ABSTRACT

This project is Design and construction of single phase fault

detector. Phase fault Detector is a device for identifying a
phase failure of mains supply or other generating utility sets.
It employs microcontroller as the core of the system in other
to check the imbalance in the network. This project is
divided into five chapters, chapter one deals with the
introduction which discuss about phase fault detectors
action. Chapter two deals with the literature review which
critically examine the existing literature on the subject under
research. Chapter three based on methodologies which
discuss components description and analysis. Chapter four
deals with the main project which treats the working
principle of phase fault detector in power transformer. Finally
chapter five is summary recommendation and reference.

CHAPTER ONE
1

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Phase fault detector is a circuit that alerts by sounding an
alarm in event of power failure most of power supply
detector

circuit

need

separate

power

supply

for

themselves, but in this project we present here needs no

additional power supply source. It employs an electrolytic
capacitor to store adequate charge to the circuit which
sound an alarm for a reasonable duration when the mains
supply fail.
Power transformer is a device that transfers electrical
energy from one circuit to another through intensively
coupled conductor. Phase fault detector is a device for
identifying mains failure in power transformer.
A fault in transformer is defined as a defect in the electrical
circuit due to which current diverted from the intended path.
The nature of fault implies any abnormal condition which
causes a reduction in the basic insulation strength between
phase conductors or between phase conductors and earth.

During the presence of mains power supply, the

rectified mains voltage is stepped down to a required low
level via diodes (D1-D4). We used zener diode (D 5) to limit
the filtered voltage to 15-vot level. Mains power presence in
indicator by a red LED. We used low level D.C for charging
capacitor (c3) and reverse of mains supply, the base of
transistor (T1). Since in the absent of mains the base of
transistor is pulled low via resistor (R8), it conduct and sound
the buzzer (alarm) to give a warning of the phase failure.
The aim of this project is to design and construct a
circuit that would give signal by sounding an alarm in an
occurrence of phase fault in transformer.

CHAPTER TWO
1.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

The objective of this chapter is to critically examine the

existing literature on the subject under research.
The method of symmetrical components by J.B Gupta
power system 10Th Edition 2007-2008 Reprint, part iii page
66-105 [1] state that, any unbalanced three phase system
of currents, voltage or other sinusoidal quantities can be
resolved into three balance system of phases which are
called symmetrical components of the original unbalanced
system. Such three balanced systems constitute three
sequences network which are solved separately on a single
phase basis.
According to Mercedes [2] Short-circuit calculation used to
select the proper or short-circuit capacity of flow and
medium fault current circuit breaker and fuses.
These faults may either be three phase in nature involving
all three phase in a symmetrical (balanced) manner.
This type of fault occur infrequently, as for maintenance
and/or repair by damping all the three phase to earth, is
4

accidentally made alive or when due to slow fault clearance,

an earth fault spreads across to the other two phase or
when a mechanical excavator cut quickly through a whole
cable.
In a lecture presented by professor J. Rohan lucas in
October 2005 [3], he said that fault analysis of a power
system is required in order to provide information for the
selection of switchgears, setting of relay and stability of
system operation. He further said that fault usually occur in
a power system line to either insulation failure, flash over,
physical damage or human error.
In a write up by Ashfaq Hessian [4], the purpose of
fault analysis is to determine the value of voltage and
current at different points of the system during the fault.
Faults give rise to abnormal operating condition, usually
excessive voltage and current at certain point on the
system.

Large

voltage

stresses

insulation

beyond

the

breakdown value while large current result in over heating of

power system components.
Furthermore, in a lecture presented in October 2004 by
Massimo mitolo, PHD, chu and Gassman consulting Engineer
[5], said that all electrical systems are susceptible to short
circuits and the abnormal current level they create. These
current can produce considerable thermal and mechanical
stresses in a electrical distribution equipment. Therefore, it
is

important

to

protect

personal

and

equipment

by

calculating short circuit current during system up grade and

design. Therefore equipment intended to interrupt current of
fault levels shall have an interrupting rating sufficient for the
nominal circuit voltage and the current that is available at
the line terminals of the equipments. More, so fault analysis
is required to calculate and compare symmetrical and
unsymmetrical current values in order to select a protective
device to adequately protect piece of electrical distribution
equipments.

