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Passivation:

Rendering a substance inactive or inert by chemical action. Aluminum, for example, is


passivated when it reacts with the air to form a protective layer of aluminum oxide
which prevents further air-aluminum reaction. Similarly, iron is passivated when it
reacts with nitric acid to form a layer of iron oxide.

Passivation, in physical chemistry and engineering, refers to a material becoming


"passive," that is, being less affected by environmental factors such as air and water.
Passivation involves a shielding outer-layer of base material, which can be applied as a
microcoating, or which occurs spontaneously in nature. As a technique, passivation is
the use of a light coat of a protective material, such as metal oxide, to create a shell
against corrosion. Passivation can occur only in certain conditions, and is used in
microelectronics to enhance silicon.[1] The technique of passivation is used to
strengthen and preserve the appearance of metallic.
A Flame Arrestor
is a device which allows gas to pass
through it but stops a flame in order to prevent a larger fire
or explosion. There is an enormous variety of situations
in which flame arrestors are applied. Anyone involved in
selecting flame arrestors needs to understand how these
products work and their performance limitations. For
that purpose, this paper provides an introduction to the
technology and terminology of flame arrestors and the types
of products available

CONGEALING POINT-Temperature at which a liquid changes to plastic or a solid.

cloud point
Also found in: Wikipedia.

cloud point
[klauud pint]
(chemical engineering)
The temperature at which paraffin wax or other solid substance begins to separate from a solution
of petroleum oil; a cloudy appearance is seen in the oil at this point.

cloud point (plural cloud points)


1. (chemistry) The temperature at which one component of a mixture of liquids begins to
solidify (or a mixture of liquids starts to become immiscible) on cooling, resulting in visible
cloudiness; as for example in diesel fuel in freezing temperatures; the consolute point

Cloud point
Also found in: Encyclopedia.
Cloud point
The cloud point of a fluid is the temperature at which dissolved solids are no longer completely
soluble, precipitating as a second phase giving the fluid a cloudy appearance. This term is relevant
to several applications with different consequences

The pour point of a liquid is the temperature at which it becomes semi solid and
loses its flow characteristics.
Pour point

Pour point of a liquid can be defined as the lowest temperature at which the liquid begins to flow or
can be poured. Alternatively, it is the minimum temperature, below which the liquid will seize to
flow. This term is usually used for crude oils and is a rough estimation of temperature range when
the oil becomes pumpable.

Pour Point
The pour point of an oil is the lowest temperature at which the oil will just flow, under
standard test conditions.
Threshold Limit Values (TLV)
The following excerpts are taken from ACGIH 99:
Threshold Limit Values refer to airborne concentrations of substances and represent
conditions
under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after
day
without adverse health effects.
Threshold Limit Value Time-Weighted Average (TLV-TWA)

the time-weighted average concentration for a conventional 8-hour workday and a 40hour
workweek, to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after day,
without
adverse effect
Threshold Limit Value Short-Term Exposure Limit (TLV-STEL)
a 15-minute TWA exposure which should not be exceeded at any time during a
workday even if
the 8-hour TWA is within the TLV-TWA
Viscosity
Dynamic Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow; the lower the viscosity of a fluid,
the more easily it flows.
Like density, viscosity is affected by temperature. As temperature decreases, viscosity
increases. The SI unit of
dynamic viscosity is the millipascal-second (mPa

s). This is equivalent to the former unit of centipoise (cP).


Viscosity index (VI) is an arbitrary measure for the change of viscosity with
variations in temperature. The lower the VI, the greater the change of viscosity of the
oil with temperature and vice versa. It is used to characterize viscosity changes with
relation to temperature in lubricating oil.

Definition The viscosity index is an arbitrary number indicating the effect of change of
temperature on the kinematic viscosity of an oil. A high viscosity
Index signifies a relatively small change of kinematic viscosity with temperature
Henry's Law Definition: Henry's Law is a chemistry law which states that the mass
of a gas which will dissolve into a solution is directly proportional to the partial
pressure of that gas above the solution.
Henry's Law
The solubility of a gas (unless it is highly soluble) is directly proportional to the
pressure applied to the gas.
When a gas is dissolved in a liquid, the concentrations will eventually reach
equilibrium between the source of the gas and the solution.
Henry's Law shows the concentration of a solute gas in a solution is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas over the solution.

LE CHATELIER'S PRINCIPLE

This page looks at Le Chatelier's Principle and explains how to


apply it to reactions in a state of dynamic equilibrium. It covers
changes to the position of equilibrium if you change concentration,
pressure or temperature. It also explains very briefly why catalysts
have no effect on the position of equilibrium.

Important: If you aren't sure about the words dynamic


equilibrium or position of equilibrium you should read the
introductory page before you go on

It is important in understanding everything on this page to realise


that Le Chatelier's Principle is no more than a useful guide to help
you work out what happens when you change the conditions in a
reaction in dynamic equilibrium. It doesn't explain anything. I'll keep
coming back to that point!

Using Le Chatelier's Principle


A statement of Le Chatelier's Principle

If a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the


conditions, the position of equilibrium moves to counteract
the change.

Using Le Chatelier's Principle with a change of concentration


Suppose you have an equilibrium established between four
substances A, B, C and D.

Note: In case you wonder, the reason for choosing this equation
rather than having just A + B on the left-hand side is because
further down this page I need an equation which has different
numbers of molecules on each side. I am going to use that same

equation throughout this page.

What would happen if you changed the conditions by


increasing the concentration of A?
According to Le Chatelier, the position of equilibrium will move in
such a way as to counteract the change. That means that the
position of equilibrium will move so that the concentration of A
decreases again - by reacting it with B and turning it into C + D.
The position of equilibrium moves to the right.

This is a useful way of converting the maximum possible amount of


B into C and D. You might use it if, for example, B was a relatively
expensive material whereas A was cheap and plentiful.
What would happen if you changed the conditions by
decreasing the concentration of A?
According to Le Chatelier, the position of equilibrium will move so
that the concentration of A increases again. That means that more
C and D will react to replace the A that has been removed. The
position of equilibrium moves to the left.

This is esssentially what happens if you remove one of the products


of the reaction as soon as it is formed. If, for example, you removed
C as soon as it was formed, the position of equilibrium would move
to the right to replace it. If you kept on removing it, the equilibrium
position would keep on moving rightwards - turning this into a one-

way reaction.
Important
This isn't in any way an explanation of why the position of
equilibrium moves in the ways described. All Le Chatelier's
Principle gives you is a quick way of working out what happens.

Note: If you know about equilibrium constants, you will find a


more detailed explanation of the effect of a change of
concentration by following this link. If you don't know anything
about equilibrium constants, you should ignore this link.
If you choose to follow it, return to this page via the BACK button
on your browser or via the equilibrium menu.

Using Le Chatelier's Principle with a change of pressure


This only applies to reactions involving gases:

What would happen if you changed the conditions by


increasing the pressure?
According to Le Chatelier, the position of equilibrium will move in
such a way as to counteract the change. That means that the
position of equilibrium will move so that the pressure is reduced
again.
Pressure is caused by gas molecules hitting the sides of their
container. The more molecules you have in the container, the
higher the pressure will be. The system can reduce the pressure by
reacting in such a way as to produce fewer molecules.
In this case, there are 3 molecules on the left-hand side of the
equation, but only 2 on the right. By forming more C and D, the

system causes the pressure to reduce.


Increasing the pressure on a gas reaction shifts the position of
equilibrium towards the side with fewer molecules.

What would happen if you changed the conditions by


decreasing the pressure?
The equilibrium will move in such a way that the pressure increases
again. It can do that by producing more molecules. In this case, the
position of equilibrium will move towards the left-hand side of the
reaction.

