E U R O

P E A N

COMMISSION
SCIENCE
RESEARCH
DEVELOPMENT

technical

steel

resear
c h

Properties and service performance

Enhancement
of ECCS design
recommendations
and development
of Eurocode 3 parts
related to shell
buckling

Report
E U R 1 8 4 6 0 EN

h
m
STEEL RESEA RCH

EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Edith CRESSON, Member of the Commission
responsible for research, innovation, education, training and youth
DG XII/C.2 RTD actions: Industrial and materials technologies
Materials and steel
Contact: Mr H. J.-L. Martin
Address: European Commission, rue de la Loi 200 (MO 75 1/10),
B-1049 Brussels Tel. (32-2) 29-53453; fax (32-2) 29-65987

European Commission

technical steel research

Properties and in-service performance

Enhancement of ECCS design

recommendations and development
of Eurocode 3 parts related to shell buckling
R. Saikin
European Convention for Constructional'Steelwork
Avenue des Ombrages 32/36 bte 20
B-1200 Brussels

Contract No 7210-SA/208
1 April 1991 to 30 September 1995

Final report

Directorate-General
Science, Research and Development

1998

EUR 18460 EN

LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission
is responsible for the use which might be made of the following information.

A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet.
It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu.int).
Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication.
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1998
ISBN 92-828-4414-5
European Communities, 1998
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.
Printed in Luxembourg
PRINTED ON WHITE CHLORINE-FREE PAPER

List of contents

page

Summary

Overall introduction

11

1.1
1.2

Scope of research
The five subprojects

11
12

Final reports of the five subprojects

Stability and strength of stiffened conical shells

15

Al Introduction
A 1.1 Summary of previous work
Al .2 Objectives of current investigation

17
17
18

A2
A2.1
A2.2
A2.3

Experimental tests
Model geometries .
Manufacturing of spacimens
Measurement of material properties
A2.3.1 Yield stress
A2.3.2 Modulus of elasticity
A2.4 Test rig and measurind devices
A2.4.1 Arrangement of logging equipment
A2.4.2 Mesurement of end shortening
A2.5 Testprocedure
A2.6 Summary oftest results
A2.6.1 Geometric imperfections
A2.6.2 Load-end shortening
A2.6.3 Strains and stresses
A2.5.4 Lateral displacements
A2.7 Conclusions
Figures for Chapter A2

19
19
19
20
20
21
21
21
21
22
22
23
24
24
25
25
27

A3 Validation of finite element modelling

A3.1 Selection of FE models
A3.1.1 Unstiffened conical shells
A3.1.2 Stiffened conical shells
A3.2 Modelling aspects and convergence study
A3.2.1 Axisymmetric model
A3.2.2 Conical panel model
A3.2.3 Complete cone model
A3.2.4 Model comparisons
A3.3 Comparison of FE results with tests
A3.3.1 Analysis of imperfect geometries
A3.3.2 Unstiffened cones
A3.3.3 Stringer-stiffened cones

41
41
41
42
42
43
43
43
43
43
43
44
45

A3.4 Conclusions
Figures for Chapter A3

46
47

A4
A4.1
A4.2
A4.3

Design implications
Review of current ECCS rules on unstiffened cones
Development of design proposal for stiffened cones
Validation of design proposal for stiffened cones
A4.3.1 Critical buckling behaviour
A4.3.2 Imperfection reduction factors
A4.4 Concluding remarks
Figures for Chapter A4
Annex to Chapter A4: design proposals

51
51
52
53
53
53
55
57
61

A5

Conclusions

69

Notation

70

References

71

Local loads in cylindrical structures

73

Bl

Introduction

77

B2

Survey of the pertinent literature

78

B3

Scope of work

79

B4 Experimentation and numerical results

B4.1 Fabrication of cylindrical steel models and test set-up
B4.1.1 Fabrication
B4.1.2 Test set-up
B4.1.2.1 Load application and measurement of reactions
B4.1.2.2 Measurment of imperfections
B4.2 Unstiffened cylinders
B4.2.1 Experimental results
B4.2.2 Comparison with numerical computations
B4.2.3 Comments
B4.2.4 Parametric study and development of a design rule
B4.2.4.1 Introduction
B4.2.4.2 Summary of numerical results
B4.2.4.3 Compact representation of the numerical results by
analytical formulae
B4.2.5 Design rule
B4.2.6 Formulation of an alternative design rule
B4.2.7 Comparison with an existing design proposal and rigid support
conditions
B4.2.8 Examples
B4.2.8.1 Example 1
B4.2.8.2 Example 2
B4.2.8.3 Example 3
B4.2.8.4 Example 4

80
80
80
82
82
84
85
85
89
92
93
93
94
96
104
107
111
112
113
114
114
114

B4.2.8.5 Comparison with other design rules

B4.2.9 Development of a design rule, which covers also the higher steel
grades Fe 430 and Fe 510
B4.2.9.1 Design rule
B4.2.9.2 Examples
B4.2.10 Other effects
B4.2.10.1 Effect of edge-ring-stiffeners & flexible support plates
B4.2.10.2 Interactive effect of internal pressure
B4.3 Stiffened cylinders with stepped wall-thickness
B4.3.1 Experimental results
B4.3.2 Comparison with finite element computations
B4.3.3 Development of a design rule
B4.3.3.1 Introduction
B4.3.3.2 Summary of numerical results and design rule

115
115
115
116
116
118
119
119
123
124
124
125

B5

Conclusions

127

Shells of revolution with arbitrary meridional shapes -

CI

114

buckling design by use of computer analysis

131

Introduction

133

C2 Experimental investigations
C2.1 Testprogram
C2.1.1 Parameter "action causing buckling"
C2.1.2 Parameter ' 'meridional break"
C2.1.3 Parameter "shell geometry"
C2.1.4 Parameter "shell slenderness" ,
C2.2 Test specimens
C2.2.1 Material properties
C2.2.2 Manufacturing
C2.2.3 Geometrical dimensions
C2.2.4 Shape imperfections
C2.3 Axial load tests
C2.3.1 Test set-up
C2.3.2 Test procedure
C2.3.3 Test results
C2.4 External pressure tests
C2.4.1 Test set-up
C2.4.2 Test procedure
C2.4.3 Test results

I34
I34
I34
134
134
135
135
135
137
137
138
138
138
138
138
140
140
140
140

C3 Numerical investigations
C3.1 General
C3.2 Benchmarking
C3.2.1 Buckling analysis on GN level
C3.2.2 Collapse analysis on GMNA level
C3.3 Comparative numerical calculations for the axial load specimens
C3.3.1 MA level

142
142
142
142
142
143
143

C3.3.2 LA and GN A level

C3.3.3GMNA level
C3.3.4 Discussion of the results
C3.4 Comparative numerical calculations for the external pressure specimens
C3.4. I M A level
C3.4.2 LA and GNA level
C3.4.3 GMNA level
C3.4.4 Discussion of the results

144
144

45
146
146

146
146
147

C4 Evaluation of design procedure

C4.1 Generalized reduction factor approach (RFA) for shell buckling design
C4.2 Application of RFA to test specimens and comparison with test results
C4.2.1 Axial load specimens
C4.2.2 External pressure specimens

148
148
149
149
150

C5

Conclusions

151

C6

References

152

Tables for part C

153

Figures for part C

161

Thin-walled shells under wind loading

73

Dl
D 1.1
D 1.2
D1.3

Aim of the investigations and state of knowledge

Background
State of knowledge
General lay-out of the present investigation

75
I75
75
176

D2
D2.1
D2.2
D2.3
D2.4

Experimental procedures
Testing set-up and flow conditions
Pressure test models
Buckling test models
Testing procedures
D2.4.1 Presssure measurements
D2.4.2 Buckling tests
D2.5 Testing programme

177
177
180
182
183
183
184
185

D3 Test results
D3.1 Presssure distribuition
D3.2 Buckling patterns

186
186
192

D4 Interpretation and conclusion

D4.1 Buckling under static wind load
D4.2 The effect of wind turbulence

198
198
200

D5

Summary

201

D6

References

202

Effects of cut-outs and openings in shells

207

El

Introdu
c tion and literature revue

209

E2
E2.1
E2.2
E2.3
E2.4

Methodology
Definition of shells
Test cases of shell with opening
Material and manufacturing
Experimental set-up

210
210
211
211
212

E3 Experimental and numerical results

E3.1 Effec t of shape of a cut-out
E3.1.1 Square openings
E3.1.2 Rectangular openings
E3.1.3 Circular openings
E3.2 Effec t of opening angle
E3.3 Effec t of length to radius ratio
E3.4 Effec t of geometrical imperfections

212
212
212
213
214
214
215
215

E4
E4.1
E4.2
E4.3

216
216
217
218
218
221
222

Proposed rules
General concept
Definition of the parameters
Justific ation of the method
E4.3.1 Transition between coupling and no-coupling range
E4.3.2 Determination of the slope
E4.4 Limits of validity of the proposed rules
Figures for part E
E5

Referen
c es

3 Ov erall concluding remarks

223
. .

241
243

Summary
For thin-walled plated steel structures of curved shape, e.g. tanks, silos, chimneys, towers,
pipelines etc., shell buckling is an important design aspect. Relevant design rules are available
in the European Recommendations on Buckling of Steel Shells, edited by ECCS. However,
these Recommendations do not yet cover every shell buckling case and need continuous
enhancement. Five essential deficiencies were prioritized where the existing rules were to be
introduced into Eurocode 3 parts related to shell buckling. Collective efforts to eliminate these
deficiencies were panelled through the present ECSC Steel Research Contract consisting of
five subprojects. The five subprojects are:
A - Stability and strength of stiffened conical shells;
- Local loads on cylindrical structures;
C - Shells of revolution with arbitrary meridional shape - buckling design by use of
computer analysis;
D - Thin-walled shells under wind loading;
E - Effects of cut-outs and openings in shells.
The common aim of the five subprojects was to gain deeper knowledge about the buckling
behaviour of the particular structure under the particular loading and to develop from this
knowledge simplified design rules which may be introduced into the ECCS
Recommendations and into relevant Eurocode 3 parts. The coordination was achieved by the
Technical Working Group TWG 8.4 of ECCS.
The research work included in all five subprojects experimental investigations: Axial load
tests on unstiffened and stiffened cones in subproject A; axial load tests on locally-supported
cylinders in subproject ; axial load and external pressure tests on cone/cone and
cylinder/cone assemblies in subproject C; wind tunnel tests on open vertical cylinders in
subproject D; and axial load tests on cylinders with unreinforced openings in subproject E.
In four of the five subprojects comprehensive comparative numerical calculations were
carried out in order to improve the understanding of the load carrying and failure
characteristics of the tested structures. The validated numerical models were in three
subprojects used to extend the covered parametric range by means of additional numerical
studies. Experimental and numerical findings were in all five subprojects condensed into
recommendations on how to proceed in practical design cases.
The results of this research will enable design engineers to come up with more economic, but
still sufficiently safe steel shell structures.

1 Overall introduction
1.1 Scope of the research
In 1980 the first edition of the ECCS European Recommendations on Buckling of Steel Shells
was published. It had been worked out by the Technical Working Group 8.4 "Shells" (TWG
8.4) of the Technical Committee No. 8 "Structural Stability" (TC8) of the European
Convention for Constructional Steelwork (ECCS). It was the first attempt to develop a
recommendation-type document covering simplified design rules for buckling-endangered
steel shell structures, without being restricted to specific application fields or being related to
specific national safety philosophies. Until then, only some isolated buckling design
specifications could be found in national standards for specific application fields, e.g. steel
chimneys or vertical steel welded storage tanks for the petroleum industry.
The Recommendations have, within short time, gained a worlwide reputation. The latest
edition (the fourth one) was published in 1988. It covers several basic shell buckling cases
which are common to various application fields. Among them are unstiffened circular
cylinders and cones under various loading types, stringer-stiffened cylinders under axial
compression and ring-stiffened cylinders under external pressure. However, many questions
are still unanswered and many practical problems are left to the designer. He will base his
design in such cases either on rough approximations - which are necessarily overconservative,
or on tests - which are expensive, or on comprehensive numerical buckling calculations which are not only expensive but also problematic if not properly conducted, i.e. if not based
on a profound personal kowledge of the complex stability behaviour of shells.
It has been (and is still) the strong opinion of TWG 8.4 that the Recommendations - besides
continuously being improved - should be extended to further practical shell buckling problems
which are not yet addressed, neither in its own present edition nor in any other code or design
guide in the world. Parallel to these general enhancement efforts, TWG 8.4 offered assistance
to Eurocode 3 Project Teams developing EC3 Parts related to shell buckling.
The scheme of Eurocode 3 "Design of Shell Structures" includes several parts which are,
more or less, related to steel shell structures. These parts are:
- Part 3 : Steel Towers, Masts and Chimneys,
- Part 4: Steel Silos, Tanks and Pipelines,
- Part 7: Marine and Maritime Steel Structures,
- Part 8: Agricultural Steel Structures.
Of these parts, the first two are presently being drafted. The existing design rules on buckling
cases of cylindrical and conical shells are being encountered in the drafting of these parts.
However, as stated above, not every information that would be needed is available.
The members of TWG 8.4 identified 1991 five outstanding shell buckling problems for which
design rules were needed in the context with drafting further parts of EC3, but for which no
appropriate source material was available. They gave priority to these topics in their general
efforts to enhance the ECCS Shell Buckling Recommendations and proposed to address these
design oriented problems in an ECSC-Steel Research Project. The resulting Contract No.
7210-SA/208 between ECSC and ECCS was signed at the end of 1991. The work started 1992
and ended 1995.

11

According to the mentioned five topics, the research was divided into five subprojects A to E
which were conducted in different institutions by five different research teams. The common
aim of all five subprojects was to gain deeper kowledge about the buckling behaviour of the
particular structure under the particular loading and to develop from this knowledge
simplified design recommendations which may be introduced into the ECCS
Recommendations and also into relevant Eurocode 3 Parts. The coordination was achieved by
TWG 8.4. The five subprojects are briefly described in the following subsection, including
their particular aims and the contributing researchers. The detailed reports are then given
separately in five similarly structured chapters A to E.

1.2 The five subprojects

The titles, places and researchers are listed in table 1.
Table 1: Subprojects of Contract No. 7210SA/208
No. Topic
Stability and strength of stiffened
A
conical shells

Local loads on cylindrical structures

Institution
Imperial College
London
Politecnico di Milano
Universiteit Gent

'Techn. Universitt
Graz
Universitt Essen

Shells of revolution with arbitrary

meridional shapes buckling design
by use of computer analysis
Thinwalled shells under wind loading RuhrUniversitt
Bochum
Effects of cutouts and openings in
shells

INSA Lyon

Researchers
P. J. Dowling
M. Chryssanthopoulos
C. Poggi
J. Rath
G. Lagae
R. v. Impe
F. Dhanens
R. Greiner
W. Guggenberger
H. Schmidt
P. Swadlo
H. J. Niemann
V. Gornandt
M. Kasperski
J. F. Jullien

The practical implications and the particular aims of the subprojects may be summarized as
follows:
A Stability and strength of stiffened conical shells
Conical shells are frequently used as truncated cones in tubular members to accommodate the
transition between different diameters. Typical applications include the legs of compliant
offshore structures, the towers of wind generators, vertical process engineering components
and pipelines or ducts. Another practical application of conical shells are roofs of silos and
storage tanks.
In the current version of the ECCS Recommendations design guidance is only given for
unstiffened cones under welldefined elementary boundary conditions. Stringerstiffening as a
design tool for optimizing the structure (as often realized in cylindrical components) is not at

12

the designer's easy disposal because relvent guidelines are missing. Furthermore, in many
applications the boundary conditions of the truncated cone deviate considerably from the
presumed elementary ones. (With regard to the latter point see also subproject C.)
Research A was aimed at filling these deficiencies in the Recommendations. First the effects
of various factors on the buckling behaviour of unstiffened and stiffened truncated cones were
to be quantified. B ased on this knowledge, the existing design guidelines for unstiffened
conical shells were to be validated and improved, and they were finally to be extended into
stringerstiffened conical shells.
Local loads on cylindrical structures
Many vertical steel structures of cylindrical shape under axial loading are contrary to the
presumptions of the buckling design rules in the Recommendations not loaded and/or
supported uniformly around the circumference, but concentratedly along short parts of the
circumference. Typical applications include point supports of large elevated silos and storage
tanks (representing local loads at the lower cylinder edge) and rafter connections of large silo
or tank roofs (representing local loads at the upper cylinder edge).
Currently no design guidance is provided which would yield economically optimized
structural solutions for these locally loaded parts of the cylinder. The designer has to refer to
extremely simplified approaches in order to prove that he is on the conservative side.
Research was aimed at developing simplified and economic buckling design rules for these
cases. The real buckling and load carrying behaviour of axially loaded circular cylindrical
steel shells on point supports was to be carefully analysed, both experimentally and
numerically. The investigations were to cover a wide range of geometric parameters,
including cylinders which are stiffened by a 50% thicker bottom course of their wall. The
results were to be condensed into a design procedure.
C Shells of revolution with arbitrary meridional shapes buckling design by use of
computer analysis
Fundamental meridional shapes of shells of revolution include single cylinders and single
cones both supplied with welldefined boundary conditions. One of the more frequent non
fundamental shell configurations, which the design engineer will come across in structural
applications, are shells of revolution of which the meridional shapes are arbitrary
combinations of cylinders and cones. Such cylinder/cone or cone/cone assemblies may
represent transition zones between different crosssections in tubular members or in tower
like structures or in pipelines (see also subproject A), or they may be special structural
solutions for process engineering purposes.
On the basis of current knowledge the designer will provide strong stiffening rings at the
meridional breaks in order to supply the cylindrical and conical sections with rigid radial
restraint conditions at their junctions. This makes them edgesupported fundamental shell
buckling cases for which the ECCS Recommendations apply. If the ring stiffeners shall be
omitted because of costminimizing or any other reasons , the designer has to rely on
computer buckling analysis comprising the whole shell configuration. However, no guidance
is at present available how to handle and to interpret the results of this analysis in terms of a
safe and economic design.

13

Research C was aimed at developing such guidance. A set of cone/cone and cone/cylinder
assemblies were to be tested experimentally under the two basic loading types, i.e. axial
compression and external pressure. By comparing the test results with parallel numerical
results, the interrelations were to be evaluated and finally to be processed into
recommendations for the design engineer.
D - Thin-walled shells under wind loading
Wind loading produces a shell buckling problem in any cylindrical wall exposed to free
atmospheric conditions. Among practical cases are tanks or silos when empty, free-standing
chimneys and pipelines above ground.
Though no specific wind buckling rules are given in the ECCS Recommendations, sufficient
source material is available in national codes and published research results to draft design
rules for the relevant EC3 Parts which would yield wind-buckling-resistant cylindrical walls.
However, there is one important economic aspect in connection with thin-walled open steel
tanks which is not yet satisfyingly covered by reliable design rules: If the cylinder's top edge
is strongly stiffened, its wall exhibits good-natured postbuckling behaviour. That means that
the tank wall may be designed considerably thinner than necessary for full wind buckling
resistance.
Research D was aimed at verifying this good-natured postbuckling behaviour experimentally
under realistic wind tunnel conditions. The understanding of this complex phenomenon was to
be enhanced, in order to create a reliable basis for shell buckling designs which take
temporary buckles in empty steel tanks under strong wind deliberately into account.
E - Effects of cut-outs and openings in shells
The situation concerning cut-outs and openings in cylindrical shells is very similar to the one
concerning local loads and supports (see subproject ). Contrary to the presumptions of the
buckling design rules, the shell walls are often equipped with openings of various shapes,
sizes and locations. The openings will in most cases be reinforced by adequate stiffening or
increased wall thickness around them. Typical applications include flue inlets in chimneys,
nozzle openings in tanks or silos and maintenance doors in wind generator towers.
Currently only scarse design guidance is provided which would help to design the disturbed
parts around the openings economically with specific regard to shell buckling. The designer
has - similarly to the local load aspect - to refer to very much simplified approaches which
often lead to overconservative structural solutions. Above all, there is still a remarkable lack
of knowledge about the axial load carrying capacity (beyond the initial buckling resistance) of
cylindrical walls with unreinforced openings.
Research E was aimed at filling this gap. The real buckling and load carrying behaviour of
axially loaded circular cylindrical steel shells with openings was to be carefully analysed, both
experimentally and numerically. The investigations were to cover a wide range of geometric
parameters (shape, size and position of the openings with respect to the edges of the cylinder).
The resulte were to be condensed into a design procedure.

14

ECSC Contract No. 721 O-S A/208

Enhancement of ECCS Design Recommendations and Development of
Eurocode 3 Parts Related to Shell Buckling
Part A

STABILITY AND STRENGTH OF STIFFENED CONICAL SHELLS

Final Report

M K Chryssanthopoulos
Department of Civil Engineering
Imperial College

C Poggi
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale
Politecnico di Milano

A.l Introduction
Conical frustra are often used in shell structures, for example, as transition elements between
cylinders of different diameter in chimneys and marine structures, as hoppers in cylindrical
silos or as end closures in tanks and pressure vessels. As with many other shells, buckling
behaviour is an important design criterion, especiallly for thin-walled applications.
Considering the possible load cases that arise in the above mentioned applications, it is
evident that axial compression is one of the important conditions.
Together with cylinders and spheres, conical shells may be regarded as elementary shell
geometries, and as such it might be expected that their design, including buckling criteria, is
well covered in present codes of practice. This is not the case, particularly when geometries
in the intermediate slenderness are considered, which are affected by both material and
geometric non-linearities. In fact, compared with their cylindrical counterparts, conical shells
have received much more limited attention.
The behaviour of stiffened cones (whether ring- or stringer-stiffened) is even less well
researched than unstiffened cones and validated design rules are practically non-existent. It
could be argued that stiffened cones are not widely used but, of course, this hrnited use could
well be the result of scarse design information. At least insofar as transition elements are
concerned, matching the overall geomerty of the conical shell to the top/bottom cylinder
would offer advantages in load transfer and manufacturing. Moreover, stiffening along'a
meridional direction should be an effective arrangement in resisting axial loads.
In many modern limit state codes dealing with shell buckling problems, e.g. [1], a practical
stability-based approach is followed. Generally, the elastic critical buckling stress is first
given by analytical or semi-analytical expressions derived for a specific geometry, load type
and boundary conditions. The so-called imperfection reduction factors (a factors) are then
specified, largely based on lower bound curves using test data and/or some additional
conservative assumptions. Finally, the interaction between elastic buckling and squashing is
dealt with, which, in the case of steel structures, involves the relevant material property (in
most cases the uniaxial tensile yield stress).
The most difficult part in developing guidelines based on this approach is the appropriate
specification of the imperfection reduction factors, especially in cases where the experimental
data are limited or are not representative of full scale production. For unstiffened cones under
compression, a formula for the elastic critical load does exist, subject to some assumptions.
The factors are also specified, with the help of cylinder results. However, as will be seen in
the latter parts of this report, the entire procedure needs to be developed for stringer-stiffened
cones.

A.l.l Summary of Previous Work

The buckling behaviour of unstiffened cones under compression has been the subject of
some early analytical studies based on linear theory, e.g. Seide's reference paper [2] in which
axisymmetric elastic buckling is investigated. The classical solution given in this work is
_ 2 2 cos 2 p

V3 (1 - v2)
from which it can be seen that, in comparison to a cylinder, the critical buckling load of a
cone is also affected by the semi-vertex angle, p. Subsequent studies, e.g. [3], dealt with the
asymmetric buckling problem and found that the above expression is also valid for this type
of buckling, for some of the commonly assumed stability boundary conditions. Recently, this
problem has been revisited, in order to quantify the critical buckling mode and to look at the
effect of clamping [4].

17

Chang and Katz [5] give a concise review of research on cones up to 1980 before moving on
to present a study on the effect of edge constraints on the elastic stability of unstiffened
cones. More recently, the elasto-plastic response of axially compressed unstiffened steel
cones, both as isolated elements [6] and as part of larger shell assemblies [7] has been
investigated.
In spite of these studies, it is fair to say that the behaviour of conical shells remains, to a
significant degree, unexplored. This is also evident from the fact that current design
procedures [1] treat the conical shell as an equivalent cylinder, even though important
differences are generally acknowledged in research studies. For example, the imperfection
sensitivity of axially compressed cones is not thought to be identical to that of cylinders but
its exact nature has not been quantified. Equally important from a design point of view, any
procedure that treats the cone as an equivalent cylinder must specify a limiting semi-vertex
angle beyond which it no longer applies. There seems to be a lack of studies which
concentrate on validating the range of applicability of current design approaches.
Stiffened conical shells have been the subject of very few studies [8, 9] mainly dealing with
a smeared approach applied to ring stiffened cones. If, however, the cone acts as a transition
element in an axially compressed shell assembly, the presence of stringers is likely to be a
more effective stiffening arrangement. Furthermore, in certain applications, such as offshore
structures, the spacing of the stringers is fairly wide and, as a result, the assumptions of
smeared theory become invalid. No studies on widely spaced stringer-stiffened cones under
compression have been found but an important piece of work for the present investigation is
a publication by Samuelson [10], where approximate methods for the design of stiffened
cones are discussed.
A detailed review of previous work is not intended within this summary report. The above
overview points to both historical and recent studies, which can be consulted in order to trace
a more complete set of references on the buckling behaviour of conical shells.

A.1.2 Objectives of Current Investigation

The latest version of the ECCS Recommendations [1] contains design guidance for
unstiffened conical shells under various loads (meridional compression, uniform hydrostatic
lateral pressure, torsion and/or shear, liquid-filled cones). However, no guidance is given for
stiffened conical shells and, moreover, the rules for unstiffened cones need to be further
validated ans expanded.
The present research programme is aimed at quantifying the effect of various factors (e.g.
boundary conditions, initial imperfections) on the buckling behaviour of unstiffened and
stiffened conical shells and, more importantly, at producing design guidelines for stiffened
conical shells, which could be included in the next edition of the ECCS recommendations or
in the corresponding shell buckling parts of EC3.
It is neither possible nor cost-effective to study all the factors influencing buckling response
using solely experimental methods. Hence, a combination of experimental work and
numerical studies was undertaken summarized in the following chapters. Simplified
formulations suitable for design recommendations were developed and validated using
numerically derived design data.
The project was jointly carried out by Imperial College and Politecnico di Milano. Full
reports on the studies undertaken are given in the reports/theses referred to in the ensuing
chapters. However, important results and main conclusions, together with the design
implications, are presented herein.

18

A.2 Experimental Tests

As demonstrated in many other shell buckling studies, experimental tests play an important
role in obtaining a better understanding of the structural behaviour through observation and
measurement of the primary factors which influence the response. In addition, if properly
instrumented, tests provide data on which the validation of numerical/analytical tools can be
carried out. The present study includes tests on unstiffened and stringer-stiffened conical
shells under axial compression. The selection of specimen geometries was guided by the
need to obtain elasto-plastic buckling failures, relevant to the validation of analysis tools and
the development of design formulations for steel shells. It also took into account previous
tests (in order to provide meaningful comparisons) and some restrictions imposed by
experimental facilities. Full experimental results are contained in [11] and [12] for
unstiffened and stringer-stiffened cones respectively; a summary is presented below.

A.2.1 Model Geometries

The geometric properties of the unstiffened cones are shown in Table A.2.la. The
dimensions are similar to those adopted by Krysik & Schmidt in their testing programme
[13]. However, the present specimens are made somewhat more slender by using thinner
material, since the objective is to study geometries that come closer to the transition range
(between elastic and elasto-plastic buckling). This is generally considered the most
challenging range in order to test analytical/numerical predictions, because of the interaction
between material and geometric non-linearity. It is also the slenderness range in which many
steel shells are designed. In Table A.2.la, the dimensions refer to clear distances between
end rings, which are fitted to the models after manufacturing in order to create well defined
end conditions. Figure A.2.1 shows the models, before and after fitting of end rings.
Table A.2.1a: Model dimensions - Unstiffened Cones
Tapering
Angle

SmaU
Radius
Rl
(mm)

Large
Radius
Rl
(mm)

Slant
Length
L
(mm)

Shell
Thickness
t
(mm)

UC01
UC02

15
15

100
100

225
225

482.9
482.9

0.9
0.7

UC03
UC04

30
30

100
100

225
225

250.0
250.0

0.9
0.7

Model
Reference

()

In selecting model geometries for stiffened cones, a wide range of possibilities was faced,
since no previous tests have been performed. In order to allow a comparison with unstiffened
counterparts, it was decided to have the same overall geometric parameters as UC01 and
UC02, but to vary the number of stiffeners. The final geometries of the stringer-stiffened
models (Table A.2. lb) are such that they belong to the family of sparsely-stiffened shells, for
which local buckling in the elastic-plastic range is likely to occur.

A.2.2 Manufacturing of Specimens

The unstiffened specimens were fabricated from steel sheets by cold rolling and seamwelding along a single longitudinal axis. In order to remove high weld induced residual
stresses, the models were stress-relieved in a heat treatment oven. Thus, each model was
fabricated from a single sheet of material reducing the effect of material property variations.

19

Boundary conditions were provided through heavy accurately machined steel rings. These
were attached to the upper and lower end of the models using a mixture of araldite and sand
which filled the gap between two concentric rings (Figure A.2.2).
Table A.2.1b: Model dimensions - Stiffened Cones
Bottom Slant
Model Tapering Top
Shell
Stiff. Stiffener Stiffener
Ref.
Angle Radius Radius Length thickness No. thickness depth
L
t
hw
Rl
Rl
tw

(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
()
SCOIA

15

94.6

230.4

524.3

0.8

1.7

10

SCOIB

15

94.6

230.4

524.3

0.8

0.8

10

SC01B

15

94.6

230.4

524.3

0.8

16

0.8

10

The fabrication of the stiffened cones was significantly more complex, mainly because of the
much more extensive welding required, which is always problematical in small-scale models.
In model SCOIA, the stiffeners were first positioned by means of small indentations on the
shell and corresponding notches on the stiffeners. A staggered TIG weld (placed alternatively
on the two sides of the stiffener) was then created along the shell/stringer junction. However,
this process resulted in relatively high distortions on both shell and stringers. There was also
significant addition of weld material, which implied an effective stringer thickness higher
than the nominal value of the sheet.
Better quality was obtained in models SC01B and SC02B through the use of a purpose built
copper jig. This enabled accurate positioning and locking of each stiffener on the shell prior
to welding, which improved weld induced distortions. The copper jig was also able to absorb
a large part of the weld induced heat. Finally, the welding process was modified to allow a
virtually continuous spot TIG weld to be produced, with very small weld material deposited
along the weld. In keeping with common practice, all three models were stress relieved after
welding.

A.2.3 Measurement of Material Properties

A.2.3.1 Yield Stress
According to the specification, the material category is CR4 (cold rolled on wide mills to the
final thickness) which according to BS 1449 (1983) has a specified 0.2 % yield stress of 140
N/mm 2 . From each sheet used in the manufacturing of a single cone specimen, a number of
400mm 40mm coupons in different orientations were prepared for tensile testing. Figure
A.2.3 (upper part) shows a typical coupon arrangement for one of the models.
In general, the tests revealed that the material remains elastic up to approximately 180
N/mm 2 and then starts to exhibit plastic deformation, reaching the ultimate strength at a
strain of about 25%. As can be seen from Figure A.2.3 (lower part), the material is ductile
without a flat plateau following initial yielding. It is, thus, reasonable to calculate a yield
stress using the 0.2% proof value. In terms of the influence of orientation, there are no clearly
established trends, and it was decided to treat the material as homogeneous and isotropic.
Since the shell models are tested in axial compression, compression coupon testing would
have been appropriate. Because of the thinness of the material (as low as 0.7mm) this was
not considered feasible. This should be noted in connection with calculated squash loads,
since some previous studies suggest that compressive yield stress can be about 10% higher
than its tensile counterpart.

20

A.2.3.2 Modulus of Elasticity

In order to obtain a more accurate measurement of the elastic modulus, an extensiometer was
used with an accuracy of 10 over a gauge length of 50 mm. On average, from 36 data
points, a value of 201.2 kN/mm2 was obtained for E with a coefficient of variation of about
5% [11]. This value is somewhat larger than what is normally expected for the variation of E
(typically 2-4% cov's have been found in previous studies on structural steel).

A.2.4 Test Rig and Measuring Devices

The models were tested in a circular rig shown schematically in Figure A.2.4. Axial
compression is applied by a screw jack (100 ton capacity), driven by a variable speed electric
motor through a low ratio gearbox, thus enabling a very slow loading rate to be achieved.
The force created by the jack is transmitted to the model as a uniform axial displacement
through rigid circular plates sitting on ball bearings.
A.2.4.1 Arrangement of Logging Equipment
A large number of imperfection and deflection measurements is needed in shell buckling
tests to enable analytical/numerical modelling to be undertaken but also in order to
understand the pattern of deformation under load. In small-scale tests, data acquisition and
processing becomes a difficult task because of the required accuracy in measurements, as
well as due to the precision required in the manufacturing of the measuring equipment.
Forty and twenty transducers, for the long (UC01, UC02, all SC models) and short cones
(UC03, UC04) respectively, were used to measure the initial imperfections and the
displacements under load. The number of transducers was decided based on the elastic
buckling modes which consisted of 21 and 11 axial half-wave for unstiffened long and short
cones respectively. The circumferential spacing was determined in order to maintain
approximately a square mesh.
The two transducer arms were connected to a small circular frame which can be rotated (and
locked at predetermined positions through pegs) about the central vertical axis of the rig (see
Figure A.2.4). Hence, a complete scan of the model could be achieved by rotating the frame
through a full circle. In addition to transducers which measure out-of-plane profiles, another
set was used to monitor axial end shortening (see next section).
In order to obtain a reference surface for zero displacement, two trapezoidal plates were
accurately machined to represent the perfect geometry of the models. The readings taken on
these plates provided the datum from which subsequent transducer measurements on the
models (imperfections or deflections) could be evaluated.
In dealing with stringer-stiffened models, measurement of stringer imperfections/deflections
is also necessary. This could not be performed inside the loading rig but was recorded on a
separate piece of equipment. Thus, only stringer imperfections and post-buckling permanent
deformations have been recorded.
The detailed strain gauge layout for a typical long cone (UC01) is shown in Figure A.2.5. In
general, more strain gauges were attached close to the small-radius end as the response of the
shell in that area was expected to be important with respect to the predicted failure mode. In
the stiffened models, meridional strains along the stiffener length were also monitored by
positioning gauges close to the stiffener tip.
A.2.4.2 Measurement of End Shortening
A set of three transducers, placed at equidistant radial positions from the axis of the cone,
give a complete scan of the end shortening pattern of the model. In all models, the end
shortening was measured between end plates (see Fig. A.2.6, end shortening denoted as 'B').
In addition, end shortening was measured between end-rings for one unstiffened and one

21

stiffened model (see Fig. A.2.6, end shortening denoted as 'A'). The reason for this
alternative measuring system, introduced in the latter part of the study, is because of
discrepancies found in pre-buckling stiffnesses when experimental results were compared
with FE calculations. Clearly, end shortening 'A' is confined to the clear model length,
whereas end shortening 'B' includes the part which is embedded in the araldite-sand mixture
and the 2mm clearance between end-rings and loading plates (Fig. A.2.2).

A.2.5 TestProcedure
Before mounting each model into the rig, the reference surface for displacement
measurements was obtained. This was achieved by positioning the trapezoidal plate
representing the 'perfect' cone into the rig and recording initial readings at a number of
circumferential positions. The plate was then replaced by the actual model. Elastic tests were
first carried out to check concentricity of applied load and the correctness of the test set-up.
Once the set-up was confirmed to work properly and repeatability of measurements was
established, the position of the model in the rig was fixed and imperfection measurements
were carried out. Table A.2.2 contains a summary of extreme imperfection values measured
on each model (inward/outward). The full imperfection data have been processed using a
'best-fit' procedure and Fourier analysis (see section A.2.6.1 below) but it is worth bearing in
mind that the measured imperfections on the models are in excess of the tolerance values
specified in the ECCS recommendations [1]. This is not surprising given the small scale of
the models but should be taken into account in correlating the experimental results with the
design procedure adopted in the ECCS recommendations [1].
The failure test was then carried out by incrementing the applied axial displacement in small
steps. All the models were loaded far beyond the peak load to obtain information on the post
buckling response.
Table A.2.2: Summary of Extreme Imperfection Values
Model Ref.

UC01

UC02

UC03

UC04

Max. Imp.
In / Out
1.8/1.7 1.7/1.4 1.1/0.8 1.1/1.4
(mm)
Note: These are the values obtained after the "best-fit' procedure.

SCOIA

SC01B

SC02A

1.8/1.9

1.6/1.0

3.4/1.7

A2.6 Summary of Test Results

Table A.2.3a presents a summary of the experimental results on unstiffened cones in terms of
peak loads [11]. The peak loads of the thicker models (UC01 and UC03) were close to the
squash load (about 93%) whereas for the thinner models (UC02 and UC04) the peak load
was about 77% of squash. Similarly Table A.2.3b summarizes the results for the stiffened
cone models [12].
In the unstiffened cones, the collapse mode was confined to the small-radius end, with a
fairly regular axisymmetric bulge forming very close to the end ring. This is the so-called
'elephant foot' mode, see Figure A.2.7a. Only model UC02 showed some evidence of nonaxisymmetric behaviour, which was possibly due to overall bending taking place after the
peak load had been exceeded.
The stringer-stiffened models exhibited collapse modes contained within the shell panels
between stringers, commonly referred to as local panel buckling. Clearly, the collapse modes
are asymmetric as a result of discrete stiffening. In models SC01B and SC02B, the largest
deformations developed once more close to the small-radius end, whereas in model SCOIA
collapse took place at mid-length. Considering that SCOIA and SC01B are nominally
identical but produced by different manufacturing methods, this result shows how

22

manufacturing distortions can influence the collapse mode. Figure A.2.7b shows a view of
model SCOIA after collapse.
Table A.2.3a: Summary of test results Unstiffened cones
Elastic
budding
load

Squash
Load

Per
(kN)

Po
(kN)

UC01
UC02

578.2
349.8

UC03
UC04

464.8
281.2

Model
Ref

PerlPo

Test ultimate
load
( failure mode)

Pu (exp)IPo

104.3
94.2

5.54
3.71

97 (axisym.)
73 (axisym.)

0.93
0.77

93.5
84.5

4.97
3.33

87 (axisym.)
66 (axisym.)

0.93
0.78

Notes: Elastic buckling load calculated from Seide's formula (see Chapter A.l)
Squash load calculated using 0.2% proof stress valuesfromtensile tests

Table A.2.3b: Summary of test results Stiffened cones

Model
Ref

SCOIA
SCOIB
SC02B

Squash
Load

Test ultimate
load
( failure mode)

Po
(kN)

'sr'

115.2
105.7
109.3

110.3 (local)
107.3 (local)
121.1 (local)

Pu (exp)'Po

0.96
1.01
1.11
Note: Squash load calculated using 0.2% tensile proof stress

A.2.6.1 Geometric Imperfections

Initial geometric imperfections were recorded on all specimens using the procedure described
earlier. In order to render these measurements useful for comparative studies and numerical
modelling, the imperfections were subjected to the following data processing techniques:
(i)
(ii)

bestfit analysis
twodimensional Fourier analysis

The first procedure is necessary in order to remove the influence of possible misalignments
and rigid body movements in the rig. Fourier analysis is then performed on the bestfit data,
in order to characterize the entire imperfection surface through a set of coefficients of simple
harmonic modes. This enables the identification of dominant modes, and facilitates
comparisons of imperfections with critical buckling modes. Figure A.2.8 shows a typical
imperfection surface after bestfit analysis for one of the stringerstiffened models (SCOIA).
The influence of stringer spacing on the dominant circumferential imperfection wavelengths
can be clearly seen. This is also shown in terms of the dominant Fourier modes in Figure
A.2.9. A twodimensional Fourier sine expansion has been used in this case, i.e.
# sin^p sin (/ + (Sfa )

wo (, ) = 21
/=0

23

Note the small number of dominant modes that are present in the imperfection surface, a
feature common to all the stringer-stiffened models. For the unstiffened models, there is a
higher spread of dominant modes, although long wavelength modes are still governing. Full
plots of raw imperfection data followed by the best-fit data plots and those arising from the
ensuing Fourier analysis are given in [11] and [12].
This systematic approach to imperfection measurement and further processing is essential in
the validation of numerical tools, as will be seen in the next chapter. Having the full
imperfection surface described concisely via a set of Fourier coefficients facilitates
considerably the input to FE models, enables mesh selection to be made independently of
measurement considerations and renders the experimental results accessible to wider use.
A.2.6.2 Load-End Shortening
The load-end shortening plots, as an indication of the overall response, are shown in Figure
A.2.10 for the unstiffened models and in Figure A.2.11 for the stiffened models. In general, a
linear behaviour is exhibited until the peak load is reached, although in the stiffened models
(SC02B in particular) some non-linearity is evident prior to that point (this is due to the
higher stiffening ratio as a result of closer stiffener spacing in this model). A sudden drop in
stiffness occurs at the peak load and the post-buckling response is characterized by negative
slope (unstable post-buckling) with the unstiffened models clearly undergoing steeper
unloading than their stiffened counterparts. This can be attributed to the higher degree of
stress redistribution possible in the stiffened models (related to material non-linearity) and to
their lower imperfection sensitivity (related to geometric non-linearity).
As far as the pre-buckling stiffness is concerned, due to the differences observed between
experimental and numerical values (as well as analytical 'membrane solutions', which are
available for unstiffened cones), a second set of readings (see Fig. A.2.6, end shortening
denoted as 'A') was performed in some of the models. Figure A.2.12 compares the results
obtained for one unstiffened and one stiffened model. Note that Model UC05 has the same
overall dimensions as UC01 and UC02 but its thickness lies in between the other two values
(0.8 mm for UC05 compared to 0.9mm for UC01 and 0.7mm for UC02). As can be seen ,the
difference between end shortening 'A' and 'B' is very significant, with 'A' being in much
closer agreement with analytical/numerical values, as discussed in the following chapter.
A.2.6.3 Strains and Stresses
Typical strain gauge results for UC02, together with a schematic diagram showing their
location on the model, are shown in Figure A.2.13. At low load levels, the strains are
distributed fairly evenly around the circumference. Furthermore, strain increments are linear
with respect to load increments. However, as the load increases, the distribution starts losing
both linearity and uniformity. In general, the circumferential position 07360 exhibits lower
strains whereas the diametrically opposite position is the more strained area. The single
longitudinal weld located on the 0/360 Une seems to be the reason for this non-uniformity.
In fact, it is worth noting that an approximately diametrically opposite position seems to the
one at which the collapse mode is initiated. This observation is valid for the other models as
well [11]. As expected, strains are generally higher near the small-radius end.
The variation of strain with increasing load for UC02 is shown in Figure A.2.14. For
comparison, the value obtained by assuming linear membrane pre-buckling is also included
and, as can be seen, the agreement between theoretical and experimental results is generally
satisfactory. Finally, the stresses in UC02 are plotted in Figure A.2.15. As expected, the hoop
stresses are generally small, apart from region close to small-radius end, where, as it might
be expected, the assumption of membrane pre-buckling is not wholly appropriate. The
hyperbolic shape of the meridional stress distribution along the length is also important,
being consistent with the theoretical distribution predicted by membrane pre-buckling.
Similar plots and comparisons have been undertaken for all the models within the present test
series and the results are extensively discussed in [11, 12]. Conclusions are broadly in line

24

with the above remarks. Since conical shells, are not as widely investigated as their
cylindrical counterparts, these results should help in forming a well documented database for
future reference and use.
A.2.6.4 Lateral Displacements
The availability of full imperfection and deflection scans enables observations to be made
about the growth of displacements under load. Relative pre-buckling deflections with respect
to the imperfections for model SCOIA are depicted in Figure A.2.16a (cf. Fig. A.2.8 which
shows the imperfect surface of the same specimen). It can be seen that deflection growth
takes place primarily in the middle part of the cone, where five inward lobes in five different
panels develop, triggered by the presence of high initial imperfections in the same areas.
These initial bulges grow further, together with other modes that develop close to the smallradius end, as can be seen in Figure A.2.16b, which is the final scan in the post-ultimate
range. The load levels at which these scans were made can be found in Fig. A.2.11. It should
be noted that Fourier analysis of the pre-buckling deflections just prior to collapse is
generally not accurate due to the localised deflection growth, which inevitably makes
harmonic decomposition problematical. Detailed comparisons can be found in [12].
Finally, in [11] and [12] a comparison between imperfections and deflections under load is
also made by plotting a whole range of circumferential profiles for each model (typically 20
or 40 profiles per specimen for short and tall cones respectively). These profiles enable-a
quantitative comparison to be made, in addition to the overall picture obtained from the
figures presented in this report.

A.2.7 Concluding Remarks

Fabrication and testing of small-scale models have been undertaken to examine the
buckling behaviour of unstiffened and stiffened conical shells. Manufacturing of the
latter has proved to be a very demanding process requiring extensive jigging to avoid
unacceptable weld distortions. In all models, small-scale manufacturing has produced
relatively high imperfection values, which cannot be considered typical of full-scale
structures. However, since the full imperfection surface has been recorded, the test
results can be used to validate numerical (finite element) or other models.
The behaviour of the models is summarised in Table A.2.3 (peak loads) and Figures
A.2.7 (failure modes), A.2.10 and A.2.11 (load-end shortening). Representative results
of stress, strain and displacement plots and their potential use in further comparisons
have been presented for typical models.
Since, in all cases, the squash load is well below the elastic critical load, the failure
mode was of the axi symmetric 'elephant foot' type in the unstiffened models and local
elasto-plastic shell buckling in the stiffened models.
The ratio of experimental failure load to squash load {PulPo) is approximately equal to
0.77 and 0.93 for thin and thick unstiffened cones respectively, regardless of the
variation in the tapering angle. These values indicate that the thinner cones are
influenced to a greater degree by initial imperfections and boundary conditions.
The same ratio {PJPo) is much closer to unity for stiffened cones, indicating the
beneficial effect of stiffeners in the slenderness range considered in this study.
Moreover, the stiffeners play a role in the post-buckling characteristics by reducing the
negative slope of the post-buckling path.