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION
3.1 DIODES:

Diodes allows Electricity to flow in one

direction .The arrows of circuit symbol shows the description

in which the current can flow.
a

Fig3.1 Diode symbol

K01

A typical Diode

1. Forward voltage Drop: Electricity uses up a little

energy pushing up its way through the diode. This
means that there is a small voltage across a conducting
diode, it is called the forward voltage drops and is about
0.7v for all diodes which are made from silicon. The
forward voltage drop of a diode is almost constant no
matter the current passing through the diode, so they
have a very step characteristic.

2. Reverse Voltage: When a reverse voltage is applied, a

perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes leak a
very tiny current of a few micro ampere. This can be
ignored in most circuit because it will be very much
smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction.
However all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage and
(usually 50v or more) if this exceeded, the diode will fail
and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is
called BREAK DOWN.
Connecting and soldering: diodes must be connected the
correct way round. It labeled, a for anode and K for cathode.
The cathode is marked by a line painted on the body. Diodes
are labeled with their code in small print, rectifier diodes are
quite robust and no special precautions are needed for
soldering them. Diodes can be test by using a multi meter or
simple tester (battery, resister and LED) to check that a
diode conduct in one direction.

3.2 ZENER DIODES: It is a reverse-biased heavily- doped

silicon (or germanium) P-N junction diode which is operating
in the breakdown region where current is limited by both
external resistance and power dissipation of the diode.
Anode

cathode

Fig 3.2 Zener Diodes Symbol.

Zener diode are used to maintain a fixed voltage, they are
designed to breakdown in a reliable and non-destructive way
so that they can be used in reverse to maintain a fixed
voltage across their terminal. They connect with a resistor in
series to limit the current. Zener diodes are rated by their
breakdown voltage and maximum power. The minimum
voltage available is 2.7v. Power ratings of 400mw and 1.3w
are common.
3.3 RESISTOR: it is an electronic device which has a
property called resistance, which opposes or reduce the flow
of electric current in a circuit. Resistor is measured in ohms
() A resistor cannot store electric energy. It can only
9

dissipate it in form of heat. The function of resistors are as

follow:
a)

It provide a voltage drop

b)

To limit the flow of current in a circuit

c)

Dissipating electric energy.

Resistor can either be of fixed or variable. The fixed resistors

have a constant resistance while the variable resistor, their
resistance is not fixed but varies. An increase in resistance
brings about a decrease in voltage but lower current while
decrease in resistance brings about increase in voltage and
increase in current. Below is the and symbol of both fixed
and variable resistor.

Fig 3.3

Symbol of fixed and variable Resistors

Resistor values are normally shown using colored bands.

10

Most resistors have four bands. The first band gives the first
digit. The second band gives the second digit. The third
bands indicate the number of zeros. The fourth band is used
to show the tolerance of the resistor, this may be ignored for
almost all circuits. The tolerance is the percentage by which
the resistance of the resistor may be higher or lower than
the cored value. Below is the typical resistor colour code
table
Colour
Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Gray
White
Silver
Gold

number
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

multiplier
1
10
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
10-2
10-1

tolerance
2%
10%
5%

Table 3.1
Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flow
through a resistor. Usually the effect is negligible, but if the
11

resistance in low or the voltage across the resistor is high, a

large

current

may

pass

making

the

resistor

become

noticeable warm. The resistor must be able to withstand the

heating.
Power

rating

of resistor

are rarely

quoted in

parts list

because for most of circuit, the standard power ratings of

0.25w or 0.5w are suitable

for the rare cases where a

higher power is required. it should be clearly specified in

the parts list.
3.4 CAPACITORS
Another important electronic component used in this project
is the capacitor. Capacitors store electric charge. They used
resistor in timing circuits because it taken time for a
capacitor to fill with charge.