What happens if there are the same number of molecules on


both sides of the equilibrium reaction?
In this case, increasing the pressure has no effect whatsoever on
the position of the equilibrium. Because you have the same
numbers of molecules on both sides, the equilibrium can't move in
any way that will reduce the pressure again.
Important
Again, this isn't an explanation of why the position of equilibrium
moves in the ways described. You will find a rather mathematical
treatment of the explanation by following the link below.

Note: You will find a detailed explanation by following this link. If


you don't know anything about equilibrium constants (particularly

Kp), you should ignore this link. The same thing applies if you don't
like things to be too mathematical! If you are a UK A' level student,
you won't need this explanation.
If you choose to follow the link, return to this page via the BACK
button on your browser or via the equilibrium menu.

Using Le Chatelier's Principle with a change of temperature


For this, you need to know whether heat is given out or absorbed
during the reaction. Assume that our forward reaction is exothermic
(heat is evolved):

This shows that 250 kJ is evolved (hence the negative sign) when 1
mole of A reacts completely with 2 moles of B. For reversible
reactions, the value is always given as if the reaction was one-way
in the forward direction.
The back reaction (the conversion of C and D into A and B) would
be endothermic by exactly the same amount.

What would happen if you changed the conditions by


increasing the temperature?
According to Le Chatelier, the position of equilibrium will move in
such a way as to counteract the change. That means that the
position of equilibrium will move so that the temperature is reduced
again.

Suppose the system is in equilibrium at 300C, and you increase


the temperature to 500C. How can the reaction counteract the
change you have made? How can it cool itself down again?
To cool down, it needs to absorb the extra heat that you have just
put in. In the case we are looking at, the back reaction absorbs
heat. The position of equilibrium therefore moves to the left. The
new equilibrium mixture contains more A and B, and less C and D.

If you were aiming to make as much C and D as possible,


increasing the temperature on a reversible reaction where the
forward reaction is exothermic isn't a good idea!
What would happen if you changed the conditions by
decreasing the temperature?
The equilibrium will move in such a way that the temperature
increases again.
Suppose the system is in equilibrium at 500C and you reduce the
temperature to 400C. The reaction will tend to heat itself up again
to return to the original temperature. It can do that by favouring the
exothermic reaction.
The position of equilibrium will move to the right. More A and B are
converted into C and D at the lower temperature.

Summary

Increasing the temperature of a system in dynamic


equilibrium favours the endothermic reaction. The system

counteracts the change you have made by absorbing the


extra heat.

Decreasing the temperature of a system in dynamic


equilibrium favours the exothermic reaction. The system
counteracts the change you have made by producing more
heat.

Important
Again, this isn't in any way an explanation of why the position of
equilibrium moves in the ways described. It is only a way of helping
you to work out what happens.

Note: I am not going to attempt an explanation of this anywhere


on the site. To do it properly is far too difficult for this level. It is
possible to come up with an explanation of sorts by looking at how
the rate constants for the forward and back reactions change
relative to each other by using the Arrhenius equation, but this
isn't a standard way of doing it, and is liable to confuse those of
you going on to do a Chemistry degree. If you aren't going to do a
Chemistry degree, you won't need to know about this anyway!

Le Chatelier's Principle and catalysts


Catalysts have sneaked onto this page under false pretences,
because adding a catalyst makes absolutely no difference to
the position of equilibrium, and Le Chatelier's Principle doesn't
apply to them.
This is because a catalyst speeds up the forward and back reaction
to the same extent. Because adding a catalyst doesn't affect the
relative rates of the two reactions, it can't affect the position of
equilibrium. So why use a catalyst?
For a dynamic equilibrium to be set up, the rates of the forward
reaction and the back reaction have to become equal. This doesn't

happen instantly. For a very slow reaction, it could take years! A


catalyst speeds up the rate at which a reaction reaches dynamic
equilibrium.

THEORY OF CATALYST IN FERTILIZER INDUSTRY

THEORY OF CATALYSTS

In the chemical industry, Catalysts are used in order to bring some chosen reaction as
close as possible to a selected equilibrium point in the shortest possible time for a reversible type
of reaction. Catalyst accelerates the rates of forward and backward reaction so as to attain faster
the system towards equilibrium and the Catalyst remains unaltered without taking part in the
chemical reaction.

The rate of a Catalysed reaction is changed by varying the temperature, the Catalyst, or
the concentrations of reactions and products. Although these variables are not independent, the
responses are especially sensitive to the type of Catalyst because each solid of Catalyst
introduces unique rate of reaction. For example, in case of Ammonia synthesis reaction
appropriate Catalysts must have the highest activity for the Hydrogenation of Nitrogen at as low a
temperature as possible. Similarly, in case of reaction of Carbonmonoxide and Hydrogen, an
active Catalyst without selectivity should produce CH4 and H2O, which are very stable molecules,
whereas a selective Catalyst may produce methanol. It is evident that the selection of suitable
Catalysts depends upon the extent of knowledge and the correctness of suppositions concerning
the nature of the reaction and of the activity of solids.

THE ACTIVITY OF SOLIDS

The catalyst, as separate particles or agglomerates of particles, is immersed in a fluid


medium in motion. Reactants and products diffuse in the gas or liquid phases bathing the
boundaries of the solid, and also in the pore spaces of the agglomerates. These diffusions are
rate controlling, the reactant, the intermediates and the products combine loosely (Physisorption)
or more lightly (Weak and Strong Chemisorption) with the surface of the Catalyst. Solubilities and
rates of diffusion in solids are small, so the reaction almost invariably takes place on the solid
surface and involves solid substrate interactions, which stretch or dissociate the bonds of the

reactants. The overall rate is controlled by diffusion, adsorption, desorption, or by an inter action
between surface complexes in a simple reaction, or at some intermediate step in a complex
process.

THE PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS

The efficiency of a Catalyst rests upon three factors:

Activity

Selectivity

Life

The activity is the extent to which the catalyst influences the rate of change of the degree
of advancement of the (as assessed by the disappearance of reactants) conversion), per unit
weight or per unit volume of Catalyst, under specified conditions. The activity per unit volume is of
practical importance because process economics can depend critically upon the cost of packed
reactor space. The bulk density of the Catalyst must always be as small as possible, consistent
with other requirements. The performance of a catalyst is generally assessed in terms of the rate
at which it promotes a desired (or sometimes an undesired) reaction. Reaction rate is expressed
with well known proportionally termed as 'Catalyst activity'. At equivalent temperatures, pressures,
reaction volumes and mole fractions of reactants, reaction rate is proportional to Catalyst activity.
Where other reactions are also possible, an assessment is made of Catalyst selectivity. Catalyst
selectivity is the ratio between activity for desired and undesired reactions.

With most catalyst used for the production of Synthesis gas and Ammonia this is
unimportant because, by careful catalyst selection, high selectivity is achieved under normal
operating conditions. The life of the Catalyst is the period during which the Catalyst produces the
required product at a space-time yield in excess of or equal to that designated. The activity of
most Catalysts decreases sharply at first and then declines much more slowly with time. The
selectivity may worsen or improve. The life of a Catalyst terminates because of loss of mechanical
strength or because of unacceptable changes in activity and selectivity.

The Catalytic efficacy of a homogeneous solid phase is influenced by the four factors as follows:

a. The exposed area in contact the fluid termed as specific area.

b. The intrinsic chemical characteristics of the surface of the solid. The species forming
the surface may be atoms or ions and their chemical properties must depend upon their electronic
structure and arrangement.

c. The topography of the surface. Because of the dependence of activity upon geometry
and electronic structure, the faces, edges and corners of crystals must possess different activities.

d. The occurrence of lattice defects. The activities to be associated with defects such as
grain boundaries; dislocations differ from solid to solid and with the type of reaction Catalysed.