25

ro

Fig. A.2.1: Unstiffened conical shell specimens prior to testing

Fig. A.2.2: Schematic diagram of end conditions

28

1
2

specimen

4 3

< /

/ \

45

1000

400

300

200

10

.E

400
w
M
t)
u
*J

300

CO

200

100

Strain,
Strain scale
0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

Fig. A.2.3: Measurement of yield stress

29

35%

40%

LEGEND

fi)

Cross Beam

(T) Load Cells

( s ) Model
*) Array of Transducers
(V) Screw Jack
(7) Ball Bearing
Fig. A.2.4: Schematic diagram of the test rig

30

120

Fig. A.2.5: Strain gauge instrumentation on UC01

Cross beam

End ring:

Moving bottom plate

A - End shortening measured between end rings (specimens SC02B & UC05)
- End shortening measured between end plates (all specimens)

Fig. A.2.6: Measurement of end shortening

31

OJ
K)

Fig. A.2.7: Collapse modes (a) unstiffened (b) stiffened

Fig. A.2.8: Typical imperfection surface (SCOIA)

(1.3)

Fig. A.2.9: Amplitude of Fourier imperfection modes (SCOIA)

33

120

100

80

60

40

20

a,

120

2
100

80

60

40

20

0.5

1
1.5
Endshortening, ^ [mm]

Fig. A.2.10: Loadend shortening plots (unstiffened cones)

34

2.5

mu

+
_

120 jfe 'JT

100 -

2
"O
(O
O

"

! * f

Jf

80 -

SC01A

!**""-**.
\ ;

^^^

i\/
! /

ff \
ff \
ff \

20 -

/.. 1

i/

1 '

0.5

7ji"

A /
\i /

0.0

jl

\'

SC02B

^XJ

fj

40 -

SC01

^^*^_

60 -

0 -

Scan positions

1.0

7/

i/ /

/ !

1.5

2.0

2.5

endshortening [mm]

Fig. A.2.11: Loadend shortening plots (stiffened cones)

140

^
a
to
o

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

endshortening [mm]

Fig. A.2.12: Comparison of alternative endshortening measurements

35

0.0
0.033
0.1 S

Circumferential Position ['

Fig. A.2.13: Strain distribution in specimen UC02

36

Load,P|kN|

51
qq

>
to

CL

<
LO

k
e.
3

S"

45
8
3

9
to

(JJ,)/L 0.967

(ss^tL 0.303

(JJ,)/L 0.155

(JJ,)/L 0.033

Circumferential positions
120

07360

240

D"

0)

1 ton

2 t ons

3 t ons
4 tons

LO
00

5 t ons

a
a

6 tons

0*

!
(0

S
se
O

0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Axial Coordinate, ( s-s. ) / L

0.2

Fig. A.2.15: Stress distribution in specimen UC02

0.4

0.6

0.

Fig. A.2.16: Deflection growth in specimen SCOIA (a) pre-buckling (b) post-buckling

39

A.3 Validation of Finite Element Modelling

A.3.1 Selection of FE Models
The first action undertaken in the numerical activities was the calibration of the numerical
tool. The optimum finite element model to analyse the structural problem under consideration
was determined simulating the elastic-plastic buckling tests on conical shells described in the
preceding chapter.
An extensive numerical investigation was performed to test the full range of available finite
element models. In fact, shell buckling problems are known to be among the most difficult to
tackle via numerical analysis, both owing to unstable post-buckling behaviour and because of
high imperfection sensitivity typically encountered in these structural elements.
All the FE calculations have been performed using the general purpose finite element
program ABAQUS [14].
A.3.1.1 Unstiffened Conical Shells
Three different geometrical models have been examined:
i)
axisymmetric models
ii)
conical panel models with varying width
iii)
complete cone models
In addition, different finite elements (in terms of element formulation) from the extensive
library available in the package used have been tested. The advantages and disadvantages of
the three models are reported in the following.
Model (i)
Advantages
The geometry is described by modelling only the meridian.
The resulting number of equations is limited and therefore this model is the most
convenient in terms of required computer time.
Disadvantages
The model cannot describe an asymmetric'buckling mode (which is likely in conical
shells, at least insofar as elastic buckling is concerned).
It is not possible to include asymmetric imperfections, which are invariably present in
any realistic application.
Model (ii)
Advantages - Disadvantages
Asymmetric imperfections can be modelled but only part of the entire imperfection
surface may be considered in any one model.
The boundary conditions along the straight edges of the panel (along meridians) can be
specified as either symmetric or antisymmetric but, in either case, this implies that
some restrictions are imposed on the buckling mode shape allowed to develop.
In terms of computer time this model is much more demending than model (i) but still
manageable, even for the purposes of parametric studies.
Model (iii)
Advantages
The geometric imperfections can be modelled in detail (i.e. both axisymmetric and
asymmetric modes).
The response in terms of displacements, strains and stresses can be compared in detail
with any available test results.
Disadvantages
The model is the most burdensome in terms of computer time and because of the high
number of equations (degrees of freedom) it becomes difficult to accommodate even on
dedicated workstations.

41

A.3.1.2 Stiffened Conical Shells

The simulation of the experiments on stringer-stiffened cones was carried out by means of a
model of the complete cone but other simplified models were also used. In particular, some
stiffened panel models, exploiting the symmetry conditions, were studied. Panels with
different width, defined by a pair of successive mid-panel meridians (and, therefore, with
different numbers of stringers) were analysed [12,15,16].
The finite element models used shell elements for both the shell wall and the stringers. The
particular element adopted is a nine-node Lagrange doubly-curved shell element using a
reduced 2x2 Gauss integration scheme and five degrees of freedom per node. Five integration
points across the thickness were considered to account for non-linear material behaviour. The
element formulation is based on large displacements and small strains.

A.3.2 Modelling Aspects and Convergence Study

In all the models the following conditions were assumed:
Loading conditions
The study is devoted to axially compressed conical shells and in all the experiments
performed only vertical loads were imposed. During the tests the load was applied as
imposed shortening by means of heavy plates placed at the two ends of the model. These
plates were in full contact with both the shell and the stringers around the entire specimen
circumference through an adequate clearance at the ends, see Chapter A.2. Similarly, in the
numerical models the load was applied at the top end (small-radius end) and was uniformly
distributed. If present, the stringers were also loaded in the same manner. The effect of the
stiff end-plates, which is to impose uniform end shortening, was simulated in the numerical
model through the use of constraint equations, which link the displacement(s) of a set of
nodes in a pre-defined manner (in this case, imposing equal axial deflections to all the nodes
of the small-radius end).
Boundary conditions
With reference to Figure A.3.1 and the adopted symbols, the boundary conditions are the
following:
top circle (small-radius end):
bottom circle (large-radius end):

v=0
u sinp + w cosp = 0
u.s = 0
fully clamped

Therefore, the conical shell is effectively clamped at both ends, and the shortening at the ends
is constrained to take place in the axial direction only (thus simulating the presence of heavy
rings or bulkheads at the two ends).
Material properties
The material properties used in the numerical models are based on the results obtained in the
experiments (coupon testing). In particular,
Young modulus = 201200 MPa

Poisson ratio = 0.3

The full stress-strain relationships obtained from the experiments were used (see chapter
A.2). As mentioned previously, the yield stress for each conical shell specimen was defined
as the average value determined from several coupon tests. This was the best option in the
absence of any clearly identifiable trends realted to the orientation of coupons. Furthermore,
since no compression coupon testing has been undertaken, it was decided not to make any
changes to the tension coupon test results. As is well known, some studies advocate the use
of higher yield stress in compression than in tension.
The Von Mises yield criterion is used in the FE analyses for general stress conditions.

42

A.3.2.1 Axisymmetric Model

The axisymmetric finite element SAX2 has been used. Each element has 3 nodes with five
integration points over the thickness and two along the length. The resulting finite element
mesh and the first eigenmode are reported in Figure A.3.2. A convergence procedure was
adopted to evaluate the appropriate number of elements to model the particular buckling
problem in hand. The number of elements was varied from 50 to 200 although the model
should also conform with the number of imperfection and deflection readings taken. Thus, to
simulate the experiments one has to adopt a model with only 21 elements so as to introduce
the geometric imperfections in the exact location where readings were taken (i.e. where the
LVDTs were positioned).
A.3.2.2 Conical Panel Model
This model was studied mainly in view of its potential use in the analysis of stringer-stiffened
shells. The convergence procedure was based on the simulation of a corresponding
unstiffened cone. The conical panel width is equal to 1/8,1/16 and 1/32 of the circumference
and the FE models are based on 16x40, 8x40 and 4x40 (circumferential axial) meshes
respectively [15,17].
A.3.2.3 Complete Cone Model
A model comprising 25 elements in the axial direction and 72 elements in the circumferential
direction was used. It was demonstrated that this number of elements was sufficient to
evaluate correctly the first eigenmodes which contain up to 23 axial half-waves. The first
eigenmode for a typical unstiffened cone is reported in Figure A.3.3 [15, 17]. Different
considerations prevail in the case of stiffened cones, which are described in more detail
below (section A.3.3.3).
A.3.2.4 Model Comparisons
For any particular unstiffened cone geometry, the eigenvalues obtained with the models
outlined above were all very close, even though the first model is only able to evaluate
axisymmetric buckling modes. This observation indicates that the linear buckling behaviour
of an axially compressed conical shell is similar to the behaviour of its cylindrical
counterpart, which, as is well known, is characterized by a number of almost coincident
buckling loads, each admitting a different buckling mode shape.
The analysis of the shape of the eigenmodes is straight forward in the axisymmetric models,
since the number of waves in the axial direction can be easily counted. However, in the other
models (panel and, more importantly, complete) it was necessary to perform a Fourier
analysis of the FE eigenmode results in order to determine dominant harmonics. Since the
buckling modes cannot be readily represented in analytical form (as is the case for cylinders)
three different ways of performing a Fourier analysis were tested [15].
The eigenmodes of the panel model are comparable with those of the complete model,
provided the width analysed can conform with the circumferential buckling wavelength.
A common feature of all FE eigenmodes is that, for the unstiffened cone geometries analysed
(which correspond to the specimens tested experimentally), damped modes are found in the
axial direction (i.e. the amplitude of the waves decreases as the distance from the smallradius end increases).

A.3.3 Comparison of FE Results with Tests

A.3.3.1 Analysis of Imperfect Geometries
The simulation of shell buckling experiments by finite elements must involve modelling of
the geometric imperfections recorded on the test specimen. As reported in chapter A.2, the

43

real imperfections were processed through best-fit and Fourier analysis. Hence, analytical
expressions of the imperfection surfaces were available and a selection of relevant modes for
inclusion in the numerical model could be made.
As mentioned before, the sole use of axisymmetric Fourier modes of the imperfect surface
which can be introduced in an axisymmetric FE model - model (i)- does not describe
adequately the actual imperfection surface and, in most cases, produces a response which is
different from that observed experimentally. Even the use of a model based on a single
imperfect panel cannot fully simulate the experiments undertaken. Once more in this case,
the selected sector of the actual imperfect surface which is inputted in FE model cannot
capture the full response. Furthermore, the choice of the most appropriate imperfect sector to
be considered is not easy, since it cannot be based on simple criteria such as the maximum
deviation from the ideal geometry.
In the case of stringer stiffened cones, the stringer imperfections have also been considered.
However, the experimental data refer only to the out-of-plane initial deflections along the
stiffener outstand, and a linear interpolation is used to complete the stiffener profile. It is
worth noting that the use of sector (or single panel) models has a stronger justification in this
case, especially if the geometry is such that local buckling between stiffeners (as opposed to
overall buckling) governs the response. This is further discussed below.
A.3.3.2 Unstiffened Cones
A most significant comparison can be made in terms of load-end shortening curves since
these describe the overall response of the structural element under consideration. A typical
comparison is reported in Figure A.3.4. As described in Chapter A.2 and reported in [18], the
elastic stiffness of the specimens measured experimentally is close both to the membrane
solution and to the FE solution if the elastic shortening is measured between the two rings i.e.
if the measurements refer to the clear part of the model. In fact, it was noted that the elastic
stiffness evaluated on the basis of end shortening measurements for the complete cone is
significantly lower. Various FE models concentrating on the end details of the tested models
have been studied in [18] in order to quantify these differences. On the post-buckling path the
FE models exhibit a slope similar to that recorded experimentally and the agreement is
considered satisfactory. The collapse mode observed in the experiments is also very similar
to that obtained with FE analysis. For the four unstiffened models tested, it consists
primarily of an axisymmetric bulge near the top end, i.e. the small-radius end. This is the socalled 'elephant foot' collapse mode.
In terms of peak loads, the FE prediction is very satisfactory (see Table A.3.1), although
marginally better for long cones where the discrepancy is confined to within 2%. The
introduction of the full geometric imperfections seems to be necessary, even though the final
collapse mode is axisymmetric and the collapse load is not far off from the squash load.
Table A.3.1: Comparison of FE and experimental results for unstiffened cones
Model
Ref.

Slenderness
parameter
(ECCS defn.)

Test ultimate load

over FE prediction
perfect geometry

Test ultimate load

over FE prediction
imperfect geometry

UCOl
UC02

0.56/0.80
0.71 /1.01

0.90
0.76

0.98
1.00

UC03
0.61/0.86
0.88
0.96
UC04
0.77 1.09
0.75
0.96
Note: Two values for the ECCS slenderness parameter are given:
- the first based on an factor applicable to imperfections less than the tolerances
- the second based on a reduced value (a /2) due to the high imperfections in the specimens.

44

A.3.3.3 Stringer-Stiffened Cones

A complete model was used to perform both eigenvalue analysis and fully non-linear stepby-step analysis. The eigenvalue analysis is not directly comparable with experimental results
but it is important for evaluating the slenderness of the model (P0/Pcr) and the reduction
factor (PJPcr) It is also relevant since it allows the determination of the eigenmode which
needs to be compared with the Fourier imperfection shape to detect the presence/absence of
the critical mode in the actual imperfection. Note that, contrary to many other cases
(including the axially compressed unstiffened cones) there are no analytical expressions with
which the FE eigenvalue predictions can be compared. In this respect, the validation of
numerical tools for stringer-stiffened cones can only be based on comparisons with the
experimental results which are all in the elasto-plastic regime. Thus, the ultimate load Pu is
expected to be affected by pre-buckling non-linearities (if present), the effects of geometric
imperfections and material non-linearities, with the latter having perhaps the most important
influence.
The first eigenmodes for the three experimental models (SCOI, SCOIB and SC02B) are
depicted in Figure A.3.5 [12]. It should be noted that, in all cases, local panel buckling is
predominant. Significant stringer out-of-plane deflections are evident for model SCOIB,
where elastic buckling occurs close to the smaller radius, but they are present also in the
other models. These out-of-plane deflections develop so as to maintain the stringers
perpendicular to the buckled shell wall. Since local panel buckling is dominant, eigenvalue
analysis can also be performed using an FE panel model with very satisfactory results.
Further comments and considerations about the eigenvalue analysis can be found in [12,16].
It was significant, as in other elastic-plastic buckling problems, to evaluate the elastic-plastic
behaviour of the perfect shells to determine the interaction between plasticity and prebuckling non-linearities (Pu IP0). The geometries tested were characterized by a ratio Pu IP0
close to unity mainly because of the low slenderness involved (the ratio P0 IPcr being close
to 0.22). Nevertheless it should be noted that the squash load P0 is underestimated since it is
evaluated under the hypothesis of perfectly plastic material, while in both tests and FE
analyses, the stress-strain curve presents a distinct stress hardening behaviour.
The most significant comparisons between FE models and test results are obtained when both
the effects of geometric imperfections and of plasticity are included. However, as previously
commented in discussing model (iii), non-linear step-by-step analyses based on the complete
stringer-stiffened cone can only be performed for a few experimental comparisons since they
are extremely demanding in terms of computer time. Comparisons have been made in terms
of load vs. axial displacement curves, out of plane displacements and strains [12]. A typical
load vs. axial displacement curve is reported in Figure A.3.6 while the results of all the
analyses in terms of collapse load are summarized in Table A.3.2, together with the FE
predictions made using a singe panel model. In general, good agreement with the
experimental results is evident even though the FE models predict in most cases somewhat
lower collapse loads. The underestimation, which is within 10-12 %, could be due to the
stress-strain model used in the FE analysis obtained from tensile specimens, although in this
case the yield stress in compression is more relevant and this could be somewhat higher.
Table A.3.2: Comparison of FE and experimental results for stringer-stiffened cones
Model FEperf. (complete)

SCOIA
SCOIB
SC02B

FE imperi.

(complete)

FE perfect

(panel)

Test Results

Per
(kN)

PolPer

Pu
(kN)

Pu/Po

Po/Per

Pu
(kN)

Pu/Po

Pu/Per

Pu
(kN)

Pu/Po

524
490
521

0.22
0.22
0.21

110
100
106

0.95
0.94
0.97

0.21
0.20
0.20

112
106
113

0.97
1.00
1.03

0.21
0.22
0.22

110
107
121

0.96
1.01
1.11

45

As described in chapter A.2 and in the preceding section on unstiffened cones, the
experimental elastic stiffness evaluated between the end-rings compares well with FE results
[12, 16]. Once more, the comparison is not as good when the end-parts are included.
Finally, the comparison between FE results and experiments is also very good in terms of
post-buckling slope. This is shown to be less steep for the models having higher stiffening
ratio both experimentally and via FE analysis.

A.3.4 Conclusions
The numerical tools to be adopted in the parametric studies have first been calibrated
by simulating a series of elastic-plastic buckling tests on conical shells. This activity
has also allowed a more general evaluation of various FE models on shell buckling
problems, which, as is well known are among the most difficult to tackle via numerical
analysis.
An important aspect in the present study has been the modelling of the initial geometric
imperfections recorded on the test specimens. These were processed through best-fit
and Fourier analysis and, on this basis, a selection of relevant modes was made for
inclusion in the numerical models. It has been demonstrated that modelling of the full
imperfection surface is of primary importance in evaluating the ultimate load even in
cases where the final collapse mode is axisymmetric.
The comparison of FE with test results on unstiffened and stringer-stiffened cones has
been satisfactory both in terms of ultimate loads and collapse modes.
The comparison has also been very good in terms of stiffness and post-buckling slope;
however, it was shown that considerable care is needed in measuring end-shortening
values experimentally and that the conical shells are very sensitive to the degree of
radial edge constraint.

46

Fig A.3.1: Definition of conical shell geometry

47

Fig. A.3.2: Axisymmetric model - First eigenmode

Fig. A.3.3: Complete cone model - First eigenmode

48

120.0
UC01 unstiffened cone
Exp. between plates

FE model

80.0-

tf

Exp. between rings

40.0-

0.0

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

End shortening (mm)

Fig A.3.4: Comparison of load-end shortening results for UC01

120.00

80.00

'S
o

40.00-

-i

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

End shortening (mm)

Fig A.3.6: Comparison of load-end shortening results for SC01B

49

(a)

(b)

Fig. A.3.5: Critical eigenmodes for SCOIA, SCOIB and SC02B

(c)

A.4 Design Implications

Following the validation of the numerical tools, several investigations were carried out with
the main objective of improving existing rules for unstiffened cones and of developing
guidance for stringer-stiffened cones; a summary is given herein.

A.4.1 Review of current ECCS rules on unstiffened cones

In Figure A.4.1 a comparison of tests with existing ECCS rules is undertaken [11]. In
addition to the present series, the conical specimens tested by Kry sik and Schmidt [13] are
included. All test results lie beyond the ECCS curve, even though the imperfections in these
small-scale specimens are generally much higher than the ECCS tolerances (the ECCS curve
shown is based on 'severe' imperfection reduction factors, which are half the 'normal' value,
but without further allowance to account for imperfections higher than that upper limit). The
degree of conservatism varies but is in the range of 15-45%. In the light of these results,
either higher imperfection reduction factors or higher tolerance values may be accepted; it
might be preferable to concentrate on the latter, since the measuring of imperfections of
cones is not an easy procedure. In any case, it would appear that the current ECCS mie which
stipulates use of the small radius in calculating imperfection reduction factors is correct, since
it leads to the lowest possible slenderness (hence, the highest imperfection reduction factor)
being considered.
In view of the fact that the failure mode in the present specimens (and in those tested by
Krysik and Schmidt) is axisymmetric ('elephant foot'), it was thought appropriate to compare
test results with the axisymmetric plastic mechanism formulation developed by Poggi [6].
This approach is based on minimising the energy dissipated during the formation of an
axisymmetric bulge consisting of two straight line segments. The results are summarised in
Table A.4.1, indicating that, for the stockier models, the mechanism approach gives very
good predictions of failure loads and could be used as an alternative design approach [11]. As
might be expected, the mechanism predictions become unconservative as the slenderness
increases, since they are derived from an upper bound solution.
Table A.4.1: Comparison of tests with plastic mechanism

(ECCS defn.)

Test ultimate load

over plastic
mechanism
prediction

UCOl
UC02

0.56
0.71

0.99
0.80

UC03
UC04

0.61
0.77

0.97
0.84

Model
Ref.

Slenderness
parameter

An area of concern in designing conical shells using 'equivalent cylinder' approaches, such as
the one given in the ECCS recommendations, is to establish their range of applicability, by
setting an upper limit on the tapering (semi-vertex) angle. As is well known, the stability
nature changes from a bifurcation to a limit point response as the tapering angle increases
from 0 (cylinder) towards the physical upper bound of 90 (annular plate). A FE parametric
study was undertaken to investigate further this aspect. Linear and non-linear analyses were
performed on conical shells with different angles. A range of imperfection amplitudes for
each geometry was examined, in all cases assuming that the imperfection shape is similar to
the first eigenmode. The results are reported in Figure A.4.2 in terms of imperfection
sensitivity curves. A corresponding limiting curve derived from the current ECCS rules is

51

also shown. By considering the results for w/t = 0 (perfect cone) it may be concluded that the
ECCS procedure covers conservatively cone angles up to 70 (the current limit is 65). In
terms of imperfection sensitivity slope, the same conclusion may be made but some
additional work is needed in terms of alternative imperfection shapes.
In the current ECCS recommendations, the procedure for cones is based on the calculation of
a critical buckling stress. Considering that the critical buckling load (Seide's classical
solution) is given by (note that it is independent of radii)
_ 2 E t2 cos 2 p

V3 (1 - v2)
and that the cross-sectional area of the cone changes along the meridional co-ordinate, i.e.
A - 2nR t cos
because the radius R changes, it means that the critical buckling stress is also a function of
the meridional location, i.e.
E t coso
Oer =

V3 (1 - v 2 ) R

The acting (applied) stress on the cone due to an axial load P, which could be evaluated by
considering the membrane solution (generally this is sufficiently accurate away from
boundaries), i.e.
= /A=P I InRt cos
also varies along the meridional co-ordinate. Thus, the buckling check should, in principle,
be made at different points to ensure that the acting stress remains below the design buckling
stress (which is not equal to acr , since this theoretical value is modified for imperfections
and plasticity, but nevertheless remains a function of the meridional co-ordinate).
In order to avoid possible misinterpretation of stress based rules with regard to the
appropriate location for carrying out the checks, it is believed that using a buckling load
approach is preferable. In this case, all the design parameters (elastic critical buckling load,
squash load, acting or applied load) become unambiguous. For this reason, the present ECCS
rules have been recast in a load based formulation and are presented in the Annex to this
Chapter. In addition, the rules presented in the Annex adopt the Eurocode format in order to
render the formulas readily available for EC3 use.

A.4.2 Development of design proposal for stiffened cones

As already mentioned, currently there are no design rules for stringer-stiffened cones.
However, a short study by Samuelson [10] has indicated that it might be possible to adapt the
ECCS stringer-stiffened cylinders rules for this purpose. Furthermore, there are no analytical
solutions, similar to Seide's formula for unstiffened cones given above, on elastic critical
buckling loads of stringer-stiffened cones.
Thus, the starting point of the present investigation was to establish, through an equivalent
cylinder concept, a procedure which would lead to an estimate of the critical buckling load of
the stiffened shell, bearing in mind that either local shell buckling or stiffened panel buckling
may govern, depending on geometric parameters.
Since R is a function of the meridional co-ordinate, there are many different equivalent
cylinders that can be defined for any given cone. In the absence of analytical formulations to
help in selecting the appropriate value, it was decided to look for a clear and simple
definition, which could then be validated (and, if necessary, calibrated) against FE results.

52

Figure A.4.3 shows typical results obtained for a stiffened cone of dimensions similar to
specimen SCOIA by considering the full range of possible equivalent cylinders [16]. The
results are presented both in terms of stress and load (the latter being equal to the critical
stress calculated for any given location multiplied by the cross-sectional area appropriate to
that location) and, once more, it becomes clear that an unambiguous definition is essential.
Considering that, in some cases, the variation along the length is not monotonie (see elastic
stiffened panel buckling load line in Fig. A.4.3) and in the absence of analytical results to
support the choice of one particular radius value, it was decided to specify that the full
distribution of elastic critical loads should be calculated for each mode and that the two
minimum values (one from considering the local mode and the second from the stiffened
panel mode) should be taken as design estimates.
However, once the elastic buckling loads are determined in this way, it was felt that the
remaining two steps of the design procedure (imperfection and plasticity reduction factors for
the two possible buckling modes) should be linked to the elastic buckling loads in a unique
manner. The most appropriate parameters for an equivalent cylinder would be obtained by
calibrating against FE results, but also taking into account that, insofar as the local mode is
concerned, the proposals should be compatible with the rules for unstiffened cones.

A.4.3 Validation of design proposal for stiffened cones

Validation of the proposed procedure was undertaken using a wide range of FE models [12].
This was necessary in view of the different objectives of each step in this validation process
and also because of the different buckling modes involved. For example, in generating results
for local shell mode, a single panel model (defined by a pair of successive mid-panel
meridians) was primarily used, whereas in investigating the stiffened panel mode, complete
or multi-panel models were used. Furthermore, in the latter case, in order to arrive at
imperfection reduction factors that can be compared with the ECCS cylinder values for
stiffened cylinders, 'smeared' models were used, where the stringer stiffness is distributed
along the shell. Finally, some discretely stiffened multi-panel models (Fig. A.4.4) were also
generated in order to check the above mentioned simplified models.
A.4.3.1 Critical buckling behaviour
Results from a typical subset of the eigenvalue analyses undertaken in order to check the
elastic critical buckling load predictions of the proposed design approach are shown in Figure
A.4.5. The top graph shows the variation of Pcr with increasing number of stringers for a
typical stiffened cone geometry (p=15, /?;/i=200, R]/L=l, /=0.30). As can be seen, both FE
results and the design formulae predict a changeover of govering mode in roughly the same
range and, furthermore, the design predictions are reasonable, especially for the critical
buckling load of the governing mode.
The lower graph in Figure A.4.5 shows the results from an additional comparison examining
the variations as a function of the stiffening ratio (p=15, Rj/t=200, Rj/L-l, ns =32) with
broadly similar conclusions.
Further comparisons have been undertaken to validate the design predictions for a range of
semi-vertex angles (up to p=60) and also for different Rjlt and RjlL values. The results were
satisfactory, except when the ratio RjlL took on extreme values; tentatively, predictions for
geometries in the range between 0.5 <RjlL < 2.0 are believed to be acceptable.
A.4.3.2 Imperfection reduction factors
Use of FE to generate appropriate design data for imperfection reduction factors is a
promising development but the procedure is sensitive to the assumptions made in selecting
the FE models, in deciding appropriate input values for imperfection parameters (amplitude
and shape) and in interpreting the results. However, it is not realistic to expect that physical
tests can be used on their own for developing design rules, considering the size and

53

homogeneity of the database required. This is especially valid for structures like the stiffened
cones and other non-standard geometries.
In the current study, geometrically non-linear analyses of stiffened cone geometries were
undertaken using the eigenmode as the appropriate imperfection shape (this is acceptable
provided that the non-linear behaviour of the perfect geometry does not result in significantly
different pre-buckling shapes). In order to specify an imperfection amplitude that can be used
in a rational comparison of a wide range of geometries, it was decided to use the ECCS
tolerances as limiting values. Thus, the maximum imperfection of the selected pattern affine
to the buckling mode should stay within the envelope of ECCS tolerances (it is an envelope
rather than a single value because tolerance values are specified as a fixed fraction of a gauge
length, which varies depending on the location measured).
Typical results for imperfection reduction factors (ratio of limit load to critical load) obtained
in this manner from geometrically non-linear FE analyses are presented in Tables A.4.2a and
A.4.2b for local and stiffened panel buckling respectively. Further cases have been examined
and are reported in [12].
Table A.4.2a: Imperfection reduction factors - local shell buckling
(p = 15 Rj/t = 200
RjlL = 1
> = 0.30)
ns

FE

8
16
32
44

0.55
0.59
0.89
0.92

Table A.4.2b: Imperfection reduction factors - stiffened panel buckling

(Rj/t = 200
Rj/L = 1)

0
15
30
45
60

ns
32
64
32
64
32
64
32
64
32
64

OFE

0.30
0.87
0.83
0.86
0.83
0.89
0.86
0.88
0.85
0.82
0.81

0.10
0.85
0.76

0.50
0.95
0.96

In order to discuss the significance of these results, it is appropriate to examine the ECCS
philosophy behind the imperfection factors in stiffened-cylinders, which is illustrated in
Figure A.4.6. Thus, it can be seen that reduction factors change as a function of the stiffening
ratio (in the case of any given cylinder this parameter defined as C=As/bt has a unique value).
For low values (f<0.06) the unstiffened cylinder factor is used (a0), whereas for high values
(C>0.2) a value of asp =0.65 is specified, with a linear interpolation to cover the range in
between. A similar philosophy is considered appropriate for stiffened cones but the influence
of an additional parameter, the semi-vertex angle, should also considered. In addition, it is
important to note that the stiffening ratio in any given stringer-stiffened cone is not constant
since the panel width varies with respect to the meridional co-ordinate.

54

On the basis of the results obtained for stiffened cones through FE analysis, and considering
also the need to arrive at relatively simple design values, it is proposed to use the same
factors for stringer-stiffened cones as for stringer-stiffened cylinders.
The appropriate slenderness value for local shell buckling is to be determined using the
smaller radius (in line with the design rule for unstiffened cones) and the appropriate
stiffening ratio for stiffened panel buckling is to be based on an average stiffening ratio.
There is some evidence (see the Tables above) to suggest that these values are conservative
in certain cases (especially for local shell buckling) but further numerical studies in this area
would be advisable before higher factors can be introduced.
On stiffened panel buckling, the results have not revealed any substantial trend with respect
to the semi-vertex angle and, in general, the cone factors are of the same order as FE derived
cylinder factors. They are both found to be somewhat higher than the 0.65 value in the
current ECCS recommendations (by about 20%) but numerical factors do not take account of
any additional imperfections (other than the geometric pattern inputted to the model), such as
loading eccentricities etc, and, for this reason, it is not considered prudent to modify the
above value.
The entire design proposal for stiffened cones is set out in detail in the Annex.

A.4.4 Concluding remarks

Results from a range Of design orientated activities are summarised in this chapter. The
design of both unstiffened and stiffened cones is considered and proposals for
improvement or further development of the ECCS recommendations are made.
Most of the proposals are based on FE results, but it is believed that sufficient
confidence on the use of the particular tools and models has been created from
comparisons with the tests, as outlined in the preceding chapter.
The design proposals are presented in a self-contained document, which is the Annex
to this chapter. It can be readily used both for the next ECCS edition and for the
relevant EC3 parts currently under development. Naturally, it can be updated in the
future pending further checks, numerical parametric studies and any new tests.

55

1.2
KS3III
KS3I
KS6III

^Vv
\

0.8

C
AU 01

C
U 03

KS6I

UC02
DnV(1987)

0.6

Present Experiment

Kryslk & Schmidt (1990)

0.4

0.2

0.5

2.5

1.5

Figure A.4.1: Comparison of tests with ECCS rules Unstiffened cones

1.00

Imperfection K u i t i v i t y curves
Axisymmetric model

Pu/Pcr

&

Sv. *l20 (POT330 KN)

i.meMriO<Pali4J7KN)

. Mgta70 (FO43.S9 KN)

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00

Figure A.4.2: Imperfection sensitivity analysis of unstiffened cones

57

Local Panel Buckling Mode

1000
900
800

600
550
500
450
400
|[ 350
o 300
S 250
""200
150 100
50
0

~ 70
2 ecu
's 500
400
300
200
100
0
100

125 150 175 200 225

100

125

R[mm]

- _ _ ,

150 175
R[mm]

***~ "^ *

200 225

Stiffened Panel Buckling Mode

~
1
8

CO

1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
....
'300 ^ * O B
200
100
0
100 125 150 175 200 225
R[mm]

600
550
500
450
400
1 350
^"300
o 250
"* 200
150
100
50
0
100

" ^ ^ ;

'

125 150 175 200 225

R[mm]

Critical elastic stress

Critical elastic load

Ultimate elastic stress

Collapse plastic stress

Ultimate elastic load

Collapse plaste load

Figure A.4.3: Development of design strength predictions Stiffened cones

58

DISPLACEMENT nCTOR UJOUS TOtSION: S. 3-1

ICI

DATI: 21-OCT-

Tt: 21:

HZ*

STI/ 1 ZMCUfVT

Figure A.4.4: Eigenmode of multipanel discretely stiffened FE model

2500
\

2000

*f

1500

g,
0 1000 < >

'

500
Design local buckling

10

20

30

40

50

60

70
Design Stiffened Buckling

5001

ABAQUS stiffened Buckling

ABAQUS local buckling

'

2" 1500
l ^ X "

a.b 1000

<

sno
0
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
,

Figure A.4.5: Comparison of FE results with design predictions Stiffened cones

59

1.00 -

0.80 r/t=40

0.65
0.60
o.

0.40 -

0.20 -

0.00
0.2

0.3

0.4

'

1
0.5

As/(bt)

Figure A.4.6: Imperfection reduction factors for stiffened cylinders in ECCS rules

60

ANNEX TO CHAPTER A.4

PROPOSED DESIGN RULES FOR
UNSTIFFENED CONES IN COMPRESSION
Definition of Geometry. Range of Applicability
The dimensions of the cone and the coordinates are reported in the figure
below. The length L denotes either the total length of an unstiffened conical shell or
the length of a ring-stiffened conical shell between two rings.

The rules apply only if the cone semi-vertex (tapering) angle is less than 65 .
Buckling Modes
The following modes of instability may occur in unstiffened cones under axial
compression:
(a)
(b)

axisymmetric buckling
asymmetric buckling.

Both modes are covered by the rules below. Provided that the limitation L <
0.95 ReV2 (where Re is the minimum radius of an equivalent cylinder) is fulfilled, no
column buckling strength has to be considered:

61

Boundary Conditions
The rules apply only if the boundary condtions are such that
v=0 and u sinp - w cosp=0
along both edges of the cone. This is in agreement with the applications where the
curved edges of the cone are attached to heavy circular rings constraining the radial
displacement of the shell. If these conditions are not met, alternative design rules need
to be considered.
Limitation of the Imperfections
The specifications defined for circular cylinders shall be applied. At each
specific location on the shell the length of the rod and of the circulare template shall
be defined on the basis of the principal radius of curvature of the cone at the midpoint
of the rod or template. This means that the length depends on where the measurements
are taken. During measurements the circular template shall be placed in a plane
perpendicular to the axis of revolution, and measurements shall be taken normal to the
shell.
Axially Compressed Conical Shells
The design value of the acting compressive load PxSd shall satisfy the following
relations:
Px.Sd ,

where
P

x,Rd

x,Rk ! Mx

(!)

PxRd is the design buckling resistance, and PxRk is the characteristic buckling resistance
that may be obtained following the procedure below.
yMx is the shell safety factor for buckling.
Elastic Buckling Load
The critical buckling load may be derived from

x.cr

2 r2 cos2p
.

The imperfection reduction factor ax is given by

62

=T

,?,

vW

0.83

Oi,

for

R1/t<22

(3a)

R
1. + 0.01-i
t
0.70

a =

for RJt > 212

(3b)

0.1 + 0.01
t
Rl being the minimum radius of the cone.
Ultimate Buckling Load
The ultimate buckling load is taken as:
'x,Rk

X*

(4)

"o

where P0 fy2^Ri t cosp

and the factor is determined from
Xx =

a.

= 1.0-0.25

where

\ . == V {P0IP)

when Xx > \J2ax

X;
a.

(5a)

when J.x < \j2ax

(5b)

is the shell buckling slenderness

Shell Safety Factors

They may be taken as:
7 t o = 1-33 yMI when \
lMx

= (1.0 + 0.33 Xx / fio")

7A/J

where 7 ^ is the basic safety factor for buckling.

63

(6a)

> ^o~
wen , <

^2o~

(6b)

PROPOSED DESIGN RULES FOR

STRINGERSTIFFENED CONES IN COMPRESSION
Definition of Geometry
The cone is considered as a cylinder with parameters (ns,t,hw,tw) but with a
height equal to the slant length L of the cone and a radius equal to its radius of
curvature Re (Re(x)=R(x)/cosp) see the figure below. Cylinders with different radii Re
have to be considered as Re is a function of the axial coordinate, x.
The width between two successive stringers is the panel width be. Note that
since be=be(x), the stiffening ratio and the local panel slenderness change along the
length of the conical shell.
Detail of Stringer
shell wall

hw

Buckling Modes
The following modes of instability may occur in stringerstiffened cones:
(a)
(b)
(c)

Local stiffener buckling, i.e. flexural or torsional buckling of the

stringer;
Local shell buckling, i.e. buckling of shell panel between stiffeners
(subscript / for stress and load notation);
Stiffened panel buckling, i.e instability of the stiffened shell including
the stringers which participate in the buckling mode (subscript for
stress and load notation).

64

Provided that the limitation L < 0.95/'2 is fulfilled, no column buckling

strength has to be considered. The minimum Re is to be used in the above.
Buckling mode (a) is assumed not to be critical since stringer geometry
limitations are given to avoid stringer buckling. For a flat bar stiffener with t^-t the
following limitation should be fulfilled:
h I t < 0.35

fy

Boundary Conditions
The rules apply only if the boundary conditions are such that v=0 and u sinp wcosp=0, i.e. circumferential and radial displacements are constrained along the
curved edges. This is in agreement with applications where the curved edges of the
cone are attached to heavy circular rings constraining the radial displacements of the
shell. If these conditions are not met, alternative design rules need to be considered.
Imperfections
The shell wall imperfections w normal to the surface should not exceed the
following limitation:
"

< 0.01

where Lr=4VRet, but not greater that 95 % of the distance between successive circular
welds or meridional welds. Note that the gauge length is a function of the axial co
ordinate.
The imperfection limitations of the stringers refer to the inwards or outwards
lack of straightness of the stringers and to the lateral misalignment of the stiffener
attached to the shell as well as to the initial tilt of the stringer.
Thus,
w < 0.0015/G
where lc min(L, L) with Lm being the critical axial buckling half-wavelength.
For low stiffening ratios, additional tolerances may be specified.
Lateral misalignment shall be limited to the tolerance values given for stringerstiffened cylinders.

65

Elastic Critical B uckling Load

For each equivalent cylinder, the following formulae must be evaluated to
obtain local panel and stiffened panel elastic critical buckling stresses.
For buckling mode (b), the critical elastic stress acrl is given either by the
expression for a complete cylinder or by that for a flat plate whichever is higher,
depending on the ratio be /VRj:
'cr,l

= > 2.44
V/3(1 V2)

4x 2
cr.l

complete cylinder (7)

t
2

12(1 v )

L<
R.t

2.44

flat

plate

(8)

Since the stringers mainly act in constraining the radial displacement of the shell
along the shellstringer junction, the formula for flat plate buckling is obtained
assuming simple supported boundary conditions along these lines (the torsional stiffness
of the stringer is neglected).
For buckling mode (c), the critical elastic stress is evaluated by minimising
the following expression with regard to the number of longitudinal and circumferential
waves (m, ri):

33

Al2A23
.,A.

Al2A22

13

A12A13
AUA22

A 12

AnA23
A 12

'23

(9)

cr.p

mir

According to the ECCS Recommendations, in minimising (9) the cases n = 1 and

=2,3 are dropped since the former does not represent shell buckling and the latter
gives unsafe results.
The coefficients Aj are functions of the number of waves, the geometric
parameters of the equivalent cylinder and the orthotropic elastic constants. The latter
are functions of the spacing, crosssectional area and eccentricity of the stringers. The
elastic constants are also functions of the panel width: according to plate theory, as the
buckling load is reached, the stress distribution is no longer uniform and an effective
width be must be considered.
Since the effective width be js a function of the oCTllacr ratio, an iterative
procedure is required. Starting with be = be, cr,p is calculated by minimising (9). A

66

new value of be is then calculated from the new acr/acrp ratio, and so on until the
solution has converged.
Since equation (9) considers the stringers as 'smeared' along the shell wall, the
stiffeners must be closely spaced so that ns <3.5n where n is the minimised number
of circumferential waves.
The critical buckling stresses defined by equations (7), (8) and (9) must be
evaluated for the full range of equivalent cylinders corresponding to a particular cone.
Then, the corresponding elastic critical buckling loads should be calculated taking into
account the variation in the crosssectional area of the cone. For all critical stresses
mentioned above:
= A ocr = (2irRt+nsAs) ocr cosp

(10)

The minimum value of equation (10) gives the approximate elastic buckling load
of the cone. The minimum values should be found independently for local and stiffened
panel modes.
Imperfection Reduction Factors
The base reduction factor a0, which takes into account the imperfection
sensitivity of the shell is given by:
a0 =

83

for

RJt<2\2
(Ha)

1 + 0.01
t

a0 =

70

forRJt>2\2

(Hb)

0.1 + 0.01
t

From the basic factor a0, a reduction factor a is proposed for shell panel
buckling:
;=0

for w/L r <0.01

Only the value of Re corresponding to the small radius 7?j is needed in

calculating a.
For stiffened panel buckling, the reduction factor (a ) is given by:

67

for AJb;>0.2

(12a)

for As/bet<0.06 or Re/t<60

(12b)

<*^=0.65
=0

Since AJbet varies along the length of the cone (depending on the axial co
ordinate) an average value based on upper and lower be values (be at R=R} and be at
R=R2) is proposed.
A linear interpolation between 0.65 and a0 is taken for 0.06<As/bet<0.2.
The ultimate elastic buckling load is calculated as:
aP.
p

u.d

m i n

cr J

asp cr,p
sp i

(13)

where y is an additional shell safety factor (=4/3 apart from the flat plate local panel
buckling mode where 7=1).
ElastoPlastic Effects
In the elastoplastic range the influence of plasticity is considered by calculating
a plasticity reduction factor. For local panel buckling if < V2ocl
P

u,pi

where

(xh)P0

(14a)

= 1 0.25 X2/a and y = (1.0 + 0.33X /V2a)

.,=0

where

complete cylinder

flat

plate

(14b)

= 1 0.25 2

For stiffened panel buckling mode if < V2oLsp:

PU,P, = (/7) ,

<15>

where and 7 are as given above in equation (14a)

and = V(P0/Pcr) and P0=(2irRet+nsAs)fycosp is the squash load calculated at
minimum Re. The appropriate Pcr must be used, depending on which mode (local or
stiffened.panel) is being checked.

68

A.5 Conclusions
The project comprised experimental, numerical and design-orientated activities. Preceding
chapters have outlined the methodology followed in each of these areas and presented typical
results. The following is a summary of the main conclusions reached:
(1) Tests on unstiffened cones buckling elasto-plastically have confirmed that the current
ECCS formulation gives conservative predictions, even though the specimen imperfections
were in excess of ECCS tolerances; conservatism is thought to be attributed to the ECCS
imperfection reduction factors.
(2) For the stockier set of test specimens (ECCS slenderness < 0.6) a plastic mechanism
approach can deliver accurate predictions for design purposes; for higher slenderness values
(0.7-0.8), the plastic mechanism approach becomes non-conservative by about 15-20%.
(3) Comparison of test results for unstiffened cones with a wide range of FE models indicates
that the closest agreement between FE and tests is obtained when full imperfection
information is included in the numerical models; even for the unstiffened cone specimens,
whose final collapse mode is largely axisymmetric, the effect of non-axisymmetric
imperfections is not insignificant. Hence, full imperfection scans in shell buckling
experiments are thought to be essential when comparison with (or validation of) numerical
tools is undertaken.
(4) Tests on widely-spaced stringer-stiffened cones, and comparison with their unstiffened
counterparts, have confirmed the efficiency of this stiffening arrangement in axially
compressed cones.
(5) Comparisons of test results for stiffened cones with FE calculations have shown that
numerical models which can incorporate the full test imperfection perform better than others,
but single panel models have also a useful role to play, particularly when conservative
assumptions regarding the imperfection pattern are introduced (e.g. as done in parametric
studies).
(6) Specification of end conditions for conical shells is a crucial part of strength analysis;
both tests and FE calculations have shown the sensitivity of stiffness and strength predictions
to this aspect; the exact conditions prevailing on the radial constraint at the ends are the most
important element of the boundary conditions.
(7) Some proposals for improvement of current ECCS formulation for unstiffened cones have
been made, namely:
- using a critical buckling load (rather than a stress) parameter avoids potential confusion
with the definition of the carrying capacity of the cone
- using only the lowest radius-thickness value in deriving the imperfection reduction factor
will make the design approach less conservative
- by investigating the nature of stability in cones as a function of the tapering (semi-vertex)
angle, the limiting value of 65 was found to be acceptable.
(8) A design method for stringer-stiffened cones compatible with the ECCS format has been
proposed and checked through a series of FE calculations; it is based on the existing ECCS
stringer-stiffened cylinder formulation but with the following provisos:
- it uses the concept of critical buckling load (instead of stress)
- it proposes the use of small radius slenderness for local buckling reduction factors (in line
with the conclusion reached earlier on unstiffened cones)
- it proposes the use of an average stiffening ratio for panel buckling reduction factors
- it retains tentatively the ECCS elasto-plastic reduction equation until further validation.