They are used to smooth

varying AC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They

are also used
pass

in

AC charging

filter circuit
signal

because

capacitor

but they block

easily

AC (constant)

signals. A capacitor essentially consists of two conducting

12

surface separated by a layer of an insulating

medium called

the dielectric. The dielectric material may be air, electrolyte,

plastic or paper. The

dielectric material is

used to

determine the name of the type capacitor basically store

dielectric

charges energy and block the flow of direct

current while passing alternating current.

Capacitance is a measure of a capacitors ability to store
charge. A large capacitance means that more charge
can be stored; capacitance is measured in farads, symbol
(f). However,

(IF) is very large so prefixed are used to

show the smaller values.

Three prefixes (Multipliers) are used (micro), n (nano) and
P(Pico). So capacitor values can be very difficult to find
because there are many types of capacitor with different
labeling system.
There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into
two groups polarized and unpolarized. Each group has its
own circuit symbol.

13

Fig 3.4 Electrolyte capacitors symbol

Electrolyte capacitors are polarized and they must be
connector the correct way round, at least one of their leads
will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when
soldering. There are
Axial where

two designs of electrolyte capacitors.

the leads are attached to each end and radial

& where both leads are at the same end. Radial capacitors
tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the
circuit boards. It is easy to find the value of electrolyte
capacitors because they are clearly printed with their
capacitance and voltage rating.
However, order ones used

a colour- code system which

has two stripes (for the two digits) and a spot of colour
for

the number

standard
used

of zeros to give

colour code is used, but

the value

in f. the

for the spot, grey is

to mean X 0.01 and white means

X 0.1 so that

14

values

of less than 1.0

f can be

show. A third colour

stripe near the leads show the voltage.

Unpolarized capacitors (small values, up to 1 f)

Fig 3.5 unpolarized capacitor symbol.

Small value capacitors are unpolarized and may be
connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat
when soldering, except for one unusual type (Polystyrene).
They have high voltage rating of

at least 50V, usually 250V

or so. It can be difficult to find the values of these small

capacitors because there are many types of them and
several difficult labeling systems. A number code is often
used on small capacitors where printing is difficult.

3.5 (LED) LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

15

It is a forward biased P-N junction which emits visible light

when energized. The charge

carrier recombination taken

place electrons from the N- side cross the junction and

recombine with the holes on the P-side.
LEDs emits light when an electric current passes through
them. LEDs operate at voltage level from 1.5v to

Fig

3.3v

3.6 light emitting diode symbol.

Connecting and soldering

LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram
labeled a for anode and K for cathode. The cathode is the
short lead and there may be a slight

flat on the body of

round LEDs. If you can see inside the LED the cathode is
the larger electrode

(but

identifications methods ).

this

is not an

official

LEDs can be damaged by heat

when soldering but the risk in small unless you are very

16

slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most

LEDs.
Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply,
it will be
current

destroyed
will pass

almost instantly because

through

too much

and burn it out LEDs must

have a resistor in series to limit the current to safe value.

For quick testing purpose a 1K resistors is suitable for the
most LEDs if supply voltage is 12v or less.
LED Clip
LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes.
The standard LED has a round cross- section of sumdiameter and this is probably the best type of general use
but 3mm round LEDs are also popular. LEDs clip are also
available to secure LEDs in holes. Other

cross-section

shapes include square, rectangular and triangular.

The uses of LEDs include the following.
1. LEDs are used in burglar alarm system.

17

2. In data links and remote controllers

3. In image sensing circuits used for picture phone.
4. For numeric displays in hand held or pocket calculators.
3.6 TRANSISTOR
The transistor is a small conductor device. They are made
from silicon or germanium but silicon type is better since
they operate at higher temperature. There are two types of
standard transistor, NPN and PNP, with different circuits
symbols. The letters refers to the layers of semi conductor
material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used
today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from
silicon.

