = 3 cos()
d
@
(x sin()) = x cos()
@
d
(cos(2)) = 2 sin(2)
d
@
(cos(x)) = x sin(x)
@
9. How do I resolve a vector into components?
9.1. The cosine function relates the horizontal component and the hypotenus.
Lx = L cos

(3)

9.2. The sine function relates the vertical component and the hypotenus.
Ly = L sin
Examples:
10. Example: Area of a circle
10.1. Identify what you want to calculate:
Area, A(r)
10.2. Lookup textbook formula:
A(r) = r2
10.3. Rewrite general propagation formula for your case:
A(r) = dA(r)
r
dr
r=
r
10.4. Compute the derivative:
dA(r)
d
2
dr = dr (r ) = 2r
10.5. Plug in derivative to propagation formula:
A(r) = |2r|r=r r = 2
r r
10.6. State the mean value and uncertainty of your basic quantity measurements:
r = 2 inches, r = 0.25 inches for example
10.7. Finish computation:
A(r) = 2(2 inches)(0.25 inches) = inches2
10.8. Confidence interval:
10.8.1. Best value for area:
A(
r) =
r2 = (2 inches)2 = 4 inches2
10.8.2. Interval:
A(
r)
A(r) < < A(
r) + A(r)
! (12.6 3.12) inches2 < < (12.6 + 3.12) inches2
! 9.4 inches2 < < 15.72 inches2
Therefore we are 100% confident the area of the circle is between 9.4 inches2 and 15.72 inches2 .
11. Example: Area of a rectangle
11.1. Identify what you want to calculate:
Area, A(x, y)
11.2. Lookup textbook formula:
A(x, y) = xy
11.3. Rewrite general propagation formula for your case:
x,y)
y)
A(x, y) = @A(x,
x + @A(
y
@x
@y
x=
x

y=
y

11.4. Compute the derivatives:

@A(x,y)
@
= @x
(xy) = y
@x
@A(x,y)
@
=
(xy)
=x
@y
@y
2

(4)

11.5. Plug in derivatives to propagation formula:

A(x, y) = |
y |x=x x + |
x|y=y y = y x + x
y
11.6. State the mean value and uncertainty of your basic quantity measurements:
x
= 2 inches, y = 3 inches, x = 0.25 inches, y = 0.25 inches for example
11.7. Finish computation:
A(x, y) = (2 inches)(0.25 inches) + (3 inches)(0.25 inches) = 1.25 inches2
11.8. Confidence interval:
11.8.1. Best value for area:
A(
x, y) = x
y = (2 inches)(3 inches) = 6 inches2
11.8.2. Interval:
A(
x, y)
A(x, y) < < A(
x, y) + A(x, y)
! (6 1.25) inches2 < < (6 + 1.25) inches2
! 4.75 inches2 < < 7.25 inches2
Therefore we are 100% confident the area of the rectangle is between 4.75 inches2 and 7.25 inches2 .
Experiment:
12. Purpose: Measure basic quanities and propagate the error to calculated quantities.
13. Equipment: apparatus (dimensions)
13.1. Spirometer (volume)
13.2. Sphygmomanometer (pressure)
13.3. Stopwatch (time)
13.4. Caliper (length)
13.5. Micrometer (length)
13.6. Ruler (length)
13.7. Protractor (angle)
14. Special instructions:
14.1. Make sure you can correctly read both the caliper and micrometer before leaving the lab.
15. Hints:
15.1. Even though the derivative of cosine is negative, in the propagation formula we take the absolute value of
the derivative.