69

Notation
b(x)
fy
hw

conical panel width

yield stress
stringer depth

k
/
ns

number of half-waves in meridional direction

number of full waves in circumferential direction
number of stringers in stiffened cone

t
tw

shell thickness
stringer thickness

u,v,w
u],u2,u3

meridional, circumferential and normal coordinates

radial, circumferential and axial coordinates

As
E
L

Per
Pi
o
n
R1P2

co-ordinate in meridional direction (0<x<L)

stringer area (= hw tw)
Young's modulus
slant length of cone
applied load
elastic critical load (classical solution or linear eigenvalue analysis)
limit load (elastic geometrically non-linear analysis)
squash load
ultimate load (test or fully non-linear analysis)
small and large radii of cone

imperfection reduction factor

stiffening ratio (= As I b(x) t)
circumferential co-ordinate

/cl

slenderness parameter
amplitude of Fourier mode (k,l)

v
>23
/cl

tapering or semi-vertex angle of cone

Poisson ratio
rotations about uj,u2,u3 directions
phase angle of Fourier mode (k,l)

70

References
1. European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Buckling of Steel Shells, European
Recommendations, 4th edn, Brussells, 1988.
2. Seide, P., Axisymmetrical buckling of circular cones under axial compression, J. Appi.
Mech., 23 (4), 1956, 6258.
3. B aruch M., Harari, O. & Singer J., Low buckling loads of axailly compressed conical
shells, J. Appi. Mech., 37, 1970, 58671.
4. Pariatmono, N. & Chryssanthopoulos, M. K., Asymmetric elastic buckling of axially
compressed conical shells with various end conditions, AJAA J., 33 (11), 1995,221827.
5. Chang, C. H. & Katz, L., B uckling of axially compressed conical shells, / . Eng. Mech.
Div., ASCE, 106 (3), 1980,50116.
6. Poggi, C , The collapse of ringstiffened cones under axial compression and external
pressure, in Proc. ECCS Colloquium on Stability of Plate and Shell Structures, Ghent, 1987,
40510.
7. Schmidt, H. & Krysik R., Static strength of transition cones in tubular members under
axial compression and internal pressure, in Proc. 6th Int. Symp. Tubular Structures,
Melbourne, Australia, 1994.
8. Singer J., The influence of stiffener geometry and spacing on the buckling of axially
compressed cylindrical and conical shells, in Proc. IUTAM Symp. Theory of Thin Elastic
Shells, ed. F. I. Niordson, Berlin, 1969, 23463.
9. Tong, L., Tabarrok, B. & Wang, T.K., Simple solutions for buckling of orthotropic conical
shells, Int. J. Solids and Struct., 29 (8), 1992,93346.
10. Samuelson, L.A., Stiffened conical shells; approximate methods of analysis. In Proc.
ECCS Colloquium on Stability of Plate and Shell Structures, Ghent, 1987,4116.
11. Pariatmono, The Collapse of Axially Compressed Conical Shells, PhD Thesis, Imperial
College, University of London, 1994.
12. Spagnoli, ., B uckling B ehaviour and Design of Stringerstiffened Cones in
Compression, PhD Thesis, Imperial College, University of London, to be submitted 1996.
13. Krysik, R. and Schmidt. H., B eulversuche an langsnahtgeschweissten sthlernen
Kreiszylinder und Kegelstumpf schalen im elastischplastischen B ereich unter Meridiandruck
und innerer Manteldruckbelastung, Technical Report 51, University of Essen, September
1990.
14. Hibbit, Karlsson & Sorensen, ABAQUS Version 5.4: Theory and User's Manual,
Providence, Rhode Island, 1994.
15. Lucchinetti, E., Analisi numerica e sperimentale dell'influenza delle imperfezioni
geometriche sull'instabilit elastoplastica di gusci assialsimmetrici, D iploma Thesis,
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale, Politecnico di Milano, 1994.
16. Spagnoli, A. & Chryssanthopoulos, M.K., Experimental and modelling techniques for
buckling analysis of stiffened cones, CESLIC Report SS5, Imperial College, 1995.
17. Donatelli, R., Analisi numerica degli effetti delle imperfezioni geometriche sull'instabilit
elastoplastica di gusci troncoconici compressi assialmente, Diploma Thesis, Dipartimento
di Ingegneria Strutturale, Politecnico di Milano, 1993.
18. Poggi, C , Numerical simulation of tests on conical shells the effects of radial
constraints, Technical Report, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale, Politecnico di Milano,
May 1995.

71

ECSC Contract No. 7210SA/208

Enhancement of ECCS Design Recommendations and

Development of Eurocode 3 Parts Related to Shell Buckling

Part

LOCAL LOADS IN CYLINDRICAL STRUCTURES

Final Report

Ghent University
Laboratory for Model Research
Prof. Dr. ir. J. Rathe
Technical University of Graz
Institut fr Stahlbau, Holzbau und Flchentragwerke
Prof. Dr. ir. R. Greiner

TABLE OF SYMBOLS
half-width of local support
width of local support
0,2 % proof stress
ultimate tensile stress
yield stress
overall-height of the cylinder model
height of reinforced bottom course
reference length, size of potential buckles for a cylinder under uniform axial
compression
axial length of imperfection
number of supports
radius of cylinder
thickness
wall-thickness of reinforced bottom course

b
d
frj,2

fu
fy

h
h,
lref
limp

n
r,R
t
ti

E
F
Fer
** max
Fref
Fyield,l

GNL
GNLI
GMNLI
=

Y=

' cr,GNLI

cr,GMNL1

th of circular circumference

modulus of elasticity
axial load in mathematical analysis model
buckling load for mathematical analysis cut-out
collapse load for mathematical analysis cut-out model
reference axial load in mathematical analysis model
axial load corresponding with squash yielding of analysis cut-out =
27rrtfy/8
geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis
geometrically nonlinear analysis of imperfect shell
fully nonlinear (geometrical and material nonlinear) analysis of imperfect
shell
dimensionless elastic local buckling stress
dimensionless elastoplastic local buckling stress

75

yield stress
imperfection amplitude
steel grade factor =

<|>u

2
K2.LOCAL
K2,L0CAL,RIGID
K2.UNIF0RM

235

fy expressed in MPa

outer diameter
support opening angle = d/R
reduction factor = acr/fy
reduction factor for local buckling
reduction factor for local buckling, rigid boundary conditions
reduction factor, according to DIN 18800/4 for cylinders under uniform
axial compression

supported part of circumference =

dimensionless
Arj/Ayieid, . 100
dimensionless
dimensionless

,
,

load factor = A/Ayieid,i. 100

dimensionless load parameter
load parameter, GMNLI analysis
load parameter, GNLI analysis

slenderness parameter =

VCTeri

slenderness parameter, based upon elastic critical stress of the imperfect

shell; = I

V cr,GNLI
O'er
0"cr,GMNLl
0"cr,GNLI
0"cri

exp

0
,
AXo,GNLI

/.max

yield

critical or buckling stress

critical, local buckling stress from GMNLI analysis = elastoplastic buckling
stress for the imperfect shell
critical, local buckling stress from GNLI analysis = elastic buckling stress
for the imperfect shell
classical elastic buckling stress for a cylinder under uniform axial
compression
experimental, axial compressive buckling stress

dimensionless load factor = F/Fref

inclination of the fitting line in a diagram
inclination of fitting line = /,.
inclination of fitting line for XO,GMNLI analysis
inclination of fitting line for XO,GNLI analysis
dimensionless collapse load factor Fmsx./FTe{ for = 0 (extrapolation)
maximum dimensionless load factor
dimensionless load factor for squash yielding : Ayieid = Fyieid,i/Fref

76

Bl

Introduction

The design of thin-walled steel shell structures with respect to buckling is covered
by national and international standards for idealized shell elements (cylinders, cones, torispheres) subjected to uniform loading conditions (e.g. [B.l] ). These design regulations are the fruits
of years or even decades of both experimental and theoretical investigations.
On the other hand, the topic of local force introduction in cylinders - for instance, large elevated
cylindrical silos and tanks, which are generally supported on a number of columns where high,
meridional compressive stresses arise above the column tenninations - has received relatively
little attention in the past and growing interest in this practical problem started about a decade
ago. Nevertheless, the designer often finds himself lost by the lack of design regulations or ex
perimental evidence, and the success of the project not seldomly bears heavily for a great deal on
the engineer's intuition and his bom feeling for common sense.
The present research programme tackles the problem of local axial loads on cylin
ders and it should cover the field of unstiffened as well as of stiffened structures. In the present
context, the significance of the word 'stiffened' may not be misunderstood : stiffening the thin
shell wall against local axial forces means that certain structural elements are employed in order
to reduce the high stress concentrations at the supports and to provide a way for introducing the
concentrated loads smoothly into the shell wall (fig. B.l).
The research activity, sponsored by the European Community, should solve the
problem of stability and load-bearing capacity of cylindrical steel structures subjected to such lo
calized loadings. Its purpose is to develop simple design recommendations which can be intro
duced into the ECCS rules and structural Eurocodes in order to assist designers in the steel in
dustry. The present report deals with situations, illustrated infigureB.l as a and b.
extended
columns

thicker
lower portion

two rings +
extended columns

r
!

a /

I .

unstiffened cylinder

11

J 1

practical solutions for vertical load introduction

Figure B.1 : Local force introduction

The scientific research comprises an experimental part, which has been carried out
at the Laboratory for Model Research of the Ghent University (Belgium) and a numerical part,
which was ordered by the Laboratory for Research on Models and carried out by the Technical
University of Graz (Austria).

77

B2

Survey of the pertinent Literature

An overview of the relatively scarce literature available for locally supported cylin
ders is given below, where a classification is done according to whether the studies concentrate
on linear elastic behaviour, on linear bifurcation analysis, or on nonlinear buckling behaviour.
Linear elastic behaviour has been studied by a number of researchers. It appears that
the semi-membrane theory, adopted by Greiner [B.2, B.3] and ry et al.. [B.4] offers an eco
nomical analysis tool. Greiner's variant leads to a model that is similar to the beam-on-elasticfoundation problem. ry et al., who use the matrix transfer method, claim that their simplified
approach, derived by neglecting the longitudinal bending stiffness and torsional stiffness of the
cylinder wall, which results in a much easier method of solving the differential equations for the
cylindrical shell, yields sufficiently accurate results. It is also worthwhile to mention the merits
of Flugge's contribution [B.5], in which he develops a numerical technique in order to solve the
differential equations for a semi-infinite cylinder, and that of Bodarski et al. [B.6, B.7] who
examine damage in a steel silo with a bottom ring resting on four supports.
Linear bifurcation analysis of perfect shells under circumferentially varying axial
loads is dealt with in only a few studies, (e.g. [B.6-B.12] ) despite the extensive research efforts
on shell buckling over the last few decades. In all these cases the lowest eigenvalues are only
slightly larger than the classical one, which corresponds with uniformly distributed compressive
axial stresses, except for small support widths for which higher buckling stresses are found. Mo
reover, these studies deal with perfect shells, even though it is well-known that shell buckling
under axial compression is normally very much imperfection sensitive. ry and Reimerdes (e.g.
[B.13] ) suggested that column-supported cylinders might be 20-30% less imperfection sensitive
than uniformly supported cylinders. We surmise that the degree of imperfection sensitivity is the
same, provided that the structural elements for axial load introduction are fully adequate, i.e. are
of such a nature that the stress distribution in the shell is very similar to the one prevailing in a
cylinder under uniform compression. On the other hand, Rotter and Teng (e.g. [B.14] ) have a
point when they state that the imperfection sensitivity should steadily decrease for unstiffened
cylinders as the stress state becomes more localized, leading to vanishing sensitivity for very lo
cal stresses. Yet, the outcome might be unclear for the extremely unusual but potentially dange
rous situation where shape imperfections are concentrated in the immediate vicinity of the local
supports.
To date, some publications (e.g. [B.14-B.17] ) about nonlinear buckling behaviour
of unstiffened cylindrical shells subjected to localized loads are available, most if not all of them
being based upon the finite element technique. Rotter and Teng [B.l6] seem to be the first to
have examined, on a theoretical basis, the behaviour of unstiffened, perfect and imperfect cylin
der shells on discrete column supports in the elastic range, where the shell wall is exposed to
uniformly distributed meridional traction which represents the frictional force imposed on the
silo wall by a bulk solid. Their studies, in which a number of parameters are varied in a syste
matic way, incorporate geometrical nonlinearity, and the effect of a local axisymmetric imper
fection at a specific height above the support is taken into account. The number of supports is
varied between 4 and 20.
Samuelson (e.g. [B.17] ) conducted a limited number of computations for one parti
cular elastic silo model with different types ofring and stringer arrangements, comparable with
figs B.l (a), B.l(c) and B.l(d) respectively.
At the time the present investigation started, the Laboratory for Model Research got
a copy of W. Guggenberger's doctoral dissertation [B.l8] in which the basic problem of local
force introduction in unstiffened and stiffened cylinders is dealt with numerically.

78

B3

Scope of Work

The project was logically subdivided into several parts. The investigations were
focussing on so-called Unstiffened Cylinders and on Cylinders with Reinforced Wall thickness
of The Bottom Course.
The test programme was accompanied by a theoretical-numerical programme of
detailed re-analysis of selected test cases byfiniteelement computations. Thereby different ty
pes of material behaviour up to fairly large strain levels (obtained by uni-axial tension tests)
had to be taken into account : material models Ml exhibiting a pronounced hardening behavi
our and material models M2 exhibiting a marked yield plateau with subsequent hardening. The
first test cylinders were nominally perfect with manufacture-induced imperfections (cutting,
rolling and soldering). A second series of tests was carried out with additional artifical imper
fections above the supports that were produced by manual cold-forming with a suitably shaped
device.
The second part of the project was devoted to numerical parametric studies for the
purpose of developing design recommendations. Thereby, contrary to the testing conditions,
idealized conditions were assumed with respect to material behaviour and support conditions.
Ideal Mises-elastoplasticity without hardening was assumed (simulating ordinary mild con
struction steel) and the support conditions were assumed completely flexible. This means that
the axial support force is introduced into the shell wall by uniform line loads over the suppor
ted portion of the circumference, because the stiffness of the potential support plate is comple
tely neglected. This assumption produces results for the buckling strength which are on the
safe side.
The test cylinders are 350 mm in radius and 700 mm in height. The sheet thicknes
ses are t = 0.7 , 1.0 and 1.5 mm for material Ml and t = 0.6 , 1.0 and 1.5 mm for material M2.
The test cylinders are terminated by a flat-bar ring (t = 0.7 mm) at the lower edge and are
supported on n = 4 equidistant support plates of variable widths. Radial imperfection measu
rements were carried out for all specimens along 8 generatrices along the central support me
ridians and the 45deg-meridians in-between, except for a few cases in which the local regions
above the supports were covered by afinegrid of measurement points. The buckling tests we
re carried out in a simple way by pure load-control, which had the natural effect that the pro
cess of instability after reaching the load maximum was in most cases of highly explosive natu
re.
The following modelling assumptions were adopted throughout for the analysis
models of the re-analysis of tests :
*Rigid support conditions, i.e. the support plates were simulated by built-in conditions with
total displacement constraints for all deformation components.
*The out-of-plane bending stiffness of the lower edge-ring, which has the shape of a flat bar,
was either neglected (simply supported conditions) or the edge-ring was taken into account
as a curved elastoplastic beam.
*Different theoretical models were applied concerning the representation of the elastoplastic
material behaviour of the test specimens which was measured by common tension tests for
each sheet thickness. Ramberg-Osgood deformation plasticity, incremental small-strain
Mises-elastoplasticity with hardening and large-membrane-Log-strain Mises-elastoplasticity
were considered.
*Manufacture-induced imperfections were not taken into account with their actually measured
values but by simple representative shapes and mean amplitudes. These shapes were intended
to represent the most obvious characteristics of the recorded imperfections and miss the

79

tiny details. It turned out that the main characteristics of manufacture-induced imperfections
consisted in outward-directed axisymmetric trumpet-shaped imperfections at the lower edge
of the cylinders. Also the artifical imperfections were not taken into account with their ac
tual distributions but with their theoretically intended shapes. The amplitudes were chosen
as representative mean values.
The second part of the project was devoted to parametric finite element studies for
the development of design rules. For this purpose, commonly used but far-reaching assump
tions were adopted which are more or less in contrast to the properties of the 'real' test mo
dels.
* Flexible support conditions
* Classical simply-supported boundary conditions at the upper and lower edge
* Ideal Mises-elastoplasticity without hardening representing mild construction steel of
common grades Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510.
* Theoretical local imperfections above the supports are adopted.
These parametric studies were performed for Unstiffened cylinders and for Cylinders with Reinforced Wall thickness and the standard steel grade Fe 360. In addition, the ef
fect of higher steel grades Fe 430 and Fe 510 was systematically investigated. Finally, further
important effects were studied, concerning rigid support conditions, edge-ring stiffeners and
support plates and the interaction with internal pressure.
On the basis of the results of the foregoing numerical analyses it was possible to
derive design recommendations for all investigated aspects of the problem so that these basic
cases may be viewed as solved. However, there remain several open points, especially con
cerning the effects of edge-ring stiffeners and supports plates which, at the present state, could
be covered only in a very simplified way.

B4

Experimentation and Numerical Results

B4.1

Fabrication of Cylindrical Steel Models and Test Set-up

[B.20]
Fabrication

Photo B.1 : Sheet shearing machine

80

The overall dimen

sions of the steel mo
dels are : height = 700
mm and radius = 350
mm. They are suppor
ted at four discrete
points. The width of
the support plates can
be varied : during the
present investigation
support widths of 13,7
mm ; 27,5 mm ; 41,2
mm and 55 mm res
pectively have been
used. These values

correspond with a supported portion of the lower rim that is equal to 2,5% ; 5% ; 7,5% and 10%
of the entire circumference.

Photo B.2 : Bending machine

The cylinder models are made out of rectangular steel plates. First of all, the rectan
gular plates are brought to the desired size by means of a cutting operation with a sheet shearing
machine (photo B.l).
Subsequently, the flat plate is rolled into a cylindrical shape with a bending machine
(photo B.2). After having accomplished this rolling operation, the seam between the neighbou
ring longitudinal free edges of the cylinder is welded. Because the thickness of the parent mate
rial is very small, a special welding technique is adopted (photo B.3). As a matter of fact, the
T.LG. welding process is applied in such a way that the adjacent edges are melted locally into
each other along the seam. In this way, the application of a welding rod is avoided, which re
sults in a fine, smooth weld (photo B.4)
It is evident that the fabricated
cylinder possesses little transverse
stiffness, i.e. in a direction which
is perpendicular to the generatri
ces. In order to maintain the circu
lar shape, a ring-stiffener is solde
red to the lower rim of the cylin
der. The steel ring is cut out of
the same rectangular steel plates
that are used to manufacture the
cylinder models. In order not to
waste a lot of material, it is made
by cutting two semi-circular strips
which are welded together to form
a complete circle. Ring and cylin
der are connected together by sol
dering (photo B.5).

Photo B.3 : Welding process

81

The finished cylindrical steel model might

give the impression that the circularity of the
upper edge will not be maintained during the
tests. This, however, is not true : the upper
rim is supported by a rigid circular disk,
mounted at the top of the cylinder and which
is used to introduce the applied axial force
smoothly into the cylinder wall. (cfr. B4.1.2 :
Test Setup).
Photo B.4 : Longitudinal weld

Photo B.5 : Soldering ringstiffener to cylinder

B4.1.2

Test Setup (figure B.2)

B4.1.2.1

Load Application and Measurement of Reactions (photo B.6, B.7)

r7

p2hfy'

fei

~~r

I__ .t'r ~ w&m t t r r

'r-1

\\

HISl

BM"\H?P4CHB

!
J

Atti
ilHK 1
jggigga

Photo B.6 :Test setup

82

ui

The cylindrical model is

mounted on a thick and rigid
horizontal circular bottom
plate ((j>u = 1175 mm ; t = 62
mm), which, in turn is sup
ported by four relatively
short channel sections. A
circle with a radius of 350
mm has been drawn on the
upper surface of the bottom
plate and the four dynamo
meters are installed along
the circumference of this
circle at angles of revolution
which are equal to 0 , 90 ,
180 and 270 respectively.

In fact, the cylinder models are supported at the

lower rim by these four equidistant dynamometers
(see photo B.7 for a detail); i.e. the angle of revo
lution formed by the radii that join the centre of the
circular bottom plate with the position of two
neighbouring dynamometers is equal to a quarter of
a circle.
In this way, the magnitude of the individual sup
port reactions can be recorded during the test. It is,
quite evidently, an illusion to think that these reac
tions will be exactly the same because small but
inevitable imperfections of the cylindrical model and
of the test set-up will make these support reactions
differ from one another. Details of the dynamome
ters, their measuring range and the method of
gauging them are given in [B.20].
The test cylinder is placed on the support plates
and positioned very carefully in order to keep the
Photo B.7 : Detail of support
eccentricity of the vertical cylinder axis with respect
to the vertical centreline of the circular, thick bottom plate as small as is practically possible. A
thick circular plate covers the top of the cylinder. The outer diameter of the upper part of this
disk (corresponding with approximately half its thickness) is 730 mm, whereas this diameter is
reduced stepwise to 700 mm minus a couple of tenths of a millimeter for the lower part of the
disk. In this manner, the upper edge of the cylindrical model is supported along a perfect circu
lar boundary and forced to maintain this circular geometry during the load application.
anchoring

inductive
deflectoneter
ring s t i f f e n e r
ring
=H=
bottom plate

struts
hannel sections

SECTIDN

E>VIEW

Figure B.2 : Test set-up

83

A flat hard PVCringis interposed between the upper rim of the cylindrical shell and
the top plate in order to smoothen small irregularities between the contact surfaces.
The axial force is applied by means of a hydraulic jack and a tie rod. The upper end
of the cable is anchored at the centre of the top plate. The cable passes through the central hole
in the bottom plate and ends up in the fixed head of the jack. The movable head of the jack
pushes a pressure cell against the lower part of the thick bottom plate and brings the steel model
under compression. At any particular time of the test, the sum of the readings of the four dyna
mometers must obviously be equal to the force, recorded at the pressure cell plus the dead
weight of the jack, cable, top plate and cylindrical model.
The test itself is fairly simple : the force exerted by the jack onto the model is in
creased slowly and the signalsfromthe pressure cell andfromthe four dynamometers are captu
red by a data-logger which transfers them to a personal computer where they are stored on disk.
The scan interval of one second is the smallest one we could use, taking into account the speed
of the processor of the data-logger, the transfer rate to the PC and the writing operation to disk,
but from a practical point of view it is largely sufficient to meet our needs. The increase of the
axial force is hold on until instability of the shell wall occurs.
4.2.1.2

Measurement of Imperfections

Photo B.8 : Recording shape imperfections of

cylinder model

A measuring instrument is needed to record the shape or geometric imperfections of

our cylindrical models. It appeared to be a little difficult to perform such measurements at the
interior of the cylinder. Therefore, we chose to measure imperfections of shape at the exterior
face of the model by means of a rotating arm (photo B.8), on which an inductive deflectometer
can move up and down.
The deflectometer records small irregularities, perpendicular to the shell wall, of any
particular meridian of the cylinder (photo B.9).
Further details about the measuring technique and calibration are given in [B.20].

84

Photo B.9 : Detail of inductive displacement recording apparatus

B.4.2

Unstiffened Cylinders

B4.2.1

Experimental Results

Photo B.11 : Cylinder C04U after testing

Photo B.10 : Cylinder COIU after testing

Every test proceeded as folows : the load, exerted by the hydraulic jack was increa
sed slowly and the reactions of the supports and of the pressure cell were recorded electronically
at regular time intervals. By meridional buckling stress we mean the quantity obtained by divi
ding the support reaction by the width of the support and the thickness of the shell. It is the

85

average contact stress at the supported lower rim. Due to inevitable imperfections of the model
and the setup, the reactions at the four bearings are not exactly the same at a particular time of
the test, although they are approximately equal at the start by adjusting the vertical position of
the bearings [B .20]. This is the reason why buckling does not occur simultaneously at the four
supports but is initiated instead at one particular support.

Photo B.12 : Detail of postbuckling pattern, obser

ved on model COIU

Photo B.13 : Detail of postbuckling pattern, obser

ved on model C04TJ

The nature of buckling depends on the support width. For smaller support widths
the appearance of a dent occurs quite swiftly but not in a flush. The rather "slow" appearance of
buckles must obviously be attributed to plastification. B uckling of a rather explosive nature,
where failure is almost instantaneoulsy, occurs when the support width is increased.
Some buckling patterns are shown on photographs B .10 B .13. They always consist of one
single, isolated inward dent in the area above the support.

inward
buckling

/ ^

shell
wall

' ' . ' '

V===

ring stiff

ener

.*%..'

':.'/;

i= ; * /

) t
Sectie m AA

Figure B.3 : Typical postbuckling pattern

86

The shape of the buckle which

originates at the supported edge
has a sort of elliptic contour (see
figure B.3). The lower part of the
elliptic region seems to be cut
away by the ring stiffener, though.
The unstiffened cylinders tested
at the beginning of the research
project were nominally perfect,
that is, they did not possess inten
tional imperfections

The tests which were carried out during the first

half of 1994 focussed on the buckling behaviour of
unstiffened cylinders with artificial imperfections
(fig. B .4). Two series of cylinders have been exami
ned, one with a ratio of r/t equal to 500 and a second
one with r/t = 233. Imperfections are applied right
above the supports and they are characterised by the
size = 4 Vrt and the depth of the inward dent /t = 1.
The variation of the buckling stress as a function of
the width of the support has been studied.

artificial
imperfections
above supports
size = 4 frf

Figure B.4 : unstiffened cylinder

Meridional Shape Imperfections (C 25Ub10%)

WrOTgSSS333252^^

C
O

rg

o 4

>

^mymrrmmmmm^^

g 0.5
c
E

o
e.
re
. 0.5

a 3

n n n n 11 n iJXEtrcrxDxiiTx

nnnnmnmni mnmmnnnn nnnm ^ ^ ^

1.5
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Distance along generatrix [mm]

Figure B.5 : Imperfections for a nominally perfect model

A special device has been fabricated in order to create the artificial dents into the
shell wall. Figures B.5 and B .6 show the typical shape of the meridians above the supports for a
cylinder model without artificial imperfections and for a model where imperfections have been
applied intentionally. Models without artificial imperfections show a trumpet shaped generatrix
near the lower (and the upper) rim which is obviously due to the fabrication process ; these sha
pe irregularities are more or less axisymmetric.

87

Meridional Shape Imperfections (C25Ui-10%)

1.5
E
E

o 4

0.5

-0.5
.c
<J1

1.5

50

lOU

150

200

250

300

350

400

Distance along generatrix [mm]

Figure B.6 : Intentionally applied imperfections

t
[mm]

r/t

[%]

COIU
C02U
C03U

0,7
0,7
0,7

500
500
500

2,5
5,0
7,5

C04U

0,7

500

10,0

COlUa
C02Ua
C03Ua

0,7
0,7
0,7

500
500
500

2,5
5,0
7,5

C04Ua
C03Ub

0,7
0,7

500
500

10,0
7,5

C02Ub
C18Ub

0,7
1,5

233
233

5,0
2,5

C20Ub
C23Ub
C25Ub

1,5
1,5
1,5

233
233
233

5,0
7,5
10,0

MODEL

[MPa]
298,4[4]
196,0[4]
180,7[1]
189,7[2]
189,6[3]
155,8[2]
147,4[3]
304,4[2]
163,9[3]
153,2[3]
170,3[4]
130,1[4]
154,8[1]
163,7[2]
237,6[1]
492[2]
481 [3]
345[3]
277[1]
250[2]
273[3]

fu

[MPa]

173,2
170,9
170,1

301,1
293,5
297,6

167,3

294,5

163,3
162,7
163,0

300
300
300

165,0
165,0

300
300

170
203

300
350

203
203
203

350
350
350

Table B.1 : Experimental buckling stresses for nominally perfect cylinders [B.20, B.21, B.22]

88

Tables B.l and B.2 collect the experimental buckling stress obtained on nominally
perfect models and imperfect models. Figures between square brackets in the column of these
tables indicate the number of the support where local buckling occurred. The support reac
tions were recorded almost continuously (time interval = 1 second) during the test. Neverthe
less, because of the rapid nature of the buckling phenomenon, it was not always possible to
indicate at which support buckling occurred first and to determine which was the value of the
corresponding buckling stress, is the supported part of the lower rim, expressed as a certain
percentage of the circumference. The value of the imperfection amplitude for imperfect mo
dels, , which was measured after a particular cylinder had been made, is indicated as well.
The given amplitude corresponds with the support where failure occurred.
t
[mm]

r/t

[%]

COlUi
C14U
C15U

0,7
0,7
0,7

500
500
500

2,5
5,0
5,0

C16U
C17U
C26Ui
C27U

0,7
0,7
0,7
0,7

500
500
500
500

C36U
C18U
C19U

1,0
1,5
1,5

350
233
233

10,0
10,0
7,5
7,5
2,5
10
2,5
2,5

C20U
C21Ui
C22U
C23U

1,5
1,5
1,5
1,5

233
233
233
233

5,0
5,0
7,5
7,5

C24Ui
C25U

1,5
1,5

233
233

10,0
10,0

MODEL

Ou""

fu

[mm]

[MPa]

[MPa]

[MPa]

343[1]
163,6[2]
165[1]
175[2]
132[3]
122[1]
146[1]
144[1]
141 [4]
186[3]
464,5[2]
447[1]
500[4]
318[3]
304[4]
.257[3]
259[3]
254[4]
230[3]
222[2]

170
170
170

300
300
300

170
170
170
170

300
300
300
300

175
203
203

320
350
350

203
203
203
203

350
350
350
350

1,39
1,54
1,48

203
203

350
350

1,51
1,51

0,64
0,88
0,87
0,94
0,67
0,63
0,51
0,62
0,70
0,70
1,52
1,47
1,50

Table B.2 : Experimental buckling stresses for cylinders with artificial imperfections [B.22]

B4.2.2

Comparison with Numerical Computations [B.23, B24]

The Laboratory for Research on Models of the Ghent Univeristy requested Prof
Greiner and Dr. W. Guggenberger of the Technical University of Graz (Austria) to perform
numerical computations in order to establish a connection as close as possible between experi
mental and theoretical load bearing capacities by introducing all important details of the test
situation into the analysis model. At the same time the mathematical model could be calibrated
to perform a parametric study afterwards.
The numerical studies of the present investigation are based on finite element dis
cretized nonlinear shell models and were carried out with the program system AB AQUS by
Hibbit, Karlsson and Sorensen.
The analysis model is shown in figure B.7.The geometrical proportions of the ana
lysis model and the test model are equal (r/t = 500, h/r = 2). Since only local buckling effects
are investigated (general buckling excluded) and effects of unsymmetric imperfections are ne
glected, a 45degree analysis cutout is sufficient (darkshaded region in figure B.7). The me
ridional boundaries of the analysis cutout have symmetry boundary conditions in circumferen

89

tial direction. As a simplification, symmetry in axial direction has been assumed as well. Ac
cording to Greiner and his staff, the systematic error in limit load values, introduced by this as
sumption, remains below the value of 2 % for the case of the largest investigated support width
= 0,125 of the computer simulation. Moreover, the error lies on the safe side and is even
smaller for the other support widths.
The axial loads are
R/t = 500 L/R = 2
introduced at 4 equidis
tant rigid supports. The
Support Construction:
classical hinged boundary conditions
points on the shell wall
Support width =/> 0
are rigidly connected to
4 equidistant rigid column supports
the support points along
Material Data:
the
supported portions
Modulus
= 20600 kN/cm2
Poisson Ratio = 0.3
of the circumference.
The
remainder of the
Deformation Plasticity Model:
RambergOsgood fit >L.ID = /(/)
circular boundary is
= 17.0kN/cm2, n=11.65, =2.405
classically
supported
and corresponds to a
Loading:
symmetrical local loading at both edges
reinforcement
by an
Reference Load Magnitude:
F=q.b=150kN
ideal ring which is rigid
Actual Load Magnitude =
LPF (Load Proportionality Factor) ' F
in its plane but has zero
stiffness perpendicular
variation of = b/B
to that plane.
Figure B.7 : Analysis model

The material model has been adapted to meet the experimentally observed stress
strain relation : smaller yield limit, pronounced hardening, RambergOsgood fit for small strain
conditions. Special attention is given to the effect of large elastoplastic compressive strains,
which, as the test results show, are likely to occur for the test models with small support widths
( = 2,5 %) where the values of the compressive strain amount to 30 % approximately.
inward

standard 12

inward

shifted 13

inward

test 15

. inward

inward

axisymmetric imperfections
II (0.25t)

(0,50t)

Figure B.8 : Imperfections

The real geometric imperfections which have been measured at eight generatrices of
each test specimen have been simplified for analytical purposes. Summarizing all the observed
imperfect shapes of the nominally perfect cylinder generatrices of the test models a representati
ve imperfection pattern in the form of an axi-symmetric trumpet-shaped outward deflection of
the lower rim has been chosen (fig. B.7). The axial length of the imperfection (limp = 25t and
50t) is in proportion with the imperfection amplitude /t = 0,25 and 0,50. These approximate
values cover the range of imperfections observed in the tests. For the tested cylinders with arti
ficial imperfections, several approaches have been followed in the modellization of the shape of
the meridians (fig. B.8).

90

Figure B.9 collects the experimental and theoretical values for r/t = 500 and figure
B.10 shows the correlation between theory and experiment for r/t = 233.
350

2.5

7.5

10

12.5

[%]
Figure B.9 : Unstiffened cylinders, t = 0,7 mm
500

<*
i

\\
f

test_nom.perfect

test_imperfect

400

Perfect

I5M3

1
**

B
O

W 300

>
!

IM

<>

*
{

* *

-^4

200

2.5

7.5

[%]
Figure B.10 : Unstiffened cylinders, t = 1,5 mm

91

10

As a general conclusion, it can be stated that the agreement between the numerical
approach and the experiments is quite satisfactory considering the idealizations still involved in
the analytical modelling : idealized imperfections, material model and boundary conditions.

B4.2.3

Comments

Writing a design recommendation requires that a pool or database of so-called 'de

sign buckling loads' be available. What is a 'design buckling load', how can such 'design buck
ling loads' be obtained ? First of all, it has to be decided which type of structural geometry, in
cluding support and boundary conditions, which type of material behaviour and which type of
loading (environmental and service conditions) should be covered by the intended design rule.
Imperfections
The lifetime of a real structure consists of several successive time spans each of
which may be the source of imperfections that finally add up. Firstly, the process of produc
tion of the steel members themselves (rolling of plates, heat treatment, cold forming etc.) and
secondly, the process of manufacturing and erecting the complex structural components ge
nerally leads to residual stresses and plastic strains as well as deviations of the intended struc
tural shapes {geometric and structural imperfections). Thirdly, during ordinary operation of
the designed structural component, the purpose for which it is intended, it may generally be
exposed to load patterns that are not contained in the idealized load patterns for which the
structure is designed {load imperfections). Examples of such load perturbations may be the
unavoidable inertia effects of mainly statically loaded structures, e.g. vibrations, complex inter
action forces of other media, e.g. moving air, water or soils, granular contents of silos, service
operations, e.g. filling/emptying of silos, relatively light accidental impacts (heavy impacts
should be explicitely included in the design). Fourthly, as an exceptional case, the designed
structure may suffer considerable damage in a working accident (causing catastrophic imperfections) and the question may arise whether or not the structure will continue to sustain its
designed loads with a prescribed factor of safety.
As a conclusion, what we have to do is to investigate characteristic geometric,
structural and load imperfectons (with respect to amplitude, shape and spatial position) relating
to real large-scale structures. These imperfections thus become known and may be termed
systematic imperfections. We may expect that more detailed knowledge of systematic imper
fections of specific structures is likely to be available in the near future due to extensive measu
rements. Now let us ask : if we were able to introduce all these known imperfections into the
test or analysis models, would this be enough ? Perhaps it may come as a surprise, but the
answer is 'no' due to the possible imperfection sensitivity of the imperfect structure. That me
ans, some specified percentage of total imperfections should be viewed as random imperfections (in geometry and/or loading) in order to exclude pathological cases and to obtain buck
ling load values of desired robustness. The term 'random' implies that these particular imper
fections may have the worst possible effects. However, reasonable restrictions could be im
posed on random imperfections if it can be justified. Consequently, these random imperfec
tions are also called "worst' design imperfections. They do not necessarily relate to imperfec
tions that occur in the actual structures and in this sense they are artificial and only used to
generate design buckling loads. The attribute 'design' relates to the fact that the generated
buckling loads should be robust, in other words insensitive to additional imperfections.
It is therefore advisable to work exclusively with random imperfections or worst
design imperfections (100 percent) of a certain magnitude as long as there is not enough

92

knowledge about systematic imperfections of real structures. One has to stay safe and besides,
this is the approach adopted in the study of this section.
Support Conditions
Another important aspect we have to face is the variation of the support condi
tions. Because of the very local nature of buckling above the supports it is clear that support
conditions and imperfections in this local area directly affect the buckling strength. The as
sumption of rigid supports is well justified for the present test configurations. However in
many practical situations it may turn out that such extreme conditions are not applicable. The
refore we are interested in the possible decrease of buckling strength when the support condi
tions are released. For a particular situation it turns out that the worst condition occurs when
classical boundary conditions are applied.

B4.2.4

Parametric Study and Development of a Design Rule

B4.2.4.1

Introduction
The buckling strength of cylinders with constant wall thickness under local axial
loads has been systematically investigated and is documented in [B.25]. Shell slenderness ra
tios r/t = 200 , 300 , 500 and 750 and dimensionless support widths = 0.025 , 0.05 , 0.075 ,.
0.1 and 0.2 were considered. The height of the cylindrical shell was h/r = 2 and the number of
equidistant supports at the lower edge was always = 4 (fig. B.l). These parameter values
were chosen to cover the relevant range occuring in practical silo design.
It should be noted that the local supports were assumed completelyflexiblein axial
direction, i.e. the support forces were introduced by constant Une loads across the widths of
the local supports. This case represents a limiting case lying on the safe side since the supports
themselves have no stiffness.
The complementary limiting case, which was also investigated and is reported
about in [B.26], is represented by the assumption of completely rigid local supports.
The strengthening effects of support plates and ring-stiffeners at the lower edge
were investigated, assuming realistic dimensions of these members, and are reported about in
[B.27]. The according results serve as a starting point for the judgement whether actual sup
port designs correspond more closely to the assumption of flexible supports or that of rigid
supports. Moreover, the main effect which is responsible for the increased buckling resistance
of therigid-supportcase, opposite to the flexible-support case, should be clearly worked out
on the basis of the results obtained so far {interactive effects of axial warping and meridional
bending constraints).
Elastoplastic material behaviour was taken into account in the underlying analyses
representing the behaviour of mild construction steel of the common grade Te 360'. Addi
tionally, the effects of local geometric imperfections, i.e. inward-dents above the supports, we
re considered.
Summarizing, the underlying analysis represent the highest possible degree of mo
delling concerning realistic nonlinear structural behaviour. Therefore, the results of these ana
lyses may serve a basis for the development of a design rule.
The first step in developing such a design rule requires to cast the analysis results into a com
pact form, that means to describe them by more or less simply shaped analytic curve-fitting
formulae. In a second step these ultimate-load-formulae have to be supplemented by further
conditions which, on the one hand, limit the range of validity of these formulae and which, on
the other hand, make also statements about limiting conditions relating to additional relevant
failure modes.

93

B4.2.4.2

Summary of Numerical Results

The results of the Geometrically (and Materially) NonLineai /mperfect analyses
{GNLI and GMNLI) are summarized in the form of critical mean meridional support stresses,
which are retrieved from [B.25], in tables B.3 and B.4 below and converted into dimensionless
form in tables B .5 and B .6. A nondimensionalized imperfection amplitude of 5/t=1.0 was
used throughout for all r/tvalues 200, 300, 500 and 750. According to the fabrication tole
rances for cylinders under uniform compression the applicable imperfection amplitude for r/t =
200 and 300 is only 6/t=0.65 which is about 2/3 of the applied value 5/t=1.0. Some additional
calculations with the reduced imperfection amplitude give a small increase of the buckling
stresses. The design rules are based on a fixed imperfection amplitude of 6/t=1.0, and are
slightly conservative [B .44]. For completeness, these results are also graphically represented
once again in figs. B.l 1 to B.14 below. The results within braces for r/t = 500 were reported
in the doctoral thesis [B.18].
Ultimate stresses are also converted into dimensionless form, for convenient later
reference, in the following way. Firstly, the elastoplastic imperfect buckling stresses are refer
red to the yield stress (value Y) and then the elastic imperfect buckling stresses are referred to
the elastoplastic imperfect buckling stresses (actually the inverse values of these fractions are
used, values X). The value of the yield stress used in the foregoing analyses is fy = 235 N/mm2.

r/t
100
200
300
500
750
1000

0.025
(0.021)

0.05
(0.042)

:292:
331

245
188
140
(157.3)
105

(252;8)
182

= b/B = nd/(2nt) = (2/) .d/r

0.075
0.1
(0.125)
(0.083)

134 ::

(103.5)
U>9

(0.25)
145
123 1

170
97.3

0.2

(92.0)

(96.5)

78,2

Table B.3 : Maximum elastoplastic buckling stress acr,GMNu [N/mm2]

r/t
100
200
300
500
750

0.025
(0.021)

0.05
(0.042)

1689
963

875
489
228
(2655)
129

(523.8)
256

= b/B = nd/(2nc) = (2/). d/r

0.075
0.1
(0.083)
(0.125)

(0.25)
274
192

446
264
126
(142.6)
96.8

0.2

(110.9)
82.5

1000
Table B.4 : Maximum elastic buckling stress CS,GNU [N/mm2]

94

(96.0)

r/t

0.025
(0.021)

= b/B = nd/(2nt) = (2/). d/r

0.075
0.1
(0.083)
(0.125)

0.05
(0.042)

100
200
300

0.2
(0.25)

' ' . ,

1.243
1.043
.1.409 ' ; 0.800
0.596
500
(1:076)7 (0.669) (0.440)
; 7 5 0 '; 0.774 " : : 0;447 i 0.361
1000

0.617
:0.523:

0.723
0.57
0.414
(0.391)

(0411

0.333

Table B.5 : Maximum elastoplastic buckling stress referred to the yield stress
Y

r/t

750
1000

2,LOC AL

0.05
(0.042)

0.173:
0.344

0.286
0.384:
0.614
(0;592) (0.726)
^814
0;877

(0.483)
0.711

^c^GMNLl/fy

= / == nd/(2nt) == (2/). d/r

0.075
0.1
(0.083)
(0.125)

0.025
(0.021)

100
200
300
500

= K

0.381
0.508
0.772

0.2
(0.25)
0:529
0.641

(0.829)

(1.005)

0:948:

Table B.6 : Maximum elastoplastic buckling stress referred to the maximum elastic buckling stress
= ,cr.GMNLI'/,,
cr,GNLI

0,05

0,1

0,05

0,15

0,1

0,15

relative support width = b/B []

relative support width = b/B []

Figure B.12 : Dimensionless load factors = F/Fref

for shell slenderness r/t =300 (Analysis Series B)

Figure B.11 : Dimensionless load factors = F/Fref

for shell slenderness r/t =200 (Analysis Series B)

95

<
o

ro

LL

ro
o

0,05

0,1

0.05

0,15

0,1

0,15

0,2

relative support width = b/B [

relative support width = b/B []

Figure B.13 : Dimensionless load factors = F/Fref

for shell slenderness r/t =500
(Analysis Series B)

Figure B.14 : Dimensionless load factors = F/Fref

for shell slenderness r/t =750
(Analysis Series B)

B4.2.4.3 C ompact Representation of the Numerical Results by Analytical Formulae

B4.2.4.3.1 Preliminary Remarks concerning the Selection of Imperfections
There exist several possibilities to obtain an analytic representation of the numerical
analysis results (maximum loads or mean support stresses) by final curvefitting formulae which
depend mainly on the kind of philosophy by the aid of which the imperfections are introduced
into these analyses.
Probabilistic Approach
If a large number of analysis results is available a probabilistic approach could be
adopted to establish a design rule. In this case the design curve is obtained as a lower bound
(e.g. 5percentfractile) data fit of the maximumload result points or only part of these points
which correspond to the characteristic failure mode. Thereby it is assumed that the feature of
probability is introduced into the analysis primarily by the uncertainty of geometric imperfec
tions with respect to amplitude, shape and location. Of course, this purely probabilistic approach
is extremely analysisintensive and resembles in many features that of a pure laboratory testing
approach and, apart from other reasons, it was not adopted in the present study.
Deterministic Approach
In the present study the geometric imperfections were prescribed in a deterministic
manner with fixed amplitudes of about one percent of the reference length lref = 4^/r/t This re
ference length is used in shell buckling codes [B.l, B.28] as the length of the base line for mea
suring the radial geometric fabrication tolerances of the cylindrical shell wall.
Shape and location of these initial dents were chosen with the heuristic idea in mind
to render them geometrically affine to the postbuckling mode of the perfect structure. Finally it
has been attempted to approximate this postbuckling mode by a simple analytic spline surface
with overall insurface dimensions according to the aforementioned reference length. This pro
cedure has been chosen for the purpose of easier specification and better reproduceability of the
imperfection shape compared to the actual postbuckling mode which depends on the load level.