PNP

NPN
c
e

Fig 3.7 Diagram of a transistor

18

The leads are labeled based (b), collector (c) and Emitter
(e). these

terms

refers

to the internal

transistor but they are not much

how a

transistor

help in

operations of

understanding

is used. The three leads must be

connected properly. Transistors amplify current, they can be

used to amplify the small output current from a logic clip,
so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current
device. In many circuit a resistor is used to convert the
charging current to a charging voltage , so the transistor
is being used to amplifying voltage.
Connecting and soldering
Transistors have three leads which must be connected in
correct way round. Care should be taking because a wrongly
connected transistor may be damaged instantly when the
circuit is switch on.
Transistor can be damaged by heat when soldering. So if you
are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink chipped to the
lead between the joint and the transistor body.

19

Choosing a transistor and testing.

Most

project

will specify

necessary, you can

transistor from the
important

final choice,

usually substitute
wide range

properties

collector current

a particular

to

look for

transistor but
and

if

equivalent

available. The most

are the maximum

(IC) and the current gain hfe. To make a

you will

need to consult

the tables to

technical data which are normally provided in catalogues

methods for testing an NPN transistor
1. Testing with a multimeter
2. Testing in a simple switching circuit
To test a PNP transistor use the same method

but reverse

the leads and the supply voltage.

3.7 PIEZO BUZZER

20

It is an output Transducer converting electrical energy to

sound. They contain an internal oscillator to produce the
sound which is set at 400HZ.
+

Fig

3.8 Piezo buzzer symbol

Buzzer have a voltage rating but it is only approximate

for example 6v and 12v. Buzzer can be used with a 9v
supply. Their typical current is about 25mA. They
connected
when

either

way round

the + and markings

except
on their

in stereo
terminal

may be
circuits
must be

observed to ensure the two speaker are in phase. Correct

polarity

must always

be observed

for

large speakers in

cabinets because the cabinet may divert the high frequency

signals to a small speaker (a tweeter) because the large
main speaker is poor at reproducing them.

21

3.8 ON/OFF SWITCH

Switch is used to isolate both live and neutral connectors.

Fig 3.9 switch symbol

There are three important features to consider when
selecting a switch

Contacts: e.g. single pole, double pole

Rating: maximum voltage and current

Method of operation: toggle, slide, key.

1. Switch contacts: several terms are used to describe

switch contacts. The simplest on/ off switch has one set of
contacts (single pole) and one switching position which
conduct (single throw). The switch mechanism has two
positions. Open

(off) and closed (on), but it is called single

throw because only one position conducts.

22

2.

Switch contact rating: switch contacts are rated with a

maximum voltage and current, and there may be different

ratings for AC and Dc. The AC values are higher because
the current falls to zero, many times each seconds an arc
is less likely to form across the switch contact. For low
voltage electronics projects the voltage ratings will not
matter, but you may need to check the current rating.
3. Method of operation: toggle, sliver, key.

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
23

The detector circuit presented here needs no additional

power supply. It

employs

store

charge

adequate

an
to

electrolytic
feed

capacitor

power to the

to

alarm

circuit, which sound an alarm for reasonable duration

of time when it detect mains failure
During the presence of mains power supply, the
rectifier Diodes ( IN4007) are used to convert alternating
circuit ( Ac) to direct current (DC) by stepping the voltage
down to a required level. Resistor (R1 and R2) to reduce the
flow of electric current in the circuit. Capacitor (c 3) filter and
removes the fluctuation or pulsation called ripples present in
the output voltage supplied by the rectifier, this operation is
performed or carried out by a large value electrolytic
capacitor ( 100f 25v) connected across the Dc supply to act
as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the
varying Dc voltage from the rectifier is falling. A zener diode
is used to limit the filtered voltage to 15-volt level and to
maintain a fixed voltage. They are designed to breakdown in
a reliable and non-destructive way.
24