THE SPECIFIC AREA:

The specific area of the solid phases of the Catalyst must be adjusted to suit the
requirements of the process. Usually the area is made and maintained large by procedures, which
produce either small particles or porous bodies in more or less stable states. The specific area
increases with the particle diameter and density of the particles. Higher the specific area, higher is
the length of edges and greater number of corners introduces more regions of different activity.
Real Catalysts are composed of particles of a range of sizes. One detrimental effect of Catalyst
activity is due to phenomena called 'Sintering'. High temperature increases the Sintering of solid
particles. Due to sintering, the specific area, length of edges and the number of corners is
effected.

Sintering can be restricted to smoothing by dispersing the particles of active phase on the
surface of another inert refractory solid of high area called support of the Catalyst or by separating
them with refractory spacing blocks called stabilisation surface area can be obscured by debris
(dust, rust) or encapsulated by such products of parasitic reactions as liquid polymers and solid
coke. If thereby the pore size distribution is changed and the reactions become diffusion limited,
then the selectivity as well as the activity may be impaired.

COMPOSITE CATALYSTS

A Catalyst is composite when it contains more than one chemical entity. The addition of a
second component may be necessary to support or stabilise the active phase by a second and
more refractory solid or because the reaction is complex, involving a series of steps, each

requiring selective Catalysts. Almost all industrial Catalysts are composites, if only because the
use of a support decreases manufacturing costs and facilitates handling.

The rudiments of Catalyst design rest upon the facts that the efficiency of a solid phase
Catalyst is determined by its selectivity, specific activity (activity per unit area) and specific area
and by the effects of specific inhibitors or promoters e.g. the Catalyst for Hydrogenation of nitrogen
to Ammonia, consists of about 94% Iron oxide with the approximate composition Fe3 O4, the
balance being promoters i.e. mainly oxides of Ca, Al and K. The steam reforming of methane over
nickel containing Catalysts (such as R-67 and R-67-7H) consists of Nio-16-18 wt%, Magnesium
aluminate with free Mg content below 0.5% and SiO2 max. 0.1% in which Ni is the active metal for
complex steam reforming reaction and Magnesium aluminate acts as the stabilising agent plus it
suppresses the formation of carbon.

OPERATION FOR CATALYTIC REACTOR

Conversion taking place in a reactor filled with selective Catalyst is a function of the
following parameters:

1. Gas composition

2. Space Velocity

3. Pressure

4. Catalyst Temperatures

5. Catalyst Activity

The first four parameters do, to some extent, depend on the reactor design, but are, within
certain limits, functions of the fifth parameter, the Catalyst activity. Activity of Catalyst, rather
specific activity expressed to unit area of the Catalyst cannot be directly measured. However it is
a measure of reaction rate which again depends upon the Catalyst size, voidage for packed bed
and surface area.

SPACE VELOCITY

Space velocity for catalytic reactor is an indication of the contact time of the following fluid
with the surface of Catalyst. It is defined as follows:

Space Velocity = Number of reactor volumes of feed at specified conditions which can be
treated in unit time.

= Volumetric feed rate Volumetric feed rate


--------------------------- =

---------------------

Reactor volume Catalyst volume

During heating of Ammonia converter Catalyst, a high space velocity is maintained to


reduce the reduction time by better uniform heating of the catalyst. However, for normal operating
reactor the lowering of the space velocity reduces the conversion.

CATALYST POISON

The activity of solid catalyst is sometimes appreciably altered by traces of foreign


substances. Foreign substances, which tend to inhibit catalytic activity, are known as anticatalysts or Catalyst poisons. They are more firmly and preferentially adsorbed than the reactants
at the surface of a solid catalyst, which is thereby rendered ineffective. The activity of the solid
catalyst is reduced or destroyed by adsorption and by alloy or compound formation, when the
processor gives rise to a less active or inactive surface. The non-metal species like Oxygen,
Sulphur, Arsenic, halogens (Chlorides, Fluorides) and also Carbonmonoxide, Ammonia, Water,
Hydrogen Sulphide, Phosphine etc.and their derivatives can be powerful poisons when present as
accidental impurities or as reactants, depending upon the facility of the Catalysed reaction. These
poisons may be adsorbed or they may react to form compounds in surface layers (Oxides,
Sulphides, halides etc).If activity recovers on exclusion of the poison from the reactants, the
poisoning is said to be reversible, otherwise the poisoning is permanent.

Temporary poisoning is effected by Oxygen and Oxygen-containing compounds such as H2O, CO


and CO2. In case of temporary poisoning, Catalyst activity is restored when feedstock is restored.
Permanent poisoning is effected by S, As, C1, F,P, Pb and Carbon deposition from the cracking of
Hydrocarbons such as compressor lubrication oil or by the polymerisation of higher Hydrocarbons.
The above elements cause permanent damage to the catalyst. Carbon formation on the outer
surface of the Catalyst may however be termed as 'Semi- permanent' poisoning since the initial
activity can be regained by a regeneration process such as steam blowing of Ni-reforming catalyst.

CRUSHING STRENGTH OF CATALYST

A successful commercial heterogenous Catalyst not only must be capable of Catalysing the
desired reactions selectively, it must be also mechanically robust. It must be suitably shaped, so

that the fluid or gas can flow through a bed made of it without excessive pressure drop or uneven
distribution. And finally it must retain both its reactivity and its mechanical properties over a long
life, which includes start ups and shutdowns. Normally, the Catalysts are formed by pelleting
(tablets), granulation and extrusion along with various types of binder agent to give adequate
strength to the finished Catalyst. A high Catalyst strength is adopted to withstand the following
forms of stress:

1. Abrasion (during transit)

2. Impact (when loaded into the Reactor)

3. Internal stresses (resulting from phase changes during reduction or when initially
brought online).

4.

External stressing (caused by pressure drop, Catalyst weight and possibly, thermal cycling).

Reactor

Catalyst

Size

Type

mm

Volu
me
M3

R-201

TK-251

5X2.5

8.44

Bulk
Densit
y

Bed
ht.

480

2220

composi
tion

Life
time
(exp)

NiO:23%

>5

mm

Feature
s

MoO:10
%
R-202A

HTZ-3

10.64

1300

2800

ZnO:99
%

R-202B

HTZ-3

10.64

1300

2800

ZnO:99
%

Guard

F-201

Topsoe

16X11

6.68

960

NiO:1618%

3-5
Years

Carrier
surface

R-67-R7H
preredu
ced
R-67-7H

cylinder
with7
holes

16X11
cylinder
with 7
holes

SiO2:<0.
1%

area:1220m2/g
m

MgAl2O
4
20.05

970

NiO:1618%

3-5
Years

SiO2<0.1
%

Ni
surface
area:3.5
to
5
m2/gm

MgAl2O
4
R-203

RKS-27H

20X18

30.0

950

2800

R-204

SK-201

6X6

70.0

1200

4400

R-205

LSK

4.5X4.5

80.3

1100

4670

LK-821

4.3X3.2

R-301

PK-5

26.0

R-501

KMR
(prereduced
)

1.5-3.0

26.9

1.5
KM

1000

68.4

MoO:9.0
%

>10
>5

CuO,Zn
O,Cr2O3

Cu
promot
ed

>5

CuO,Zn
O,Al2O3
>10

2220

2850

Preredu
ced free
iron+2wt
%O2
94%
Fe3O4
balance:
CaO,Al2
O3, K2O

5-10

Catalyst
promot
ers:Ca,
Al,K
Not
pyroph
oric at
ambient
temp.