96

By such a postbuckling mode is meant a deformation pattern which results as the

scaled difference of a postbuckling deformation and the corresponding prebuckling deforma
tion at equal load levels (P, P i , P2 in fig. B.l5). Obviously, this definition also includes snapthrough eigenmodes and bifurcation eigenmodes as limiting cases (L, B). In these cases the
reference load levels coincide with the snap-through load (or limit load) and the bifurcation
load respectively. For very small imperfection amplitudes the snap-through or bifurcation ei
genmodes must be considered to represent the 'worst' or 'most unfavourable' imperfections
with respect to the reduction of the perfect structure's load carrying capacity. This latter
statement is supported by the results of Koiter's asymptotic approach to imperfection sensitivi
ty analysis [B.29].
For larger imperfection
amplitudes the imperfection
classical buckling
shape, which is the most
eigenmode
critical
one, generally tends
nonlinear Bifurcation
to change to the postbuck
eigenmode
(=zero-eigenvalue)
ling mode of the perfect
Snap-through
structure obtained at the re
eigenmode
duced maximum load levelPostbuckling
of the imperfect structure.
deformations
various posibilities)
The imperfect structure
progressively loses memory
inear "small"
displacements or
what
happens to its perfect
any prebuckling
counterpart, far up at the
deformation
perfect maximum load level,
i.e. the larger the imperfec
characteristic displacement component
tion amplitude becomes and
the
larger the load reduc
Figure B.15 : Use of actual deformations or eigenmode shapes of the
tion is compared to the
perfect structure as theoretical imperfection patterns
perfect case. However, when the imperfection amplitudes become very large, we have essen
tially to deal with a new structure which may exhibit a completely different load bearing beha
viour. In this extreme case the 'perfect postbuckling mode'-approach to geometric imperfec
tions, as described above, may become increasingly inappropriate.
Summing up, the adopted approach of selection of postbuckling modes of the per
fect structure as theoretical imperfection patterns is based on mechanical features of the actual
buckling behaviour of the perfect structure. Therefore this approach proves itself more ratio
nal, mechanically better founded and versatile in general situations compared to the classicalbuckling-eigenmode approach which relates to the approximative, and often unrealistic case of
a linearized local stability condition about the initial undeformed state (C).
B4.2.4.3.2 Curve-fitting of Numerical Results
A comparatively small number of analyses has been performed, as mentioned in the
introduction, applying 'worst' geometric imperfections - in the restricted sense of approximate
postbuckling modes - in a deterministic way. Essentially about 16 maximum-load results
{GNLI and GMNLI) are available (4r/t-values times 4 -values) which are now ready to be fit
ted by lower-bound curves.
The main idea adopted in curve-fitting of these maximum-load results bears on the
following three basic observations :

97

* For very narrow supports the axial loadcarrying capacity of the local support is dictated by the
2D VonMises yield condition (plastic yielding) and therefore the maximum load is in direct
proportion to the support width.
* For wide supports the axial carrying capacity of the support is approximately equal to the axial
carrying capacity of the uniformly loaded cylinder, expressed in critical buckling stresses 0 =
K2.fy (K2 ... reduction factor).
*In an intermediate range of support widths the axial buckling load which can be resisted by the
local supports is nearly independent of the actual support width. Expressed more precisely, the
axial buckling load shows a typical increase with increasing support width, which is less pro
nounced for slender cylinders. The key point for understanding the following procedure is
such that these variations of the maximum load factors Ami with the dimensionless support
width are geometrically approximated by lowerbound straight lines , i.e. of all four investi
gated shell slenderness ratios r/t (fig. B .l6). These lowerbound fitting lines were originally
derived from the maximum load diagrams figs. B .l 1 to B .l4 above in which they appear as
thickdashed lines.
11.30
R/t = 20fl
"""G^LI
/
/
1.155 yieid/
/
/
/

/
^y ' GMNLI

9.60

1.50

R/t = 300,

=0.2
R/t = 500
/
,
/
l
/1.155 f yjeid

R/t = 750

/ 1 . 1 5 5 yiekj

3.6 D

=0.2

^0.2

Figure B.16 : Linear approximations of ^- curves for an intermediate range of support widths for slen
derness ratios r/t = 200,300,500 and 750.

The relevant information contained in the foregoing diagrams (fig. B.16) is summa
rized in tabular form (tab. B.7). The dimensionless load factors Amax = Fmax/Fref refer to a fixed
reference load of Fref = 150kN acting on one eighth of the cylinder circumference in axial direc
tion (45 analysis cutout). As can be seen from fig. B.16 the solid straight fitting lines are conti
nued to the = 0-ordinate on the left of the diagrams. They may be uniquely described by the
extrapolated load factor A^a = of the left ^ = 0-ordinate and by the inclinations of the
fitting lines which are computed as follows (^ = 0.175 or 0.200) :
= (Aright

98

^/ right

(1)

 - Fmax / Fref

Ayield, 1 -

r
[cm]

t
[cm]

right

GLNI

GMNLI

GNLI

GMNLI

200

300.

L5

0.2

9.60

1.50

8.500

23.750 ! 55.37

300

300.

0.2

3.50

0.80

6.000

12.500

36.91

500

500.

1.

0.175

2.70

1.10

5.143

14 286

61.52

750

750.

1.'

0,2

2.20

1.50

5.750

9.250

92.28

r/t

Fyield,l /

Fref

100

1000

Table B.7 : Parameters of straight-line-fits of maximum load values

In the table B.8 the parameters A0 and 0 have been converted into parameters
and . This conversion is accomplished by a change of the reference basis from the reference
load Fref, which is mainly useful in the numerical analyses, to the physically more meaningful
value of the plastic yield load Fyiei<j,i = r7rtfy/4 of each shell configuration (fy = 23.5 kN/cm2 for
Fe 360). The following relation holds for the dimensionless critical load factor :

{/4)
{/4){

=
? yield, 1

yield, 1

(2)

. 2.LOCAL

For reference and comparison purposes

with the case of the cylinder under uniform
GMLNI
GLNI
GNLI
GMNLI
axial loading conditions the reduction fac
100
tors 2 of the german shell buckling code
17.34
2.709
15.35
200
42.89
DIN 18800/part 4 [B.28] is used. This co
2.167
9.48
de is formulated in such a way that the re
16.26
33.87
300
duction factor K2 = aCI/fy , which is the
8.360
500
4.39
1.788
23.22
'characteristic' buckling stress referred to
2.38
1.625
6.231
750
10.02
the yield stress, is related to a shell slen
1000
derness parameter , which is a generaliza
tion of the common beam slenderness pa
Table B.8 : Converted parameters of straight-line-fits rameter occuring in the Euler buckling
of maximum load values
formulas for beams and plates.
r/t

= /Ayieid.i - 100

I = \t,CTcri

=/^ (1 ,. 100

r,

A|0.605Et/r

1
23.5
A10.605. 20600 '
1
r
530.3 ' t

(Ten

i-

1
23.03 ' Vt

(3)

The reduction factor 2 for uniform axial loading conditions is defined in DIN
18800/part 4 according to the following equation (eq. 4). Reduction factors are summarized in
tab. B.9 below for the r/t-ratios used in the numerical analyses underlying the present study.

99

r
[cm]

r/t

*= ^/

t
[cm]

300.

300
500

500.
750.

750
1000

K2juniform

124.63

0.434

0.828

1.5

6232

0.614

0.660

1
1

41.54
24.93
16.62

0.752
0.971

0.531
0.327

1.189
1.373

0.178
0.116

100
200

^2

0.605Et/r

1 '.

12.46

Table B.9 : Reduction factors 2 according to the german code DIN 18800/4
1

1.2330.933.1
K

~ ^.uniform

I < 0.25
025 < < 1
1 < < 1.5
1.5 <

for

0.3 IV
0.2 /J2

(4)

Curvefitting of dimensionless Load Factors 0 and 0 over r/t

dimensionless load parameter
The dimensionless load parameter is approximated by a. power fit over r/t or the
shell slenderness parameter respectively, for both the elastic (GNLI) and the elastoplastic
(GMNLI) case resulting in the following fitting formulae :
0.385

/IO.GMNLI

20.193 . [

1.804. X 0.77

(5a)

4.018. J 3.006

(5b)

1.503

= 50000.

0,'GNLI

49.31

lambda,0GMNLI

lambda,0GNLl

.
V.

.
.

\GNLI
,

log (lar

ra

3.429

GMNLI

^ s _
1.549
1.413

1
100

'

'

,.

. .

f.

1000

log (RA )

100

Figure B.17 : Dimensionless load pa

rameter r/t diagram in double lo
garithmic scale (dashed lines repre
sent power fitting curves)

20

Figure B.18 : Dimensionless load pa

rameter r/t diagram in linear scale
(dashed lines represent power fitting
curves)

1
1
1
4 lambda.OGMNLI

* lambda,0GNLI

15

v\

\\\\
\\\\
\\\\

ro

\X

\ \\ \
\

ro

A graphical representation of
these power fitting curves is given
in fig. B.18. These curves appear
as straight lines when plotting is
performed in double logarithmic
scale (fig. B.l7) and lead to the
following formulae :

.^v

^=>= =s=a

~~^

^
^

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

R/t

logCkoMNLi) = l3050.385.log [J = 0.2560.77.1

logOkGNLi) = 4.7001.503.1og[ j 0.6043.006.1ogX

(6.a)
(6.b)

dimensionless load parameter

The dimensionless load parameter is approximated by a linear fit over the shell
slenderness parameter for both the elastic (GNLI) and the elastoplastic (GMNLI) case resulting
in the following fitting formulae. A graphical representation of these linear fitting curves is
given infig.B.l9.
UUi

1
*

1
1
1 1
Dlambda.OGMNLI

* Dlamb da,0 3NLI

75

Figure B.19 : Dimensionless load parameter

diagram ( = J^li)
(dashed lines represent linear fitting curves)
\
GM NLI

__
Gf vILI
0
0,4

IIII

0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

Lambdaquer

TTTT I I I I

fl

1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4

,., = 76.91 56.05.

(7.a)

, - 27.93 - 18.58.

(7.b)

101

Summary of fitting Formulae for the Maximum Loads

Xo.GMNLI

1.8/I077

Xo.GNLI

A Xo.GMNLI

A Xo.GNLI

4/X 3
77-56.
28 - 19.

(8)

Finalform of the Approximate Formulae for the Maximum Loads

First we recall the basic assumption of this subsection on 'Curve-fitting of Numeri
cal Results', namely that the dimensionless maximum loads are linearly approximated over
the dimensionless support width :
X[in%] = Xapprox[in%] = Xo(X) + . 0 ()

(9)

Now we are prepared to write the final approximation formulae for the maximum
loads , referred to the yield of the uniformly loaded cylinder, in dependence of the parameters
of the local support width () and the shell slenderness (X or r/t respectively) as follows :
XGMNLi[in%] = 1.8/077 + . (77 - 56. )

(10)

XGNLI[in%] = 4 / 3 + . (28 - 19. )

.4.2.4.3.3 Engineering Representation of the Approximate Formulae

Parameter Changes
In this sub-section the approximate formulae (eq. 10) are converted into a form
which is more appropriate for the purposes of practical application in engineering design.
Consequently, two parameter changes are introduced into these formulae as follows :
* Instead of using dimensionless maximum loads , which has proved to be advantageous in
deriving the approximate formulae, we use maximum mean support stresses 0 , according
to eq. 2 :
= .

(H)

. 2.LOCAL

* Instead of using the dimensionless support width , which depends on the number of co
lumns (n = 4 in the present study) we use the parameter = d/r (support opening angle ; d
denotes circumferential width of the local support), which is independent of the number of
co-lumns. The choice of is physically motivated and reflects the fact that the local load be
aring capacity actually depends on the circumferential opening angle of the local supports as
long as these local supports are located at a sufficient distance from each other so that inter
action effects do not play any role [B.30, B.31] :
=

d.n

n d

= . = .77
27 2 r
2

102

= . = 0.63

for n = 4

(12)

Introducing these parameter changes into the general formula eq. 9 we arrive at the
following conversion formula for the critical stress :
^ =

2.LOCAL

_ _ [ %]

100
1 0 0 _2

or alternatively

2.LOCAL

1.571

0.9
rtfdeg]

100

(13)

100

Final Approximate Formulae

When the approximate expressions given by eq. 10 are introduced into the conver
sion formula eq. 13 the final representation of the approximate formula of the elastoplastic case
(elastoplastic reduction factor under local support conditions) is :

2.LOCAL

2.83
+ (0.77 0.56. )
[%]

Q"cr,GMNLI

77

(14.a)

A graphical representation of this approximate formula is given in fig. B.20 below

(r/t is curve parameter).
1,2

0,8

R/t=100

z:

(3
evi

\ \ \ \

0,6

_____uu

<

___300

o
_

4nn

0,4

_500
____600
700

0,2

rMU
____900
,

10

. . . .

~R/t=100"
I

15

20

25

30

= d/R [%]
Figure B.20 : Fitting curves of elastoplastic critical stress according to eq. 14.a

103

Similarly, we arrive at the approximate expression of the elastic critical stress which
is also referred to the yield stress fy. Then the approximate formula of the elastic case reads as
follows :
6.28

Ccr.GNLI

+ (0.28 0.19 . )

[%]

(14.b)

We obtain an alternative representation of eq. 14.b in terms of r/t when the parame
ter is converted back according to eq. 3. In addition, the elastic critical stress is now referred
to the ideal elastic bifurcation stress aC and not to the yield stress fy . This conversion is again
carried out with the help of eq. 3.
O" cr.GNLI

Q"cr,GNLI

1.45

r/t

.(0.530.0156^/r7t)
VrTt.ri + 1000
a

LOCAL

(14.C)

(imperfection reduction factor)

B4.2.5

Design Rule
One of the basic ideas of the formulation of the design rule for axially loaded cylin
ders on local supports was to establish a directly visible transition to the cylinder under uniform
axial loading. This case is already well treated by design codes and, in our opinion, serves as an
appropriate basis of reference from the engineering point of view. One of the main features of
the buckling behaviour under local axial support conditions is given by the fact that it is never
less favourable than under uniform loading conditions. As soon as the support width becomes
sufficiently narrow the critical axial buckling stress increases, compared to the case of uniform
loading, until it is ultimately limited by the axial yield stress. It turned out to be relatively easily
possible to create such an integrated representation which contains both the new local loading
case as well as the already wellknown uniform loading case. The characteristic increase in load
carrying capacity becomes directly visible in the chosen representation of the final design dia
gram which is eventually used by the practical design engineer.
For this purpose we utilized the german shell buckling code DIN 18800/ part 4 as a
starting point which represents the buckling loads of cylindrical shells under uniform axial loa
ding in the form of reduction factors K2. These reduction factors are applicable to the yield stress
fy (eq. 15.a below) and depend on a dimensionless slenderness parameter = Jy/om (eq. 3).
Therefore, we have to express the local buckling stress with reference to the yield stress, i.e. to
define a local reduction factor K2,LOCAL This local reduction factor depends on the dimension
less support width parameter = d/r and the shell slenderness parameter r/t which may be easily
converted into . This local reduction factor represents the final result of the numerical study of
this part of the project in condensed form and has already been worked out in eq. 14.a above.
A disadvantage of this formulation as one may claim is that the yield stress also
occurs in the righthandside of the formula for and thus lets one believe that it is valid for
any value of the yield stress. The computations which serve as the basis of the approximation
formula eq. 14.ac were performed for the steel grade Fe 360 only. Therefore, it remains to futu
re investigations to show that similar approximation formulae are also valid for other commonly
used steel grades, e.g. Fe 430 and Fe 510.

104

Final Design Formula

The final design formula may be written in the form of 3 conditions as follows :

0)

<1 or 1.155
K 2.LOCAL

J cr

2.83

+ (0.77-0.561;
>,

(2)

(15.a)

(3)

* The second one of these conditions describes the local reduction factor in dependency of the
dimensionless support width = d/r , the support opening angle expressed in percent, and the
dimensionless shell slenderness parameter = Jf y /a cri , where acri is the ideal elastic bifurca
tion stress of the uniformly loaded cylinder acri= 0.605Et/r.
* The first one of these conditions describes the plastic limit condition which becomes relevant
for very narrow supports. If two-dimensional Von-Mises plasticity is taken into account at the
supports, the higher value applies (1.155) due to fully restrained straining conditons in circum
ferential direction. Such conditions could be imagined to be established by very stiff edge
rings. However, in order to stay on the safe side and to cover all possibilities of practical sup
port constructions (flexible edge rings or even no edgeringsat all) one should not allow for a
value greater than the uniaxial yield stress.
* The third one of these conditions describes the limit of the uniform loading condition which
applies to wider supports. When the support widths increase beyond certain limits there is no
additional gain in load carrying capacity of the locally loaded case compared to the uniformly
loaded case. Or put the other way round, the critical buckling stress of the locally loaded case
never falls below the value of the critical buckling stress of the uniformly loaded case.
Further Limiting Conditions
* Finally, a fourth conditon of technical nature has to be added. This condition is intended to
prevent the case that a cylinder on many narrow, closely spaced, supports yields a higher
buckling load than the according uniformly loaded cylinder (eq. 15.b).
K2.LOCAL

K2

with

-2

M-effective

Figure B.21 : Limiting condition for several (> 2) closely spaced

narrow supports

105

n d
- .
2 r

(15.D)

That means that it should be ex

cluded to obtain higher buckling
loads by a purely formal redistri
bution of axial loads over the cir
cumference, when the underlying
loading condition is actually more
or less uniform over a wide range
of the circumference.
* A further limiting condition of
technical nature may become ne
cessary which limits the minimum
distance between neighbouring
supports or which determines
when neighbouring supports have
to be treated as one single support

10

15

= d/R [%]

25

20

30

Figure B.22 : Graphical representation of the design formula (Eq. 15.a)

elastoplastic critical stress as a function of (r/t is curve parameter)

for the purpose of buck

ling design calculations.
This condition is similar
to the foregoing condition
with the difference that it
also applies to distinct
groups of a small number
(> 2) of narrow closely
spaced local supports.
This situation is explained
qualitatively by fig. B.21
alongside. Further thin
king is required to formu
late an adequate transition
rule which states when
closely spaced local sup
ports are to be treated as
independent of each other
and when an effective
support width has to be
applied covering interac
tion effects in an ap
proximative, conservative
way.
Graphical Representations
of the Design Formula

Graphical representations
of the design formula are
shown in figs. B.22 and
B.23, the first one using as
the abscissa and r/t as curve
parameter and the second
one using as the abscissa
and as curve parameter. A
3D-surface representation is
given in fig. B.24 below.
The graphical representa
tion of fig. B.23 is proposed
to be used as the final de
sign diagram. This diagram
is parametrized in the same
way as the diagram for uni
= Yield'
form axial loading condi
Figure B.23 : Graphical representation of the design formula (Eq. 15.a) tions in the german code
DLN 18800/part 4 [B.28].
elastoplastic critical stress as a function of ( is curve parameter)

106

This representation allows

a direct comparison of the
load bearing capacities for
local and uniform axial
loading conditions in one
and the same diagram, for
given geometry parameters
r/t and = d/r , which ma
kes it well suited for appli
cation in practical engineer
ing design.

Figure B.24 :3D graphical re

presentation of the design for
mula (Eq. 15.a) elastoplastic
critical stress as a function of
dimensionless shell slenderness
parameter and support
width parameter = d/r

B4.2.6 Formulation of an Alternative Design Rule

In this section an alternative formulation of a design rule is presented based on the
numerical results of section B4.2.4.2 as before. The philosophy, underlying this design rule, cor
responds to the ECCS approach to shell buckling design [B .l] and was originally utilized by
Rotter et al. in 'Proposed Design Rule for Buckling Strength Assessment of Cylindrical Shells
under Local Axial Loads', submitted to ECCS TWG 8.4 Buckling of Shells [B.31]. A descrip
tion of this design rule will be given in the next section.
The main idea of this alternative design approach is to split the buckling design pro
cess into two distinct steps. This is opposite to the onestepprocedure of the design procedure
presented in the preceding section where the elastoplastic imperfect critical stress acr;GMNU is
directly calculated from the geometry and material parameters according to eq. 15. Thereby the
shell slenderness parameter r/t is hidden in the dimensionless parameter which depends on the
classical bifurcation stress of the cylinder under uniform axial loading conditions.
* The first step consists in calculating the elastic imperfect critical stress acrjoNLi from an ap
proximate formula (eq. 14.b or c) in dependence of the geometry parameters (r/t and ) of the
problem. This approximative formula is obtained by afittingprocedure as demonstrated in the
preceding section
* The second step consists in calculating the elastoplastic imperfect critical stress acr>GMNu by
utilizing an elasticplastic interaction relation (figs. B.25B.27).

107

The analytic representation of the elas

ticplastic interaction relation, which is
assumed linear in the present case, is
computed as the intersection of the two
straight lines in fig. B .25, the inclined
dashed interaction line and the solid line,
emanating from the origin, which is incli
ned by the angle (eq. 16). The vertical
part of the dashed interaction polygon at
the right side corresponds to purely elas
tic behaviour (no interaction). The upper
horizontal part of the interaction polygon
corresponds to purely plastic yielding.
The parameter on the abscissa is defined
as the fraction X = acr,GMNu/acr,GNu ,
which contains the unknown elastoplastic
critical stress. The parameter on the ver
tical ordinate is defined as Y = acr,GMNLi/fy
, which is the unknown elastoplastic criti
cal stress related to the yield stress and
corresponds to the reduction factor
K2,LOCAL (fig. B.25).

" " " %

0,9
0,8
0,7

;
0,6

1\

\ Y= tJU "PU

0,5

Y 0,4

1*
1 \
1
*\
.. I
I
tan = I NPUT

0,3
0,2

0,1

%
\

; y
0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0.5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

\
1

Figure B.25 : Alternative design rule linear elastic

plastic interaction relation

1
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6

! PLA STIC
YIELDING

0,5

0.4
0,3
0,2
0.1

0
5

7,5

ELASTIC !

0,01

X = tan(alfa)

10

0,1

100

X = tan(alfa)

Figure B.26 : Alternative design rule - direct para- Figure B.27 : Alternative design rule in linear-log
metrization as a function of
scale - direct parametrization as a function of
X = tan = aCr,GNLi/fy
X = tan = acr>GNLl/fy
Y =

(Tcr.GMNLI

1+

1 +a
1
f f cr.GNLI

Remark that 'a' is shown infigureB.25

108

f y/

1 +a
1
1+
tana

(16)

The practical application of the elasticplastic interaction works in the following way
(fig. B.25). First compute the fraction a^oNu/fy = tan from an existing fitting formula {INPUT
parameter). Then draw a straight line from the origin, which is inclined under the angle , and
obtain the intersection with the inclined interaction line. The vertical coordinate of this intersec
tion point represents the required value Y = a^oMNi/fy {OUTPUTparameter).
Another equivalent representation of the aforementioned interaction relation is
shown in fig. B.26. This curve is obtained by directly using the INPUT parameter acr,GNLi/fy =
tan = X as the new parameter on the abscissa. In this case the OUTPUT parameter Y is obtai
ned directly and no auxiliary geometrical construction is needed as before. Drawing the abscissa
axis in a logarithmic scale logX = log(tan a) results in the converted shape of the interaction
curve of fig. B.27.
A second equivalent representation of the interaction relation is obtained (eq. 18 and
fig. B.28 below) by introducing a transformation of the abscissa parameter :
=

O" cr.GMNLI

1
tana

0"cr,GNLI

(17)

'CTcr.GNLI

1
(1 + a ) / ( l + %2) if

plastic yielding
elastic plastic interaction

elastic

i/X

(18)

This final representation of the elas

ticplastic interaction relation of fig.
B.28, which is equivalent to the primary
representation of fig. B .25, allows se
CD
0,9
veral comparative observations :

_l
0,8 UJ
* The structure of the abscissa parameter
>
o
is similar to the parameter used
0,7
H
in
the original design rule (section
<
0,6
B4.2.5) However, these parameters
Y 0,5
have different mechanical meaning.
0,4
* The parameter " depends on the im
;
0,3
perfect elastic critical stress under lo
cal support conditions, which in turn
0,2
depends
on the two geometry parame
0,1
ters r/t (shell slenderness) and
E ASTIC >
(support width).
X = lambda
* The parameter , which depends on
the classical bifurcation stress under
uniform axial loading conditions and
Figure B.28 : Alternative design rule direct parametrization thus depends on the shell slenderness
parameter r/t only. Consequently se
as a function of X = ^/l/tana = Jfy /CTGNLI =
parate interaction curves have to be
CL

109

1.155
1

.O750St;
,

0,9

>.
r

* \

E 0,8
gi
;

0,7

\
w

*
V

^\rX
V fe

CD 0,6
E 0,5 ;
en
in 0,4
II

^ %

<

m
O 0,3

0,2
0,1

MUE 0,025

MUE = 0,05

MUE = 0,1

'V

S:
*

'V

V
I
1

MUE = 0,2
I

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

I1

> I

0,5

0,6 0,7

0,8

0.15
0.075

0,9

Sigmacr,GMNLI/Sigmacr,GNLI

Figure B.29 : Alternative design rule and numerical analysis re

sults ( is curve parameter and r/t varies along the curves)

plotted for different values

(support width).
* The two design approaches are es
sentially equivalent concerning
their potential of representing the
final results. Their main difference
lies in the fact that the original de
sign approach is a direct onestep
procedure (leading to elasticplastic
critical stress) whereas the latter
one is an indirect twostep
procedure (elastic critical stress +
elasticplastic interaction).
However, it is interesting to note
that, if similar parametrizations are
used ( and ) , similarly shaped
elastoplastic load reduction curves
are obtained in both cases. Histori
cally, the first approach is used in
the german shell buckling code
DIN 18800/4 [B .28] whereas the
latter alternative approach is used
in the ECCS Recommendations
[B.l].

1.155

0.075 0.15
;
2
0,9
>
r
;
E
0,8
0,7

5
O 0,6
0,5
CO
II

VM

V*

"""i

\
\
X \ 1

NSV

\
\
>&

fc^ X

XV

0,4

rv
V

<
m
O 0,3
o

0,2

R/T = 300

R/T = 500

0,1

R/T = 200

XTL.

S:

; R/T = 750
0 . . I . . . . I M M I . M . I I I I 1 1 I ! I
0
0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7

\ ;
\

0.15
> 0.075

' \
1 ! 1 1

0,8

0,9

I
I

Sigmacr,GMNLI/Sigmacr,GNLI

Figure B.30 : Alternative design rule and

numerical analysis results (r/t is curve pa
rameter and varies along the curves)

Formulation of the Alternative Design Rule

The actual formulation of the alternative design rule is given by eq. 14.b (section
B4.2.4.3.3) for the elastic critical stress on the one hand and by the elasticplastic interaction rule
eqs. 17 and 18 on the other hand. The interaction polygon represents a lower bound to all avai

110

lable numerical results and it is determined by the value of the parameter a = 0.075 (see fig.
B.25). The following twofiguresshow different representations of the numerical results, taken
from tables B.5 and B.6 above (section B4.2.4.2), which are bounded from below by the interac
tion polygon (thick dashed lines infigs.B.29 and B.30).
B4.2.7 C omparison with an existing Design Proposal and Rigid Support
Conditions
The preceeding design rules are compared with an existing design proposal 'Pro
posed Design rule for Buckling Strength Assessment of Cylindrical Shells under Local Axial
Loads' by Rotter et al., which was submitted to ECCS TWG 8.4 Buckling of Shells [B.31]. The
database of numerical results underlying this proposal consists of comprehensive results provi
ded by the Edinburgh group (Prof. Rotter) on cylinders with rigid local supports and on a limited
number of results provided by the Gent/Graz group (Prof. Rathe and Prof. Greiner) on cylinders
wiih flexible supports (for shell slenderness ratio r/t = 500 only). The above design proposal
served as the starting point of the study of the foregoing section and is represented by fig.B .31
and the formulas of eqs. 19 and 20 below. The position of the straight interaction line is defined
by the value of the parameter a = 0.15. This straight interaction line is plotted as an inclined thin
dashed line infigs.B.29 and B.30 for comparison purposes.
0.15

a = 0.15
0

0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4

0,5

0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9

Sigmacr.GMNLI/Sigmacr.GNLI

Figure B.31 : Design rule of Rotter et al.

plastic yielding

1
1 +a

O" cr,GMNLI

1 +

if elastic plastic interaction

(19)

l/focr.GNLl/fy^

elastic

O" cr.GNLI / f y

The elastic imperfect critical stress, which is needed as input for the computation of
the elastoplastic imperfect critical stress in eq. 19 is defined in [B.31] and is given here for
completeness :

111

O" cr.GNLI

ffcri

0"cr,GNLI

0.605 .

fv

r/t

0.01 +

0.06

65

+ r/t

(20)

This formula corresponds to eqs. 14.b and c for the fitted elastic imperfect critical
stress underlying the alternative design rule (section B4.2.4.3.3). Again, the parameter = d/r is
the dimensionless support width and 0 = 0.605 .Et/r is the classical bifurcation stress of the cy
linder under uniform axial loading conditons.
Modification of the Design Proposal
On the wider basis of numerical results on locally supported cylinders on flexible
supports (Gent/Graz) and on rigid supports (Edinburgh), which are now available, it becomes
possible to refine the design proposal of Rotter et al., i.e. to provide separate design formulas
corresponding to the lower limiting case oflexible supports and the upper limiting case of rigid
supports (fig. B.32).
Figure B.32 : Suggested modification of the
design proposal of Rotter et al.

,1 0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

The design equations for rigid support

conditions have the same structure as
those for flexible supports and differ
only in the coefficients. Details of their
derivation are given in [B.33].

Siqmacr.GMNLI/Siqmacr.GNLI

O'er
K2,LOCAL,RIGID

fy

< 1 or 1.155
5.0
+ (0.680.50.)
Xh*.r][%]
^

K2

(a)

00

(21)

(c)

The question which support condition is applicable with confidence in practical si

tuations cannot be answered so far and further investigations are necessary. Until this question
is clarified it is recommended to use the design equation for flexible support conditions.

B4.2.8

Examples

In the subsequent examples the following material data for constructional steel grade
Fe 360 are used : E = 20600 kN/cm 2 , = 0.3 , fy = 23.5 kN/cm2.

112

The reduction factor K2 for highly imperfection sensitive shells according to DIN
18800/part 4 applies to cylindrical shells under uniform axial loading and is defined by the code
as follows :

1
1.2330.933. Jt
K

4.2.8.1

2,unifonn

for

0.3/ 3
0.2/ 2

< 0.25
0.235<<1
1 < < 1.5
1.5 <

(4)

Example 1 : r = 300 cm, t= 1 cm , d = 35 cm , = 4 columns.

= d/r = 35/300 = 0.11667 = 11.67 % > = (/2). = 0.0743, r/t = 300.

Uniform compression : \ = 0.605.Et/r = 41.54 kN/cm 2 ,
> = Jti<ycri = 0.752 and 2 = 1.233 0.933 = 0.531
Local support condition :
K2,iocai = 2.83/( 77 . [%]) + (0.77 0.56 ) = 0.651 > 2 (+ 23%).
0 = K2)iocai.fy = 0.651 .23.5 = 15.30 kN/cm2 > F cr = n.acr.d.t = 2144 kN.
For this shell of moderate slenderness and medium support width there is a notable gain of 23 %
in the critical axial buckling stress due to the local support condition, compared to the case of
uniform loading.
B4.2.8.2

Example 2 : r = 450 cm, t = 0.6 cm , d = 52.5 cm , n = 4 columns.

= d/r = 52.5/450 = 0.11667 = 11.67 % = (/2). = 0.0743 , r/t = 750 .

Uniform compression : ^ = 0.605.Et/r = 16.62 kN/cm ,
> = / y / ~en = 1.189 and ? = 0.3/ 3 = 0.178 .
Local support condition :
K2)iocai = 2.83/( 77 . [%]) + (0.77 0.56 ) = 0.316 > 2 (+ 76 % )
0 = K2,iocai.fy = 0.316.23.5 = 7.43 k N / c m 2 > F c r = n.a cr .d.t = 936kN.

For this shell of pronounced slenderness and medium support width there is now a pronounced
gain of 76 % in the critical axial buckling stress due to the local support condition, compared to
the case of uniform loading.
B4.2.8.3

Example 3 : r = 300 cm, t = 1.5 cm, d = 70 cm, n = 4 columns.

= d/r = 35/300 = 0.23333 = 23.33 % > = (/2). = 0.1485 , r/t = 200.

Uniform compression : acr = 0.605 . Et/r = 62.32 kN/cm ,
= / 7 ~ = 0.614 and2= 1.2330.933 = 0.660.
Local support condition :
giocai = 2.83/( 7 7 . [%]) + (0.77 0.56 ) = 0.603 < 2

113

 > K2,iocal = 2 = 0.660 ( 0 % )

0 = giocai fy = 0.660 . 2 3 . 5 = 15.51 k N / c m 2 > F c r = . . d . t = 6 5 1 6 k N .

For this shell of moderate thickness and wide supports there is NO gain in the critical axial
buckling stress due to the local support condition, compared to the case of uniform loading.
Since the local buckling stress is never smaller than the buckling stress under uniform loading,
the present case is governed by the uniform loading condition.
B4.2.8.4

Example 4 : r = 500 c m , t = l c m , d = 15cm,n = 4 columns.

= d/r = 15/500 = 0.03 = 3 % > = (/2). = 0.0191, r/t = 500.

Uniform compression : < = 0.605 . Et/r = 24.93 kN/cm2 ,
-> = A / 7 o ~ = 0.971 and 2 = 1.2330.933 = 0.327.
Local support condition :
0.77.
K2,iocai = 2.83/( ".[%]) + (0.77 0.56 ) = U 9 1 > 1
>K 2 ,local=L0(+206%).
= K2>ioeai. fy = 1.0. fy = 23.5 kN/cm2 > Fcr = Fyeid n.fy.d.t=1412kN
For this slender shell on narrow supports there is an extreme gain in the critical local axial buck
ling stress, compared to the case of uniform loading. Fully plastic conditions occur at the sup
ports.
B4.2.8.5 C omparison with other design rules
The results of the foregoing design examples, using the developed design rule
(section B 4.2.5), are compared with the alternative design rule (section B 4.2.6) and with the
existing design proposal of Rotter et al. (section B4.2.7). The results are compared on the basis
of local reduction factors K2ILOCAL = /fy in the following table B.10. The computed strength
gains K2,LOCAL / 2 in % always refer to the reduction factor for uniform axial loading.
EXAMP

r/t

No.

d/r

K2

[%]

300

11.67

0.531

750

11.67

0.178

3
4

strength gaios'in[%]

21ocal

design
rule

alternat,
rule

01651

0.628

Rotter et idesign
al.
rule
0.652

2 3 % ;;N

alternat
rule

Rotter et
al.

18%

23%

0.316
0.347
65%
95%
0.293
76%
(0.603)
(0.613)
7%
200 23.33 0.660
0.703
':.rS
0.660
0.660
132%
144%
500
3.00
0.327 (1.191)
0.798
206%
0.757
1.000
Table B.10 : Local reduction factors K2,LOCAL obtained by different design rules

Discussion
* Compared to the developed design rule the alternative design rule yields strength gains which
are formally up to 15 to 20% lower (examples 1 to 3). This means that the latter formulations
seems to be less suited to provide a tight lowerbound fit to the numerical results in a large
range of parameters.
* Compared to the developed design rule the design proposal of Rotter et al. yields strength
gains which result up to 25% higher (examples 1 to 3).

114

* For wide supports (example 3) there is practically no strength gain which is predicted by all
three design formulations in nearly the same way.
* For narrow supports (example 4) plastic yielding occurs at the supports which is well predic
ted by the developed design rule and results in an extreme strength gain. However, both of
the competing two design formulations are not able to reflect this situation and therefore re
sult in much lesser strength gains.

B4.2.9

Development of a Design Rule, which covers also the Higher Steel

Grades Fe 430 and Fe 510

The design rule given for the buckling strength of unstiffened cylinders (with con
stant wall thickness), made of mild construction steel of the common grade Fe 360, is given by
formulas 15.a and 15.b. This design rule for steel grade Fe 360 has been extended in a
straightforward manner to a refined design rule which covers also higher steel grades Fe 430
and Fe 510 [B.32].
B4.2.9.1

Design Rule
This refined design formula may be written in the form of 3 conditions as follows

2.LOCAL

<7cr

< 1 or 1.155
2.83 . fc
+ (0.19-1.04.log!)
I 077fE . 77[%]
2.83

fv

+ (0.77-0.56. I Fe360 ;

0.77

lFe360

> ,

(a)
(b-1)
(b-2)

(22)

00

The first condition refers to the limit of plastic yielding of narrow supports whereas
the last condition refers to wide supports which buckle under the same conditions as for uni
form axial loading. These conditions are valid for any steel grade. The second condition re
presents the local reduction factor in explicit dependence of the support width, the shell slen
derness and the steel grade (eq. 22.b-l). The third condition (eq. 22.b-2) may alternatively be
used for steel grade Fe 360.
Thereby the modification factors fc and , the steel grade parameter and the
slenderness parameter are computed according to the following formula :
fc

5 - (0.43 + 3.57r2)

fE

6.38r (0.87 + 4.5If 2 )

=W

= ^235/f y

AFe360

(23)

<7CRI

B4.2.9.2

Examples
We refer to the 4 examples presented in B4.2.8 about the design rule for unstiffe
ned cylinders of steel grade Fe 360 and extend them to the higher steel grades Fe 430 and Fe
510.

115

Local reduction factors K2;LOCAL are computed according to the new design rule (Eq. 22) and
compared with the reduction factors for uniform axial loading K2;UNIFORM to evaluate the strength
gains due to the local loading conditons.
Tables B.l 1 and B.12 below contain auxiliary parameters which are needed for the
evaluation of the local reduction factors and the uniform reduction factors for comparison pur
poses. The local reduction factors and the strength gains referred to the uniform reduction fac
tors are presented in table B.13.
steel grade
Fe 360

fc

fE

Fe 430

Fe 510

EXAMP
No.

0.92

0.81

300

1.148

1.278

750

3
1.183

1.339

Table . 11 : Steel grade parame

ter & modification factors

EXAMP
No.

r/t

300

2
3
4

r/t

d/r

2,UNIFORM

Fe
360

Fe
430

Fe
510

Fe
360

Fe
430

Fe
510

0.752

0.817

0.928

0.531

0.474

0.371

1.189

1.292

1.468

0.178

0.141

0.096

200

0.614

0.667

0.758

0.660

0.613

0.529

500

0.971

1.055

1.199

0.327

0.259

0.177

[%]

(*)

Table B.12 : Uniform reduction factors K^OCAL for higher steel grades
(*) = not rvlant

d/r

strength gains in [%]

2,LOCAL

[%]

Fe 360

Fe 430

Fe 510

Fe 360

Fe 430

Fe 510

11.67

0.621

0.616

0.558

17%

30%

50%

82%
0.324
109%
0.225
0.295
(0.574)
0.530
200 23.33 (0.587)

0.613
0.660
(1.197)
(1.108)
(1.168)
206%
286%
3.00
500
1.000
1.000
1.000
Table B.13 : Local reduction factors K2,LOCAL for higher steel grades
750

11.67

134%

465%

Discussion
* Similar trends are observed for all steel grades concerning effects of support width and shell
slenderness compared to steel grade Fe 360 (see section. B4.2.8).
* The local reduction factors and strength gains for steel grade Fe 360 differ slightly compared
to the values of table B.10, section B4.2.8.5. The reason is, that the unified design equation
(eq. 22.bl) was used in the present calculations whereas the design equation for steel grade Fe
360 (eq. 22.b2) was used in B.4.2.8.5
* The striking effect of the steel grade manifests itself in much higher strength gains with increa
sing value of the yield strength, as can be seen from the following table.
B.4.2.10 Other effects
B.4.2.10.1 Effect of EdgeRingStiffeners & Flexible Support Plates
Practical constructions of local supports of upright cylindrical silos may themsel
ves be complicated structures with specific stiffness properties that may affect the axial buck
ling resistance of the shell wall above the supports. In order to circumvent the difficulty of
dealing with that situation in a systematic manner, the reasonable limiting assumptions of

116

completely flexible supports and of completely rigid supports were adopted within the scope
of the present project (fig. B.33.a and B.33.). 'Flexible' means that the uniform local support
forces are directly introduced into the shell wall without any accompanying deformation con
straint against meridional displacements and rotations (U = <J>X = free). On the other hand,
'rigid' means that all deformation degrees of freedom at the local supports are constrained to
zero (in special U = = 0). In this case the highly uneven distribution of axial support forces
develops in accordance with these geometric constraints, with singularities at the corners of
the rigid support block. Design rules were worked out for these cases, based on the results of
nonlinear numerical Finite element studies, which are reported in [B.42, B.43]. It turned out
that there is a marked increase in buckling strength for rigid supports compared to flexible
ones, especially for intermediate support widths and shells of low slenderness ratios (about r/t
< 500). As a consequence, there remains the important question, how the majority of real
practical supports behaves concerning their stiffness properties, i.e. whether their behaviour
resembles more closely that of flexible supports or that of rigid ones or if their characteristic
behaviour lies somewhere inbetween these extreme limiting cases.
For this purpose a numerical study was carried out [B .40, B.41]. However, the
scope of this study was limited, compared to the wide variety of possible practical support
constructions and must therefore be considered as a first step only. Firstly, the strengthening
effect of an edgeringstiffener was investigated in an exemplary manner, assuming fixed di
mensions of the ring, shell slenderness r/t = 500 and support widths = 0.05 and 0.1 (fig.
B.33.d). Secondly, the effect of the meridional rotational constraint was investigated in detail
for the case of rigid supports (fig. B.33.). Axial warping had been prevented throughout (U
= 0) but the meridional rotational constraint was released ( = free). An overview of selected
idealized local supports is presented in fig. B.33.be below.

ttt
o|d|o

a. flexible support

4imm|mmm

d. edge ring

t f

o|d

b. support plate

c. extended support pi.

pmmimmm

pmmjmum

e. support plate & edge ring f. rigid support

Figure B.33 : Practical support conditions between the limiting cases of

flexible and rigid supports
117

The results of the aforementioned investigations may be summarized as follows :

* Firstly, provision of lower edge-rings resulted in an increase of buckling strength of about
27-35 % fig. B.33.d) compared to the flexibly supported case (fig. B.33-a). However, this
increase amounts to a fraction of only about 1/3 - 2/3 of the increase which is effected by
rigid support conditions (fig. B.33-e).
* Secondly, the release of the meridional rotation constraint in the case of rigid support pla
tes resulted in a decrease of buckling strength on only about 6-7 % compared to fully rigid
support conditions (fig. B.33-e). As a side effect, the axial warping constraint also pre
ventsrigid-body-rotationof the rigid support plates.
The present investigations give some first insight into the effect of edge-rings
and support plates on the buckling strength of axially locally supported cylinders. However,
much further study is needed to gain a complete picture of the situation which would permit to
draw general quantitative conclusions that may be cast into the form of a detailed design rule.
This is not possible at the present time due to the limited scope of the available results.
Yet, as a first step, a simplified design recommendation may be provided which
accounts for the effects of edge rings and extended support plates (figs. B.33.c-e) in an ap
proximate manner. An effective support width is introduced : deff = d + 2.trjng , which is the
original support width plus two times the thickness of the edge-ring (fig. B.34)

T3

weld seam

x.Local

'x.Local

actual support width

Figure B.34 : Design rule accounting for the strengthening effects of

edge-rings and extended support plates

B.4.2.10.2 Interactive Effect of Internal Pressure [B.42]

Based on the results, given in [B.42] for support widths = 0.05 and 0.1 over the
complete lateral-pressure-range it is possible to derive a design recommendation for the buck
ling strength of axially loaded unstiffened cylinders on local supports, taking into account the
additional effect of internal pressure. It is assumed that the internal pressure is exerted onto
the inner shell wall by thefillingmaterial and no further gas pressure is present.
Design Rule
* The axial buckling strength above local supports is, as a simplification, not affected by
additional internal pressure caused by the filling material. The increase of buckling
strength is neglected.

118

* The design formulas for local buckling without internal pressure apply for unstiffened cy
linders as wall as cylinders with reinforced wall thickness of the bottom course for the
common steel grades Fe 360 to Fe 510.
* The biaxial plastic Mises-interaction does not become relevant except for very large pres
sure values and therefore it need not be taken into account for the practical range of pressu
re values. This is due to the pronounced load reduction caused by the effect of imperfec
tions of the elastoplastic structure

B.4.3

Stiffened cylinders with Stepped Wall-Thickness

B.4.3.1

Experimental Results

Experimental research also focussed on the behaviour of stiffened cylinders. Stif

fening of the cylinders was achieved by choosing a larger wall-thickness for the bottom course
of the models, that is, where the local loads are applied (figure B.35).

Figure B.35 : Stiffened cylinder

Several failure models are possible a priori :

local support

local support

local support

Figure B.36 : Possible failure modes

- appearance of buckles in the thicker bottom course, the thinner shell segment remaining intact
(figure B.36-a),
- buckling deformations spreading over a vaster area which affects also parts of the thinner seg
ment (figure B.36-b),
- buckles appearing just above the bordering parallel circle which separates the two segments
(figure B.36-C).
In order to have a fairly broad investigation program the dimensions of our test cylinders have
been chosen as follows :

119

The radius and the overall-height of the models are r = 350 mm , h - 700 mm res
pectively. The support width is equal to 5 % and 10 %. The height of the bottom hi course
ranges from 35 mm to 175 mm , which means that the range of the dimensionless parameter
= hi/r is from 0,1 to 0,5 . Several combinations t/ti have been selected : 0,7/1,0 ; 0,7/1,5 ;
1,0/1,5 ; 0,6/1,0. These correspond with the dimensionless combinations r/t (n/t) 500(350) 500(233) - 350(233) and 583(350) .
Stiffened cylinders are fabricated as described below [B.21].
First of all, two rectangular plates were removed from steel plates with thicknesses of 0,7 mm
and ti respectively by means of a cutting operation with a sheet shearing machine. The length
of the plates is 2199,1 mm and their width is 700 - hi (mm) and hi (mm). These plates are
welded together along one of the 2199,1 mm long edges.
Subsequently the composite rectangular 2199,1 mm 700 mm plate is rolled into a
cylindrical shape with a rolling machine. After having accomplished this rolling operation, the
seam between the neighbouring longitudinal free edges of the cylinder is welded. The fabrica
ted cylinder possesses little transverse stiffness, i.e. in a direction which is perpendicular to the
generatrices. In order to maintain the circular shape in the support area, a ring stiffener is sol
dered to the lower rim of the test model.
The circularity of the upper rim is guaranteed by the 15 mm circular top plate co
vering the cylinder and where the axial force is introduced at the centre.
Some of the tested cylinders are nominally perfect, but because real cylindrical
tanks used in industry will certainly possess relatively larger imperfections it is imperative to
test cylinders where shape imperfections are introduced in an artificial way, by means of a
punch and die with appropriate shape. These shape imperfections are applied right above the
supports : the intended size of the imperfections is lref = 4 -N/rt7 and the intended depth is
0,01W. [B.21, B.22 , B.34]
Two different post-buckling patterns have been observed : a pattern, restricted to
the stiffening bottom course, the shape of which is very similar to that of the buckles in unstif
fened cylinders (photo B.14) and a second one with a more complex shape that extends into
the upper portion of the cylinder, (photos B. 15 , B. 16 and B. 17 and figure B.37).
The experimental buckling stresses are given in table B.14. Note that auexp = sup
port reaction/bti where b denotes the support width.
The actual depth, , of the imperfections is given in the table as well.