The mains presence in a phase is indicated by a Red

LED. This emits light when an electric current passes
through it. Resistor (R5) is connecting in series with LED to
limit the flow of current flowing to the LED. Diode (D 6) and
resistor (R7) connect in series with the base of transistor PNP
(T1) to reduce and forward biase the electric current flowing
to the transistor. Capacitor (C2) serve as filter and store
electric charge.
The low level Dc is used for charging capacitor (C 3) and
reverse biasing switching transistor (T1). This, transistor (T1)
remains cut-off as long as the mains supply in present. As
soon as the mains supply fails, the charge stored in the
capacitor acts as a power supply source to transistor (T 1).
Since, in the absence of phase supply source, the base of
transistor is pulled low via resistor (R 8), then it conducts and
sound the buzzer (alarm) to give a warning of the phase
power failure.

25

With the value of capacitor (C3), a good quality buzzer

sound for about a minute. By increasing or decreasing the
value of capacitor (C3) this time can be altered.
At a high DC voltage level, transistor T 1 (BC558) may pass
some collector to emitter leakage current, causing a
continuous murmuring sound from the buzzer. In the case,
(T1) can be replace with some low-gain transistor.

CHAPTER FIVE

26

5.0 CONCLUSION
This project has made us to understand not only the
function of some of the electronic components, but also to
provide a detector that would sound alarm in event of phase
supply failure in transformer.
During circuit construction, we took time in fixing the
components, this is because any mistake would lead to the
damage of the components and also increase the cost of the
circuit construction .
It would be nice for the up coming electrical electronic
engineering
practical.

student

We

plead

to
to

start

participating

seriously

the

department

of

in

electrical

electronics engineering to also establish a compulsory

seminal or laboratory for all power engineering students so
that they would understand most Electrical and Electronics
components before they commence their project.
5.1 RECOMMENDATION

27

A project like this is effectively a complement of class room

work. The sole aims of students final year project is to
ascertain how well the students have understood and are
able to apply appropriately all the theories, principles, laws,
components identification and function which is acquired in
the process of knowledge economy.
Therefore, at the end of this project the students
should be able to identify some components on the circuit
board, read circuit diagram, prepare layout diagram and be
able to fix the components on the Vero-board in accordance
with the layout diagram. The student will also be expected to
know how to carryout soldering work and trouble shouting
on an electronic device.
The project has not been easy considering all that are
committed to realizing it. It is an inevitable challenge yet
remains puzzles to most students carrying out such project,
Knowing what it entails. Therefore, it is up to students to
start on time to prepare for it, in order to run away from any

28

hitch

that

may

hinder

the

process

of

the

project

construction. Students are advised to attend classes, read

their books adequately, make research and ask question to
clarify doubt. All these are strategies prepare one for such
project design and construction. This project phase fault
detector in power transformer is interesting and educating
one and it has taken us into advancement in Electrical and
Electronics regulation.
Nigeria as a third world country needs technological
advancement in different sectors of her economy especially
in this age of digitalization and computerization. Phase fault
detector in power transformer should be introduce into
power system in Nigeria. We also recommend that the
management should aid by providing some of the scarce and
expensive components to the students at subscribed rate.
We strongly recommend the use of this detector for power
transformer because we have been opportune to praticalize
and appreciate the theories.

REFERENCE

29

J.B Gupta power system 10Th Edition 2007-2008 Reprint,

Part iii page 66-105.
Short circuit calculation by Mercedes www.goggle.com/short
circuit-calculation-methods.
Prof. J. Rohan Lucas Power system Analysis
www.elect.mrt.ac.ik/EE423%fault analysis note.pdf.
Ashfaq husseins electrical power system 4th Edition
Massimo mitolo PHD short circuit calculation methods
http//ecmweb.Com/mag/electric-short-circuitcalculation-methods.
B.L. Theraja and A.K. Theraja (2002) Electrical technology:
New

Delhi

S.

chad

and

company

Ltd.

http//www.electronicsforyou.com

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