2.2 DESULPHURISATION CATALYST (NICKEL- MOLYBDENUM CATALYST)

The natural gas feed stock supplied to NFCL contains no H2S, but it is anticipated that future
supplies may contain sulphur compounds which have to be removed in order not to poison the
reforming catalysts and the LT shift catalyst. Natural Gas from battery limit is heated to 385 deg.C
in the Feed stock preheater F-203, and is passed through the Hdrogenator. A bed of NickelMolybdenum catalyst is provided to catalyse the hydrogenation of organic sulphur
compounds to hydrogen sulphide. There are two types of organic sulphur compounds that may

be present in the feed stock. One is called 'Normal Sulphur' containing H2S, COS, CS2 and
Mercaptans and the other is called 'Less Reactive Sulphur', containing Thiophenes, Thioethers
etc. In case of normal sulphur except Mercaptan Hydrogen recycle gas is not consumed where as
for less reactive sulphur, recycle hydrogen is consumed as per the following hydrogenation
reactions:

RSH + H2

RH + H2S

R1SR + 2H2

RH + R1H + H2S

R1SSR + 3H2

RH + R1H + 2H2S

(Mercaptans)

(Thioethers)

(Thiophenes)

If sulphur is present, natural gas is mixed with recycle gas from synthesis gas compressor first
stage discharge with flow of recycle gas around 1306 NM3/hr., in order to avoid Carbon deposition
on the catalyst due to catalytic cracking of higher hydrocarbons if any. After preheating to 385
deg.C,the gas mixture passes to Hydrogenator Reactor R-201 and reacts to produce H2S.
The above reactions are exothermic but insignificant (which depends on the type of Sulphur that
determines the number of moles of hydrogen taken up). H2S produced in R-201 and that already
present in Natural Gas is then removed in H2S Absorbers R-202 A/B, thereby the gas will be free
of H2S. Each absorber contains one bed of Zno catalyst to absorb the sulphur. The absorbers
are operating in series with the second vessel acting as guard. When the Zno in the first vessel is
getting exhausted, a break through of H2S from the first vessel may be observed. The operation
will then continue with the second vessel in service, while the first vessel is being reloaded with
fresh catalyst. The sulphur content at the exit of R-202B shall be less than 0.1 ppm on dry
volume basis at all times which is tolerant to reforming catalyst.

The sulphur removal reaction in Zno bed takes place as follows:

Zno + H2S

ZnS + H2O

Zno + COS

ZnS + CO2

Zno reaction with 'S' depend on :

1. Type of sulphur compounds.

2. Temperature: Increase in temperature will generally increase the ability of Zno to remove
sulphur.

3. Capacity : As Zno reacts with sulphur it gets saturated with sulphur and looses its activity.
Normal life of Zno catalyst depends on the H2S and sulphur concentration in the natural gas.

Reactor

Catalyst

Size

Volume

Type

mm

M3

Bulk
Density

Bed
ht.

compositi
on

Life
time
(exp)

NiO:2-3%

>5

mm
R-201

TK-251

5X2.5

8.44

480

2220

MoO:10%
R-202A

HTZ-3

10.64

1300

2800

ZnO:99%

R-202B

HTZ-3

10.64

1300

2800

ZnO:99%

Guard

(GENERAL2.3 REFORMING SECTION)

STEAM REFORMING CATALYST

Steam reforming is a vital part of the front end in plants producing Ammonia. Developments in
metallurgy have allowed steam reformers to be operated at higher and higher levels of
temperatures, pressures and heat flux. The reforming process and the design of the reformer are
based on the reaction between methane and higher hydrocarbons present in the natural gas with
steam thereby generating CO, CO2 and Hydrogen. The Hydrogen produced by the Methane
reforming reaction is used to produce Ammonia by combining with Nitrogen in the ratio of 3 : 1
which is the stoichiometric ratio of hydrogen and nitrogen to produce ammonia.

The most important reactions which are taking place in the reformer are

CH4 + H2O

CO + 3H2

CO + H2O

CO2 + H2

These reactions are taking place in the presence of a nickel-based catalyst. The
operating parameters maintained close to the equilibrium, are 769 deg. C and 30.5 Kg/cm2g and
the maximum tube wall skin temperature allowable is 880 deg.C. The methane concentration at
the exit of the reformer is 14.03 %. The efficient operation of the reformer at the above conditions
will give rise to a methane leakage at the exit of secondary reformer of 0.6%. The higher slippage
of methane has been designed taking advantage of P.G.R. unit incorporated. In addition to the
recovery of hydrogen from the purge gas, there is energy saving due to the lower heat flux
required in the reformer resulting in reduced firing, there by increasing the life of catalyst and
reformer tubes.

PRIMARY REFORMING

Raw synthesis gas is produced by reforming natural gas to an intermediate level in the primary
reformer F-201 using super heated HS steam in presence of a Nickel based catalyst at 33
Kg/cm2g pressure. The hot desulphurised natural gas and recycle gas mixture from R-202B outlet
is combined with HS steam (37 Kg/cm2g 370 deg.C) to give a steam to carbon mole ratio of 3.3 :
1.0. A small quantity of condensate from P-353 A/B containing small percentage of Methanol
and Ammonia is also mixed with steam for subsequent recovery of H2 and to avoid pollution. The
combined steam-natural gas-recycle gas mixture (Mixed feed) is preheated to 520 deg.C in the
process gas convection coil E-201 located in the waste heat recovery section of the primary
reformer F-201 utilising the heat from the hot flue gases, leaving the reformer radiant section.

Following preheat, the gases are distributed through hairpin tubes into vertical reformer tubes
filled with Nickel catalyst. The tubes are placed inside a Furnace, where sensible heat and
endothermic heat of reaction are absorbed in the tubes by radiation from a number of wall burners
to the tubes. The primary reforming of natural gas is done in a Topsoe design side fired furnace, in
comparison to the top fired furnace, where the maximum heat input is concentrated in the top part
of the furnace. In the top fired furnace during start-up conditions with low flow, little or no heat of
reaction in the tubes, the maximum temperatures may well be found at the level of flames. In such
furnaces, higher than desirable temperatures may be present in the top part of the tubes even
when the outlet temperature is not higher than the level recommended.

In the upper part of the top fired reformer, where the methane concentration is high and
hydrogen concentration is low, the potential for carbon formation is present. Due to the radial
temperature and concentration gradient in the tube, the risk zone extends somewhat down along
the hot tube wall. If this zone reaches a temperature level where the rate of the cracking reaction
becomes sufficiently high, carbon formation will take place resulting in a "hot band". Top fired

furnaces are more prone to this kind of problem. The above disadvantages of using top fired
furnace are eliminated by using the side-fired furnaces. In case of side fired furnace, the reformer
outlet temperature increases gradually from the top towards bottom. The tube skin temperature
along the length of the tube can be better controlled in side fired furnace and more over, the
potential for carbon formation with the age of the catalyst, the possibility of higher tube skin
temperature at the bottom than from the top, is better controlled using side fired furnace.

The primary reformer furnace consists of 190 tubes, inserted in two parallel chambers
called the radiant zone. Each chamber has got 95 tubes in a single row. Each row has been
divided into 5 sections. Each section has got 19 tubes. Reformer tube outlets from both chambers
are connected to hot collectors through pig tails, which are placed outside the Primary Reformer
radiant zone. Hot collectors are again connected with cold collector. The furnace operates with
side firing of fuel gas on both sides of each row of tubes to develop a process gas temperature of
about 769 deg.C at the catalyst tube outlet.