Photo B.14 : Buckling shape restricted to the stif Photo B.1S : Buckling shape extending into the up
fening bottom course
per portion of the cylinder

120

Photo B.16 : Buckling shape extending into the up

per portion of the cylinder

Photo B.17 : Buckling shape extending into the up

per portion of the cylinder

Figure B.37 : Buckling shape extending into the upper portion of the cylinder

121

t
[mm]

.""
[MPa]

[MPa]

[MPa]

[MPa]

(-]

m
[%]

h,
[mm]

h|/r

[MPa]

C*
[MPa]

c28s[3]
c08s[l]
c08s[4]
c07s[4]
c07sb[4]
c05s[3]
c05sb[4]
c05sc[4]

350
350
350
350
350
350
350
350

0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7

500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500

35
70
70
105
105
140
140
140

0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.4

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5

220
225
247
245
266
280.4
265
242

175
173
173
173
173
179
173
173

166
166
166
166
166
163
165
165

320
320
320
320
320
320
320
320

300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300

n.p.
n.p.
n.p.
n.p.
n.p.
n.p.
n.p.
n.p.

200

c29s[3]
clls[3]
cllsb[2]
cllsb[3]
c09s[l]
c06s[4]
c06sb[4]
clOs[I]

350
350
350
350
350
350
350
350

0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7

500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500

35
70
70
70
105
140
140
175

0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.5

10
IO
10
10
10
10
IO
10

131
156.7
133.5
164
167
184
163
165

175
173
173
173
173
179
179
173

165
166
166
166
165
164.7
164
165

320
320
320
320
320
320
320
320

300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300

n.p.
n.p.
n.p.
n.p.
n.p.
n.p.
n.p.
n.p.

129

c35si[l]
c35si[4]
c34si[l]
c33si[4]
c33si[4]
c32si[3]
c32si[4]
c31si[l]

350
350
350
350
350
350
350
350

0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7

500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500

35
35
70
105
105
140
140
175

0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.5

10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10

116.5
123.6
136
168.7
166.6
184
181
161

175
175
175
175
175
175
175
175

165
165
165
165
165
165
165
165

320
320
320
320
320
320
320
320

300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300

0.93
0.84
0.71
0.65
0.76
0.63
0.84
0.84

cylnr.

t>
[mm]

r/t,

r/t

HUJ

tu

...

c30s[2]
cl2s[3]
cl2s[2]
cl3s[3]

1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5

233.33
233.33
233.33
233.33

0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7

500
500
500
500

35
70
70
105

0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3

5
5
5
5

186.2
243
220
272

205
205
205
205

165
165
165
165

350
350
350
350

300
300
300
300

n.p.
n.p.
n.p.
n.p.

c45si[3]
c45si[4]
c44si[2]
c44si[3]
c43si[l]
c43si[4]
c42si[l]

1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5

233.33
233.33
233.33
233.33
233.33
233.33
233.33

1
1
1
1
1
1
1

350
350
350
350
350
350
350

105
105
105
105
140
140
140

0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.4

5
5
5
5
5
5
5

334
349
345
344
308
320
341

201
201
206
202
208
202
210

239
239
239
239
239
239
239

319
319
320
320
320
320
320

350
350
350
350
350
350
350

0.67
0.95
0.98
0.95
1.12
1.09
1.08

c41si[l]
c40si[l]
c40si[3]
c39si[2]
c39si[3]
c38si[l]
c38si[4]

1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5

233.33
233.33
233.33
233.33
233.33
223.33
233.33

1
1
1
I
1
1
1

350
350
350
350
350
350
350

105
105
105
140
140
140
140

0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4

10
10
10
10
10
IO
10

218
218
224
219
218
221
227

204
204
204
213
213
213
213

239
239
239
239
239
239
239

318
318
318
328
328
328
328

350
350
350
350
350
350
350

1.07
0.85
0.98
0.96
0.98
1.02
1.01

c49si[2]
c49si[3]
c48si[2]
c48si[3]
c46si[2]
c46si[3]
c47si[3]

350
350
350
350
350
350
350

0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6

583.33
583.33
583.33
583.33
583.33
583.33
583.33

90
90
90
90
140
140
140

0.2571
0.2571
0.2571
0.2571
0.4
0.4
0.4

10
10
10
10
10
10
10

128
116
129
118
167
173
149

250
251
246
247
250
245
248

215
215
215
215
215
213
213

347
347
347
348
350
347
350

338
338
336
336
336
336
337

0.77
0.56
0.89
0.82
0.75
0.88
0.71

c52si[4]
c53si[3]
c53si[4]
c50si[2]
c50si[3]
c51si[2]
c51si[3]

350
350
350
350
350
350
350

0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6

583.33
583.33
583.33
583.33
583.33
583.33
583.33

90
90
90
140
140
140
140

0.2571
0.2571
0.2571
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4

5
5
5
5
5
5
5

250
254
242
275
280
313
283

245
245
245
255
252
255
255

213
216
216
214
214
216
216

351
351
351
354
352
352
352

336
339
339
336
336
338
338

0.89
0.65
0.66
0.79
0.62
0.67
0.61

Table B.14 : Cylinders with reinforced wall-thickness

122

247

180

198

314

B.4.3.2 C omparison with Finite Element C omputations

A selected number of nominally perfect and imperfect test specimens have been cal
culated by GREINER et al [B .35, B.36] for comparison purposes and adaptation of the finite
element model.
The numerical study examines and takes account of the special features of the test
specimens : geometry, loading, support and boundary conditions, material model, eccentricity in
the joint between upper and lower part of the cylinder and geometric imperfections. Numerical
buckling loads were obtained by loadcontrolled analyses which yield accurate values of the load
maxima (limit points). However, with this simple method no information can be obtained con
cerning postbuckling deformations because any loadcontrolled analysis inherently breaks down
at the limit point. Consequently, each case had to be analyzed twice, the second time by apply
ing an arclengthcontrolled analysis.
Comparative buckling stresses for nominally perfect specimens are given in table
B. 14 for a selected number of specimens.
Analyses Series C2

Analyses Series C2

R/t = 233 (350)

= b/B = 0.05 & 0.10

R/t = 350 (583)

= b/B = 0.05 & 0.10
1.155 = 404

1.15 LT = 3 7 0
350
TEST 'alues

S s s ^ S& '."

300

250

300

250

jflfSje^tft^iiS^

200

GMNLlh

GMNIi7h =0.05

=0.05

GMNLh

=0.05

GMNL

=0.05

GMNLIh

=0.10

GMNU7h =0.10

GMNLh

=0.10

GMNL

=0.10

100

* '

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

dimensionless length of wall reinforcement = r^/R []

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0.5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

dimensionless length of wall reinforcement = h./R []

Figure B38 : Maximum mean support stress of artifl Figure B.39 : Maximum mean support stress of arti
cially imperfected reinforced cylinders made of the ficially im perfected reinforced cylinders made of the
"new" material. Project part C2/1994 : r/t=233(350) "new" material. Project part C2/1994 : r/t=350(583)

Summaries of results for imperfect models are presented in figures B.38 and B.39 for
the investigated slenderness ratios r/ti = 233 and 350 of the reinforced bottom course. The
maximum mean meridional buckling stress acr at therigidsupports is plotted against the dimen
sionless length of the wall reinforcement, is the ratio : length of bottom course/radius. In
order to give an impression of the effect of material plasticity on the computed buckling stress,
the plastic hardening range for the sheet used for the bottom course, is indicated by light grey
shading in thesefigures.Theranges oftest results are indicated by dark grey shading on the ac

123

companying figures.lt may be noted that the agreement with the numerical results is satisfactory
in general.
B.4.3.3

Development of a Design Rule [B.37, B.38]

B.4.3.3.1

Introduction
Practical silo structures are very often designed with stepped wall thickness in verti
cal direction for the primary purpose to provide the necessary resistance against the increasing
radial pressure of the filling material in an economic manner. The obvious complexity of the
problem had to be reasonably idealized within the framework of the present project. This was
done by adopting several assumptions in the following way :
* The cylindrical shell consists of only two regions of different wall thickness.
The wall thickness of the lower part ti is 50 % larger than that of the upper one.
* The support forces are introduced by \ocdl flexible supports.
Based on these assumptions the problem is reduced to the following question. Given the
buckling strengths for the two slenderness ratios r/t and r/ti of the upper part and the lower part
(with 50 % increased wall thickness) assuming for flexible support conditions : What is the di
mensionless minimum required height hi/R of the reinforced bottom course of the cylinder so
that the cylinder with onestepped wall thickness reaches, within certain limits, the buckling
strength of the cylinder with uniform (i.e nonstepped) wall thickness, equal to that of the rein
forced lower part ? That means we have essentially to deal with a socalled 'Mindeststeifig
keitsproblem' (problem of nuhimumrequired stiffness) which, however, may be defined with
respect to various levels of analytical modelling. The buckling loads could be computed utili
zing any combination of geometric non/linearity and material non/linearity with/without imper
fections. Since we have to deal with mild construction steel, which exhibits a pronounced plas
tic limit behaviour, a geometrically and materially nonlinear approach seems reasonable any
way (GMNL analyses). B ut the question remains wether or not imperfections should be inclu
ded in these analyses which are primarily aimed at determing the minimumrequired stiffness of
the structure, expressed by the value of , (fig .40). The general approach, adopted in the
present study, was to include the effect of geometric imperfections (GMNLI analyses) as will be
discussed below.

Jjj Buckling modes f

Imperfections

Figure B.40 : Assumed local imperfections and characteristic buckling modes of cylinders with reinforced
wall thickness of the bottom course

The buckling behaviour of the geometrically perfect system {GMNL analyses) may be characte
rized as follows (right part of fig. B.40) :
* If the height of the wall reinforcement is small the shell always buckles immediately above the
reinforced part in the thinner part of the shell.

124

* If the height of the wall reinforcement is greater than the critical height , the shell always
buckles immediately above the supports.
In the presence of local geometric imperfections either above the reinforced part or
above the supports (left part of fig. B.40) these tendencies do not alter but they are even ampli
fied {GMNLI analyses). An exception occurs for the case of small values of the height of the
wall reinforcement and local imperfections directly above the supports. In this case a pro
nounced interaction between the imperfection shape and the buckling mode shape may occur re
sulting in a 'mixed' buckling mode shape, which is partly located within the reinforced and partly
within the thin upper part. The clean separation of modes of the perfect system is destroyed.
An overview how this situation reflects from the viewpoint of buckling loads in de
pendence of the height of the wall reinforcement is presented in the schematic diagram below
(fig. B.41). The left ordinate corresponds to the limiting case of zero wall reinforcement (hi/r =
0) and the smallest possible buckling loads apply. The horizontal lines correspond to the com
plementary limiting case of total wall reinforcement (hi^/r^hi/r^l) and the largest possible
buckling loads apply. The inclined lines correspond to intermediate values of wall reinforce
ment and show an almost linear increase of buckling strength with increasing height of wall rein
forcement. Ultimately, these lines intersect the horizontal lines for total wall reinforcement at
values of the critical height ,/ and the buckling loads cannot be further increased (points
U,R and V in fig. B.41). Three alternative situations are presented, the behaviour of the perfect
system {GMNL) and of systems with local imperfections located directly above the supports
{GMNLIJjot) or directly above the reinforced part in the thinner part of the wall {GMNLIJop).
10

o
CO

LL
T3

CO
O

0,1

design rule

Figure B.41 : Buckling strength in dependence of the axial length of the wall
reinforcement for different imperfection assumptions - schematic diagram
for r/t=500(750), =0.05
B.4.3.3.2

Summary of Numerical Results and Design Rule

Based on the numerical results for the rninimum-required heights ,/ , presented
in the table B.l5 below a design rule is developed which is valid for 50 % increased wall
thickness of the bottom course or greater (ti > 1.5t).

125

'
n

i,MiN ' r

0.2 + 0.53 (1 )
0.1 + 2 + 0.53 (1 )

< 0.05
0 . 0 5 < < 0.1
all

for

4/Vr7t
.,,,.,...,.

(24)

r/t = 500

r/t = 200

!; hj.MiN/i"
:

; (GMNL) Fe 360
=0.05

W$i

=0.1

; 0.13

Fe 430
,' 0.11
0.14

Fe510

Fe 360

Fe 430

Fe510

0.11

0.11

0.11 .';', \ 0.14

02

0.14

0.17

0:2

Table B.15 : values of minimum required heights of the wall reinforcement in dependence of slenderness R/t,
steel grade & support width
steel grade

.^DESIGN:
Fe 360

Fe 430

Fe510

e=^235/f;

0.92

0.81

= 0.05

0.2

hijvHN/r

= 0.1

spilli

;,

0.24

0.34V,

, 0.41

Table B.16 : Proposed design values of minimum required height of the wall reinforcement in dependence of
steel grade & support width

*The convention has been adopted to double the values of critical heights of the numerical ana
lyses for design purposes. This leads to the values of tab. B.16 above. It is noticeable that the
shell slenderness r/t does no longer appear because, by simplification, the respectively larger
values were adopted.
* Linear interpolation of these design values, within the range of investigated support widths and
steel grades, leads to the design formula eq. 24. For narrow support widths < 0.05 the design
values for = 0.05 apply throughout. Graphical representations of this design equation are
presented in fig. B.42.

rr

(235/ y )

Figure B.42 : Design diagrams for estimating the minimum required height of the
wall reinforcement

126

* A further purely pragmatic condition was additionally provided which states that the height
of the wall reinforcement should be larger than the approximate length of the local buckles of
uniformly compressed cylinders (last formula of eq. 24). Thereby the shell slenderness reap
pears in the overall design equation.
Finally, a parameter change remains to be applied introducing the dimensionless support
width = d/r [B .32]. This leads to the final form of the design equation (eq.25), a graphical
representation of which is given in fig. B.43 below.
0.2 + 0.53(1 )
h

UN /

< 0.075

0.1 + 1.3377 + 0.53(1 )

for

4/Vr7t

0.075 < < 0.15

(25)

all 77

1.00

= J 235/y

(0,0)
0,0

(0,05)
0,075

(0,10)
0,015

b"=
= d/R

Figure B.43 : 3Drepresentation of the final design diagram

B.5 C onclusions
A design rule for axially loaded upright cylinders on discrete flexible supports has
been derived by applying curvefitting procedures. Flexible means that the supports themsel
ves have no stiffness against axial warping and meridional bending in particular. The equidis
tant support forces are directly introduced into the shell wall by uniform Une loads over the
proportion of the circumference which is supported. The derivation of this design rule is ex
clusively based on results of nonlinear numerical buckling analyses taking into account geome
trically and materially nonlinear behaviour as well as the effect of initial geometric imperfec
tions in a local region above the supports. The geometrical parameter values cover the rele
vant range occuring in practical silo design. The investigated shell slenderness parameter
ranges from r/t = 200 to 750 and the dimensionless support width covers the range up to fairly
wide supports = d/r = 0.3. Elastoplastic material behaviour was taken into account repre
senting the behaviour of mild construction steel of steel grades Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510.
The format of the design rule has been chosen in a way that allows a direct compa
rison of the characteristic increase of buckling capacity of the locally supported case with the

127

uniformly loaded case. This has been accomplished with the help of the german shell buckling
code DIN 18800/ part 4, which defines an overall reduction factor 2 = K2 { ) = aCI/fy appli
cable to the uniaxial yield stress and which depends on the dimensionless shell slenderness pa
rameter = . / / crcri . Thereby acri = 0.605.Et/r is the classical elastic bifurcation stress of
a perfect cylinder under uniform axial compression (ideal critical stress). Analogously, in the
present case a 'local' overall reduction factor K2OCAL was defined, which additionally depends
on the dimensionless support width = d/r. Accordingly, since the abscissa parameter is
kept unaltered in the locally supported case compared to the uniformly loaded case, a family of
curves is obtained which are situated above the K2design curves. These curves are bounded
by the simple condition 2 < K2,LOCAL < 1 , i.e. they are bounded by the reduction factor for
uniform loading condition from below and by the condition of purely plastic yielding from
above. B y this way, the characteristic strength gain of the locally supported case compared to
the uniformly loaded case becomes directly apparent to the design engineer.
In addition, an equivalent alternative formulation of the design rule has been wor
ked out, based on the same numerical data, which follows the ECCS design philosophy. The
reby a wellknown twostepprocedure is adopted, determining the elastic imperfection reduc
tion factor = OGNLi/Ocn in a first step and applying a linear elastoplastic interaction rule in a
second step.
Finally, the prediction capability of the design rules was tested by 4 examples and compared
with an existing design proposal published by Rotter et al. (1993) [B.31].
The effect of higher steel grades was introduced into the design equations by the
following concept : The structure of the already derived design equation for the reference steel
grade Fe 360 was left intact and socalled modification factors were provided which apply to
the coefficients of the design equation for Fe 360. Therefore the new design equation may be
used for the whole range of investigated steel grades by simple interpolation of the modifica
tion factors.
Finally, the effect of internal pressure combined with local axial force introduction
and the effect of edge ring stiffeners and flexible support plates has been examined and simpli
fied design rules are given.
A lot of both theoretical and experimental research has been devoted to the problem of
cylinders on local supports with a reinforced, thicker bottom course. The experimental inves
tigation covers support widths equal to 5 % and 10 % , and the height of the reinforcement,
expressed as a partion of the radius of the cylinder ranges from 0,1 r to 0,5 r. Several combi
nations of the thicknesses of the upper portion and the lower reinforced part were tested : t/ti
= 0.7/1.0 ; 0.7/1.5; 1.0/1.5 and 0.6/1.0 .
Numerical simulation by means of finite element techniques led to very satisfactory
results taking into account the features of the test specimens : geometry, loading, support and
boundary conditions, material model, eccentricity of the joint between upper and lower part of
the cylinder and geometric imperfections.
Within the framework of the present project, the development of a design rule had
to be simplified due to the complexity of the problem. The idealizations are : the cylindrical
shell consists of only two regions of different wall thickness ; the wall thickness of the lower
part 11 is 50 % larger than that of the upper one ; the support forces are introduced by flexible
supports. Under these conditions a design rule has been derived giving the minimal required
height of the wall reinforcement in order not to lower the strength of a cylinder with uniform
thickness ti on local supports. The effect of the steel grade is incorporated in the design pro
posal.

128

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[B.3]

[B.4]
[B.5]
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Libai, . & Durban, D., Buckling of cylindrical shells subjected to nonuniform axial loads. Journal
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Gould, P. L., Sen, S. K., Wang, R. S. C. & Lowrey, D., Column supported cylindrical conical tanks.
Journal of the Structural D ivision, ASCE, 102 (ST2) (1976) 42947.
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distribution. Proceedings of the International Colloquium on the Stability of Plate and Shell
Structures, ed. P. Dubas & D. Vandepitte. Gent University, Gent, Belgium, 1987, pp. 55561.
Rotter, J. M. & Teng, J. G, A study of buckling in column supported cylinders. Proceedings of the
IUTAM Symposium on contact Loading and Local Effects in Thinwalled Plated and Shell
Structures, ed. V. Krupka & M. Drdacky. Prague, Czechoslovakia, 1990, p. 5261.
Li, H. Y., Rotter, J. M. & Teng, J. G, B uckling in thin elastic cylinders on column supports. In
Buckling of Shell Structures, on Land, in the Sea and in the Air, ed. J.F. Jullien, Elsevier Applied
Science, London, pp. 334343.
Rotter, J. M. & Teng, J. G, Linear bifurcation of perfect columnsupported cylinders : support
modelling and boundary conditions. ThinWalled Structures, 13 (1992), 24163.
Samuelson, L. ., Buckling of cylindrical shells under axial compression and subjected to localized
loads. Proceedings of the EuroMech Colloquium on PostBuckling of Elastic Structures,
Elsevier/Akadmai Kiado, Mtrafred, Hungary, 1985.
Guggenberger, W., Nichtlineares Beulverhalten von Kreiszylinderschalen unter lokalen
Axialbelasting. PhD Dissertation, Technische Universitt Graz, Austria, 1991.
Vandepitte, D., Berekening van Constructies. Vol. I. E. StoryScientia P.V.B .A. Gent, B elgium,
1979, pp.41128.
Dhanens F. & Van Impe, R, Local B uckling of Unstiffened Steel Cylinders, report LMO 93
1903 , 124 pp., Ghent University, 1993
Dhanens, F. & Van Impe, R, Local B uckling in Cylindrical Structures, report LMO 94 1703 ,
57 pp., Laboratory for Model Research, Ghent University, Belgium.
Dhanens, F. & Van Impe, R , Local Loads in Cylindrical Structures, report LMO 95 2003 , 43
pp., Laboratory for Model Research, Ghent University, Belgium.
Guggenberger, W. & Greiner, R, Local Buckling of Unstiffened Steel Cylinders numerical results
and comparison with test results, report G/G N. 1.1/1993 Institute for Steel & Shell Structures,
Technical University of Graz, Austria.

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[B.25]
[B.26]
[B.27]
[B.28]
[B.29]
[B.30]
[B.31]
[B.32]
[B.33]
[B.34]
[B.35]
[B.36]
[B.37]
[B.38]
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[B.40]
[B.41]
[B.42]
[B.43]
[B.44]

Guggenberger, W. & Greiner, R., Numerical Analysis of Unstiffened Cylinders with Artificial
Imperfections & Comparison with Test Results, report G/G. N. 2A/1994, Institute for Steel & Shell
Structures, Technical University of Graz, Austria.
Guggenberger, W. & Greiner, R, Numerical Analysis of Unstiffened Cylinders - Development of a
Design rule, report G/G N. 2B/1994, Instittute for Steel & Shell Structures, Technical University of
Graz, Austria.
Guggenberger, W. & Greiner, R, Effect of rigid Support Conditions on the Buckling Strength of
Axially Loaded Unstiffened Cylinders on Local Supports. Report G/G. N. 3G/1995, Institute for
Steel & Shell Structures, Technical University of Graz, Austria.
Guggenberger, W. & Greiner, R, Effect of the Edge-Ring-Stiffeners and Support Plates on the
Buckling Strength of Axiais Loaded Unstiffened Cylinders on Local Supports , Report G/G.
N. 3H/1995, Institute for Steel & Shell Structures, Technical University of Graz, Austria.
DIN 18 800/part 4, Steel Structures, Buckling of Shells, November 1990.
Koiter, T.W., The Stability of Elastic Equilibrium, English translation Technical report AFFDL-TR70-25, Wright-Patterson Air-Force-Base, Ohio, Feb. 1970.
Guggenberger, W., Greiner, R Rotter, J.M., The Behaviour of Locally Supported Cylindrical Shells :
Unstiffened Shells, submitted for publication, 1995.
Rotter, J.M., Greiner, R, Guggenberger, W., Li, H.Y., She, K.M., Proposed Design Rule for
Buckling Strength Assessment of Cylindrical Shells under Local Axial Load, submission to ECCS
TWG 8.4, Buckling of Shells, Sept. 1993.
Guggenberger, W., Greiner, R, Effect of Steel Grade on the Buckling Strength of Axially Loaded
Unstiffened Cylinders on Local Supports, Development of a Design Rule, Report G/TG N. 4E/1995,
Technical University of Graz, Austria.
Guggenberger, W., Greiner, R, Effect of rigid Support conditions on the Buckling Strength of
Axially Loaded Cylinders with Reinforced Wall Thickness on Local Supports, Report G/G N.
4.G/1995, Technical University of Graz, Austria.
Dhanens, F., & Van Impe, R, Local Loads in Cylindrical Structures, Report nr. LMO-95-1509,
Laboratory for Model Research, Ghent University, Belgium.
Guggenberger, W., Greiner, R., Numerical Analysis of Nominally Perfect Cylinders with Reinforced
Wall Thickness and Comparison with Test Results, Report G/G N. 2C1/1994, Technical University
of Graz, Austria.
Guggenberger, W., Greiner, R, Numerical Analysis of Artificially Imperfect Cylinders with
Reinforced Wall Thickness & Comparison with Test Results, Report G/G N. 2C2/1994, Technical
University of Graz, Austria.
Guggenberger, W., Greiner, R, Buckling Strength of Axially Loaded Cylinders with Reinforced
Wall Thickness on Local Supports - Development of a Design Rule, report G/G N. 4DF/1995,
Technical University of Graz, Austria.
Guggenberger, W., Greiner, R., Numerical Analysis of Cylinders with Reinforced Wall Thickness Development of a Design Rule, Report G/G N. 2D/1994, Technical University of Graz, Austria.
Guggenberger, W., Greiner, R., Buckling Strength of Unstiffened Cylinders under Axial Loads Development of a Design rule, Report G/G N. 4B/1995, Technical University of Graz, Austria.
Guggenberger, W., Greiner, R, Effect of Edge-ring Stiffeners and Flexible Support Plates Development of a Design rule, Reports G/G N. 44/1995 & 3H/1995, Technical University of Graz,
Austria.
Guggenberger, W., Greiner, R, Effect of Internal Pressure on the Buckling Strength of Unstiffened
Cylinders under Local Axial Loads - Development of a Design Rule, Report G/G N. 4J/1995,
Technical University of Graz, Austria.
Guggenberger, W. & Greiner, R, Buckling Strength of Unstiffened Cylinders under Local Axial
Loads - Development of a Design Rule, Report G/G. N. 4G/1995, Gent/Graz Analysis Project Part
4.B/1994, Technical University of Graz, Austria.
Guggenberger, W. & Greiner, R, Effect of rigid Support Conditions on the Buckling Strength of
Axially Loaded Unstiffened Cylinders on Local Supports - Development of a Design Rule, Report
G/G. N. 4G/1995, Gent/Graz Analysis Project Part 4.B/1994, Technical University of Graz, Austria.
Guggenberger, W.& Greiner, R, Corrections & Additions to Reports : G/G. N. 2.B/1994, G/G N.
2.C2/1994, G/G N. 3.E/1995.

130

ECSC Contract No. 7210-SA/208

Enhancement of ECCS Design Recommendations and Development of
Eurocode 3 Parts Related to Shell Buckling
PartC

SHELLS OF REVOLUTION WITH ARBITRARY

MERIDIONAL SHAPES
-BUCKLING DESIGN BY USE OF COMPUTER ANALYSISFinal Report

Universitt GH Essen
FB Bauwesen Stahlbau
Prof. Dr.-Ing. H. Schmidt
Dipl.-Ing. P. Swadlo
May 1996

Cl

Introduction

The European Recommendations on "Buckling of Steel Shells" [Cl], as well as other codes of
practice or design recommendations dealing with the stability of thin-walled metal shell
structures (e.g. [C2, C3]), contain design rules for unstiffened or stiffened fundamental types
of shells of revolution under fundamental loads. Fundamental types of shells are for instance
cylinders, cones or spheres; fundamental loads are for instance uniform axial compression,
uniform external pressure or uniform torsional shear. The rules are, explicitly or implicitly,
based on the critical buckling resistance of the idealized shell in combination with appropriate
reduction factors taking care of the imperfection-induced and (if relevant) of the plasticityinduced decreases down to the characteristic buckling resistance of the "real" shell.
In most cases, approximate formulas are given for "critical buckling stresses" representing the
critical buckling resistance. The reduction factors are of empirical character and are, for each
particular fundamental buckling case, experimentally calibrated.
No simple design rules are available how to handle other than the fundamental shells of
revolution and/or other than the fundamental loads. On the other hand, powerful computer
programs are available to analyse either the idealized shell configuration, i.e. the geometrically
perfect and purely elastic shell, or even a discreticized FE-model of the simulatedly imperfect
shell configuration. The problem is not the numerical or algorithmic capability of the computer
package, but the proper input data and, even more, the proper use of the numerical output data
in terms of a balanced safe and economic design. The task of formulating such general
guidance is under discussion in several working groups, among others in ECCS-TWG 8.4[C8].
One of the more frequent non-fundamental shell configurations, which the design engineer will
come across in structural applications, are shells of revolution of which the meridional shapes
are combinations of the fundamental types, e.g. polygonal cylinder/cone assemblies. It may be
expected of him to solve - by means of appropriate numerical tools - the eigenvalue problem of
the inherent idealized elastic shell configuration. However, if he applies the same reduction
factors as specified for the fundamental shell types the result might be overconservative. On
the other hand, if he applies no imperfection reduction at all, the result would certainly be
unconservative. No guidance is at present available how to transfer the numerical eigenvalue
result into a reasonable design buckling resistance [C7, CIO].
The present research subproject C aims at providing the design engineer with
recommendations how to handle the buckling design of non-fundamental shells of revolution.
This was to be achieved by investigating comprehensively a set of cone/cone and
cone/cylinder assemblies as typical and frequently used examples of non-fundamental shells.
The investigations were to be carried out on a comparative experimental and numerical basis.
The recommendations were to be drawn from these comparisons.
The experimental and numerical investigations are published in full documentary evidence in
the research report [CI 1]. This chapter C represents a short version of [CI 1] with either typical
or summarizing results, however with the full set of conclusions. The full report [Cll] is
available on request.

133

C2

Experimental investigations

C2.1

Test program

The test program is shown in table CI. The ideas behind the test program are as follows.
C2.1.1

Parameter "action causing buckling"

Of the three buckling relevant membrane forces in shells, the shear forces are less important in
shell structures with polygonal meridional shapes. The other two membrane forces, i.e.
meridional and circumferential compressive forces, are in like manner important. However, the
buckling behaviour and imperfection sensitivity are principally different. It was therefore
necessary to cover both in an as comparable manner as possible. This was achieved by a
systematically dual set-up of the program: Each tested shell geometry is represented by two
nominally identical specimens (e.g. KK-V50 and KK-V51, see table CI), of which one is
tested under central axial compression and the other one is tested under hydrostatic external
pressure.
C2.1.2

Parameter "meridional break"

The carrying capacity of a shell of revolution that is composed of cylindrical and conical
portions may be considerably lower than predicted by the elementary buckling stresses of the
individual cylinders and cones assumed to be edge-supported at the meridional breaks. The
governing parameters for the resistance deficit are the angle and the direction of the meridional
break (convex or concave). With growing angle, the resistance deficit will increase for axial
compression because of deviating the meridional membrane forces, but will decrease for
external pressure because of the stiffening effect of the break. Deviating the meridional
membrane forces at concave breaks causes inward bending combined with circumferential
compressive forces, at convex breaks outward bending combined with circumferential tensile
forces.
The semi-vertex angle of all conical portions of the test specimens has been chosen as 20 (see
table CI). This is a typical value in practical structures. Using this basic cone angle, four types
of meridional breaks are possible: cone/cone-convex, cone/cone-concave, cylinder/coneconvex, cylinder/cone-concave. All of them are covered by the test program (see table CI).
C2.1.3

Parameter "shell geometry"

The logical shell configuration in order to test the behaviour of cone/cone meridional brakes
are double cone assemblies, as shown in the first two columns of table CI.
For the cylinder/cone meridional breaks it seemed necessary to check additionally the
influence of the boundary conditions at the far ends of the two shell portions forming the
cylinder/cone meridional break. Thus, four triple shell configurations have been developed in
which each of the two meridional break types is combined with three different boundary
conditions (see columns 3 to 6 of table CI).

134

The largest diameter has, in regard to the space of the testing machine, been chosen as d = 450
mm. The other diameters follow from the condition that the conical portions should be long
enough to represent "medium-long" shells in terms of buckling theory.

C2.1.4

Parameter "shell slenderness"

Combined shells of revolution without rings or diaphragms at the intersections, as investigated

in this research project, are to be found in practical structures with small or medium r/t-ratios
in the range of r/t = 100 + 500. Therefore, two wall thicknesses t = 0,5 mm and 1,0 mm have
been chosen for the axial load tests, yielding r/t-ratios of 225 and 450. For the external
pressure tests only t = 0,5 mm was chosen, because an extrapolation to thicker walls was,
considering the smaller imperfection sensitivity of the external pressure buckling case, thought
to be feasible.

C2.2

Test specimens

C2.2.1

Material properties

C2.2.1.1

Used sheet material

The specimens were manufactured from thin cold rolled sheets (3000 1500 mm) of mild
unalloyed steel Stl2 (Material-No. 1.0330) ace. to DIN 1623, which corresponds to sheet
category Fe POI ace. to EN 10130. This thin sheet material is produced for cold forming
operations rather than for structural purposes. Its specified material properties are
yield stress R^ or Rpo 2 <, 280 MPa,
tensile strength R ^ 270 -s- 410 MPa,
percentage elongation after fracture Ag0 28%.
The advantage of this material for the present research purposes is - besides its availability on
the steel market - its high ductility which is important for simulating the good-natured plastic
deformation behaviour of unalloyed structural steels. The disadvantage is that its yield stress is
not specified against a minimum value but against a maximum value. That entails a relatively
large scatter of yield stress values from sheet to sheet and even within one sheet. Furthermore,
the sheets exhibit two different types of stress-strain-behaviour, obviously depending on the
particular "skin-passing" procedures of the different steel producers or production heats
respectively.
In order to overcome these disadvantages, a number of tension and compression coupons
respectively have been taken in each sheet from around the positions of the shell specimens'
wall pieces. The cutting plans of all sheets are given in [CI 1].
C2.2.1.2

Tension coupons

The tension coupons have been tested in two phases with different degrees of measurement
precision. In the first (strain-controlled) phase a high-precision extensiometer was used which
produced exact stress-strain-curves up to e = 4,5%, including an unloading/reloading loop for
determining the modulus of elasticity E and three relaxation halts for determining the "tensile
static yield stress" R ^ (see fig. CI). The second phase was standard, i.e. piston-displacementcontrolled; it delivered a stress-displacement-curve from which the tensile strength Rm and an

135

approximate value for the percentage elongation eg before local reduction of cross-sectional
area can be determined. Thus, it will be possible to construct, for numerical purposes, full
range stress-strain-curves which are very precise in the important small-strain range and
sufficiently good for the rest. After the tension test the percentage elongation after fracture A50
has been determined.
All tension coupon diagrams and the material property values derived from them are given in
[CI 1]. The coupons exhibit the abovementioned different types of stress-strain-behavior (see
fig. CI): Type (a) has a distinct upper yield stress with the stress-strain-curve being ideally
elastic-plastic with a horizontal plateau up to ev ~ 2,5%, before strain-hardening with an
approximate slope Ev begins, whereas type (b) has no upper yield stress and an approximately
bilinear stress-strain-curve with a round transition from elastic to plastic range and with the
plastic range being strain-hardening with an approximate slope Ev from the very beginning.
Table C2 shows how the tension coupon results from around particular specimen wall pieces
are collected in order to generate average material property values for the numerical analyses.
C2.2.1.3

Compression coupons

Although it is the compressive stress-strain-behaviour (including the compressive yield stress)

which controls the load-carrying capacity of buckling-endangered structures, it is common
practice to assume, in thin-walled structures, that the results of tension coupons are applicable
to compressive behaviour just by changing the sign. The reason is that it is rather difficult and
expensive to produce experimentally true (i.e. uniaxial) compressive stress-strain-curves for
thin sheet material. In the present research project an economically feasible compromise has
been chosen: Very short compression coupons which do not buckle before excessive yielding
(h = 6 mm for t = 1 mm) are used to determine approximately the compressive yield stress of
the 1 mm-material; however, the shape of the stress-strain-curve including E has to be taken
from the tension coupon tests. For the 0,5 mm-material such compression coupon tests are not
feasible. Fortunately the problem of correct compressive yield stress is not as important for the
thinner specimens.
Figure C2 shows typical compression coupon diagrams. As can be seen, the compressive
behaviour is also different: Type (a) has a short horizontal plateau, whereas type (b) shows
bilinear curves. As mentioned above, these diagrams may not be used to derive "compressive
-values" or compressive stress-strain-curves! However, they deliver usable compressive yield
stress values R,,SiC.
C2.2.1.4

Material input data for comparative numerical calculations

In tables C3 and C4 all average material property values for all test specimens are collacted.
Additionally the type of stress-strain-behaviour (a or b ace. to fig. CI and C2) is indicated.
From table C4 it may be read that for the 1 mm (a)-material the well-known identity of R,.s ,
and R,.sc is being confirmed , whereas for the 1 mm (b)-material R ^ i s 15 + 20 % higher than
Res,. Also, there is a 20 % difference in the Rest-values of the 1 mm (a)-and 1 mm (b)-material,
the latter being lower. The same ReSt difference may be read from table C3 for the 0,5 mm (a)
and (b) materials. Thus, it is near at hand to estimate the R^-values of the 0,5 mm (a)-material
as identical with R^t and the ones of the 0,5 mm (b)-material as R^sc ~ 1,175 R,.s,t.

136

For numerical calculations a compressive stress-strain-curve is needed. It may be taken as

shown in the relevant subfigure of fig. CI, using the tensile values E, e v and Ey from tables
C3 and C4, but as yield stress fy the R^-values as explained before.
C2.2.2

Manufacturing

The specimens were manufactured in the University's mechanical workshop in a four-stepprocedure.

Step 1: Cutting
The shell wall pieces had to be cut from the sheets as precisely as possible, in order to get
exact circumferential lengths along their end circles. Otherwise it would not have been
possible to manage the circumferential butt welding along the cone/cone or cone/cylinder
intersections, above all for the 0,5 mm-specimens. It was necessary to use computer-aided
oxylaser-cutting for producing the wall pieces.
Step 2: Rolling
The wall pieces were cold rolled into their cylindrical and conical shapes respectively.
Step 3: Longitudinal welding
The cylindrical and conical shell portions were then completed by longitudinal butt welding.
The TIG welding method without filler metal has been used. For the 0,5 mm-specimens it was
necessary to improve the heat flow by welding against a steel bed with copper cover.
Step 4: Circumferential welding
The circumferential butt welding had turned out to be rather difficult, above all for the 0,5
mm-sheet material. After intensive discussions with experts from the welding industry and
pilot welding with several methods, it was decided to use also the TIG welding method
without filler metal, but against circular welding devices with machined copper covers.
Through that, and because of the precisely cut circumferential lengths, the edges fit sufficiently
well together for producing a proper butt weld.
Figure C3 shows photographs of two specimens before testing. As can be seen, the
circumferential welds were reasonable. With regard to photographs of all other specimens, see
[CU]-

C2.2.3

Geometrical dimensions

The height and diameter values of all specimens have been controlled; they were in sufficient
accordance with the nominal values ace. to table CI.
The wall thicknesses have been measured by means of ultrasonics at a selected number of
points. The scatter is relatively small. A typical set of results is plotted in figure C4. As can be
seen, the thicknesses are rather constant around the circumferences and along the meridians, so
that it would be reasonable to use average values for numerical calculations. These average
values are given for all specimens in table C5.

137

C2.2.4

Shape imperfections

The shape imperfections of all specimens have been measured by means of a special
measuring device which had been manufactured on occasion of this particular research project
(fig.C5). Specimens with up to 1 m maximum diameter and 2 m height may be handled on this
device. A group of horizontally installed transducers scans the surface of the specimen while
being rotated. The vertical position of the transducer group is varied by means of a vertical
sliding carriage. Both movements (the rotational and the vertical one) are automatically
controlled by a computer which also takes the measurement data of the transducers.
In order to calibrate the imperfection measuring device, a highly precise calibration cylinder
(0,4 m 2,00 m) has been machined from a thick steel tube. By scanning it and evaluating its
measured surface values and comparing the results with the known dimensions, specific
corrections could be derived taking care of the unavoidable inaccuracies of the device. By
introducing them into the imperfection evaluation analysis it is possible to define the "best fit
shell" for each specimen and to calculate the deviations from it.
For the purposes of this project, it proved to be sufficient to extract only the radial deviations
from the circular shape on each measuring plane. Fig. C6 shows a typical plot of these
imperfections for one of the specimens. Similar plots for all specimens are given in [CI 1].
The imperfection data sets have been evaluated with regard to the imperfection tolerance
values for axially compressed cylinders and cones prescribed in [CI]. This has been done by
numerically simulating the procedure of holding a straight or a circular template of reference
length lr = 4 \/rt against any meridian and any parallel circle respectively. The results of this
imperfection evaluation are presented in [Cll]. They may be used for classifying the
specimens with regard to their imperfection level.
In general, it may be stated that all specimens were more or less within the prescribed
tolerances, or that exceedings (if present) were of a type which had no correlation with the
observed load carrying behaviour. That means that it is possible to draw direct conclusions
from the test results for design rule purposes.

C2.3

Axial load tests

C2.3.1

Test set-up

The specimen ends were machined in order to guarantee an equally distributed introduction of
the testing machine axial load. The specimens were then positioned between thick machined
steel plates having circular grooves in which their edges were fixed against radial
displacements by means of a high-strength resin. In case of conical ends, that one of the two
groove sides against which the horizontal component of the meridional end force would act
has been exactly machined fitting to the cone end diameter. By this means the cone's
meridional end force was taken directly by contact steel-steel instead of partly steel-resin
which would have caused imprecise boundary conditions.
A total of 24 strain gages were attached to each specimen: 2 circular planes 3 circumferential
positions (every 120) 2 directions (meridional, circumferential) 2 wall sides (internal,
external). This is the needed minimum in order to control the prebuckling stress state with
regard to its global correctness. The two circular planes were situated near the meridional

138

breaks. By this way the local shell bending caused by the deviated meridional forces could be
monitored experimentally.
The unit "specimen plus two end plates" was positioned between the thick loading plates of a
testing machine. Within the specimen, in its axis, a transducer was installed for measuring its
axial shortening. The transducer's displacement signals were manually controlled from outside
by means of two dial gauges. In [Cll] photographs of some specimens ready for testing are
presented.
C2.3.2

Test procedure

At first, preliminary loadings were applied to check concentricity of applied axial load and
correctness of the elastic prebuckling state. The loading procedure of the following ultimate
load test was shortening-controlled by means of a servohydraulic system using the axial
transducer signal as controlling signal. The shortening was incremented in steps which were
chosen increasingly smaller when approaching the supposed failure load. Quasi-static
equilibrium states were obtained, once plastic deformations had started, by keeping the
shortening constant for at least 10 min, allowing the material to yield or to relax respectively.
That is why all experimental load-deformation- and load-strain-curves given in this report
ought to be taken as "quasi-static" curves. Hence, comparison analyses should be performed
using the static yield stress values rather than the dynamic ones.
All specimens were shortened far beyond the peak load until the plastic postbuckling pattern
could clearly be identified. In figure CIO photographs of two axial load test specimens after
testing are presented; photographs of all other specimens see [Cll].

C2.3.3

Test results

C2.3.3.1

Load-deformation-curves

The load-shortening-curves of the 12 axial load tests are, in a non-dimensional manner, plotted
in figures C7 and C8. The reference load Fp,M for the vertical axis and the reference shortening
for the horizontal axis represent the elementary theoretical state with meridional
membrane yielding at the small radius end of the cone with 2r = 304 mm, see table CI. The
values are given in table C6. It becomes evident from fig. C7 and C8 that the elementary
membrane theory is certainly not an adequate tool to describe the load carrying behaviour of
shell configurations with meridional breaks; see later on in this report.
Load-strain-curves for all axial load tests are given in [Cll]. The measured surface strains
have been converted into membrane strains and bending strains. The membrane strains show
that the elastic prebuckling states of all specimens were properly uniform.
C2.3.3.2

Failure modes

For all 1 mm-specimens (r/t <. 225) the failure mode was dominated by the axisymmetric
bending at the meridional breaks. Under the peak loads, pure combined two-dimensional
yielding on account of meridional bending moments and both direction membrane forces was
responsible for the following decrease of load. The yielding was, for the same r/t-ratio, more
pronounced at convex meridional breaks (see fig. CIO, specimen KK-X10) than at concave
ones; that is logical from the viewpoint of yield criterion. It was only beyond the peak loads
that non-axisymmetric deformations from secondary plastic buckling showed up.

139

For all 0,5 mm-specimens (r/t > 300) the failure mode was more or less an interaction between
axisymmetric yielding and non-axisymmetric buckling. The buckles were, for concave breaks,
situated directly at the break deforming the junction circle into a polygon - because of the
compressive circumferential forces, for convex breaks on both sides of the break leaving the
junction circle undeformed - because of the tensile circumferential forces (see fig. CIO,
specimen K Z K - W 50). The circumferential mode length were clearly shorter than for the 1
mm-specimens.
The different load-carrying behaviour may also be recognized from the load-shortening-curves
on fig. C7 and C8. Some thinner specimens showed a more rapid load decrease beyond
ultimate load than their thicker counterparts (compare ZKZ-XV50 with ZKZ-XV10 and KKV50 with KK-V10), a clear evidence for buckling interaction.
The ultimate axial load values Fu are, together with a short description of the failure mode,
given in table C6.

C2.4

External pressure tests

C2.4.1 Test set-up

The specimen ends were prepared and connected to thick machined steel plates in a similar
way as the axial load specimens (see C2.3.1). The unit "specimen plus two end plates" was set
upon the rotary-table of the imperfection measuring device described in section C2.2.4. By
this means, it rendered possible to rotate the specimen under load in order to monitor the
developing of the geometrical shape during testing.
Similarly to the axial load tests, the shortening was measured by a transducer and plotted
versus the pressure during testing.

C2.4.2

Test pocedure

The external pressure was applied through underpressure from inside. This was achieved by
evacuating the interior of the specimen by means of a vacuum pump from outside. The
underpressure was incremented in steps which were chosen increasingly smaller when
approaching the supposed failure pressure. Between the loading steps, the pressure was kept
constant, and the circumferential shapes were traced at selected measuring planes. Loaddeformation-curves may be extracted from these measurements by plotting selected radial
displacements versus the underpressure.
Because of the physical characteristics of air pressure, it was not possible to achieve anything
like a deformation-controlled loading pocedure. It proved unavoidable that the specimens,
reaching their buckling pressure, either snapped through into a stable postbuckling state and
failed later on completely (see fig.Cll), or failed completely without a stable intermediate
state.

C2.4.3 Test results

C2.4.3.1

Load-deformation-curves

Pressure-displacement-curves of five external pressure tests are plotted in fig. C9. (For the
sixth one the measurement equipment failed during testing.) The displacement on the

140

horizontal axis is the axial shortening. Because the test procedure was not deformation
controlled (see above), no unloading path could be monitored.
C2.4.3.2 Failure modes
For all specimens the failure mode was a more or less distinct two-step buckling failure of
snap-through type. Local buckling of either a conical or a cylindrical shell section, with the
meridional breaks acting as eigenmode node circles and with the postbuckling pattern being
virtually stable, was followed by overall buckling, with the junction circles at the meridional
breaks collapsing.
Fig. Cll shows specimen KK-V51 during its quasistable postbuckling state and after collapse.
The described two-step buckling failure may well be recognized on the two photographs. It is
interesting that from local buckling to overall buckling no pressure increase could be
achieved, although the local postbuckling state (fig. CI la) proved to be stable during a
complete unloading/reloading loop (see fig. C9).
The ultimate pressure values pu are, together with the number nu of buckles around the circum
ference, given in table C7.

141

C3

Numerical investigations

C3.1

General

Four types of comparative numerical calculations have been performed for all 18 specimens:
(a) Membrane analysis (MA) according to elementary membrane theory, applied to the
cylindrical and conical partial shells, neglecting the mechanical interaction at their
junctions. These theoretical values are used as basic references, e.g. for the presentation of
experimental results (see C2.3.3.1).
(b) Linear shell analysis (LA), applied to the geometrically perfect shell assembly, including
eigenvalue search.
(c) Geometrically nonlinear elastic shell analysis (GNA), applied to the geometrically
perfect shell assembly, including eigenvalue search.
(d) Geometrically and materially nonlinear shell analysis (GMNA), applied to the
geometrically perfect shell assembly, including eigenvalue search.
For the calculations on levels (b) to (d) the computer program F04 B08 has been used. It was
specificly developed by M. ESSLINGER et. al. [C4, C5, C6] for shells of revolution and is
based on an axisymmetric discrete modelling of the shell configuration. For each ring element
the shell differential equations are satisfied by means of the collocation method, delivering a
transfer matrix. The transfer matrices of all ring elements (including stiffening annular plates
if relevant) are assembled into the global set of equations for the complete shell. This set of
equations is basicly nonlinear - geometrically nonlinear for level (c) and additionally
materially nonlinear for level (d). The solution procedure is iterative via linearized
intermediate stages. Level (b) represents virtually the first linearized stage. On all of the three
levels deformations and stresses may be calculated (called "prebuckling state"), as well as
eigenvalues and eigenmodes may be determined (called "buckling analysis").
F04 B08 has been used for shell buckling research at Essen University since many years [C9];
its proper handling is therefore well established. Nevertheless, some benchmarking checks
were felt to be necessary in order to prove its suitability for the present purposes.

C3.2

Benchmarking

C3.2.1

Buckling analysis on GNA level

The algorithm for searching the lowest bifurcation eigenvalue is a basic numerical element of
any shell buckling computer program. The one included in F04 B08 has been checked for a
selected number of shell geometries against a conventional linear FE-program. The results
were reasonably identical.

C3.2.2

Collapse analysis on GMNA level

The highest demands in terms of nonlinear shell analysis within the present subproject are
requested by the geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis up to (or beyond) the
axisymmetric collapse load (limit load). A benchmarking effort involving six independent
research teams using five diffrant computer programs has been dedicated to an axially loaded

142

shell with the geometry of specimen ZKZ-XV 10 (called "milk can shell"). The calculated
load-shortening-curves and axial limit loads FlimGMN are presented in fig. C12. It should be
mentioned that these numerical results may not be compared directly with the factual test
results of specimen ZKZ-XV 10, because - at the time of the benchmarking - the material
properties had only been estimated.
Of the five used computer programs, three (F04 B08, BOSOR 5, HORUS) are based on a ring
type discretization, but apply rather different theoretical approaches. It is interesting that they
deliver practically identical limit loads (fig. C12). The two other computer programs
(ABAQUS with two different users, INCA with two alternative element types) are based on a
"complete" discretization, but using different shell elements. They deliver limit loads which
are from 3,5% to 8% higher than the before mentioned value. The loading paths are
practically identical for all of the seven numerical models (fig. C12), whereas of the unloading
paths the F04 B08 one is significantly steeper than the ABAQUS and INCA ones (BOSOR 5
and HORUS do not include unloading paths). Thus, the result of the GMNA benchmarking
with regard to the present subproject is as follows:

F04 B08 is a reliable "numerical tool" for handling the geometrically and materially
nonlinear axisymmetric behaviour of complex shells of revolution including the limit load
(collapse load).

However, F04 B08 tends to underestimate the ductility of failed shells in the post-limit
range.

C3.3

Comparative numerical calculations for the axial load

specimens

C3.3.1 MA level
The following elementary membrane theory values were calculated:
Plastic reference force:
FpiM = R rcdt cos 20
with d = 304 mm (including KZK-VX in spite of its smaller cone), because in a cone the
small radius end is the critical one in terms of meridional stress, and Res= fy = R ^ .
Plastic reference shortening (sum of partial shells):
= (FplM/27cEt) [Ecy ,(H/r) + 1/sin 20 ^ ^ / ) ]
with

E,t = average values for the whole specimen,

r2,r, = large/small end radii of a cone.

Critical buckling force:

FCTM = 0,605 E 2TC2 (cos 20)2.
It is remarkable that this value from elementary linear shell buckling theory does not
depend on the radius.
If the two cones of a specimen have different values for R^ and t, that one yielding the smaller
reference value is introduced into the calculation. The results are given in table C6.

143

C3.3.2

L A and G N A level

The following values have been extracted from linear and geometrically nonlinear shell
analysis:
Plastic reference force Fp,L or Fp,GN:
This is the axial load F at which the v. MISES effective stress in the midsurface of the
geometrically perfect shell - i.e. the effective membrane stress oeffM - firstly reaches at any
point of the shell the yield stress:
efr,M =

[KM)

- (xM>(yM)

K M ) 2 ] 0 , 5 = KS~+

F p l L or F p l G N

Critical buckling force FcrL or FccrGI'

This is the lowest eigenvalue of F, at which the elastically calculated prebuckling state of
the geometrically perfect shell bifurcates.
The GNA level is the theoretically exact level, presumed that the whole shell stays purely
elastic until its first bifurcation. The definition of the plastic reference force F p GN and the
critical buckling force FcrGN is analogous to that one on level LA (see above). However, the
results are somewhat different, because the deviation of the meridional membrane forces at the
meridional breaks causes nonlinear effects on the elastic stress and deformation state. The
differences are not dramatic; therefore only the GNA results are included in this report. Full
evidence is given in [CI 1].
As an example for typical GNA results, the ones for specimen KZK-VX 10 are illustrated in
fig. C13. The strong influence of the meridional break on both, the plastic reference force and
the critical buckling force, may be realized from the peak effective membrane stress caused by
the circumferential tensile force at the convex break (fig. C 13c) and from the critical buckling
mode having its maximum amplitude near the same break (fig. CI 3d). The latter is contrary to
an end-supported fundamental conical shell whose critical buckling mode has its maximum
amplitude near the small end.
The GNA results of all axial load specimens are given in table C6.

C3.3.3

GMNA level

The basic numerical result delivered by a GMNA calculation is the axisymmetric limit
(collapse) force FiimGMN defined by the peak of the load-shortening-curve (see fig. C12). It
describes correctly the load-carrying capacity of the geometrically perfect shell, except a
bifurcation happens before reaching the peak. If this is the case, the bifurcation load is called
the critical buckling force FcrGMN.
As a third significant force value for characterizing the GMNA behaviour of a shell, the plastic
reference force F p GMN has been extracted from the analysis. Its definition is similar to the ones
on LA and GNA level: When the v. MISES effective stress in the middle of the wall thickness
firstly reaches the yield stress at any point of the shell.
GMNA results are inevitably more siginificantly influenced by the material input data than the
elastic calculated results. In fig. C14 three calculated load-shortening-curves for two of the 1
mm-specimens made of type (a) and (b) sheet material respectively (see C2.2.1.4) are
compared. The following stress-strain-curves have been used alternatively:

144

Ideally elastic-plastic with fy = R^t,

ideally elastic-plastic with fy = R^,.,
strain hardening with fp02 = ReS,c, but Ev from the tension coupon test.

As can be seen, even the latter approach approximates the observed experimental behaviour
rather poorly. The reason for this discrepancy is probably a weld-hardening effect in close
vicinity to the circumferential welds at the junctions of the partial shells. Fig. CI 3 shows that
the through-thickness yielding which causes numerically the collapse occurs locally at these
junctions. In [Cll] some attempts to simulate this localized weld-hardening effect are
discussed.
The GMNA results given in Table C6, are those which belong to ideally elastic-plastic stressstrain-curves. In practical GMNA analyses only this approach would be feasible. The
numerical strain-hardening values would strongly depend on the input parameters; they are
discussed in detail in [Cll]. As yield stress values fy the compressive values R.^ as explained
in C2.2.1.4 have been introduced.

C3.3.4

Discussion of the results

A complete set of numerical results for one specimen is, in its relation to the experimental
load-shortening-curve, illustrated in fig. C15.
It is obvious, that the membrane solution for the critical buckling force FcrM is of no account
for shell assemblies with meridional breaks; this is confirmed by all other specimens (see table
C6). In fact, this could be expected, because the assumed pure membrane state is not an
equilibrium state. The real elastic state incorporates very high circumferential membrane
forces and meridional bending moments at the junctions (see fig. C13 a, b, c), which trigger
the bifurcation buckling at considerably lower loads FcrGN.
That means that elastic shell theory (LA or -better - GNA level) for the overall shell
configuration is obligatory if a critical buckling resistance is needed for a design procedure
(see section C4.2 of this report).
The situation is different when the plastic reference forces are considered. Again the elastic
values F ^ delivered by shell theory are much lower than the membrane solutions Fp,M(see fig.
CI5 and table C6), but now it seems that the latter are more suitable if a plastic reference
resistance is needed for a design procedure. The mechanical background for the extremely low
values FplGNbecomes clear from fig. C13: The value Fp,GN describes virtually a highly localized
circular plastic hinge mechanism rather than a membrane phenomenon which may cause
instability. This question will be reverted to in section C4.2.
The fact that the GMNA limit loads FiimGMN are too low compared with the experimental
ultimate loads Fu - especially for the stubber 1 mm-specimens, where strain-hardening has a
greater influence - has already been discussed. For the evaluations in section C4.2 the
numerical values FHmGMN are taken as conservative estimates of the axial collapse loads.

145

C3.4 C omparative numerical calculations for the external

pressure specimens
C3.4.1

MA level

In analogy to the axial load specimens, the following elementary membrane theory values were
calculated:
Plastic reference pressure:
pplM = 1,155 ReS (t/r) cos 20
with r = 225 mm (large radius end of conical partial shell).
The factor 1,155 results from v. MISES' yield criterion because hydrostatic pressure
produces circumferential plus meridional compressive membrane stresses.
Critical buckling presssure:
pcrM = 0,92 E (r*/l*) (t/r*)25
with

either r*, 1* being the effective radius and length values of the partial conical
shell, ace. to DIN 18800/4,
or

r*, 1* being the true radius and length values of the partial cylindrical
shell, whichever yields the smaller value pcrM.

The results are given in table C7.

C3.4.2

L A and G N A level

In analogy to the axial load specimens, the following values have been extracted from linear
and geometrically nonlinear shell analysis:
Plastic reference pressure pp,L or p p GN :
This is the hydrostatic pressure at which the v. MISES effective membrane stress aeM in
the geometrically perfect shell firstly reaches at any point of the shell the yield stress.
Critical buckling pressure pcrL or pcrGN:
This is the lowest eigenvalue of p, at which the elastic prebuckling state bifurcates.
Fig. CI 6 shows a set of typical GNA results for one of the external pressure test specimens.
All results for GNA level are given in table C7. The results for LA level are nearly identical
and are omitted here.

C3.4.3

GMNA level

In analogy to the axial load specimens, the following values have been extracted from
geometrically and materially nonlinear shell analysis:

146

Plastic reference pressure p p GMN :

This is the hydrostatic pressure when the v. MISES effective stress in the middle of the
wall thickness firstly reaches the yield stress at any point of the shell.
Axisymmetric limit (collapse ) pressure PiimGMN:
This is the hydrostatic pressure at the peak of the pressure-deformation-curve. It would be
the exact solution for the pressure-carrying capacity of the geometrically perfect shell,
except a bifurcation would happen before reaching the peak.
Critical buckling pressure pcrGMN:
This is the bifurcation pressure mentioned before.
The results are given in table C7.

C3.4.4

Discussion of the results

From table C7 it may be noted that the load-carrying behaviour of the present shell assemblies
under external pressure (more precisely: hydrostatic external pressure) is - from the numerical
point of view - rather unproblematic compared to the axial load case. Obviously the meridional
break angle of 20 is large enough to enforce circular node lines of the eigenmodes at the
junctions. Therefore the critical buckling pressures and critical buckling modes delivered by
membrane and shell theories respectively are practically identical. On top ofthat, the buckling
happens under such low stresses that the GMN analysis also delivers the same buckling
pressures.
Between numerical and experimental results satisfying agreement may be stated: The test
buckling pressures pu amount to 60 -*- 95 % of the critical buckling pressures. This corresponds
to the well-known imperfection influence range of externally pressurized cylinders and cones:
Consequently the results of the external pressure tests may be directly utilized for validating
design recommendations (see section C4.2).

147

C4

Evaluation of design procedure

C4.1

Generalized reduction factor approach (RFA) for shell

buckling design

The classic reduction factor approach (RFA) for fundamental shell buckling cases is well
known. It is used throughout the world in most of the codes of practice and design
recommendations, among others in the ECCS Recommendations [CI]. One of the aims of the
present research was to check if the approach may be generalized to nonfundamental shells of
revolution and if so to propose suitable reduction factors.
The following generalized buckling design procedure has been headed for by the authors:
(a) Calculate the elastic stress state of the geometrically perfect shell under the considered
combination of actions. (Indications for the needed theoretical level are to be formulated.)
(b) Derive the plastic reference resistance Fvp, by applying the v. MISES yield criterion to the
membrane forces of (a).
(c) Derive the elastic critical buckling resistance R,., by applying an eigenvalue analysis to (a).
(d) Determine the shell slenderness parameter
= (Rp/RJ 0 5 .

(CI)

(e) Choose the elastic imperfection reduction factor a. If no specific value is known, use the
a0values of the fundamental edgesupported cylinder. According to [CI], this would
mean:
(el) For meridional compression:
= a0 = 0,83 / [1 + 0,00605 2 (E/fy)]05
when X 18,7/ (E/fy)05,

(C2a)

= a0 = 0,70 / [1 + 0,00605 2 (E/fy)]05

when > 18,7 / (E/fy)05.

(C2b)

(e2) For external pressure:

= 0 = 0,5

(independent of ).

(C3)

(f) If plasticity is involved, determine the plasticity reduction factor as function of .

According to [CI], this would mean:
= 1 0,25 11 a

when ^ (2a) 0 5 .

(C4)

This formula is known to be somewhat unconservative for mediumthick cylinders on the one
hand, but somewhat overconservative and unwieldy for thick cylinders on the other hand. A
better agreement with cylinder tests in the mediumthick range and an easier wielding for thick
cylinders is achieved by a formula that has been proposed by the first author for the shell
buckling rules of Eurocode 3 Part 3 and 4. It reads as follows:

148

= 1

when 0 ,

(C5a)

when 0 < <; (2,5)05,

(C5b)

0,6
=1
0 5

( 0)

(2,5) ,
with

0 = 0.2

for meridional compression,

(C6)

0 = 0.4

for external pressure.

(C7)

(g) Determine the characteristic value Rk of the buckling resistance from

Rk = Rcr
Rk = R,,,

if no plasticity is involved,
if plasticity is involved,

i.e. > (2,5 ) 0 5 ,

i.e. (2,5 ) 0 5 .

(C8)
(C9)

C4.2

Application of RFA to test specimens and comparison

with test results

C4.2.1

Axial load specimens

In table C8 the above outlined RFA procedure for meridional compression has been applied to
the axial load specimens. Three different numerical "resistance pairs " have been coupled into
a shell slenderness parameter ace. to eqn. (CI) :
(I)

Pure MA level > FplM and FcrM ;

(II)

Combined MA/GNA level > FplM and FcrGN ;

(III) Pure GNA level - FplGN and FcrGN .

The obtained characteristic resistance values Fk for the axial load must be compared, as
explained at the end of subsection C3.3.4, to the numerical limit loads F,imGMN. These are
conservative estimates of the axial collapse loads neglecting material hardening effects. From
table C8 the following findings may be drawn:
A RFA design based on pure membrane theory (column I) would be extremely unsafe. Of
course, this was supposed from the beginning; it has now been substantiated. The mechanic
reason is, as already indicated in C3.3.4, that the bifurcation buckling behaviour is
significantly influenced by the equilibrium disturbances at the meridional breaks.
A RFA design based on pure elastic shell theory (column III) would be overconservative. The
mechanic reason is, as also indicated in C3.3.4, that the plastic reference force Fp]GN describes a
limit state which has virtually nothing to do with shell buckling. This limit state is
characterized by plastic expending (or crushing respectively) of the junction circles at the
meridional breaks because of interactive through-thickness yielding caused by both direction
membrane forces and meridional bending moments. To apply an additional imperfection
reduction factor to this limit state, does not make any sense.
The only reasonable RFA design seems to be the one based on a combination of membrane
and shell theory (column II in table C8). It yields a little too high Fk-values for the 1 mmspecimens, but lower Fk-values for the 0,5 mm-specimens, both compared to F |im GMN. That
appears logical considering that in the 0,5 mm-tests a more distinct buckling influence had
been observed than in the 1 mm-tests ( see C2.3.3.2). The combined approach may be
associated with the following mechanical idea: Bifurcation buckling is a phenomenon which

149

affects a certain area of the shell midsurface. Consequently it has - in terms of yielding as the
limiting case of buckling - to be coupled to a membrane compressive stress state which affects
the whole buckling area, instead of only a narrow hoop.
Based on the foregoing considerations the authors recommend to calculate both:

the characteristic buckling resistance Fk using the reduction factor approach II

and the plastic resistance F p GN without additional reduction

and to use the smaller one of the two values for the design. This recommendation is validated
by the present test series (see table C8) for r/t-ratios larger than ca. 150.

4.2.2

External pressure specimens

Table C9 contains the results of the RFA application to the external pressure specimens. The
interpretation of these results is rather straightforward: The validity of an RFA design for
externally pressurized cone/cone and cone/cylinder assemblies of arbitrary shape may be taken
as proved by the present test series for r/t-ratios larger than ca. 150.
However, one may not conclude from the fact of practically identical pk-predictions in
columns I and II in table C9, that it would be sufficient to calculate the critical buckling
pressure for the fundamental partial shells only . This is true for the present cone angle of 20,
but certainly not for smaller cone angles. Therefore it is unrenouncable to draw the critical
buckling pressure j>froma shell theory analysis (LA level is sufficient) of the whole shell
configuration.
As to the plastic reference pressure ppl, the same recommendation as given above for
meridionally compressed shells should be considered here: Use pplM from membrane theory for
the RFA check; carry out an alternative check using pp,L or p p GN from shell theory analysis for
the whole shell configuration, but without buckling reduction factor.
A comment on the elastic imperfection factor for external pressure should be added. As can
be seen from table C9, the ECCS-value 0,5 is conservative, whereas the DIN-value 0,65 [C2]
is very close to experimental evidence. Since the latter value is calibrated against endsupported fundamental cylinders under pure external pressure (not hydrostatic pressure), it is
strongly recommended to use = 0,5 ace. to eqn. (C3) for general shells of revolution under
external pressure of any type.

150

C5

Conclusions

(1) Shells of revolution being an arbitrary assembly of cylinders and cones and having no ring
stiffeners at the junctions may - with regard to shell buckling - not be designed as if the
partial shells would be edge-supported at the junctions.
(2) Under axial compression, for semi-vertex angles 20 -*- 40 at the meridional breaks and
r/t-ratios of up to 200, the failure modes are dominated by axisymmetric interactive
yielding under both direction membrane forces and meridional bending moments in
narrow bands along the circular junctions. This failure mode is not significantly
influenced by imperfections and may therefore be covered by numerically calculating the
nonlinear axisymmetric elastic-plastic collapse load or - as a replacement - the plastic
reference load from nonlinear elastic shell theory, both without any imperfection
reduction.
(3) Under axial compression, for r/t-ratios larger than 200, the axisymmetric local yielding at
the breaks is increasingly interacted by non-axisymmetric buckling. This interactive
failure mode may be covered by a generalized reduction factor approach (RFA), coupling
the plastic reference load from membrane theory (MA) and the critical buckling load from
geometrically nonlinear elastic shell theory (GNA) into a slenderness parameter, and
applying appropriate imperfection factors and plasticity reduction factors .
(4) Using the cylinder imperfection reduction factor = 0 for meridional compression as
specified in the ECCS Recommendations is conservative.
(5) Under external pressure, for r/t-ratios of more than 150, the failure mode is a nonaxisymmetric buckling. This failure mode may be covered by the same generalized RFA
as explained in (3).
(6) Using the cylinder imperfection factor - 0 for external pressure as specified in the
ECCS Recommendations is conservative.
(7) For the plasticity reduction factor , a new formula is proposed which defines as a
function of and of the general stability slenderness parameter = (R^/R,.,.)05, where R,,,
and Rer are the plastic reference and critical buckling resistances respectively.

151

C6

References

[Cl] B uckling of Steel Shells European Recommendations, 4th edition. Brussels: ECCS
1988.
[C2]

DIN 18800 Part 4: Stahlbauten Stabilittsfalle, Schalenbeulen. B erlin: B euth

Verlag 1990.

[C3]

Samuelson, L.A./Eggwertz, S.: Shell Stability Handbook. London, New York:

Elsevier 1992.

[C4]

Esslinger, M./Kerkhoff, H./Melzer, H.W./Taelmann, E.W.: B erechnuung der

Beullasten von dnnwandigen Rotationsschalen unter axialsymmetrischer B elastung
im elastischen B ereich. Report KfKCAD 176. Karlsruhe: Kernforschungszentrum
1981.

[C5]

Esslinger, M./Geier, B./Wendt, U : B erechnung der Spannungen und Deformationen

von Rotionsschalen im elastoplastischen Bereich. Stahlbau 53 (1984), 17 25.

[C6]

Esslinger, M./v. Impe, R.: Theoretical Buckling Loads of Conical Shells. In: Dubas,
P./Vandepitte, D. (ed.): Stability of Plate and Shell Structures Proc. Int. Coll.,
387 395. Ghent: University/ECCS 1987.

[C7]

Kndel, P.: CylinderConeCylinder Intersections under Axial Compression. In:

Jullien, J.F. (ed.): Buckling of Shell Structures on Land, in the Sea and in the Air,
296 303. London, New York: Elsevier 1991.

[C8]

Schmidt, H./Krysik, R.: Towards Recommendations for Shell Stability Design by

Means of Numerically Detennined Buckling Loads. In: (as [C7]), 508 519.

[C9]

Krysik, R.: Stabilitt sthlerner Kegelstumpfund Kreiszylinderschalen unter Axial

und Innendruck. Dr.Ing thesis, University Essen, 1994.

[C10]

Schmidt, H./Krysik, R.: Static Strength of Transition Cones in Tubular Members

under Axial Compression and Internal Pressure. In: Grundy, P. /Holgate, A.I Wong,
B.: Tubular Structures VI, 163 168. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema 1994.

[Cll]

Swadlo, P./Schmidt, H.: Experimental and Numerical Investigations on Cone/Cone

and Cone/Cylinder Shell Assemblies under Axial Compression and External
Pressure. Research Rep. No. 68, University Essen, Dep. Civil Engineering, 1996.

152

meridional breaks cone/cone

cone-cone
convex

meridional breaks cylinder/cone

cone-cone

cylindercone-cylinder

concave

convex - concave

cone-cylinder-cone
convex - convex

concave convex

concave - concave

301.

m
O
H

fD
i-f

A- V

i-I

CD
W
00

--

/"JO

')

L/i

3
3
00

'
3
on
O

u==u-

1.50

oo

1.0

KK - 10

KK - V 10

ZKZ- XV 10

K Z K - X X 10

KZK - VX 10

KZK - VV 10

0.5

KK - 50

K K - V 50

ZKZ - XV 50

KZK - XX 50

KZK - VX 50

KZK - VV 50

0.5

KK - 51

KK - V 51

ZKZ- XV 51

K Z K - X X 51

K Z K - V X 51

KZK - VV 51

00

G
CD

specimen ZKZ - XV 50
E '

[MPal

es.t

Rm

E IO'

[MPal

[MPa]

[MPa]

Res.!

Rm

E IO'

[MPa]

[MPa]

[MPa]

meridiona

meridiona
222.0

part C

part

part A
3

252

total

Res.t

Rm

E IO

[MPa]

[MPa]

194.0

198

337

227.0

240

359

222.6

243

372

198

337

224.8

242

365

234.2

247

376

228.1

249

374

194.0

Rm

[MPa]

[MPa]

[MPa]

circumferential

circumferential

circumferential

R|S.l

meridiona

372

209.1

251

375

185.1

210

329

194.4

222

348

226.4

231

360

199.5

176

318

226.6

244

371

194.3

184

321

217.8

241

367

193.0

190

323

210.5

233

360

222.9

245

371

193.2

192

326

217.7

237

362

211.3

225

353

V[%]

4.7

3.9

2.1

3.1

7.8

2.6

7.2

4.3

3.1

8.0

11.9

6.2

type

(a)
specimen ZKZ - XV 10
part A
E IO'

[MPa]

Rm

Res.l

[MPa] [MPa]

part
3

R|*.C

E IO'

[MPa]

[MPa]

meridional

part C

B,t

Rm

Re

E IO

[MPa]

[MPa]

[MPa]

[MPa]

meridional

Rm

Res.t

total
R

[MPa] [MPa] [MPa]

Res.t

Rm

"esx

[MPa]

[MPa] [MPa] [MPa]

meridional

208.0

215

331

237

188.9

228

328

211

206.7

208

295

232

200.3

213

317

213

211.2

205

308

217

213.7

213

298

218

206.8

205

316

239

208.0

215

331

237

201.0

218

314

214

208.2

206

306

229

circumferentia

E IO

circumferentia

circumferentia

194.9

199

317

193

200.8

212

316

202.4

209

325

212

199.0

179

290

201

198.8

227

347

193.5

203

321

216

192.5

203

314

223

207.0

210

323

218

190.4

189

297

230

195.5

194

307

206

202.2

216

329

218

195.4

200

314

219

198.6

199

313

213

201.6

217

321

215

201.8

203

310

224

200.9

207

315

219

V[%]

3.4

7.6

5.4

9.3

4.1

3.8

5.0

1.6

4.1

3.6

4.0

4.9

3.8

5.9

4.7

5.9

type

(b)
Table C2. Typical tension coupon test results appointed to buckling test specimens
(a) ZKZ-XV 50
(b) ZKZ-XV 10

154

tension
'
specimen no.
KK-X50

KK-X51

KK-V50

KK-V51

ZKZ-XV50

ZKZ - XV 51

KZK XX 50

KZK-XX 51

KZK - VX 50

KZK - VX 51

KZK - VV 50

KZK - VV 51

co
OL

"es.t

"m

[MPa]

[MPa]

[MPa]

204
209
207
184
203
194
203
206
205
194
206
200
223
193
218
211
212
197
212
207
214
229
207
217
199
231
197
209
204
203
211
206
207
201
211
206
202
207
201
203
203
201
198
201

187
191
189
183
183
183
190
188
189
192
185
189
245
192
237
225
243
186
243
224
187
246
191
208
194
242
180
205
194
181
192
189
187
177
182
182
186
180
190
185
177
187
186
183

321
325
323
321
320
321
330
324
327
328
331
330
371
326
362
353
369
319
369
352
324
373
330
342
' 336

364
314
338
333
322
336
330
325
319
330
325
325
315
325
322
317
321
327
322

type
,

[%]

1.9
1.9
2.1
2.0
2.1
2.2
-

[MPa]
1.27
1.47

b
b

1.37
1.43
1.82

b
b

1.63
1.58
1.51

b
b

1.54
1.46
1.95

b
b

1.70
1.56
1.64
1.57

a
b
a

1.59
1.61
1.66
1.58

a
b
a

1.62
1.70
1.53
1.70

b
a
b

1.64
1.80
1.55
1.74

b
a
b

1.70
1.80
1.85
1.96

b
b
b

1.87
1.82
1.79
1.94

b
b
b

1.85
1.89
1.64
1.84

b
b
b

1.79
1.78
1.81
1.89

b
b
b

1.83

TableC3. Average material property values for all 0,5 mm specimens

155

compression

tension

specimen no.
KK-X10

KK-V10

ZKZ-XV 10

KZK-XX 10

KZK-VX 10

EL

type

Res,t

Rm

E/10

[MPa]

[MPa]

[MPa]

[%]

[MPa]

[MPa]

193
193
193
184
191
188
199
202
202
201
208
198
201
202
212
205
201
206
197
187
193
192

157
154
156
171
170
171
199
217
203
206
220
212
213
215
214
213
213
213
164
165
166
165

295
288
292
331
335
333
313
321
310
315
331
327
329
329
330
327
329
329
328
317
328
324

2.3
2.2
2.3
2.3
2.5
2.3
2.4
2.4
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.5
-

1.41
1.40
1.41
2.03
1.88
1.96
1.48
1.51
1.40
1.46
1.46
1.47
1.54
1.49
1.73
1.46
1.54
1.58
1.92
1.83
1.92
1.89

182
180
181
197
196
197
213
215
224
217

b
b

KZK-VV10

"es.c

b
b
a
a
a

220

217

218
218
207
202
218
209
198
204
192
198

a
a
a
a
b
b
b

Table C4. Average material property values for all 1,0 mm specimens

wall thickness [mm]

nom

cu

cu
ta.
co

1,0 mm

CS

o
>

o
X
ie:
i

>
>

INI

INI

>

nom

rvj
id

o
>

INJ
rsj

o
o
LR

in

>

>

ID

o
LO
X

m
X
X
X

X
X

LO

>
>

>
>

X
rsi
X

X
INI
X

0,5 mm

o
m

1X9

>

>

X
INI
X

X
INI
X

o
m
X
X
X

If)

INI

LT)

in

>

INI

>

NI

INI

part A

1.021 1.014 1.035 1.028 1.020 1.031 0.515 0.525 0.513 0.517 0.516 0.513 0.520 0.532 0.522 0.518 0.515 0.514

partB

1.023 1.022 1.033 1.032 1.020 1.026 0.517 0.524 0.514 0.518 0.512 0.522 0.513 0.525 0.523 0.522 0.512 0.512

parte

1.035 1.028 1.017 1.027

0.516 0.514 0.519 0.528 0.524 0.517 0.516 0.513

1.022 1.018 1.034 1.029 1.019 1.028 0.516 0.525 0.514 0.518 0.515 0.516 0.517 0.528 0.523 0.519 0.514 0.513

Table C5. Average thickness values for all specimens

156

test

comparative analyses
failure

membrane

geometrically

geometrically-

nonlinear

-materially

mode

nonlinear

Fu

AHU

CM
pi

specimen no.

[kN]

[mm]

[kN]

KK- 10

51.96

0.9 ASY at break

KK-V 10

45.36

1.1 ASY at break, PB at break with n u -6

ZKZ-XV 10

93.00

0.9

KZK XX 10 97.20

1.0

KZK-VX 10

77.70

0.8

S
3

KZK-VV 10

87.90

0.4 ASY at both breaks, PB with n-7

KK - X 50

19.40

KK - V 50

3.
o

cr

r-GN
pi

pGN

[mm]

[kN]

[kN]

[kN]

166.0

0.31

676.6

35.5

181.1

0.34

645.6

201.0

0.82

200.8

ASY at the convex break, PB at the convex break

196.8
withn u -5

[]

[mm]

249.9

10

37.4

353.4

712.3

76.0

0.55

729.7

0.74

184.0

1.2 IASY and NSB at the break with n u -10

17.40

0.6

ZKZ - XV 50

31.20

0.7

KZK - XX 50

30.00

co

KZK - VX 50
KZK - VV 50

ta

jr

Os

*-
EL

o
CO

pGMN
lim

[kN]

[kN]

[mm]

2.0

31.0

38.7

0.6

22

2.9

31.8

39.1

0.4

335.0

11

2.4

64.0

77.2

0.6

76.2

350.0

11

2.2

68.6

81.1

0.7

714.3

59.1

369.0

2.5

51.7

63.5

0.5

0.36

709.4

77.6

537.7

20

2.6

58.8

71.4

0.3

102.1

0.30

181.0

15.8

59.9

13

1.1

13.7

16.3

0.5

I ASY and NSB at the break with n-12

102.5

0.30

182.1

14.4

79.7

33

1.4

12.8

14.2

0.4

IASY and NSB at the concave break with

n u -11

103.5

0.68

170.1

31.0

74.9

14

1.1

26.6

30.3

0.5

1.0 IASY and NSB at one break with n u -9

104.2

0.45

190.5

30.1

83.2

14

1.1

26.9

31.2

0.5

28.20

0.7 IASY and NSB at convex break with n u -4

102.7

0.66

184.1

23.1

87.0

12

1.3

20.2

23.3

0.4

26.91

0.7 IASY and NSB at both breaks with n-8

100.0

0.47

179.8

27.4

121.3

11

2.0

23.0

26.0

0.4

^1

FM
1

C6MN

I
rt

ASY at both breaks, PB at concave break with

n u -5 and at the convex break with n u -4
ASY at both breaks, PB at one break
withn u -7

'

CI

"cr

" p i

CL

ASY - axisynimetric yielding

PB - postul timate buckling

IASY - interaktive axisymmetric yielding

NSB - non-axisymmetric buckling

CD

comparative analyses

test

failure
mode

membrane

geometrically

geometrically

nonlinear

materially
nonlinear

C/5
r+

M
cr

_.GMN

pi

[MPa]

11

[MPa]

[MPa]

0.095

0.056

11

0.080

12

0.131

0.062

11

0.022

0.250

0.022

0.515

0.039

11

0.233

0.463

0.066

12

0.453

0.058

12

[]

[MPa]

[MPa]

0.050

10

0.456

KKV 51

0.059

10

ZKZ XV 51

0.014

KZKXX 51

GN

[]

[MPa]

[]

0.056

11

0.098

0.89

0.125

0.062

11

0.176

0.95

0.185

0.022

0.205

0.64

0.041

10

0.170

0.041

10

0.389

0.66

0.215

0.070

11

0.215

0.070

11

0.242

0.60

0.214

0.061

11

0.209

0.061

11

0.236

0.67

[]

[MPa]

0.054

12

0.478

0.056

0.553

0.027

KZKVX 51

0.042

KZKW51

0.041

[MPa]

KKX51

"

en

co

i?

GMN
cr

Pu/p GMN cr

P GN cr

GMN
cr

_GMN

lim

PI

specimen no.

GN

cr

PMcr

nu

c/5
m

M
pi

Pu

i'

>

EL
Cu
3
>

D.
o
P3
CT)
co

(I) RFA on MA level

et

( FMpl and FM cr )

co

>

(II) RFA on MA/GNA level

(III) RFA on GNA level

(FMplandFGNcr)

(FGNpl and FGNcr )

FK

FK

FK

rGN
pi

rGMN
"
lim

(-1

[]

[]

[kNl

[]

[]

[]

[kN]

[]

[1

[kN]

[kN]

[kN]

[kN]

K K - 10

0.495

0.517

0.811

134.6

0.815

0.304

0.451

74.8

0.377

0.599

0.896

31.8

35.5

38.7

52.0

KK-V 10

0.530

0.513

0.788

142.6

0.716

0.352

0.581

105.1

0.325

0.654

0.930

34.8

37.4

39.1

45.4

ZKZ-XV 10

0.531

0.517

0.788

158.4

0.775

0.335

0.518

104.0

0.476

0.551

0.830

63.1

76.0

77.2

93.0

KZK-XX 10

0.525

0.520

0.793

159.2

0.757

0.341

0.538

108.0

0.467

0.557

0.837

63.7

76.2

81.1

97.2

KZK-VX 10

0.525

0.514

0.791

155.7

0.730

0.345

0.564

110.9

0.400

0.597

0.883

52.2

59.1

63.5

77.7

KZK-VV 10

0.509

0.523

0.803

147.8

0.585

0.479

0.742

136.5

0.380

0.611

0.896

69.5

77.6

71.4

87.9

KK - X 50

0.751

0.342

0.544

55.4

1.306

0.214

12.8

0.514

0.525

0.801

12.7

15.8

16.3

19.4

KK V 50

0.750

0.343

0.545

55.9

1.133

0.244

19.4

0.425

0.585

0.866

12.5

14.4

14.2

17.4

ZKZ - XV 50

0.780

0.331

0.510

52.6

1.174

0.235

17.6

0.643

0.382

0.658

20.4

31.0

30.3

31.2

KZK - XX 50

0.740

0.343

0.554

57.7

1.119

0.244

20.3

0.601

0.398

0.698

21.0

30.1

31.2

30.0

KZK - VX 50

0.744

0.345

0.552

56.3

1.082

0.254

22.1

0.515

0.525

0.800

18.4

23.0

23.3

28.2

KZK - VV 50

0.744

0.344

0.834

83.1

0.906

0.294

35.7

0.475

0.549

0.830

22.7

27.4

26.0

26.9

specimen no.

g.

S3

()

'
8
3

tr

Ci
en

en

Fu

>
-

TSL

(I) RFA on MA level

'

(p

*"+5

*
c

plandp cr)

GN

/n

*nJn

(P

EC CS

(II) RFA on MA /GNA level

pi and

(III) RFA on GNA level

1
cr

ECCS

DIN

, and

cr

ECCS

DIN

Pk

Pk

pk

pk

pk

pk

Pu

[]

[]

[MPa]

[]

[MPa]

[1

[1

[MPa]

[]

[MPa]

[]

[]

[MPa]

[]

[MPa]

[MPa]

KK- 51

2.91

0.50

0.027

0.65

0.035

2.86

0.50

0.028

0.65

0.036

1.30

0.50

0.028

0.65

0.036

0.050

KK-V51

2.92

0.50

0.028

0.65

0.036

2.80

0.50

0.031

0.65

0.040

1.45

0.50

0.031

0.65

0.040

0.059

ZKZ-XV 51

5.01

0.50

0.011

0.65

0.014

5.01

0.50

0.011

0.65

0.014

3.37

0.50

0.011

0.65

0.014

0.014

KZK-XX 51

3.63

0.50

0.020

0.65

0.025

3.54

0.50

0.021

0.65

0.027

2.38

0.50

0.021

0.65

0.027

0.027

KZK-VX 51

2.65

0.50

0.033

0.65

0.043

2.57

0.50

0.035

0.65

0.046

1.75

0.50

0.035

0.65

0.046

0.042

KZK-VV 51

2.79

0.50

0.028

0.65

0.038

2.73

0.50

0.031

0.65

0.040

1.87

0.50

0.031

0.65

0.040

0.041

specimen no.

iI

cr
)

rt

EL

M
)
m
en

en

en

Rm

measured
diagram

r:

arctan E
^

idealized
|
stress-strain- curve

)
k

0,5

1,0

1,5
measured
diagram

0,5

1,0

1,5

^t

E[%]

Figure Cl. Typical measured tension coupon diagrams and idealized stress-strain-curves for
numerical comparative analyses

Ahlmm]

,.

Figure C2. Typical measured compression coupons diagrams

161

Figure C3. Test specimens ZKZ-XV 10 and KZK-W 50 before testing

1.050

0 o - meridian

SO" - meridian

-A180

1.040

meridian

- * 270 - meridian
average part C
- - average part

1.030

- average pari A
"""*
average
average [mm]

1.028

1020

1.010

1.000
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

axial coordinate [mm]

Figure C4. Typical results from thickness measurements

162

Figure C5. Specimen ... on the imperfection measuring device

specimen KK - 10

E
E

5
<

tn
(

itn

T - r * N r s e i c o f o *
o c N L o r - o c s L o r ^ o
- - v - r - I M P J N N
co

CM

co

circumferential angle [ ]

Figure C6. Typical imperfection plot

163

in
co

0.50

%
'\/

0.45

0.40

/// V

0.35

KZKXX 1 0

///

ZKZXV 1 0

X.

KZKVX 10

X^

ZKZXV 5 0

"

I'S*

cT

en

co

tr tr
CD

co

fcj

?
CT
rt

co

11.

/// 1 s .s
af

)
co

*>

.// '

0.20

>s_

sV

KZK VX 5 0
"

KZK VV 5 0
. .

\
N.

**

0.15

iii

Ma

IJl '

aa

"^* " S "

ff'

0.10
F.'

ih

[///'' \\ ' *

0.25

= ft

KZK X X 5 0

0.30

co

S. '

KZKVV10

0.05

Cl

0.00
o
P
lf

)
co

10

12

14

0.35

TO

KKV10

0.30

00

/ /

cr

ui

CL.

co

(D

ft

tr
'

EL

0.20

LL

LL

0.15

fCOS 2.
C3
cr
h
n>
ro

" " "

50

/7

^
"

**. *%

_ _

" .

""""^^
"

"

"

"

>.

* *

aa.

_ ,

CD 0 0

10

^^

0.25

Er ta

V 50

0.10

'

c
u
co
O
ih

0.05

g
iE.
t

P.

0.00

10

re
CO

12

| " 1

14

16

18

20

y.

p u KKV51 = 0.059 [MPa]

era'

"t
i-l

)
co
co

co

HL
"

Hi
)
0\

LB (n) local buckling with buckles

rt
co
O

-+>
+

4B

rt
rt

rt
,

)
co
co

)
co

displacement [mm]

local buckling
collapse

(a)

(b)
Figure CIO. Axial load specimens KK-X 10 (a) and KZK-XX 50 (b) after testing

Figure C l l . External pressure specimen KK-V 51

during (a) and after (b) testing

167

TI

era
rt

n
10

tf

'

co

tr"

Calculations on GMNA level

Flm 83,2 [kN] by INCA (el. COEP), Lyon

t i . co

> r t

F04 B08, Essen

3- BL

by HORUS
S1S1 / C1C1 by ABAQUS

3 co

<T> K '

<
g
rt

<f

>

^rby INCA (element COQUE)

+ b y INCA

""*> sr
co
00

80,3
79,8
77.0
77,0

rt
o L
tr

g' co
n

n
3
o

I
o

C1C1 by F04 B08

by INCA (el.COQUE), Lyon

[kN] by A BA QUS, Graz
[kN] by A BA QUS, Milano
[kN] by HORUS, Munchen
[kN] by BOSOR, Liverpool

(element COEP)

Introduced stress
straincurve
f w 216 MPa
V7

et
3

E = 205 10JMPa

3 '
CL,

2
o

. pco.

"

- )

5'
era

rt
CO

0.0

1.0

2.0
3.0
in [mm]

4.0

5.0

benchmark test on milk can type shell

with geometry of ZKZXV 10

6.0

meridonial stresses

effective stresses
inner surface
midsurface
outer surface

" ?
^ 05'

S *rt
w

circumferential stresses

buckling mode
oszillating with
n=9
in circumferential
direction

UJ

t
rt H
CO
j
rt
co -

S- EL

^ O
II 2 !

htj
^

>

H-,

S rt

ryi

Xr i . .
r^*
CO

VO

g* c?

,
cu
t<

Eg

era *

3
o"
o
t
23

ro

o
CJ

"ro

ro

%a
era

rt 8rt3
a f
P ' S
^ <3
n

(d)

specimen KZK X X 10

experiment

100

\
M

80

with R e s c = 218 [MPa]

//

60

a,

1/

X
ro

"*s**

40

"

X
CD

..ideally

20

plastic
with R,SjC = 218 [MPa] i d e a l l y plastic
w i t h R e s t = 2 1 5 [MPa]

I . I

0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

,' i

2.5

, ... ,

3.0

3.5

4.0

displacement [mm]

a)

s p e c i m e n KK - V 1 0
50

experiment

45

f 1

35
F.
s:

hi
3U .yll 1

20

= ' /

15

ro

ra

10

*,

0.5

1.0

~5=

1.5

* *

" .