There are 360 side-fired burners arranged in 6 rows per wall. Each row is having 15 burners.
The type of primary reformer burners is of LP Radial Burner, which is of rugged construction.
Natural gas pressure reduced to 3 Kg/cm2g at Offsite is used as fuel for the LP Radial Burners.
The flame shape should be flat against the heated Muffle Block surrounding the air nozzle. The
excess air shall be 10%. The Reformer is loaded with 20.05 M3 of R-67-7H Nickel based
unreduced catalyst at bottom and 6.68 M3 of R-67R-7H Nickel based pre- reduced catalyst
at top, both cylindrical having seven holes with OD 16 mm and height 11 mm. Inside the
catalyst tubes, the natural gas steam reforming reaction takes place.

REFORMING REACTIONS

The following reactions take place simultaneously, producing a mixture of H2, CO, CO2, CH4
and excess H20 when hydrocarbons undergo steam reforming over Nickel catalyst :

Cn Hm + 2n H2O

n CO2 + (2n+m/2) H2 - Heat (1)

CH4

+ 2 H2O

CO2 + 4H2 - Heat

(2)

CH4

+ H2O

CO + 3H2 - Heat

(3)

CO2

+ H2

CO + H20 - Heat

(4)

Reactions start at 500 deg. C for the higher hydrocarbons and 600 deg. C for methane.

Reactor

Catalyst

Size

Type

mm

Volum
e

Bulk
Density

M3
F-201

Topsoe

16X11

R-67-R-7H

cylinder
with 7
holes

Prereduced

6.68

Bed
ht.

compositi
on

Life
time
(exp)

Feature
s

NiO:1618%

3-5
Years

Carrier
surface
area:1220m2/g
m

3-5
Years

Ni
surface
area:3.5
to
5
m2/gm

mm
960

SiO2:<0.1
%
MgAl2O4

R-67-7H

16X11
cylinder
with 7
holes

20.05

970

NiO:1618%
SiO2<0.1
%
MgAl2O4

REFORMING VARIABLES

Reaction (3) requires small amount heat only, whereas the heat required for 1 and 2 dominate
the picture.

TEMPERATURE

The effect of increasing reforming temperature on the effluent gas composition is to reduce the
methane and carbon dioxide content. On decreasing reforming temperature, the effects are
reversed. On decreasing temperature, there is a theoretical risk of carbon formation according to
the Boudard reaction when the gas is cooled.

2 CO

CO2 + C (Soot)

Under the chosen conditions, the above reaction can only take place below 750 deg.C because of
the equilibrium conditions and above 650 deg. C because the soot formation reaction rate is too
slow to have any practical importance below 650 deg.C.

STEAM/CARBON RATIO

The unit operation is most economical at conditions closely approaching the design steam to
carbon mole ratio of 3.3 : 1.0. However, increasing steam to carbon ratio will shift the above
equilibrium reactions to the right with a net effect of decreased methane and carbon dioxide and
increased carbon monoxide and hydrogen in the reformed gas.

PRESSURE

As the reforming reaction proceeds with an increase in the number of moles, a higher pressure will
drive the reaction in the undesired direction, resulting in a higher methane content at the reformer
exit, if other factors remain unchanged. Inspite of the above effect, economy of design has
required reforming pressure to be increased in order to save on synthesis gas compression costs.
Also higher-pressure results in the additional advantage of making the heat of condensation of
gases exit the L.T. Co Converter available at higher temperature thereby facilitating the recovery
of this heat by B.F.W. preheating.

Hence, reforming pressure is fixed by an optimal balance between the reaction equilibrium on one
hand and compression power and heat recovery on the other. Equally important is the pressure
drop across the reformer tubes. An increase in pressure drop indicates possible catalyst fouling or
partial blockage of tubes due to some other reason.

CARBON FORMATION(THE CATALYST DEACTIVATOR)

In the operation of the primary reformer carbon may be formed partly outside the catalyst,
partly inside the catalyst. Carbon deposits outside the particle will increase the pressure drop over
the catalyst bed and deposits inside the particles will reduce their activity and their mechanical
strength. Thermodynamically carbon formation is not possible under the conditions foreseen, if
equilibrium is obtained for each step. If the catalyst, however, is poisoned, e.g. by sulphur, it will
loose its activity and carbon formation is likely to occur. At very low steam to carbon ratio, there
will be a possibility of carbon formation, which would result in carbon deposits, especially inside
the catalyst particles. If the catalyst is insufficiently reduced, or if it is partly oxidised during
production upsets, without subsequent reduction, carbon formation may take place. Carbon
deposition will hinder reforming and reduce heat transfer so that the tube wall temperature will rise
in that zone producing 'hot bands' and subsequently 'hot tubes'. Precautions should be taken to
prevent carbon formation on reforming catalyst for successful reformer operations.

FLUE GAS SYSTEM

The reformer furnace is designed to obtain maximum thermal efficiency by recovering heat
from the flue gases leaving the reformer radiant section.The hot flue gas from top at 980 deg. C
passes through downward and horizontal flue gas duct. The desired draft of 375 MMWC is
induced by the flue gas blower, K-201. The flue gases enter the waste heat recovery section and
give up heat successively to the various coils. At the outlet, the flue gas temperature is reduced to
approx. 170 deg. C as any further reduction in temperature may result in condensation of sulphur
compounds if any present in the flue gas.

COMBUSTION AIR

Combustion air to the forced draught radiant burners of primary reformer and auxiliary
steam superheater is supplied by Combustion Air Blower, K-202 after preheating to 293 deg.C in
combustion air preheater E-204 by recovering sensible heat of the flue gases.

SECONDARY REFORMING

The partially reformed gas exit Primary Reformer contains 14.03 mole percent of CH4 (dry
basis). The methane content is further reduced to 0.6 mole percent (dry basis) at high
temperature in the secondary reforming step. In the Secondary Reformer, R-203, the heat is
supplied by combustion of part of the gas achieved by mixing air into the gas as compared to the
indirect heat by firing in the Primary Reformer. This combustion provides heat for the rest of the
reforming in R-203. The methane slip exit Primary reformer is so adjusted that the process air
supplying the reaction heat in the Secondary Reformer will give the Hydrogen/ nitrogen ratio of 3:1
in the syn. gas. It is desirable to reduce the methane content of the process gas to a low level in
order to keep the level of inert gases low. The methane content exit R-203 is dependent upon the
methane slip at the Primary Reformer outlet at specified conditions. The high CH4 slip at F-201
outlet gives rise to CH4 slip of 0.6 mole percent (dry) at R-203 outlet at 943 deg.C. Since air
quantity is fixed when PGR Unit is running, the H2:N2 ratio in the make up gas is 2.78 which gives
rise to 3:1 at Ammonia Synthesis Converter inlet by recovering H2 from PGR. The inert
concentration is maintained at 8% in Synthesis loop at Converter inlet.

The partially reformed gas from primary reformer is directed to the refractory lined
Secondary Reformer R-203 at 769 deg.C and 31 Kg/cm2g. Process air supplied by Process Air
Compressor K-421 at 33 Kg/cm2g and 177 deg.C is preheated to 550 deg. C in E-202A/B coils
located in convection section of F-201, passes vertically downward through the centrally located
Air Mixer to the Secondary Reformer R-203. Instantaneous mixing and rapid combustion of part of
the partially reformed gas takes place with air in the upper empty space of R-203, resulting in a
sharp rise of temperature to about 1200 deg. C. This combustion provides heat for the rest of the
reforming. From the empty space, the gas passes down the Nickel catalyst bed where the
reforming reaction is completed with simultaneous cooling of the gas. The outlet temperature will
be about 943 deg. C and the methane concentration will be approx. 0.6 mole percent. In the

combustion zone of Secondary Reformer, the following reaction takes place between process gas
and air and O2 gets completely consumed.