~z

ideally plastic

ideall
1 plastic
with V t = 1 7 1 > M P a]

* **

rZ
v

;h Res>c = 197 [MPa]

" """S"

v*"*

1/

0.0

"^Sr

1/

25

ca

Wl

* -

40

strain hardening

2.0

u "es.c

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

displacement [mm]

b)
Figure C14. Typical GMNA results for axial load specimens

170

specimen ZKZ - XV 10
F - 712,3 [kN]
FLcr = 363 [kN]

CO

_o
75
X
(O

-GMN

1 2

displacement [mm]

Figure C15. Typical set of numerical results compared to experimental behaviour:

Axial load specimen ZKZ-XV 10

171

ero'

meridional stresses

circumferential stresses

effective stresses

buckling mode

1000

ON

inner surface

inner surface

inner surface

midsurface

midsurface

midsurface

outer surface

outer surface

outer surface

EL

oszillating with
n= 8
in circumferential
direction

>
-~s rt

era SK

se

6- co
ro

co

=.

era 55

g S EL
- H

T J
i
El "sT

"

N'
co

rt
o

3
co

Ul

k. (b)

(c)

(d)

ECSC Contract no.7210-SA/208

Enhancement of ECCS Design Recommendations and Development of
Eurocode 3 Parts Related to Shell Buckling
Part D

THIN-WALLED SHELLS
SUBJECTED TO WIND LOADING
Final Report

Ruhr-Universitt Bochum
Institut fr Konstruktiven Ingenieurbau
Arbeitsgruppe Aerodynamik im Bauwesen
Prof. Dr.-Ing. H.-J. Niemann
Dr.-Ing. M. Kasperski
Dipl.-Phys. V. Grnandt

D1

Aim of the Investigations and State of Knowledge

D 1.1

Background

The research project is focused on steel containments of circular cylindrical shape with low
aspect ratios (height/radius ratio : h/r = below or equal to 1). The wall thickness ratio (wall
thickness to radius : t/r) is typically in the order of 1/3000. Overall dimensions are in the
range of some meters up to 20 meters with wall thickness of a few millimetres. The shell
structures are open at the top or equipped with one or more stiffening rings. Such buildings
are used as tanks and silos for storing fluids or bulk goods in the industrial or agricultural
field.
In the partially filled or empty state there is little or no support from internal resistance of the
contents and the shell is sensitive to external forces especially wind loads. In strong winds
damages have occurred where shell buckling was identified as a dominant failure mode. On
the other hand, theoretical investigations indicate that the shell can resist a further increase of
the wind load after buckling has been initiated. The post-buckling resistance is particularly
high if the upper edge of the shell is equipped with a stiff ring beam. For an economic and
safe design it is worthwhile to include this additional loadbearing capacity.
The main objective of the study is to investigate experimentally the principal features of the
post-buckling behaviour of such structures.

D 1.2

State of Knowledge

The design for buckling under radial compressive forces at present follows the guideline
[D5], in which the design load effects are compared to the buckling stresses, eventually
divided by an appropriate partial safety factor. Buckling is to be avoided.
The wind load is approximated by an equivalent pressure uniformly distributed over the shell
surface. This approach has been based on extensive experimental and analytical investiga
tions, see e.g. ref.s [D18], [D19], [D23], and [D34] to [D36]. One specific result is that for
low aspect ratios (height to diameter below 0,75), the equivalent uniform pressure is equal to
the local maximum of the wind pressure.
For open tanks, the pressure is composed of the external and internal pressures which are
strongly non-uniform along both the height and the circumference. The meridional nonuniformity is amplified in natural wind flow by the presence of a wind profile, whereas the
refered tests were performed in uniform flows. However, as mentioned earlier the initiation of
buckling is dominated by the maximum pressure occurring at the windward face of the
cylinder in the region of half of its height, which justifies the use of the uniform pressure
concept.
The natural wind flow is in addition time dependent due to its strong turbulence. Little is
known about the buckling behaviour under fluctuating load. Its effect is accounted for by
applying an equivalent gust velocity pressure averaging the gust wind speed over some
seconds. It is open to question which averaging time is appropriate for the buckling problem.
The post buckling behaviour has been investigated in some theoretical studies, see e.g. refs.
[D41] to [D45]. Experimental verifications have not come to the attention of the authors.

175

D 1.3

General Lay-Out of the Present Investigation

The present investigation aims at an experimental verification of the post-buckling behaviour

in order to provide a better understanding of the phenomena and an information on the
possible margins of safety inherent in the classical design procedure. It consists of two main
parts and an addition. In the first part, the aerodynamic forces are investigated which produce
buckling. The flow is as uniform as possible with a low degree of turbulence. In the second
part, elastic models are used in identical flow conditions which buckle at low flow speeds and
permit to observe the development of the buckling patterns over a large range of speeds
beyond the critical. The model shapes have a low aspect ratio, their heights ranging from 0,5
to 1,0 of the shell radius. The flow field is therefore strongly three-dimensional with
separations occurring both at the top and at the sides of the circumference. Probably, the top
separation dominates the flow field, and the sensitivity to Reynolds number typical to
rounded shapes is less pronounced. However, in view of the main focus it was sufficient to
ensure a pressure distribution ideally independent of theflowvelocity within the buckling and
post-buckling range. This includes also independence of the deformations of the shell surface,
once buckling has been initiated. The latter requirement could not be verified experimentally.
In earlier tests on inflated semi-cylinders [D12] it could be shown, that even large deforma
tions of 20% of the radius did not change the pressures considerably. This result was
considered as a sufficient indication that the effect of the buckling deformations may be
neglected.
The additional test was aimed at the effect of load fluctuations on the critical load and the
post-critical behaviour. In this case, the model was completely immersed in a simulated
atmospheric boundary layer flow, non- uniform with regard to the mean flow and highly
turbulent.

176

D2

Experimental Procedures

D 2.1

Testing SetUp and Flow Conditions

All experiments were performed in the B oundary Layer Wind Tunnel B LWT of the
Arbeitsgruppe Aerodynamik im B auwesen Affi at the RuhrUniversitt B ochum RUB ,
which is a common Eiffel type (fig. D 2.1.1). It has a closed working section approximately
10 m long, 1.8 m wide and 1.6 high with an adjustable ceiling. The aerodynamic circuit is a
openreturn air flow through the testing room where the BLWT is situated.
. end dlffuaor a 2.23 / a 2.80
2.228
compensator 2.23
transitional diffusor
laser-light intersection
faten with variable ceiling
1.80 X 1.60 - 1.S0

drive 110 K W ^
nozzle

intake chamber with honeycomb stralgbtener.

2.80 2.40

Fig. D 2.1.1

The B oundary Layer Wind Tunnel

schematic view, dimensions in m

The principal testing area, the measurement chamber, is equipped with a turntable (0=1.7 m),
supply adaptors for several kinds of sensors and the laser equipment. The fan is situated
behind the working section (suction type) which, compared to the blower type, diminishes the
disturbances in the flow induced by the fan. Maximum emptytunnel flow speed is 30 m/s.
The boundary layer evolves naturally over the artificially roughened floor (cubes of different
sizes as roughness elements) attaining a height of 0,4 m at the measurement section. It can be
thickened up to a height of 1,2 m using Counihan's vortex generating method, with a floor
barrier and spires at the end of the inlet nozzle. The geometric model scales thus defined are
in the range of 1/1000 to 1/200. All roughness generating devices can be removed to produce
a uniform flow with low turbulence.
Testing setup (smooth, uniform flow experiments)
At the position of the measurement chamber a falsefloor of 1.75 m length was installed (ref.
to fig. D 2.1.2 and D 2.1.3), spanning through the full tunnel width. Upside of the plate the
test cylinder (Pressure Model : PM... , Buckling Model BM...) was mounted. The other side
of the base plate bears the equivalent counterpart, which is a variable height dummy cylinder
for the rigid models. For the elastic models the respective rigid pressure model is used as

177

counterpart. The minimum distance between the axis of the cylinders and the front edge of
the false floor was 0.90 m 2 D of the cylinder model. The respective value for the leeward
side was 0.85m = l,9D. For the setup of the pressure measurements an optional extension
piece of 1 m length for the back end of the false floor was used, moving the test assembly
about this distance upstream from the midpoint of the turntable. For the buckling experiments
this long version of the false floor was not used, since such model position is outside the
operating range of the laser equipment.
This design was chosen to give a symmetrical flow and to avoid interferences between the
two sides of the plate.
400

\5

V
7615

1750
,

Fig. D 2.1.2

stralghtener
and
honeycomb

Test assembly for the smooth, uniform flow experiments,

cross schematic view of the wind tunnel, not to scale, dimensions in mm
^^^^^^

ceiling

prandtltube

Wms

test
model

false floor

j
t

75.00 mm

i3 ^ \

I rigid
1

dummy

S
455.00 mm
850.00 mm

900.00 mm

floor
^,.,,>.,^,,,,

Fig. D2.1.3

Test assembly for the smooth, uniform flow experiments

cross schematic view of the measurement chamber

The inevitable boundary layer of the false floor has a vertical extension of about 0.1 m at the
position of the cylinder models (fig. D 2.1.4).

178

E
E

500
400
300
M 1 00

200

100

0,0

M 75
M SO

2,0

1,0

3,0

q / q 1

Fig. D2.1.4 B oundary layer above the false floor,

normalised velocity pressure profile
compared to the heights of the cylinder models
Testing setup (turbulent flow experiments)
For the preliminary test under turbulent flow the boundary layer was modelled to natural
wind conditions for rural terrain with an exponent of = 0.18 for the powerlaw model of the
mean velocity profile:
,oc

u = mean velocity at height z,

VZ re f,

"ref

The complete set of the characteristic properties for this flow is described in [D8]. This single
test just led to a first qualitative" insight into the postbuckling behaviour under turbulent
flow condition.
The test model B M 75 (2) was mounted on the turntable in the ground floor of the wind
tunnel. For the magnification factor values for the mean velocity for sample heights ref. to
tab. D.2.1.1.
z/h

5
0,03

20
0,12

60
0,35

90
0,53

120
0,70

180
1,05

z / r e f

0,46

0,54

0,59

0,63

0,65

0,72

/mm

Tab. D 2.1.1 Magnification factors for the mean velocity for sample heights
The effect of blockage
The wind tunnel boundaries impose constraints on the flow around the model, so that the
measured parameters differ from the free flow values. In a first order approximation the
influence depends on the geometrical blockage ratio :
8=

X '

S = model area cross section, A = area of the wind tunnel cross section.

For the actual test setup (with the twin cylinder arrangement mounted on the false floor and
the single cylinder arrangement installed on the turntable at the wind tunnel floor) the
resulting are given in tab. D 2.1.2. For a blockage ratio below 1% effects can be
neglected, an in the region of 5% is acceptable in wind tunnel experiments. For an of over
10% appreciable corrections to the measured results are required in order to extrapolate to
unconstrained flow conditions. In the experiments, the range of blockage ratios was 2% 7%,

179

and no correction was applied for the reasons discussed in section D 1.3. Some correction
would be needed to apply the pressure distributions to fullscale conditions.
D/m
wind tunnel

h/m

A e f f /m^

1,8

1,6

2,88

PM100
PM75
PM50

0,457
0,457
0,457

0,228
0,172
0,114

0,208
0,157
0,104

0,072
0,055
0,036

BM100
BM75
BM50

0,445
0,445
0,445

0,228
0,171j
0,114

0,203
0,152
0,101

0,070
0,053
0,034

BM 75 (turbulent)

0,445

0,171

0,076

0,026

Tab. D2.1.2 B lockage ratio for the test models

The effect of Reynolds number
Theflowfielddepends on the Reynolds number Re defined as:
Re = L ,

L = characteristic length, = mean velocity,

= viscosity of the fluid (=1.5 10 " m/s for air at room temperature).

The range of Re varied by a factor of 25 ranging from 15.000 to 380.000 when refered to the
height, see tab. D 2.1.3. These values are in the range of Reindependence for sharpedged
bodies with a fixed separation, which applies here for the top side separation. This was
confirmed by a preliminary test in which Re was varied in the test range.
L/m

1
1
qmin / P a qmax / P a Vmin / ms" Vmax / m s "

Re m i n /10 4 Re m a x /10 4

model
0,114
0,171
0,228

10
5
3

45
25
15

4,0
2,8
2,2

8,5
6,3
4,9

3,0
3,2
3,3

6,4
7,2
7,4

BM 50 D 0,455
BM 75 D 0,455
BM 100 D 0,455

10
5
3

45
25
15

4,0
2,8
2,2

8,5
6,3
4,9

12,1
8,6
6,6

25,7
19,2
14,9

BM 50 h
BM 75 h
BM 100 h

PM 50 h
PM 75 h
PM 100 h

0,114
0,171
0,228

2
2
2

25
25
25

1,5
2,3
3,0

19,0
28,5
38,0

PM (all) D

0,457

25

6,1

76,2

Tab. D 2.1.3 Reynolds number for the experimental parameter range

h, D denotes height, respective diameter of the model

D 2.2

Pressure Test Models

The main body of the pressure test models (fig. D 2.2.1) consists of a prefabricated plexiglas
(acryle) tube (thickness 8 mm) which was screw fixed with a ground plate of the same
material (thickness 5 mm). The overall diameter was 457 mm.

180

A (detail) : pressure tap

tube
8 mm

^i 0.86 mm
w 1.27 mm

model PM 100
h/r = 1.0

t = 8 mm

model PM 75
h/r = 0.75

t = 6 mm

D = 457 mm

t = 8 mm

model PM 50
h/r = 0.50

t = 6 mm

D = 457 mm

Fig. D 2.2.1 Pressure Models, PM 100, PM 75 and PM 50

The pressure taps were arranged along one meridian at seven levels listed in table D 2.2.1. At
each level, both inside and outside pressure borings were drilled. The tubes were installed
along the meridian inside the wall in order to avoid any flow disturbance, see fig. D 2.2.1.
Electrical pressure transducers were used monitoring the pressure time histories simultane
ously from the 12 pressure holes. The pneumatic connection from the taps to the pressure
transducers used a particular structure of optimised tubes composed of two sections :
First stage :
length = 490 mm, 0 ^ = 0.86 mm
Second stage : length =115 mm, 0 ^ = 0.5 mm.

181

model
z/h

0,15

0,30

0,65

0,50

0,80

0,90

0,97

h /mm
PM 50
PM 75
PM 100

17,1
25,7
25,7

114
171
228

57,0
85,5
85,5

34,2
51,3
51,3

74,1
111,2
111,2

91,2
136,8
136,8

102,6
153,9
153,9

110,6
165,9
165,9

Tab. D 2.2.1 Elevation heights of the pressure taps for the pressure models
in mm from ground

D 2.3

Buckling Test Models

The buckling test models (fig. D 2.3.1) are of modular design with a circular base plate
(aluminium) of 455,0 mm diameter and 10,0 mm thickness and an upper stiffening ring
(aluminium) of 455,0 mm external diameter, 5 mm width and 2 mm thickness.

BUCKLING MODELS

A (detail) : ring stiffner

>""'
\

5 mm
w
w
&666>>>>3S

aluminium

2 mm
t = 0 . 1 mm

t =0.1 mm

model BM 100
h/r = 1.0

t =10.0 mm
Mw**t*HSBB

aluminium

D = 455.0 mm

t = 0.1 mm
fi
ve

t =10.0 mm

e
re

model BM 75
h/r = 0.75

1
D = 455.0 mm

t = 0.1 mm

t = 10.0 mm

model BM 50
h/r = 0.50

D = 455.0 mm

Fig. D2.3.1 B uckling Models, BM 100, BM 75 and BM 50

182

The wall of the cylinders is made from an elastic Mylar foil of 0,1 mm thickness which is cut
to the appropriate height of the buckling models. The foil is glued to the plate and the ring.
Similarly the closing of the circle is done by gluing the overlapping parts (with an approxi
mate overlapping length of 10 mm), this overlapping part being always positioned at the
leeward side of the model.
The weight of the ring introduces a constant meridional compressive stress into the shell,
which may have an effect on the buckling. The influence is calculated with a density of
aluminium of 27 kN/m :
,

hi>

__2

l f t JX T
meridional stress
7 =
= _ ^ r 1 = 2.7010 Nm~
z
R
Ut
t
(G : Force of Gravity, U : periphery, yR : density, t : thickness of shell= 0.1 mm,
hR : height of ring= 2mm, r : outer radius = 227.5 mm, r : inner radius = 222.5 mm)

critical stress [D 34]

o z c r i t = 0.605Esf) ,

= 1.26 105Nm"2

v +ioot
(Es : Young's modulus of the shell = 2.3 109 N/m2)
The acting stress is thus only 2% of the critical stress and its effect on buckling can be
neglected.
Therigidityof theringcompared to the shell is expressed by the stiffness parameten :
ERIZV?)
stiffness parameter =
^
E s t 4

(ER : Young's modulus of the aluminium = 710 N/m , Iz : moment of Inertia)

.

moment of inertia

IR
K =

liR(rr)

12

(vs : Poisson's ratio of the shell)

The stiffness parameter is therefore 5.7 10 , which is in practice an unlimited rigid ring,
leading tofixedboundary condition at the upper edge of the shell.

D 2.4

Testing Procedures

D 2.4.1 Pressure Measurements

The monitored pressure time histories were after amplification processed to the computer
system for evaluation of the mean and rms values. Only the mean pressures are considered for
further evaluations. The pressures are refered to the mean velocity pressure measured at the
Prandtl tube to give pressure coefficients.

183

D 2.4.2

Buckling Tests

The aim of the buckling tests was to evaluate the shape of the initial buckling patterns and its
development with increasing load, to measure quantitatively the depth and width of the
buckles, and to determine the wind load, at which eventually the collapse of the model
occurs.
A square grid of 20 mm was drawn on the model surface, which allowed to sketch the
buckling patterns by visual inspection with reasonable accuracy. This was possible since the
buckling pattern at a constant load intensity was very stable and, for one and the same model
also reproducible. The border picture could not be recorded completely on photos. For the
fixed viewing angle of the camera only a small area on the surface provide the right illumina
tion conditions for the borders to become visible.
The buckling deformations were visualised using a horizontal laser light sheet, positioned
subsequently at several elevations within the model height. The illuminated deformed shell
wall was clearly visible in its main parts and could be photographed from above the wind
tunnel ceiling through a transparent window from a position right over the cylinder axis of the
models. An Argon-Ion laser with a power of 100 mW was used. The laser light sheet optics
consists of a scanning (galvanometer type) mirror working at a frequency of 200 Hz.
The recorded pictures (standard KODAK black and white 35 mm film material, 400 ASA,
t=l/10s at F=2.8) were digitised using a Microtec slide scanner with an optical resolution of
1870 pixel/inch. The resulting output were 256 step grey-level images with 1021*1021
respectively 1201*1201 pixel in TIF format.
The geometrical resolution of the raw images, as defined by the later evaluated circle radius
in the bitmap system (in pixel), compared to the real radius of the cylinder models, ranged
from 2.13 pixel/mm (BM 50, z/h = 0.27) to 1.49 pixel/mm (BM 100 , z/h = 0.8). A standard
ised value of 2 pixel/mm as the final working resolution was used after transformation. The
corresponding angular resolution was 10 pixel/0, which is equivalent to 2,5 pixel/mm at
radius position.
The raw TIF-files were transformed to a Bit-mapped format BMP, using a program for
exchanging graphic file formats (alchemy version 1.5.1). A simple FORTRAN program
provide the transformation step from this BMP format to the IMG working format, which is a
low level implementation of the FITS format, widely used for graphic data exchange. For the
complete set of the file formats specifications ref. to [D47].
Further image processing steps used a program library for co-ordinate transformation and
picture processing, developed for astronomical purposes [D49], with some adaptation to the
present problem. The evaluation of the deformation profile proceeded in the following steps :
1. Find the centre of the circle
2. Find the radius of the circle
3. Polar co-ordinate transform (circle to line)
4. Find the shape defining pattern and its position
Since the position defining marks on the turntable were found not to be precise enough to fix
the absolute position with the appropriate resolution, an internal relative reference system was
used. For finding the centre of the circle and its radius, the picture was scanned in two

184

orthogonal directions and the positions of the found pixels were fitted to a circle (two stage
Hough transform [D50], for position and radius). Even for images with a strongly deformed
circle this approach provided good results.
Using the obtained values, a coordinate transform was applied, to treat the polar (r,)
description of the circle as an orthogonal axis system for the further processing steps [D46].
For generating required grey level values for resampling in transformation steps, a bilinear
interpolation was used [D48]. Each pixel line, representing one angular coordinate step, was
scanned tofindthe position of the profile defining pixels.
To distinguish shell defining pixel from background and from single noise pixels a three level
threshold system was applied. Pixel candidates must match : 1. the typical grey level interval
of the illuminated shell, 2. the typical linear thickness interval of the illumination, 3. the
typical geometrical position of the deformation profile. In a calibration stage these parameters
were adjusted using sample images.
The output of the automatic processing was usually a 80% 90% covering of the full circle.

D 2.5

Testing Programme

The pressure tests started with an investigation of the Renumber effect. The model PM 50
was used and the velocity range was varied from 1,8 m/s to 25 m/s. Since the pressure
distributions remained rather insensitive to the variation of the wind velocity, the main tests
were performed at a velocity of 25 m/s with the models PM 50, PM 75, and PM 100.
The buckling tests in uniform flow were performed subsequently, individually varying the
velocity according to the development of the buckles in the following steps (tab. D 2.5.1) :
100
light
sheet

buckling
pattern

M 50

M 75
light
sheet

buckling
pattern

light
sheet

buckling
pattern

0
3
(C
CL

5
6
9
9,5

>
as

<
co

10

10
11,5
12
15

15

15

15

20
25

20
25

20
25
30
35
40

15,5
20

35
48

Tab. D 2.5.1 Test programme : load stages

185

Small deviations of the actual from the nominal velocity pressures occurred. The BM 75 test
was repeated with a new model BM 75 (2) fabricated in the same manner in order to control
the reproducibility of the buckling patterns. For the laser light sheet levels see tab. D 2.5.2 :
BM100

BM75

BM50

227,50

170,63

113,75

h/mm

/mm

z/h

183

0,80

137
114
92

0,60
0,50
0,40

45

0,20

z / mm

z/h

/mm

z/h

126

0,74

84

0,74

86

0,50

59

0,52

43

0,25

31

0,27

Tab. D 2.5.2 Test programme : Laser light sheet levels

In the third campaign, the buckling model BM 75 (2) was placed on the base of the wind
tunnel and tested under turbulent flow conditions, equivalent to natural wind. In this case, the
buckling pattern only could be monitored due to the instationary nature of the buckling
process.

D3

Test Results

D 3.1

Pressure Distribution

The pressure measurements in the velocity range from 2 to 25 m/s showed no major changes
in the pressure distribution around the cylinders. It can be stated that the flow field is
insensitive to the effect of Reynolds number in the velocity range required for the buckling
tests. The following pressure measurements were then made at high speed (25 m/s) to get
high useful signals for optimal signal to noise ratio.
Fig. D 3.1.1 shows as an example for model PM 100 the pressure distributions for the outside
wall (a), the inside wall (b). The difference of (a) and (b) which corresponds to the time
averaged wind-load shows Fig. D 3.1.2a.
The external pressure distribution is typical to circular cylinders with positive pressures at the
stagnation line decreasing gradually further downstream. At an angle of 37 it crosses the
zero level, the minimum pressure occurs at the flanks and is followed by a pressure increase
until separation takes place. Due to the 3-D nature of the flow field, the point of separation
shifts from 110 at the base to 130 at the top, the position of the minimum pressure similarly
from 80 to 90. The pressure at the stagnation line is disturbed in the upper third of the
height. The pressure coefficients on the internal face of the wall are distributed more
uniformly although not fairly constant as might have been expected: they are negative
everywhere with maxima at 0 and 180 and a minimum at 100. The resulting net pressure
coefficients show that the positive sign, i.e. compressive load prevails over most of the shell
surface, only a small area at theflanksis subjected to negative pressure.

186

PM 100

160

angle /

PM 1 0 0

160

Fig. D 3.1.1

Mean Pressure coefficients of Model PM 100

a) External wall surface
b) Internal wall surface

The results for the other models are principally the same. Fig. D. 3.1.2 presents the complete
set of the net pressure distributions for all three models. Tab. D. 3.1.1 to Tab. D. 3.1.3 contain
the complete set of pressure coefficients. The results are rather similar to the pressure
distributions measured by Holroyd [D24].

187

Fig. D 3.1.2

Combined Pressure distribution

a) Model PM 100
b) Model PM 75
c) Model PM 50

188

PM 100
angle /
z/h

0,15

0,30

0,50

0,65

0,80

0,90

0,97

External

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180

0,977
0,934
0,692
0,333
-0,121
-0,614
-1,085
-1,412
-1,518
-1,379
-0,652
-0,431
-0,365
-0,388
-0,423
-0,471
-0,460
-0,368
-0,308

0,999
0,950
0,711
0,360
-0,120
-0,618
-1,103
-1,446
-1,589
-1,445
-1,052
-0,423
-0,366
-0,386
-0,453
-0,484
-0,459
-0,365
-0,316

1,032
0,961
0,725
0,379
-0,086
-0,585
-1,064
-1,421
-1,597
-1,531
-1,360
-0,635
-0,360
-0,406
-0,461
-0,498
-0,467
-0,387
-0,330

1,033
0,946
0,710
0,383
-0,064
-0,546
-1,013
-1,367
-1,558
-1,560
-1,352
-0,837
-0,418
-0,380
-0,440
-0,475
-0,441
-0,373
-0,312

0,779
0,765
0,588
0,271
-0,140
-0,578
-1,011
-1,352
-1,563
-1,587
-1,439
-1,009
-0,548
-0,424
-0,466
-0,516
-0,530
-0,416
-0,345

0,667
0,633
0,465
0,194
-0,168
-0,553
-0,937
-1,239
-1,435
-1,492
-1,372
-1,051
-0,654
-0,424
-0,406
-0,447
-0,450
-0,357
-0,303

0,227
0,232
0,129
-0,082
-0,352
-0,635
-0,926
-1,161
-1,343
-1,415
-1,362
-1,102
-0,747
-0,501
-0,431
-0,463
-0,507
-0,406
-0,356

Internal

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180

-0,760
-0,743
-0,725
-0,760
-0,825
-0,845
-0,876
-0,906
-0,939
-0,959
-0,974
-0,976
-0,963
-0,932
-0,880
-0,795
-0,677
-0,576
-0,514

-0,758
-0,831
-0,729
-0,851
-0,716
-0,866
-0,764
-0,901
-0,862
-0,958
-0,898
-0,967
-0,930
-0,989
-0,957
-1,025
-0,991
-1,062
-1,005
-1,087
-1,021
-1,092
-1,006
-1,068
-1,001
-1,037
-0,965 . -1,011
-0,916
-0,993
-0,858
-0,954
-0,739
-0,869
-0,647
-0,775
-0,607
-0,732

-0,930
-0,930
-0,934
-0,965
-1,008
-1,008
-1,047
-1,103
-1,158
-1,181
-1,182
-1,152
-1,110
-1,079
-1,051
-1,010
-0,964
-0,874
-0,829

-0,929
-0,923
-0,927
-0,955
-0,989
-1,001
-1,061
-1,135
-1,203
-1,238
-1,245
-1,209
-1,156
-1,099
-1,039
-0,979
-0,947
-0,886
-0,854

-0,843
-0,856
-0,873
-0,896
-0,932
-0,957
-1,029
-1,113
-1,192
-1,242
-1,255
-1,217
-1,155
-1,079
-0,994
-0,914
-0,870
-0,852
-0,846

-0,814
-0,819
-0,832
-0,861
-0,900
-0,937
-1,016
-1,109
-1,201
-1,266
-1,282
-1,242
-1,218
-1,209
-1,120
-0,996
-0,932
-0,969
-0,984

Combined

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180

1,737
1,677
1,417
1,093
0,704
0,231
-0,209
-0,506
-0,579
-0,420
0,322
0,545
0,598
0,544
0,457
0,324
0,217
0,208
0,206

1,757
1,679
1,427
1,124
0,742
0,280
-0,173
-0,489
-0,598
-0,440
-0,031
0,583
0,635
0,579
0,463
0,374
0,280
0,282
0,291

1,963
1,876
1,644
1,348
0,944
0,462
0,034
-0,264
-0,400
-0,379
-0,170
0,315
0,692
0,699
0,611
0,535
0,523
0,501
0,517

1,708
1,688
1,515
1,226
0,849
0,423
0,050
-0,217
-0,360
-0,349
-0,194
0,200
0,608
0,675
0,573
0,463
0,417
0,470
0,509

1,51
1,489
1,338
1,090
0,764
0,404
0,092
-0,126
-0,243
-0,250
-0,117
0,166
0,501
0,655
0,588
0,467
0,420
0,495
0,543

1,041
1,051
0,961
0,779
0,548
0,302
0,090
-0,052
-0,142
-0,149
-0,080
0,140
0,471
0,708
0,689
0,533
0,425
0,563
0,628

1,863
1,812
1,591
1,280
0,872
0,382
-0,075
-0,396
-0,535
-0,444
-0,268
0,433
0,677
0,605
0,532
0,456
0,402
0,388
0,402

Tab. D.3.1.1 Pressure coefficients of the mean pressure referred to the Prantl tube
velocity pressure for PM 100

189

PM 75
angle /
z/h

0,15

0,30

0,50

0,65

0,80

0,90

0,97

External

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180

0,944
0,900
0,709
0,380
-0,030
-0,463
-0,876
-1,183
-1,345
-1,279
-0,777
-0,330
-0,324
-0,281
-0,288
-0,293
-0,276
-0,214
-0,176

0,980
0,931
0,734
0,401
-0,025
-0,471
-0,896
-1,223
-1,392
-1,319
-0,969
-0,339
-0,290
-0,268
-0,286
-0,302
-0,302
-0,277
-0,254

1,020
0,970
0,779
0,447
0,027
-0,417
-0,853
-1,192
-1,374
-1,326
-1,183
-0,473
-0,240
-0,239
-0,264
-0,285
-0,286
-0,278
-0,261

1,002
0,954
0,765
0,444
0,041
-0,381
-0,805
-1,137
-1,321
-1,302
-1,174
-0,602
-0,226
-0,227
-0,251
-0,273
-0,273
-0,257
-0,232

0,834
0,779
0,616
0,328
-0,036
-0,438
-0,813
-1,123
-1,328
-1,387
-1,253
-0,873
-0,463
-0,336
-0,336
-0,354
-0,364
-0,341
-0,311

0,690
0,650
0,502
0,248
-0,070
-0,415
-0,749
-1,024
-1,211
-1,269
-1,186
-0,922
-0,557
-0,357
-0,325
-0,338
-0,347
-0,324
-0,287

0,295
0,259
0,150
-0,036
-0,269
-0,530
-0,764
-0,981
-1,161
-1,302
-1,285
-1,037
-0,688
-0,468
-0,402
-0,406
-0,416
-0,381
-0,344

Internal

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180

-0,709
-0,691
-0,704
-0,712
-0,707
-0,718
-0,731
-0,758
-0,781
-0,797
-0,801
-0,808
-0,802
-0,776
-0,713
-0,628
-0,526
-0,457
-0,408

-0,679
-0,688
-0,705
-0,698
-0,710
-0,737
-0,756
-0,796
-0,827
-0,850
-0,849
-0,854
-0,856
-0,827
-0,771
-0,677
-0,575
-0,516
-0,479

-0,677
-0,673
-0,689
-0,700
-0,721
-0,749
-0,779
-0,816
-0,843
-0,851
-0,857
-0,855
-0,852
-0,852
-0,812
-0,735
-0,643
-0,571
-0,535

-0,729
-0,726
-0,741
-0,755
-0,777
-0,806
-0,833
-0,878
-0,920
-0,938
-0,934
-0,939
-0,942
-0,932
-0,878
-0,802
-0,726
-0,659
-0,624

-0,738
-0,730
-0,744
-0,759
-0,777
-0,807
-0,843
-0,900
-0,954
-0,981
-0,981
-0,987
-0,995
-0,976
-0,902
-0,818
-0,742
-0,686
-0,656

-0,707
-0,693
-0,709
-0,724
-0,743
-0,769
-0,817
-0,885
-0,941
-0,973
-0,987
-0,986
-0,984
-0,988
-0,932
-0,834
-0,735
-0,683
-0,658

-0,693
-0,683
-0,698
-0,713
-0,734
-0,765
-0,817
-0,896
-0,976
-1,044
-1,062
-1,031
-1,036
-1,107
-1,085
-0,994
-0,872
-0,812
-0,772

Combined

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180

1,653
1,591
1,413
1,092
0,677
0,255
-0,145
-0,425
-0,564
-0,482
0,024
0,478
0,478
0,495
0,425
0,335
0,250
0,243
0,232

1,659
1,619
1,439
1,099
0,685
0,266
-0,140
-0,427
-0,565
-0,469
-0,120
0,515
0,566
0,559
0,485
0,375
0,273
0,239
0,225

1,697
1,643
1,468
1,147
0,748
0,332
-0,074
-0,376
-0,531
-0,475
-0,326
0,382
0,612
0,613
0,548
0,450
0,357
0,293
0,274

1,731
1,680
1,506
1,199
0,818
0,425
0,028
-0,259
-0,401
-0,364
-0,240
0,337
0,716
0,705
0,627
0,529
0,453
0,402
0,392

1,572
1,509
1,360
1,087
0,741
0,369
0,030
-0,223
-0,374
-0,406
-0,272
0,114
0,532
0,640
0,566
0,464
0,378
0,345
0,345

1,397
1,343
1,211
0,972
0,673
0,354
0,068
-0,139
-0,270
-0,296
-0,199
0,064
0,427
0,631
0,607
0,496
0,388
0,359
0,371

0,988
0,942
0,848
0,677
0,465
0,235
0,053
-0,085
-0,185
-0,258
-0,223
-0,006
0,348
0,639
0,683
0,588
0,456
0,431
0,428

Tab. D.3.1.2 Pressure coefficients of the mean pressure referred to the Prantl tube
velocity pressure for PM 75

190

PM 50
angle /
z/h

0,15

0,30

0,50

0,65

0,80

0,90

0,97

External

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180

0,858
0,822
0,675
0,423
0,076
-0,280
-0,623
-0,889
-1,037
-1,046
-0,856
-0,347
-0,190
-0,184
-0,146
-0,161
-0,115
-0,072
-0,033

0,849
0,813
0,659
0,393
0,053
-0,308
-0,647
-0,924
-1,081
-1,087
-0,903
-0,337
-0,197
-0,168
-0,154
-0,156
-0,133
-0,101
-0,079

0,994
0,958
0,793
0,514
0,146
-0,238
-0,605
-0,909
-1,083
-1,088
-0,941
-0,399
-0,157
-0,111
-0,123
-0,134
-0,120
-0,105
-0,101

0,712
0,680
0,532
0,294
-0,011
-0,327
-0,633
-0,892
-1,042
-1,065
-0,951
-0,573
-0,312
-0,255
-0,261
-0,270
-0,257
-0,245
-0,252

0,692
0,650
0,516
0,291
-0,020
-0,340
-0,643
-0,889
-1,050
-1,095
-0,993
-0,716
-0,404
-0,266
-0,257
-0,259
-0,238
-0,220
-0,220

0,730
0,695
0,561
0,341
0,049
-0,248
-0,532
-0,770
-0,930
-0,990
-0,940
-0,697
-0,369
-0,206
-0,187
-0,190
-0,159
-0,122
-0,120

0,304
0,267
0,166
0,007
-0,210
-0,421
-0,609
-0,775
-0,930
-1,067
-1,049
-0,801
-0,478
-0,329
-0,302
-0,293
-0,252
-0,206
-0,192

Internal

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180

-0,728
-0,741
-0,768
-0,793
-0,815
-0,796
-0,790
-0,796
-0,802
-0,814
-0,827
-0,881
-0,871
-0,802
-0,699
-0,591
-0,518
-0,483
-0,466

-0,581
-0,597
-0,625
-0,658
-0,709
-0,701
-0,688
-0,688
-0,701
-0,722
-0,754
-0,815
-0,797
-0,697 .
-0,559
-0,439
-0,341
-0,288
-0,277

-0,646
-0,658
-0,691
-0,727
-0,756
-0,751
-0,741
-0,755
-0,774
-0,803
-0,838
-0,875
-0,859
-0,795
-0,706
-0,621
-0,562
-0,538
-0,525

-0,498
-0,526
-0,571
-0,619
-0,662
-0,659
-0,650
-0,675
-0,712
-0,759
-0,801
-0,845
-0,824
-0,742
-0,637
-0,536
-0,459
-0,404
-0,377

-0,523
-0,547
-0,586
-0,630
-0,668
-0,665
-0,656
-0,684
-0,731
-0,784
-0,819
-0,857
-0,836
-0,772
-0,671
-0,551
-0,466
-0,426
-0,406

-0,507
-0,527
-0,571
-0,617
-0,651
-0,645
-0,636
-0,668
-0,720
-0,781
-0,810
-0,839
-0,840
-0,815
-0,713
-0,556
-0,444
-0,411
-0,398

-0,500
-0,523
-0,567
-0,613
-0,649
-0,646
-0,640
-0,678
-0,747
-0,829
-0,849
-0,865
-0,917
-0,910
-0,829
-0,643
-0,488
-0,467
-0,454

Combined

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180

1,586
1,563
1,443
1,216
0,891
0,516
0,167
-0,093
-0,235
-0,232
-0,029
0,534
0,681
0,618
0,553
0,430
0,403
0,411
0,433

1,430
1,410
1,284
1,051
0,762
0,393
0,041
-0,236
-0,380
-0,365
-0,149
0,478
0,600
0,529
0,405
0,283
0,208
0,187
0,198

1,640
1,616
1,484
1,241
0,902
0,513
0,136
-0,154
-0,309
-0,285
-0,103
0,476
0,702
0,684
0,583
0,487
0,442
0,433
0,424

1,210
1,206
1,103
0,913
0,651
0,332
0,017
-0,217
-0,330
-0,306
-0,150
0,272
0,512
0,487
0,376
0,266
0,202
0,159
0,125

1,215
1,197
1,102
0,921
0,648
0,325
0,013
-0,205
-0,319
-0,311
-0,174
0,141
0,432
0,506
0,414
0,292
0,228
0,206
0,186

1,237
1,222
1,132
0,958
0,700
0,397
0,104
-0,102
-0,210
-0,209
-0,130
0,142
0,471
0,609
0,526
0,366
0,285
0,289
0,278

0,804
0,790
0,733
0,620
0,439
0,225
0,031
-0,097
-0,183
-0,238
-0,200
0,064
0,439
0,581
0,527
0,350
0,236
0,261
0,262

Tab. D.3.1.3 Pressure coefficients of the mean pressure referred to the Prantl tube
velocity pressure for PM 75

191

D 3.2

Buckling Patterns

The buckling pattern on the surface of the cylinder models have a strong 3-dimensional
structure. Fig. D 3.2.1 shows perspective view of a buckled model developed from a mapping
of the buckling pattern (BM 75 at highest load intensity).

Fig. D 3.2.1

3-dimensional perspective view of a buckling pattern

The evolution of the buckling pattern with increasing load intensity proceeded in several, well
defined steps, which were specific to each of the models. After unloading and repetition of
the loading process these steps were reproducible in every detail. The following ranges of
buckling reaction could be identified:
1. No visible reaction of the membrane;
2. Small, non stable movements of the surface;
3. Initial buckling starts;
4. Evolution of the buckles from the initial buckling pattern to the upper and lower edges of
the cylinder, appearance of the next modes of primary buckles and secondary distortions in
addition to the primary buckles.
The onset of the second level is not sharply defined.
The first visible buckling pattern on the surface (fig. D 3.2.2 and fig. D 3.2.3a) of all cylinder
models shows a clear and stable pattern of primary buckles.

192

 M 1 00

q = 9.5

Pa

22

"

...II .

"\

_^_ _

!0

16

12

mmmm

""

?
^^3
s
V\
8

J ^

""

. ^^_ ^^_

s/

12

16

20

24

c m

BM 75
q = 15Pa
1fi

14

__ .

KJ"

0
20

16

12

/ \

24

/K

f-\

__

19

E
o

ANr~~
/y

\j
V

L__/

V
7

/ V' \ >
0

8 4

12

16

20

24

cm

BM 50
q = 20 Pa
0
D

/ ' >

(
\ | |

24

2 0 1 6 1 2 8

12

16

20

24

cm

Fig. D 3.2.2

Initial buckling pattern

a) BM 100,
b)BM 75,
c)BM 50,
as seen from inside of the cylinder; the 0 meridian represents the
stagnation line.

193

The further development of the buckling pattern is shown in fig. D 3.2.3. With increasing
load, the buckles grow in area and in depth. Near the stagnation line all primary buckles tend
to extend to the edges of the cylinder.
Although the buckling pattern could always be reproduced for each individual model,
different patterns developed when the test was repeated with a second, nominally identical
model fabricated separately. As an example consider the differences from the model BM 75
and BM 75 (2) in fig D 3.2.2b and fig D 3.2.3a.
The quantitative deformations obtained from the light sheets images are presented in
fig. D 3.2.4 and fig. D 3.2.5 in terms of deformation profiles for the complete load range of
BM 75 at z/h = 0.5.
Buckling pattern from the buckling patterns map can be related directly to the corresponding
deformation profiles. The peak to peak amplitude of the visible initial buckling pattern was
always identified as 4 - 5 mm, see for example fig. D 3.2.2b and fig. D 3.2.5a. Contrarily
buckling could be detected in the deformation profiles at smaller intensities due to the higher
resolution, see fig. D 3.2.4c as an example. Moreover the deformation profiles show that at
higher load intensities buckles occur even at the leeward side of the cylinder, see fig. D 3.2.5b
and fig. D 3.2.5c. This observation corresponds to the fact that the pressure distribution
provide in this range a net compressive load.
The wave widths identified from the deformation profiles can be compared to theoretical
values of the wave number, i%, which for the discussion in section D 4 are calculated from
[D34]:

m =2J4

T'it'

where c accounts for the boundary conditions of the shell, and a value of c=1.5 is applied for
both ends fixed.

194

 M 75(2)
q = 1 4.5 Pa

B M 75(2)
q = 20.0 P
16

A /
\ /
\
f
f

14

1 0

/'

12

/ k

/ \

\ |

8
6

-24

-20

-16

-12

- 8 - 4

/
/

/
0

/
/

12

16

M 75(2)
1 6

\ " " \f

' " '

Fig. D 3.2.3

-12

C^
V
0

- 8 - 4

f /

# \ .
/

-16

/J
/

."'

,.''

-20

_1

,'

-24

q = 25.0 Pa

_. '*' 'A

24

Xr

25/
v^

20

"S/
12

16

20

24

Development of postbuckling pattern model BM 75 (2)

a) q = 14.5 Pa,
b) q = 20.0 Pa,
c) q = 25.0 Pa,
as seen from inside of the cylinder; the 0 meridian represents the
stagnation line.

195

BM

75

2
.1 L.I.

E
E

n y p

0 Paj

6
8
10
-90

-60

-30

30

90

120

150

180

210

240

270

angle / "

BM 75

.iLiJr

MWr''
I

-90

-60

-30

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

240

5-3 P a |

270

angl. /

4
2

"WM rv

H#

nJtk

PIT

"2

<

m
*

10.1 Pa|

10

-90

-60

-30

30

60

90

120

150

160

210

240

270

angle /

Fig. D 3.2.4 B ckling displacement with increasing load at midheigth of BM 75

a) q = 0 Pa,
b)q= 5.3 Pa,
c)q=10.1Pa.
The 0 meridian represents the stagnation line

196

 75

mii \ fa
nua

N lir
r
n'\ '

v\

E
E

i
E

=5

14.6 P a |

10

12

9 0

3 0

30

60

90

120

150

210

180

240

270

angle /

1
\*n
L

*\k

*m
W^

-J

-90

-60

-30

Junik

>

jM U I

<1

i L

Aww'y^itoitm"

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

240

270

angle /

BM 75

E
E

"

lr^

I
s

Jn

_|

/ iU_

ft

J.I

.1.
I

24.8 7]

'

<

'

Hh
\
1,
,

V'
I * KUK.TIFI'll 5
L

_.

'

1 /

V'V

-90

-60

-30

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

240

270

angle / *

Fig. D 3.2.5 B uckling displacement with increasing load at midheigth of BM 75

a) q = 14.6 Pa,
b) q = 20.2 Pa,
c) q = 24.8 Pa.
The 0 meridian represents the stagnation line

197

D4

Interpretation and Conclusion

D 4.1

Buckling under Static Wind Load

The theoretical values of the critical buckling pressure ^ and wave number m^ were
calculated assuming a constant pressure over the height and the circumference with boundary
conditions clamped at the upper and lower ends of the shell. The effect of imperfections on
the critical pressure was not included. It is estimated in general by a reduction factor of 0,7
[D34]. The experimental values of the depth and the width of the buckles in the stagnation
region were determined as means from two buckles forming on both sides of the stagnation
line. These are related to the local maxima of the pressure difference between external and
internal pressure as found in the pressure tests, i.e. the maximum net wind pressure max pw.
The following net pressure coefficients apply: 1,96 for model B M 100; 1.73 for model
BM 75; 1.64 for model BM 50. The buckling depth is depicted in fig. D 4.1.1.
buckling depth at z/h = 0.5
25
20

50
o

15

75

500

10

750
100

1000

o^xo
0

max *,/,

Fig. D 4.1.1 Development of the maximum buckle depth with respect to the
maximum net wind pressure
For a perfect shell, instability would be expected to occur near p^a/max pw = 1.
Imperfections are either caused by predeformations or by initial stresses introduced by the
process of manufacturing. The predeformations of the three models as measured were in the
order of 0,46% of the radius for model BM 100; 0,39% for the model BM 75, and 0,44% for
BM 50. The order of magnitude is the same, nevertheless the models exhibit different degrees
of sensitivity to the imperfections: for the small height of 0,5 h, a distinct onset of buckling
occurs between 0,65 and 0,94 of pcr^th m conformity with the factor of 0.7 mentioned before.
For the large height of 1,0 h, buckles start already at a very small velocity pressure of 3 Pa
corresponding to 0,5 of the critical pressure. In this case, the buckles could not be seen but
only be identified from the laser sheet inspection. A clear instability could not be detected but
rather a problem of large deformations, as is typical for shells with strong sensitivity to
imperfections.