2H2 + 02

2H20 + Heat

CH4 + 202

CO2 + 2H20 + Heat

(1)

(2)

Reaction (1) is predominant.

In the catalyst bed methane-reforming reaction takes place as follows :

CH4 + 2 H2O

CO2 + 4H2 - Heat

CO2 + H2

CO + H20 - Heat

(Shift Conversion)

The catalyst in the secondary reformer comprises of a layer of alumina balls and alumina guard
tiles at the top and 30 M3 Nickel based catalyst in the middle. A layer of electrofused alumina
lumps are also provided at the bottom over the refractory dome as catalyst support.

Reactor

Catalyst

Size

Volume

Type

mm

M3

Bulk
Density

Bed
ht.

compos
ition

Life
time
(exp
)

MoO:9.
0%

>10

mm
R-203

RKS-2-7H

20X18

30.0

950

2800

HEAT RECOVERY FROM REFORMED GAS

Reformed gas with unreacted process steam at 943 deg.C from the bottom of Secondary
Reformer R-203 passes through the tube side of special type of Waste Heat Boiler E-208. This
Waste Heat Boiler consists of two compartments, which is castable refractory lined. The total gas
is passed through tube side of the first compartment where as the second compartment has been
provided with internal bypass to control exit temperature. A temperature controller regulates flow
through the bypass to maintain HT Shift Converter inlet temperature at about 360 deg.C. Sensible
heat of the process gas exit R-203 is utilised to generate KS steam in waste heat boiler. Boiler
feed water from steam drum is fed to the shell side of E-208 through number of down comers and
steam/water produced are sent back to the steam drum through number of risers by thermosyphoning. During start up, the drum pressure is controlled to maintain R-204 inlet temperature
and by bypassing the second compartment of E-208 through temperature controller.

2.4 CO-CONVERSION CATALYST

Carbon monoxide present in the reformed gas is converted to CO2 in two shift converters
R-204 and R-205. The following reaction is taking place in the shift converters R-204 and R-205:

CO + H2O

CO2 + H2 + Heat

The exit gas from R-205 will contain only about 0.22 mole percent CO, thereby increasing
the yield of H2.The above mentioned shift reaction taking place in the converters R-204 and R-205
will only proceed in contact with a catalyst. The equilibrium is favoured by lower temperatures and
high steam to gas ratio, while the reaction rate will be higher at higher temperatures. More steam
to gas ratio may give an apparently lower conversion due to the larger total volume resulting in a
shorter contact time. This means that for each catalyst there will be an optimum temperature,
depending on the activity and the quantity, which will give optimum conversion. As the reaction
results in a temperature rise, the outlet gas will be at an unfavourable equilibrium if removal of heat
has not taken place before the conversion is completed. Thus the conversion is performed in two

steps. The first step takes place in the HT shift converter R-204 where a copper promoted Iron
Oxide Catalyst is installed. The major part of the conversion takes place in R-204, causing a
temperature rise of 64 deg.C. The outlet temperature is about 424 deg.C and outlet coconcentration is 2.68% which is fully acceptable for a conventional catalyst being more rugged
than the low temperature catalyst used in the second step of the shift conversion. The low
temperature catalyst consists of specially prepared copper, zinc and aluminium oxides having a
much higher activity, which means that it can be used at the lower temperatures of 200
deg.C at inlet and 218 deg.C outlet. The inlet temperature is fixed taking into consideration the
dew point of the gas mixture. The catalyst is less rugged and loses it activity if the temperatures
are higher than 250 to 270 deg. C.

Here the CO content is further reduced to about 0.22 mole %

(Dry Basis)

HIGH TEMPERATURE SHIFT CONVERSION CATALYST

The HT shift converter R-204 contains 70 M3 copper promoted iron oxide catalyst.
The reformed gas enters the HT shift converter at 360 deg. C and 29.8 Kg/cm2g and flows
through the catalyst bed. The outlet temperature is 424 deg. C. At the main start-up of the plant,
the catalyst must be activated, which is mainly a reduction of Fe203 to Fe304. The reduction will
take place at a temperature above 250 deg.C, but the temperature should not be allowed to
exceed 400 deg. C during the reduction in order not to decrease the activity of the catalyst. When
new, the catalyst can operate at a gas inlet temperature of 350 deg. C. Afterwards, the optimum
inlet temperature will be higher, but as long as the outlet temperature has not reached 470 deg. C,
the activity will only decrease slowly.

The cold catalyst can be heated by steam alone, both when oxidised and reduced. Drops
of liquid water on the hot catalyst may result in disintegration of the catalyst. The catalyst is very
sensitive to salts, which may be introduced with the steam. The content of chlorine in the gas
should be well below 0.1 ppm. The catalyst is not influenced by sulphur in the quantities present in
this plant. The fresh catalyst contains, however, about 0.3% sulphate which will be given off as
H2S during the first week of operation. Normally the catalyst is not oxidized by steam alone, but
should be oxidized by adding a small amount of air to the steam before it is accessible as it is
pyrophoric in reduced state.

Reactor

R-204

Catalyst

Size

Volume

Type

mm

M3

SK-201

6X6

70.0

Bulk
Density

Bed ht.

1200

4400

mm

compo
sition

Life
time
(exp)

Features

>5

Cu
promoted

HEAT RECOVERY FROM HT SHIFTED GAS

The final shift reaction is completed in Low temperature shift converter R-205. The gas leaving
HTS is cooled to 200 deg.C before entering LT shift converter by recovering waste heat
successively in Waste Heat Boiler after Co-converter E-210 and BFW Preheater E-211A/B and
Trim Heater E-209. In E-210, KS steam is generated while cooling the gas to 340 deg.C. Part of
gas is sent to the Trim Heater E-209 to preheat the methanator feed inlet gas partly. The gas then
passes through the shell side of E-211A/B and gets cooled to 200 deg.C. There is a bypass of E211A/B for controlling LT Shift Converter gas at desired inlet temperature.

LOW TEMPERATURE SHIFT CONVERTER :

The LT Shift Converter R-205 contains 80.3 M3 of the catalyst consisting of oxides of
copper, zinc and aluminium. As the catalyst is extremely sensitive to sulphur which may be
liberated not only from the preceding HT shift catalyst but also from secondary reforer refractory
material, the LT shift converter is bypassed during initial stage until the gas is practically sulphur
free. The chlorine may be present in process steam and quench water, due to maloperation of the
water treatment system and process air due to atmospheric air pollution in very small amounts.
Besides chlorides and sulphur, gaseous Si - compounds are also catalyst poisions. When the
catalyst is in a reduced state, temperatures above 250 deg. C must normally be avoided. A short
exposure to 300 deg.C. will have no adverse effect on the catalyst. Normal operation should take
place at as low a temperature as possible.However, at temperatures near the dewpoint, the activity
will decrease because of capillary condensation of water inside the catalyst, thus reducing the free
area. During operation, the temperature should, therefore, be kept at least 20 deg. C above the
dewpoint of the gas. The reduced catalyst is pyrophoric and has to be oxidized before opening of
the converter.The normal operating temperature is between 200 deg.C and 218 deg. C. The actual
temperature of the inlet gas to R-205 to be selected is dependent on the activity of the catalyst.

Reactor

Catalyst

Size

Type

mm

Volum
e
M3

R-205

LSK

4.5X4.5

LK-821

4.3X3.2

2.5 CO2 REMOVAL SECTION :

80.3

Bulk
Densit
y

Bed
ht.

1100

4670

1000

compositi
on

Life
time
(exp)

CuO,ZnO,
Cr2O3

>5

mm

CuO,ZnO,
Al2O3

This unit provides process gas free of CO2 (limit 1000 ppm) for the production of ammonia
and necessary CO2 for Urea production. In this unit, CO2 in the process gas is absorbed by the
GV solution in the Absorber, C-301 thus providing process gas with less than 1000 ppm of CO2.
Stripping of the absorbed CO2 is done in the two regenerators and CO2 stripped is supplied to
Urea Plant. CO2 removal section know how is by Giammarco-Vetrocoke of Italy. The Vetrocoke
solution consists of K2 CO3, Vanadium Pentoxide, Glycine and DEA where V2O5 (Vanadium
Pentoxide) is the corrosion inhibitor and glycine/DEA are the activators. The chemistry involved in
this unit is chemisorption and is explained as follows :

CO2 + H2O

HCO3- + H+

(1)

K2CO3 + HCO3- + H+

2KH CO3

(2)

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------K2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

2KH CO3

(3)

The reaction rate of (3) depends on the reaction rates of (1) and (2). Reaction rate of (1) is
slow and the activator activates this reaction by quickly introducing the gaseous CO2 in the liquid
phase. The activator glycine reacts with CO2 and forms glycine carbonate according to the
reaction.

NH2 CH2 COO- + CO2

COO-NH CH2 COO- + H+

(4)

COO-NH CH2 COO- + H2O

NH2 CH2 COO- + HCO3-

(5)

The sum of (4) and (5) gives (1).

In solution regeneration, reaction (3) is reversed by application of heat and pressure


reduction and the lean and semilean K2 CO3 solution is recirculated for further absorption of CO2.
The process gas from V-208 enters the CO2 removal section at 27.5 Kg/cm2g and 165 deg.C and
passes through the reboilers and LP Boiler E-302 and then to E- 306A/B (DM Water Heater)
getting cooled down to 113.5 deg. C and condensate is seprated in V-301 before entering the
Absorber.

The process gas enters the tube side of E-301A/B giving its heat energy to the GV solution
at the shell side of E-301A/B. The solution from the bottom tray of C-302 (Regenerator under
pressure) circulates through the reboiler by thermal siphoning. The CO2 and H2O vapour along

with solution enters C-302 bottom below the bottom tray and serves as stripping medium. The
heat energy released in E-302 shell is used to produce LS steam which is boosted into C-302
through the ejectors L-301A/B. The outlet gas temperature of E-302 is 126.5 deg.C. The gas
outlet from E-302 is further cooled in DM water preheaters E-306A/B. The gas is cooled down to
113.5 deg. C. The resulting condensate in the process gas is separated in V-301 before entering
the CO2 absorber.

In the CO2 Absorber C-301 process gas flows upwards counter current to the solution flow (the
solution is the regenerated GV solution from C-303). Semi-lean solution pumps P-302A/B/C takes
suction from the take off tray below the packing of C-303 and pumps the solution to the middle of
Absorber as semilean solution at 106 deg.C . Lean solution pumps P-301A/B takes suction from
the bottom of C-303 through the cooler E-303 and pumps the solution to the top of the absorber as
lean solution. E-303 cools the solution from 109 deg.C to 65 deg.C and in turn heats DM water
from 40 deg.C to 104 deg.C. The make up condensate to CO2 removal system is added at the
suction of P-301A/B pumps at 59 deg.C to maintain the water balance in the system.

At the bottom of absorbers C-301 where the bulk of CO2 is absorbed, the high temperature
improves the reaction rate for reaction No. (3) and for reaction No. (5) according to which the CO2
is absorbed by K2 CO3. In the top part of the absorber, the lower temperature reduces the CO2
vapour pressure in the solution thereby minimising the CO2 content in the process gas. This is
made possible by keeping the reaction rate (5) sufficiently high even at this lower temperature by
the OH concentrations in the lean solution fed at the top.

Solution regeneration is carried out at two pressure levels, one at 1.04 Kg/cm2g and other
at 0.1 Kg/cm2g for better utilization of stripping steam compared to the usual technique in which
great part of the stripping steam exits the regenerator top as unused excess. The pressure in
regenerator C-302 is regulated to obtain a temperature increase between the solution inlet and
outlet of the regenerator in order to condense the above mentioned excess steam. The heat
stored in the rich GV solution exit the regenerator C-302, is recovered as flash steam which has
been experimentally verified to be practically pure steam.

From C-302 top is taken off a rich solution stream at 106.5 deg.C that feeds Regenerator at
low pressure C-303. In C-303 the flashed steam regenerates the rich solution stream taken off
from C-302 top. The liquid levels at the bottom of C-303 and at the take off tray are maintained by
controlling the flow of lean and semilean solution from C-302. The lean solution from the bottom of
C-303 at 109 deg.C gets cooled in E-303 and is pumped by lean solution pumps P-301A/B at 65
deg.C to the top of C-301. From the take off tray of C-303 the solution goes to the Semilean
pumps P-302A/B/C at 106 deg.C to be pumped to middle of C-301.

The acid gas stream from the top of the Regenerator C-302 is cooled in the DM water
preheater E-307 from 102 deg.C to 96 deg.C at 1.04 Kg/cm2g pressure. C-302 pressure is
maintained by PIC-015. The vapour condensed is removed in V-304 (OH condensate separator).
The acid gas stream outletting the Regenerator C-303 at 94 deg.C and 0.1 Kg/cm2g is cooled in
the O/H DM water heater E-308 to 91 deg.C and the vapour condensed is removed in the C-303
1st O/H condensate separator V-305. C-303 pressure is maintained by PIC-001. Again the acid

gas is cooled in the condensers E-304A/B to 40 deg.C by cooling water. The vapour condensed is
separated in the C-303 2nd OH condensate separator V-302. The CO2 is fed to the Booster
compressor K-301 or it can be vented to atmosphere through PIC-026. K-301 boosts the pressure
of CO2 from 0.1 Kg/cm2g to 0.96 Kg/cm2g at 96 deg.C. The discharge of Booster compressor
joins the stream of CO2 from C-302 at the outlet of V-304 and the mixed stream gets cooled in the
final OH condensers E-305A/B from 102 deg.C to 40 deg.C by cooling water. The water vapour
condensed is removed in final OH condensate separator V-303 and the CO2 saturated with water
flows to Urea Plant. The ammonia Plant battery limit conditions for the CO2 sent to Urea Plant are
0.6 Kg/cm2g and 40 deg.C.

The use of compressor K-301 on a very limited acid gas stream allows to utilise in the most
advantageous way, the two pressure levels regeneration technique, since it allows to keep C-303
pressure at a lower level, thereby increasing the flashing steam of the solution coming from C-302
with evident energy saving. At the same time it allows to obtain all CO2 for Urea production at
higher pressure.

The condensate separated out at V-304 and V-303 flows to V-305 and V-302 respectively
under pressure where as condensate from V-305 and V-302 are pumped out by P-304 and P-305
condensate pumps respectively as make up to CO2 removal section and balance as process
condensate to stripping unit. There are two numbers lean solution pumps (P-301A/B) one steam
turbine driven and the other motor driven. Out of three semilean solution pumps (P-302A/B/C),
two are steam turbine driven and the other motor driven.

Two hydraulic turbines (DPTP-302 A/B) are connected to the turbine driven semilean
solution pumps P-302A/B through auto clutch. The letdown turbines sends the rich solution from
Absorber bottom which is at a pressure of 27.5 Kg/cm2g to the Regenerator C-302 which is at a
pressure of 1.04 Kg/cm2g. The discharge side pressure of hydraulic turbine will be about 9
Kg/cm2g. The differential pressure 18.5 Kg/cm2g is utilised to drive the semilean solution pumps.
This pressure energy approximately amounts to a power of 215 KW in each hydraulic turbine thus
energy on steam driven turbines DSTP-302A/B is conserved to an extent of 215 KW on each
turbine, by clutching Hydraulic turbine to the Semilean solution pumps.