198

The initial regular pattern of 4 to 5 well separated buckles develops with increasing pressure
into overlapping of buckles and formation of secondary buckles. At the highest load levels,
folds and additional buckles appear within the initial buckles, and small regular buckles are
found around most of the circumference. No collapse of the system was observed in all tests,
i.e. up to a limit of 2,5 of the critical pressure. Repetitions of the tests with a different model
of the same configuration BM 75 (2) revealed that the pattern could not be reproduced
identically. However, the principal observations were the same.
The width of the buckles was always larger than the theoretical value estimated from the
theoretical wave number; it increased with increasing load, see fig D 4.1.2.
In summarising it is concluded, that open, thin walled shells of the type considered do not
collapse by instability up to 2.5 of the critical pressure, determined for uniform load and
perfect geometry, provided that the upper edge is sufficiently stiffened by a ring beam. The
formation of sharp edged folds will however lead to local overstressing beyond a limit of 1.5
times the critical pressure.
buckling width at z/h = 0.5

OBM50

BM 50-th

BM75
X

BM 75-th

BM100
o

BM 100-th

Fig. D 4.1.2 Development of the maximum buckle width with respect to the
maximum net wind pressure

199

D 4.2

The Effect of Wind Turbulence

An indication of the effect of the natural wind flow on the buckling behaviour was obtained
from an additional test in a simulated boundary layer flow. The profile of the mean velocity
pressure, q, referred to the reference pressure at the Prandtl tube, qp,,,, is

where = height above wind tunnel floor in mm. The intensity of turbulence in the range of
the upper part of the model is 18%, corresponding to a typical rural terrain. The new model
BM 75 (2) was tested in both flow conditions.
The maximum net pressure at 0,65 of the height can be considered as dominant to the
initiation of buckling. Generally speaking, the pressure on the external shell surface at the
windward side varies according to the velocity pressure, apart from the upper region with its
edge disturbance. The pressure on the internal surface is approximately proportional to the
velocity pressure at the model top. The maximum net pressure is approximated assuming that
the pressure coefficients of the uniform flow apply namely 1,0 at the external and -0,73 at the
internal surface :
max pw - (0,43 + 0,73 0,5) q ^ = 0,79 q ^
comparable to 1,73 q ^ in uniform flow. Visible buckling was observed at a reference
pressure q ^ of 20 Pa corresponding to a mean (with respect to time) maximum pressure of
15,8 Pa. In the smooth, uniform flow, the visible onset of buckling occurred at max
p w = 1,73-14,5 = 25,1 Pa. Due to the pressure fluctuations induced by gustiness, the critical
value of the mean wind pressure in natural wind is smaller by a factor of 1,58. This factor
defines a gust velocity pressure appropriate in this case for the buckling design. It is smaller
than usual gust factors which means, that the design could have been based on a rather long
gust averaging time, i.e. on a gust wind pressure clearly smaller than the 3 to 5 sec gust
specified in some codes. This observation indicates an additional source of conservatism.
Under turbulent flow conditions, the buckling pattern is no longer constant in time but shows
a permanent oscillatory character. Fatigue may therefore become a problem if frequent
appearance of buckling is allowed in the design.

200

D5

Summary

In the Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel -BLWT- of the Arbeitsgruppe Aerodynamik im

Bauwesen -Affi- at the Ruhr-Universitt Bochum -RUB- two series of cylindrical models
were investigated under one respectively two different flow conditions.
One set of models was manufactured as rigid acrylic models for pressure measurements the
second set were elastic models for investigating the buckling pattern on the surface of the
cylinders and the development of the buckles under increasing wind load, i.e. the post
buckling behaviour.
Each model set consists of three species with different heights (height/radius ratio : h/r = 0.5,
h/r = 0.75, h/r = 1.0; with a common radius of 0.225 m). The elastic models are designed as
modular elements with a circular base plate, an exchangeable elastic Mylar foil forms the
surface of the cylinders (giving a resulting wall thickness ratio of about t/r 1/2225) and an
upper stiffening ring.
Pressure measurements were performed under smooth uniform flow condition in the velocity
range of 2 m/s to 25 m/s. At maximum speed of 25 m/s the pressure coefficients were
determined at 7 heights for the inner and outer side of the cylinders with a rotatory resolution
step of 10 degrees.
Similarly the buckling tests were performed in smooth uniform flow in the velocity range
adjusted for the individual model (equivalent pressure range : 0 - 50 Pa, 0 - 25 Pa, 0 - 15 Pa).
Different approaches for recording the three-dimensional buckling pattern were tested. For
practical use only two methods were carried out. In order to obtain a qualitative information,
the surface was marked with a grid. The visually seen borders of the individual buckles were
copied onto corresponding grid paper. The technique to get quantitative distortion data was to
cut" the surface of the cylinder with a laser light sheet and evaluate the absolute deformation
from the original circular shape with no wind load. This is done with a computer based semi
automatic procedure using the recorded pictures of a standard 35 mm photocamera. The
achieved resolution was about 1,5 mm absolute and +0.5 mm relative displacement and 0.1
degree in angular direction at radius position.
The lowest level of an identified buckling wave profile from the background was about 2 - 3
mm peak to peak amplitude. Thefirstvisible surface pattern occurrence shows 4 - 5 mm peak
to peak amplitude with this method.
Extrapolation of the measured amplitude and wavelength of the buckles to zero amplitude fits
with the theoretical values for the critical wind load. The first visible buckling pattern starts at
a wind load of 2 times over this limit.
In the tests (with no permanent surface damage) the maximum reached velocity pressures
were always 2 - 3 times greater than the theoretical values for the start of buckling.
A preliminary test in turbulent flow was done with one of the elastic models, but it was not
possible to get quantitative results with the methods developed. No stable pattern on the
surface evolved. The first visibleflippingbuckles start at a equivalent velocity (mean value of
the velocity profile at the cylinder height) of about 0.6 the value as in uniform flow.

201

D6

References

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[D 18] Almroth, B.O.; Buckling of a cylindrical shell subjected to nonuniform external
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New-York, 1975
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International, Vol. 11, No. 8, 1971, S.74-80
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2. Structural aspects; Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 18
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[D 26] Holroyd, R. J.; On the behaviour of open-topped oil storage tanks in high winds. Part
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load; Journal of Engineering Mechanics, Vol. I l l , No. 5, May 1985, S. 610-622
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[D 29] Langhaar, H.L. und Miller, RE.; B uckling of an elastic, isotropic cylindrical shell
subjected to wind pressure; Proceedings of the Symposium of Shells to Honor L. H.
Donnei, University of Housten, Housten, Texas, 1967, S.404429
[D 30] Maderspach, V., Gaunt, J.T. and Swort, J.H.; Buckling of cylindrical shells due to
wind loading; Rep. VPIE7125, College of Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic
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fD 31] Maderspach, V. and Kamat, M.P.; Buckling of open cylindrical tanks due to wind
loading; Der Stahlbau, H. 2, Feb. 1979, S. 5356
[D 32] Mungan, I.; Buckling stress of cylindrical shells; Journal of Structural Division, Vol.
100, No. ST11, November 1974
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High Speed Mech. Tohoku Univ., 20(1968/69) 3554
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supported shells of revolution; Engineering Structures, 1983, Vol. 5, S. 199206
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[D 41] Elinger, M. und Geier, .; B uckling and postbuckling behavior of thinwalled
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205

ECSC Contract No. 7210-SA/208

Enhancement of ECCS Design Recommendations and Development of
Eurocode 3 Parts Related to Shell Buckling

Part E

EFFECT OF CUT-OUTS AND OPENINGS IN SHELLS

Final Report

INSA de LYON France

URGC-Structures
J.F. JULLIEN

El Introduction and literature revue

In many industrial applications shells are equipped with openings of various shapes, sizes
and locations within the lateral surface. The objective of the present research is to gain an
understanding of the effect of cut-outs on the critical buckling load of thin cylindrical shells
and on that basis develop new design rules. The shells are made of mild steel and are
subjected to uniaxial compressive load..
No reinforcement along the periphery of the cut-out were considered in the present study.
In general, there are many ways of making up for the weakenning effect of the opening.
Openings can be reinforced by a set of two rings and stringers of a certain lenght.
Alternativelly, an additional reinforcement can be provided by an increased thickness along
the edges of the opening. Also, a smaller diameter welded tube acts as a perfect stiffener.
The result of reinforcement has a strong effect on the buckling load and is also important from
the point of view of stress concentration and fatigue. However, these factors have not been
considered in the present study. Nor has the influence of non-uniform axial stress induced by
external bending been included in this work.
Because cylindrical shells subjected to axial loads are imperfection-sensitive, it is important to
know as to what extent this effect persists in the case of shells with opening. The present
report gives a clear answer on the above question.
Little work has been done in the litterature on the subject. Early work dates back to Tennyson
[1] who performed an experimental study on the effect of small circular openings on shells
which buckle in the elastic range. This work was followed by Starnes [2] and Toda [3] who
tested shells with larger range of a diameter of the opening.
Kndel and Schulz [4] were first to perform tests on steel cylinders with a large spectrum of
imperfections (geometry, loading, material). This gave a possibility for a statistical evaluation
of the buckling strength of shells. At the same time no physical understanding of the
phenomenon was gained.
The first numerical calculations on cylindrical shells with cut-outs were reported by
Almroth and Holmes [5]. Based on the available results, Samuelson [6] proposed a simple
analytical description of the effect of hole diameter on the buckling strength of shells.
All of the above mentioned research have not provided sufficient information to develop
a reliable physical model of the considered problem and to deduce a general rule.
In order to achieve this goal, a new series of tests have been undertaken with a different
shapes (square, rectangular, circular), sizes and position of openings with respect to the
boundaries of the shell. Furthermore, all tests were of high quality with imperfections
representative to industrial applications. Parallel to physical testing, numerical calculations
were run and an extensive parametric study was performed.

209

E2

Methodology
E2.1 Definitions of shells

The notation used is defined in Figure El. The shell is of the length i, radius of
midsurface r and thickness t. The upper and lower cross-section (A and B) are assumed to
remain plain and are refrained from warping and/or ovalisation.
The upper cross-section is free to translate and rotate in three directions while the lower
cross-section is considered fixed. The loading is applied at the center of the upper crosssection and a constant rate of displacement uz (compression) is applied.
In the circumferentiel direction, the opening is defined by the central angle , or the
curvilinear lenght 2c = rQ or by the dimensionless length r

47t
In the axial direction, the hight of square and rectangular cut-outs is defined by h0. The
distance from the lower edge of the opening to the lower cross-section of the shell is
denoted by hb.

The presence of an opening introduces an asymmetry in the stress distribution so that an

internal bending moment is developed. Therefore, the shell response will depend on the length
of the shell. For longer shells, the second order terms (Finite rotation) and the effect of
ovalisation becomes more important than for shorter shells. The effect of the length of the
shell on the critical buckling load obtained by Finite element calculations is shown in Figure
El7. The experimental study and the ensuing proposition of the revised rules is limited to
relatively short shells with approximately i/r = 2.
The study was done with shells with aspect ratio r/t = 280 which could buckle in the elastic or
elasto-plastic range, with multi-modal post-critical behaviour.

210

E2.2 Test cases of shell with opening

Over one hundred specimens were manufactured with the diameter 2r = 99 mm thickness / =
0.175 mm and length = 104 mm. Different types of square, rectangular and circular
openings were made, as shown in Figure E 2. For comparison, a series of shell (case 1) was
made without the cut-out.
Characteristic dimensions of openings and their positions are defined in the tables below. For
single square openings, tests (case 2 and 3) were run on five different central opening (Table
El) and four meridional positions (Table E2). In addition, four combinations of multiple equidistanced opening (case 6) were considered, Table E3. Similarly, five different highs (case 4)
and five widths (case 5) were studied for a single rectangular opening (Tables E4, E5). For
comparison, seven different radii of circular openings (case 7) were considered, (Table E6).
The entire stress-strain characteristic of the material is defined in Figure E 3, and the material
parameters are given in Table E7.
With the above material parameters, the classical Donnell buckling stress of a complete
shell (without openings) is acr = 0,605 E - = 4 5 8 MPa. According to the current ECCS
r
recommendation, the reduction factor for r/t = 283 is a0 = 0.409. This gives an approximate
buckling stress of the imperfect shell = 257 MPa. The application of Eq (5) in Ref [7]
gives the value of the parameter = 1.567.
Since this value is greater than v2 , one expects elastic buckling to occur first (provided the
material is elastic-perfectly plastic). In the case of the present (strain-hardening) material and
ranges of geometrical parameter buckling occured in the elastic-plastic range.

E2.3 Material and manufacturing

Cylindrical shells are made from sheet metal by means of rolling and electric welding
along a generator. These operations are automated to ensure that the resulting geometric
imperfections are the same across all specimens which is a necessary condition for the present
comparative study.
The opening is always situated on the opposite side of the weldement. Great care is given
so that the cutting process of the opening does not introduce any additional imperfections, as
shown in Figure E4.

211

E2.4 Experimental set-up

For each test piece the geometric imperfections are measured by means of a contactless
sensor at 25000 points. For that purpose a special automated scanning system is mounted on
the testing machine.
The geometric imperfections are located mainly in the vicinity of the welded generator.
The imperfections are characterised in the circumferential direction by the wavelength
corresponding to n = 7 or 8 with a maximum amplitude of 2w, . = 2 157 pm. The
W s \

corresponding dimensionless amplitude is (n) = 0,9. These were no imperfections in the

meridional direction {m = 0) except along the welded generator which shows two half waves
{m = 2) with an amplitude 2 w(ni)= 2 98 pm [m) = 0,56
v t
J
The boundary conditions were introduced in the test pieces by means of two rigid plattens
which were connected to cylinders by a sobering technique, (Figure E5).

E3

Experimental and numerical results

The results oftest showing the effect of cut-outs in presented first. This is followed by the
numerical analysis of perfect and imperfect shells. The results for different cases of openings
are confronted with those corresponding to shells without cut-outs.
The reproducibility of the present test methodology is verified by comparing results for
eight specimens without opening. The mean value of buckling load was Po = 11,78 KN with a
standard deviation of 58 N which corresponds to 5 % of Po. The corresponding stress is
<Jcr = 216 MPa representing 47 % of the theoretical buckling stress Ocr.

E3.1 Effect of shape of a cut-out

E3.1.1 Square openings
For a given dimensions of the considered square and centred opening, the force displacement characteristic of the shell remains linear up to the first local buckling (L.B.)
which occurs in the vicinity of a contour of the opening. After this point the behaviour is
linear and stable with a reduced slope until a global buckling (collapse buckling, C.B.) takes
place which involves the entire shell, see Figure E7.
In the pre-buckling range, before the first local buckling, large radial displacements
develop near the edges of the openings, Figure E8. These observations are visualised in Figure

212

E 9 which shows radial displacements for two types of square openings at 50 % and 80 % of
the local buckling, at the first local buckling and finally at the collapse buckling.
A square cut-out in a cylindrical shell subjected to the axial compression reduces the first
local buckling load and the global collapse buckling load as compared to the reference shell
without a hole. The drop of critical loads with the dimensionless geometrical parameter of the
opening r is described by a linear function in the studied range 1,47 < r < 8,81. The ratio
between these two critical loads is a function of r, with a mean value of approximately 1.1
(Figure E10). Beyond the point r = 10 approximately, the first local buckling does not
develop.
Multiple and equi-distanced openings over the circumferential direction produce a similar
type of instabilities (first local buckling followed by collapse buckling) with a corresponding
loss of rigidity. In the case of multiple openings the reduction in the critical load is smaller
when the comparison is made taking the sum of opening angle, as shown in Figure E l l .
Because of symmetry, the appearance of critical loads is not accompanied by the development
of an internal bending. The above dependence can be converted to a different co-ordinate
system in which the abscise is not the sum of openings but the width of a single opening. It is
interesting to note that in the above co-ordinate system, the first local buckling load is same
for shell with single and multiple openings.
For a chosen dimensions of the square cut-out r = 4.40 the position of the opening along
the meridional direction (axis of a cylinder) with respect to cross-sections, A or does not
change the critical load. This interesting result indicates that the critical load is not linked to
the direct distribution of stresses above or below the hole. The above conclusion is valid as
long as cross-sections A and remain plane but could rotate. In practice this boundary
condition could be satisfied by placing reinforcing rings of sufficient rigidity at these crosssections, Figure E12.

3.1.2 Rectangular openings

A cylindrical shell with a rectangular opening carries the same critical buckling load as an
identical shell with the square opening provided the cut-outs are of an identical length in the
circumferential direction, Figure El2. The hight of the opening does not intervene in the
studied range of parameters. At the same time this conclusion can not be extended to cut-outs
in the form of a slot without a separate study.

213

E3.1.3 Circular openings

A cylindrical shell with a circular opening of the diameter equal to the width of the square
opening develops the same collapse buckling load. At the same time the first load buckling is
not observed in this case. The above result indicates that the occurrence of the first local
buckling is preceded by a redistribution of stresses due to stress concentration at corners of
square or rectangular cut-outs.
For this type of openings the effect of small hole dimension r = 0.15 ; 0.28 ; has also
been analysed. It was found that very small holes do not cause any appreciable change in the
critical load.

E3.2 Effect of opening angle

The present experimental study have determined the effect of the shape of the opening on
the critical load of cylinders subjected to axial compression. It was shown that the key
parameter controlling the buckling strength of the shell is the dimension of a cut-out in the
circumferential direction. In the case of multiple openings positioned equidistantly around the
circumference, the control parameter is the sum of hole dimensions of all openings.
The above experimental results are confirmed by Finite element calculations. The
calculations were run using the three dimensional code CASTEM 2000, developed by the
French Atomic Energy Commission. The code is capable of dealing with various types of
singularities. Half of the shell was modelled by 3500 triangular elements DKT
(3 displacements and 3 rotations per node), as shown in Figure E6. Contrary to previous
analyses on buckling of shells, the linear analysis (L.A.) were found to give a smaller critical
load than the geometrically non-linear analysis (GNA), as shown in Figure E14. This can be
explained by an inability of the geometrically linear model to account for large radial
displacements around the opening.
In fact, already at 20 % of the critical load, radial displacements exceed approximately two
times the displacements predicted by linear theory (Figure E16). Further refinement of the
model by introducing the non-linear material behaviour (GMNA) brings the level of stresses
even lower.
The result of the linear (L.A.) and non-linear analyses (GMNA) mentioned above
corresponds to the loading case (a) when the cross-sections A and remain parallel. This
condition does not fully reflect a reality because a single opening produces an asymmetry and
the so-called internal bending. At the same time, the results of calculations with the
geometrical and material non-linearities referenced in Figure El4 and El 5 as the case (b)
correspond to the boundary condition in which the cross-section A is free to displace and
rotate in all three directions.
It should be noted that for a design purpose one has to consider rather conservatively only
the first critical buckling load even though there could be a stable post-critical range until

214

collapse buckling occurs. Recall that for circular holes there is no first local buckling.
Therefore the design should be made on the basis of the global collapse buckling.

E3.3 Effect of length to radius ratio

As it was mentioned in section E2.1 all the results presented so far are valid only for
shells with /r= 2. The amount of bending deformation introduced by the presence of
unsymmetrically positioned openings will depend on a distance between two crosssections
taking into account the second order effect and greater susceptibility for shape distortion in
the critical crosssection in the case of longer cylinders. Figure El7 indicates that there is an
asymptotic limit for the length dependence. A more detailed analysis is necessary to quantify
the above dependence. In the mean time, the existing results can be used for shells reinforced
by two heavy rings at crosssections A and distanced = 2r apart. This will ensure that
crosssections remain plane without warping and ovalisation.

E3.4 Effect of geometrical imperfections

The experimental results for different forms of openings correspond to metal cylinders
characterised by reproducible geometric imperfections encountered in industrial practice.
These results were compared with earlier results reported by STARNES [2], see Figure El 8.
While the shell material is different (Mylar versus steel) and the geometrical imperfections in
STARNES experiments are much smaller compared to the present ones, the overall behaviour
of both types of shells is identical in a certain range the parameter r . The range of interest
corresponds to angular openings larger than a limiting value denoted by r.
In the first approximation, the geometrical imperfections are seen not to have any
significant effect as compared to the effect of opening beyond the critical limit re .
It is possible to identify a reduction function for a given opening over the range r ) r.
From Figure El 8 it transpires that for small openings up to this limiting value, the effect of
imperfections must be coupled with that of the cutout. At the same time for very small
openings, their size is unimportant as compared to a significant imperfection sensitivity of
cylinders subjected to compressive loads.
The above conclusions are reinforced by threedimensional numerical calculations in
conjunction with the model of representing measured imperfections developed at INS A [ ].
As shown in Figure El9 a comparison between calculations and experimental results is in full
agreement.
The obtained results are limited to the aperture size r < 6,61 (i.e. = 45) and
212 < r/t < 400. These limits could be extended in the continuation of this research.

215

In Figure El 9, limits of two distinct zones are clearly identified. In the case of small
openings, it is necessary to include in the analysis a coupling between the geometrical
imperfection and presence of an opening. In the range of moderately large openings, the
existence of geometrical imperfections of any sizes can be neglected.

E4

Proposed rules
E4.1 General concept

The proposed rule uses a reduction (knock-down) factor to the critical Donnell stress cr
in the same way as it is done for a cylindrical shell without an opening. This rule is developed
for the most unfavourable case, i.e. for cut-outs with sharp corners (squares, rectangles). For
the purpose of this report, the same notation is used for the reduction factor a, as in the
classical buckling analysis of imperfect shells. The reduction factor is a linear piece-wise
function of the geometrical parameter of the openings r , referee to Figure E20. It is proposed
to distinguish in the design rule three distinct regimes, denoted respectively by , and .
The regime corresponds to very small openings in which the size of the hole does not have
practically any effect on the critical load. The shell response is dominated by the geometrical
imperfections. The reduction factor is constant with respect to the opening parameter r and
its magnitude is equal to the reduction factor of an imperfect cylinders without an opening
subjected to axial compression.
Response of shells with relatively large openings are dominated by the presence of a cut
outs rather them geometrical imperfections. This function is described by a linear dependence
given by segment in Figure E20. For intermediate hole sizes there is a strong coupling
effect between the opening parameter r and geometrical imperfections. The reduction factor
in this range is approximated by a straight line, designated in Figure E20 as the segment .
In order to unequally position the above three lines on the - f plane it is necessary to
define six parameters .

216

E4.2 Definition of the parameters

Line is defined by the intercept with the vertical axis (point A) and the slope . The
coordinates of the point A are :
r =0
= 0

where a 0 is the reduction factor for pure axial compressive load taking into account the effect
of imperfections defined by formula 13 in the reference[7].
The slope of line is j = 0.
Line <D is defined by giving coordinates of the end points and C.
The coordinates of the point are :
5
= 0

The coordinates of the point C are :

_
_
r = r.

2,3 r

8(rtrlr/)(r/t)5Y

and the ordinate is defined by line at r = re.

Line is defined by the intercept D with the vertical axis and the slope 3.
The coordinates of the point D are
r=0
=
0,02
The slope of the line is 3 =

f r a single opening

0,01 for multiple openings

From the above values it is easy to determine the following equations for the three
straight lines :

Line : range 0 < r <

=

217

Line : range rtl5<

r < rt

for a single opening

a fi.

a, + 0,005 r,
a = a 0 +

+M

- r,
for multiple openings :
a , + 0,005 rt
a = a0 + V4

, 0.05

lr<

Line : range rt< r < rmax

. for a single opening
= - 0,01 r
for multiple openings
= - 0,02 r

4.3 Justification of the method

E4.3.1 Transition between coupling and no-coupling range
Figure E21 shows examples of buckling patterns for different cases of opening
geometries. A careful examination of post-critical geometry for all cases considered indicates
that the modal geometry is not affected by the presence of openings. This statement is valid
for different dimensions and shapes of tested shells. One can conclude that the mode numbers
and m are invariants because they depend on the geometry of a shell rather than that of an
opening.
For the clarity of presentation it will be helpful to recall few facts from the classical
buckling analysis of shells without cut-outs. A numerical analysis in the non-linear
formulation indicates that there exists a weak minimum of the eigenvalue (dimensionless
critical load) with respect to the circumferential number of waves and this minimum occurs
at = 14. The corresponding axial mode is found to be m = 6. The above result compares only
partially with the mode number found experimentally. In particular, measurements show that
= 8 and m = 6. The question on how can one predict correct buckling modes without
reference to experiments is a key point in the development of the present rule. While the
number of waves in the axial direction can be determined from the numerical solution, as
shown above, our task is to develop simple formulas for the buckle wavelengths.
Our research have shown that buckles develop in the meridional direction during the pre
buckling phase over the region of the shell affected by geometrical imperfections. The onset

218

of buckling corresponds to a sudden propagation of axial buckles in the circumferential

directions, [11]. It should be mentioned that the wavelength in the circumferential direction is
largely influenced by certain harmonics of the Fourier decomposition of geometrical
imperfections.
The circumferential imperfections are imposed on a shell by a manufacturing method
which usually. Involves rolling, welding, connecting with other structural members, etc.
Experience shows that the nature of these imperfections is similar to buckling modes develop
by the external pressure. This can be explained by the fact that in both cases the shell wall is
deformed by circumferential contraction. Furthermore, the corresponding circumferential
wavelength of the diamond buckling pattern is equal to the axial wavelength of the identical
shell subjected to axial loads.
It should be recalled that the critical load has an asymptote with increasing amplitude of
imperfections. It is important to note that the dependence of the critical load on the hole size
has a similar form as the known imperfection sensitivity. The reduction factor reachs a
maximum (asymptotic) value where the opening size corresponds to the halflength of the
buckling wave, Figure E22. It is shown in Figure El9 that geometrical imperfection have no
longer any effect on acr for f > 2,94 i.e. for the opening equal or larger than the half wave of
the Yoshimura pattern.
It follows from the geometry of a single buckle, shown in Figure E22 that one half of the
length of the square opening, inscribed into the diamond shape is equal to
r =

2 94

7 A7 .
= 1,47

It should be noted that for r = 1,47, there is some effect of imperfections, which
disappears for f = 2,94, see Figure El 9. The above construction constitutes a conservative
approach to the description of the reduction factor, see Figure E26.
In view of the above discussion, the circumferential and axial wavelengths are taken to be
the same, n = m Using the well known expression for the half wavelength n for a shell
under an external pressure we have
2.3 r
.

trJT
Therefore, using a definition of
coupling response is
t.

r the limiting value between the coupling and no

2.3 r

'"^~~ vr [me

It is proposed to define the limit of applicability of the regime (no effect of opening) as

219

5 '
The empiricai constant - comes from the analysis of experimental results shown in
Figure El3 and El 8.
In order to define ordinate of point D, it is hypothesised that because imperfections and
opening effect is in a certain sense equivalent, the validity of the straight line segment can
be extended all the way to f = 0. The ordinate of the point D, represent the maximum
reduction factor corresponding to the lower limit of the force-shortening curve.
Two approaches are possible, the first with the most unfavourable geometrical imperfections,
the second with a medium imperfection.
On Figure E24 results are presented on the experimental critical load of a cylinder with
most unfavourable geometrical imperfections. The most unfavourable form of imperfection is
that of the Yoshimura type. In our study, tests was run in two phases. In the first phase shells
were brought into the post-buckling stage and subsequently unloaded. Then the same predeformed shells where subjected to axial load. It was found that the new critical buckling load
is equal to
(o- )
= 0.2 c r .
V

cr

cr

y new

It should be pointed out that experimental points corresponding to shells with or without
openings fall on the same horizontal line. The interesting results confirm once again the
equivalence between openings and maximum amplitude geometrical imperfections.
The imperfection reduction factor for the studied geometry of the shell obtained from the
current rules, [7] is 0 = 0.409.
It is seen that the reduction factor 0,2 of the extreme case of Yoshimura imperfection
half of the reduction factor obtained for the industrial imperfection using the rules. It
proposed to generalise this observation and assume that the ordinate of the point D
aH 0.5 0 . Note that in view of the results shown in Figure E25, the above proposition
very conservative.

is
is
is
is

The point of departure of the second approach is again the equivalence of the sensitivity
to larger amplitude geometrical imperfection and the effect of the size of holes greater than re.
The above similarity permits one to make use of the concept of a lower limit for the critical
load of shells without cut-outs. The present hypothesis is confirmed by two independent
observations :
- the critical load relationship a ( r ), extrapolated to f = 0 gives the same value 0.37 a cr
for both single and multiple openings.
- the critical load found by numerical calculations for a geometrically imperfect shell
gives the lower limit equal 0.37 acr.

220

With this hypothesis the value of the critical load is

( " L , 0,37ocr
oraH

= 0,9 a 0

The second approach is valid when the best representations of the real behaviour of the
shell with opening is available. The use of this representations considers only the effect of
geometrical imperfections and the internal bending but does not consider the imperfection of
loading.

E4.3.2

Determination of the slope

The preceding results as applied to the shell with equidistanced openings indicates that
the effect of the opening angle is proportional to the loss of crosssection produced by the
openings. Indeed, the broken line corresponding to the real weakened section is parallel to the
experimental curve (full line). This means that slopes of both curves are the same and equal to

03

'

whereby and^40 denote the weakened and original crosssections, respectively.

This observation holds also for a single opening with a correction factor that includes the
moment of inertia of the section (because of internal bending). It can be shown that the
corrected value of the slope is

where I0 and Ij denote, respectively, the moment of inertia of the weakened and initial cross
sections
Similarly, v and v0 denote positions of extreme fibers from the bending axes of the cross
section. This proposition is confirmed by Figure E23 which shows that the slopes of the lines
corresponding to a single openings are the same. Using the proceeding equation, the slope for
the case of one opening is 3 = 0.02.

221

E4.4 Limits of validity of the proposed rules

The rules described in this chapter are developed on the basis of limited number of tests
and thus can not cover a wide range of cylindrical shells and cut-outs encountered in practical
applications. It is useful to recall limits of applicability and restrictions on various geometrical
parameters of the problem. The ranges of validity of various parameters and assumptions are :
r
where a distance between two cross-sections restraint from warping and ovalisation.
2)

- > 212
t

3)

0 < f < fm for square and circular openings

4)

rt < r < rm for rectangular opening

where rm = 6.61 (corresponding to the opening angle = 45).

5)

- Axial loading only. No external bending applied. Note that in the presence of a single
opening, an internal bending and relative rotations between cross-sections A and may
develop.

6)

- Existence of a single opening or multiple, equi-distanced openings in the circumfe

rential direction.

7)

H = 0,9 a 0 for a structures of quality, in particular as far as the loading is

concerned
aH = 0,5 0 for a classical structures
Figure E26 shows the application of the rule for two classes of quality of the shells
- classical structure
- quality structures

as compared with the observed behaviour. The value a0 is actually the same for the above two
classes.
The same concept of constructing the design rule can be extended beyond the above
limits, in a continuation of this research.

222

 (degree)

10

20

30

45

60

2c (mm)

8.64

17.28

25.92

38.88

51.84

1.47

2.94

4.40

6.61

8.81

Table El - Dimensions of centrally positionned square opening

4.40

4.40

4.40

4.40

4.40

0.75

0.50

0.25

Table E2 - Distance of the lower edge of the square opening from cross section

nb

1.47

4.40

4.40

8.81

Table E3 - Number of equi-distanced square openings

2.94

2.94

2.94

2.94

2.94

ho/1 0.17

0.25

0.37

0.50

0.75

Table E4 - Higth of centrally positionned rectangular opening

ho/1 0.17

0.17

0.17

0.17

0.17

2.94

4.40

6.61

8.81

13.23

Table E5 - Dimensionless curvilinear width of centrally positionned rectangular opening

223

0.15

0.28

0.73

1.46

2.88

4.34

5.75

Table E6 - Dimensionless diameter of centrally positioned circular opening

213960 MPa

Young modulus

0,3

Poisson ratio

fl

197 MPa

proportionality limit

fr

630 MPa

conventional yield stress 0>2

Table E7 - Materiel constants

224

Figure 1 - Section of a cylindrical shell and notation

case 1

case 2

case 5

case 3

case 6

case

case 7

Figure E2 - Shapes and positions of openings

225

1*800

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Strain %
Figure E3 - Material characteristic of a coupon cut-out in the meridional
direction of a shell

226

100

Amplitude (inward)

[mm]

io Angle [degree]

100 m

[mm]

Inward

eo

Angle [degree]

100 f Inward

Angle [degree]

Figure E4 - Measured profiles of geometrical imperfections for

three different cases of openings

227

Figure E5 Boundary and loading conditions

^^^^j

^^^i
1 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B

, in '1 i l

HHjjjH^^iiii^

" &
k*
!'ifro*SS?S*f O O
^,^..'.>.
rj^j'jXj'r^'^Tt^m
^4??
Ti 'j

'-i'i^r.fjr^K,^

^AsS

> ili |tatft%%

i?'i?'*."t

1 11

IIII
f

&}&&

Mte
n

IM

uC'rB

........H

J_ol

Figure E6 Finite Element mesh of a cylinder with an opening

(3500 elements for one half of the shell)

228

12,0.

i ,

First local
buckling

Q.

\\

8,0

Collapse
buckling

6,0

4,0.

r = l,47
r = 2,49
r = 4,40
F = 6,61
^ r = 8,81

2,0-

0
O

20

40

60

80

100

120

140
160
180
End shortening ()

Figure E7 - Compression of load-deflection curves for cases 1 and 2 showing

an effect of the hole size

a
0)

360

<

Angle (Degree)
Initial
30% (L.B.)
50%(L.B.)
- 80%(L.B.)
L.B.

Figure E8 - Growth of circumferential profil accross the opening. Note large

displacement around the rim of the hole

229

Figure 9 - Evolution of buckling forms (prebuckling, local buckling (LB), global

buckling (CB). White represents peaks and blue represents valeys as viewed from inside

230

./*
Cu 0.8

1
1

0.6 ..

IM

First local buckling

1 0.4
.
IM
O

&

0.2

^
9
10
Opening angle r

Figure E10 - Reduction of critical loads with the size of an opening (case 2)

i *
Circumferential equi-distant
opening (2,3,4 openings)

0.9

es
_o

"a
o

ss

0.8-0.70.6

1 opening

u
u

0.5

0.4-.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

10

12

14

16

18

20

Added opening angle

Figure E l l - Reduction of the first local buckling load with the size and number
of openings (case 2 and 6)

231

./
"O

a
o

0.8 -

0.6 ..
c

First local buckling

0.4

0.2

8
9
10
opening angle 7

Figure E12 - Reduction of critical loads with an opening angle showing weak effect
of the height and position of a hole in the meridional direction

o
*

ra
o

Collapse buckling
(square and circular
openings )

0.8 1

0.6

'E

0.4

First local buckling

(square openings)

tu
.

0.2 --

8
9
10
opening angle

Figure E13 - Dimensionnel critical load versus and opening angle for square and
circular holes. Note that there is no local buckling for a circular opening and a
generalised buckling load is the same for both shapes.

232

(a) prescribed parallel displacement

of the cross-section A
(b) displacement and rotation allowed
GNA(a)

GMNA(a)

L/A. (a)
0

Opening angle F

Figure E14 - Finite element results for two types of boundary and loading
conditions (a) and (b) and linear (LA) and non-linear (GNA and GMNA)
formulation

9.50

Numeric
Analysis
GMNA(b

Collapse buckling
s
o

9 00

First local buckling

co
Ol
.

7.50

6.00

4.50

Experiment

3.00
1.50

20

40

60

80

100

120

End-shortening ()

Figure E15 - Axial compression versus end-shortening measured at three

equi-distant points in the meridional direction. Comparison of experimental
and numerical results. Note the effect of internal rotation.

233

GMNA (b)

GMNA (b)

Experiment (J)

L.A. *
(J & K)
(a) prescribed parallel displacement
of the cross section A
(b) displacement and rotation
allowed

1200

1800

600

600

1200

radial displacements ()

Figure E16 Evolution of radial displacement at two points (J and K) with increasing
load. Comparison of experimental results and linear and nonlinear analysis.

1
T3

a
o

0.9
0.8

0.7

0.6

CD

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
9

Figure E l 7 Effect of dimensionless length v on critical buckling load

(numerical study GMNA (b))

234

10

INSA LYON
r/t = 283

J. H. STARNES
r/t = 400

P<r_1
0.9
0.8

CS

_o

0.7 0.6 -

'S
c

0.5 * .
0.4 **

cu
CU

A*

First local buckling *

Collapse buckling
a
2c = diameter or length

0.2

0.1 -I
0

'

8
9
1
opening angle r

Figure E18 Comparison of INSA tests with earlier results by STARNES [2]

Per

_i
u

0.9

PH

"

0.8

ca

Numerical
analysis

- with geometrical
imperfection
GMNIA(b)

0.7

ca

0.6

0.5

- perfect shell
GMNA(b)

.4
0.3
(First local buckling)

0.2
0.1
0

coupling

>

( L 450)

no coupling

<-

8
9
1
Opening angler

Figure E19 - Comparison between experimental results and numerical

calculation for perfect (GMNA) and imperfect (GMNIA) shells. Note the
existence of two ranges. For small r there is a coupling between geometrical
imperfection and hole size. For medium opening, there is no coupling

235

Figure E20 - Conceptual sketch of the "opening reduction factor" function

236

Figure 21 - Global buckled forms of cylinders for different cases of opening .White
represents peaks and blue represents valeys as viewed from inside

237

Figure E22 - Circumferential and meridional profil of initial geometrical

imperfection and sizes of an opening superimposed on diamond buckle pattern

Pn'
0
*- s
0.9 -

,/
^

2;

" " - - - _ _

0.8 -

3
73

"- ___
~~ ~- ___

* ^ _ * V
^^"^*^^s

0.7 -

^^*^^^^

0.6 -

05 -

E
"E
.

0.4 -

<^

^_

CI

1 opening

' .

^^**^^

5
s

Circumferential
equidistant opening
(2,3,4 openings)

/ " s

0.3 -

,1 ,1 0 / u ,

0.2 0.1 0

10

12

1
14

16

18

20

Figure 23 Measured (full line) and calculated (dotted line) slopes for shell
with and without internal rotation

238

c r 1 *

0.8
ca
o
ca
u

u
u

0.6
First local buckling

0.4

0.2

?<*
Asymptotic limit
(damaged shell)
1

8
9
1
opening angler

Figure E24 C ritical buckling load of predamaged shells with and without
opening compared with vergin shells. Experimental results

Numerical
calculation
L.A.
(Perfect shell)
GMNA (b)

Numerical
calculation

GMNIA (b)

imperfect shell (w = 2t)

experiment (damaged shell)

150

200
250
End shortening ()

Figure E25 C orrelation between calculation (medium imperfection) and

experimental (very large imperfection) load shortening curves

239


S
.2

0.8

e
o

O
3

0.6

r/ = 283

ir
0.4 ...

0.2

10

Figure E26 Comparison between critical load of shell (full line and ir )
and proposed design rule for classical construction (broken line) and for
quality construction (dotted line)

240

REFERENCES
[1] TENNYSON R.C. The effect of unreinforced circular cutouts on the buckling of
circular cylindrical shells under axial compression Journal of Engineering for
Industry, November 1968, pp. 541546
[2] STARNES J.H. The effects of cutouts on the buckling of thin shells. Thin shell
structures, Ed. Y.C. Fung E.E., Sechler, Englewood Cliffs (New York) : Prentice Hall,
Inc., 1974, pp. 289304
[3] TODA S. Buckling of cylinders with cutouts underaxial compression Journal of
Experimental Mechanics, December 1983, Vol. 3, pp. 414417
[4] KNODEL P., SCHULZ U. Stabilit de chemines d'acier ouvertures dans les
tuyaux Stahlbau (Der), 1988, Vol. 57, n 1, pp. 1321
[5] ALMROTH B.O., HOLMES A.M. Buckling of shells with cutouts. Experimental and
analysis Journal of Solids Structures, August 1972, Vol. 8, pp. 1057566
[6] SAMUELSON A.L., EGGWERTZ S. Shell stability handbook London : Elsevier
Applied Science, 1992, 278 pages
[7] ECCS/TWG8.4 Buckling of Steel Shells. European Recommendations, fourth
Edition, n 56, 1988
[8] AL SARRAJ M. Effets des ouvertures sur la stabilit des coques cylindriques minces
soumises compression axiale Thse de Doctorat, INSA de LYON (France),
5 octobre 1995, 260 pages
[9] AL SARRAJ M., LIMAM ., JULLIEN J.F. A study of the effects of opening on the
stability of thin cylindrical shells under axial compression Nordic Steel Construction
Conference '95, MALM (Sude), June 1921, 1995
[10] JULLIEN J.F., LIMAM ., AL SARRAJ M. Effect of openings on the buckling of
cylindrical shell subjected to axial compression EUROMECH Colloquium 345
Stability and Bifurcation in Solids Mechanics, PARIS, May 2931, 1996
[11] DUMASROSSIGNOL Ch., JULLIEN J.F. Research on stability of shell structures
and design of tins cans International Conference on Stability of structures, ICSS
95, PSG College of Technology, COIMBATORE (Inde), June 79, 1995, Invited Paper
[12] Draft Eurocode 3 Part 3.2 Chimney Annexe C Stability of shells, August 1994

241

3.

Overall concluding remarks

The common overall objective of the project was to enhance the knowledge and
understanding concerning some practical shell buckling problems, where clear gaps in
currently available design recommendations had been identified, and to use the results
developed in the course of this research to develop appropriate guidance. A well defined
strategy involving combinations of experimental and numerical/analytical studies was
envisaged and this was largely followed as originally planned, see Parts A to E of this report.
Most strands of structural analysis are represented in the range of studies undertaken across
the different sub-projects, and this is, in itself, an important contribution which can be of use
to shell buckling designers and/or specialists who need to appreciate the capabilities of
various methods, as well as their limitations.
As can be seen from individual sub-project conclusions presented in Parts A to E,
the overall objective has been largely met, since, in all cases, there is a variety of supporting
studies leading to concise guidelines and/or proposed procedures for design against buckling,
closely linked to the philosophy and format of the ECCS recommendations and the
corresponding EC3 parts. The comments in this section only serve to highlight the design
related conclusions.
Thus, the range of applicability of available rules on unstiffened cones in
compression is now more clearly defined and the precise specification of the equivalent
cylinder needed for imperfection sensitivity and slenderness calculations has been further
validated. On the corresponding stringer-stiffened conical shell problem, a design procedure
is in place which could be introduced into the recommendations.
On locally axial loaded cylinders, a design procedure for a range of support width
parameters has been proposed which could supplement available guidance on uniformly
compressed cylinders. In addition, the extent of end reinforcement to enable more efficient
design and the important effect of axial load and internal pressure interaction were also
addressed in this study from a practical viewpoint.
The problem of designing shell assemblies, in particular cone/cone or
cone/cylinder combinations, had to be tackled in a different way to that employed for basic
shell geometries. Design-orientated results include the specification of the type of numerical
analysis required in order to estimate the buckling strength. As shown, the onerous (and
open-ended) task of analysing imperfect geometries can be circumvented by the design
engineer through less demanding numerical analyses coupled with reduction factors specified
in current rules.
The conditions leading to favourable post-buckling behaviour in certain cylinder
geometries under wind loading were studied and the potential for increased design efficiency
was demonstrated through wind tunnel testing. The data collected are valuable for validation
work in this challenging area, which is still in need of development.
The design of cylinders with openings up to l/8th of the circumference can now
be based on rules which subdivide the problem into three ranges, i.e. opening dominated
response, imperfection dominated response and intermediate response. Limits regarding
opening sizes are given in order to distinguish between these three ranges and appropriate
expressions for estimating the buckling strength have been proposed. The influence of other
spatial characteristics of openings has also been quantified.
Finally, it should be stated that, although significant progress has been made in the
areas prioritized within this project, shell buckling design remains comparatively under
developed. It is clear from the results obtained herein and other recent studies that outstanding
work is primarily related to the relaxation of idealised or conservative assumptions which, in
the end, penalise the actual design or created difficult construction conditions. Boundary
effects, including the interaction with end-stiffeners, has been highlighted in some of the subprojects and although the behaviour is now better understood, there is still some way before
cases can be codified for design purposes. Over-conservatism in imperfection reduction
factors can also be addressed in a more rationale way given the confidence gained with
numerical tools.

243

European Commission
EUR 18460 Properties and in-service performance
Enhancement of ECCS design recommendations and development of
Eurocode 3 parts related to shell buckling
R. Saikin
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
1998 243 pp. 21 29.7 cm
Technical steel research series
ISBN 92-828-4414-5
Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg: ECU 41.50

Buckling is an important limit state for the design of all thin-walled steel shell structures, e.g.
tanks, silos, chimneys, tubular towers, pipelines, etc. Guidance for the buckling design check
is given in the European recommendations on buckling of steel shells, edited by ECCS.
These design rules are being worked into the relevant parts of Eurocode 3. However, the
ECCS recommendations still have a number of gaps where for particular shell buckling
problems no design recommendations are available. Of these gaps, the following five were
identified as most essential: (a) stability and strength of stiffened conical shells; (b) local loads
on cylindrical structures; (c) shells of revolution with arbitrary meridionial shapes buckling
design by use of computer analysis; (d) thin-walled shells under wind loading; (e) effects of
cut-outs and openings in shells.
Research was focused on these topics within five subprojects handled by separate teams
but coordinated by ECCS-TWG 8.4. The common objective was to gain deeper knowledge
about the buckling characteristics of the particular case. Experimental and numerical (except
(d)) investigations were carried out. From the results, guidelines and procedures have been
developed and are proposed for design against shell buckling, closely linked to the
philosophy and format of the ECCS recommendations and the corresponding EC 3 parts.

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MALAYSIA
EBIC Malaysia
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Tel. (603) 262 62 98

Fax (603) 262 61 98

Email: ebicklOmol.netmy
PHILIPPINES

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Fax (632) 759 66 90
Email: eccpcomglobe.com.ph
URL http://virww.eccp.com
RUSSIA
CCEC
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Fax (7095) 135 52 27
SOUTH AFRICA

GospodarsM Vestnlk
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Tel.(386)61133 03 54
Fax (386) 611 33 9128
Email: repansekjOgvestnik.si
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Sarto
Saffo House
NO 5 Esterhyzen Street
PO Box 782 706
2146 Sandten
Tel. (2711) 883 37 37
Fax (2711)883 65 69
Email: emalstarOide.co.za
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DQnya Infotel AS
100, Yil Mahallessi 34440
TR80050 Bagcilarlstanbul
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AUSTRALIA

ISRAEL

SLOVENIA

TURKIYE
NORGE

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KEMBOURG

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Email: jpdaviesOozemail.com.au
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Renouf Publishing Co. Ltd
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The Middle East Observer

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Information Centre for Europe (ICE)
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THAILAND
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Soi Chidlom
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Tel. (662)655 0627

Fax (662) 655 06 28

Email: ebicbkkOksc15.lh.com
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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

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