2.6 METHANATION CATALYST

As CO and CO2 are poisons to the Ammonia converter catalyst, the unconverted CO and
unabsorbed CO2 in the process gas are reduced to a limit of less than 10 ppm by methanation
reaction. In the process, CO and CO2 get converted to CH4 which is an inert in the synthesis of
ammonia. In the Methanator R-301, the reverse of reforming reaction takes place in presence of
Nickel catalyst.

The reactions are as follows :

CO + 3 H2

CH4 + H2O

+ Heat

CO2 + 4 H2

CH4 + 2 H2O + Heat

The main reason why the reaction is reversed is the lower temperature favouring formation
of methane. Other critical variables governing the reactions are pressure and steam content.
However, within the allowable temperature range, the equilibrium conditions are so favourable that
practically only the catalyst activity determines the efficiency of the methanation. The higher the
temperature, the better the efficiency, but at the same time it means a shorter life time for the
catalyst.

Further more in case of a possible break through of CO2 and CO to the methanator which
would result in a higher temperature rise, a low inlet temperature is preferred as this limits the
temperature rise. After the methanator the gas normally contains 10 ppm of CO + CO2. The
temperature rise of gas in methanator will normally be about 21 deg.C. Methanator contains 26 M3
of catalyst and has approximately the same characteristics as of reformer, being nickel catalyst on
a ceramic base. As the reactions take place at much lower temperature than those prevailing in
the reformers, the catalyst must be very active at low temperatu- res. The catalyst is sensitive to
Arsenic, Sulphur and Chloride Compounds. The adiabatic temperature rise per mole % of CO is
74 deg. C and per mole% of CO2 is 60 deg. C. The methanation reaction starts at a temperature
of about 240 deg. C but in order to ensure a sufficiently low concentration of CO and CO2 in the
effluent gas, the operating temperature would be from 280 deg. C to 350 deg.C, depending on the
catalyst activity and gas composition. The methanator catalyst should not be exposed to catalyst
temperature above 440 deg. C for longer periods of time as it will damage the vessel R-301.

Washed gas from CO2 removal (outlet of V-314) goes to E-311 Gas/Gas exchanger at 26.8
Kg/cm2g and 65 deg. C and gets heated upto the inlet temperature of 310 deg. C by exchange of
heat with hot methanator effluent gas. A part of the outlet gas from E-311A/B passes through E209 and gets heated up with R-204 outlet gas and joins at the inlet of methanator (resultant
temperature is 320 deg. C.. The outlet gas from methanator at 341 deg.C gets cooled in the
Gas/Gas exchanger E-311A/B to 87.3 deg.C and is further cooled down in E-312A/B (final gas
cooler) to 41 deg. C by cooling water and the condensate formed is separated in the final gas
separator V-311. The pure synthesis gas enters syn. gas compressor suction at a pressure of 25.1
Kg/cm2g and 41 deg. C. Surplus syn. gas is taken out and sent to Auxiliary boiler to be used as
fuel. In case of synthesis gas compressor trip, or prior to the start-up of synthesis gas compressor,
gas is vented at PIC-074 and PIC-071 and thus front end pressure is maintained. From the outlet
of V-311, the process gas is also taken as recycle H2 to header to feed K-204 (recycle gas
compressor). This recycle H2 line is provided with HIC-003, which controls the recycle H2 flow to
header. This valve is connected to the Methanation trip signal IS-6 which closes HV-003 on trip
signal of IS-6.

Reactor

Catalyst

Size

Type

mm

Volum
e

Bulk
Density

M3
R-301

PK-5

Bed
ht.

compositi
on

mm

26.0

Life
time
(exp)
>10

NICKEL CARBONYL GAS

Nickel carbonyl gas is a poisonous and toxic gas which may be present in R-301. Under
certain conditions, CO in the process gas reacts with the catalyst Ni to form Nickel carbonyl gas.

4 CO + Ni

Ni (CO)4

The favourable temperature range of the formation of this gas is between 45 deg.C and 205
deg.C. Hence R-301 catalyst should never be allowed to cool in the presence of CO containing
gas. Rather it should be purged out with N2 at the time of shut down.While heating up the catalyst
with the process gas containing CO, heating should be done faster in the range of 45 deg. C to
205 deg. C.

2.8 AMMONIA SYNTHESIS CATALYST

The Ammonia Synthesis takes place in the Ammonia converter R- 501 as per the following
reaction.

N2 + 3H2

Iron Catalyst

2NH3 + Heat

The reaction is limited by the equilibrium concentration and only part of the Hydrogen and
Nitrogen can be converted into Ammonia per pass through the Catalyst bed . The equilibrium
concentration of Ammonia is favoured by high pressure and low temperature. However, reaction
rate is very much enhanced by high temperature operations. There is a compromise between
thermodynamic equilibrium & reaction kinetics. As a result there is an optimum level for the
Catalyst temperatures at which the maximum production is obtained. At higher temperatures the
equilibrium percentage (which is the theoritically highest obtainable concentration of Ammonia) will
be too low while at lower temperature the reaction rate will be too low. The Synthesis loop is
designed for a miaximum pressure of 155 Kg/cm2g and the normal operating pressure is in the
range of 131-141 Kg/cm2g. The reaction temperature in the catalyst bed is 360 to 520 deg. C
which is close to the optimum level. The catalyst is a promoted iron catalyst containing small
amounts of non-reducible Oxides. A considerable amount of heat is liberated by the reaction
(about 750 Kcal/Kg of Ammonia produced), and this is utilized for production of KS steam and for
preheating Boiler feed water. Only about 20% of the Hydrogen and Nitrogen flow contained in the
Synthesis gas at converter inlet is converted into Ammonia per pass, and it is therefore necessary
to recycle the unconverted synthesis gas to the converter. The Ammonia Converter, R-501 is a
Topsoe series 200, Radial Type converter with the gas flowing through the two catalyst beds in
RAdial direction. The advantage of the Radial flow converter is that the pressure drop is less. The
catalytic activity of small particles is very high and the special advantage of the radial converter is
to allow the use of small catalyst particles without a prohibitive pressure drop.

The converter contains two catalyst beds with interbed cooling after 1st bed. There is also
a provision of cold shot injection for better control of bed temperatures. A total of 96 M3 Catalyst of
type Topsoe KMI/KMIR is used. The first bed has a volume of 28 M3 of KMIR Catalyst and the
2nd bed contains 68 M3 of KMI Catalyst. The KMIR Catalyst is the pre-reduced and stabilized
catalyst of KMI type. Stabilisation involves skin Oxidation of the Catalyst where it takes-up an
amount of 2% (Wt) of Oxygen. This prereduced catalyst is stable in air below 100 deg.C. Above
100 deg. C it will react with air and spontaneously heats up. The catalyst is activated by reducing
Iron-oxide to free Iron. This reduction is carried out with circulating Synthesis gas. The Catalyst
activity will decrease slowly during normal operation and the lifetime of Catalyst is 8 to 10 years.
This is again influenced by the actual process conditions. notably the temperature in the Catalyst
bed and the concentrations of Catalyst poisons in the Synthesis gas at converter inlet. Sulphur
compounds and compounds containing Oxygen such as water (H2O), Carbon Monoxide (CO) and
Carbon dioxide (CO2) are all poisons to the Catalyst and small amounts of the catalyst poisons will
cause a considerable decrease in Catalyst activity. Part of the poisoning effect is only temporary
and catalyst activity will recover somewhat when the gas is clean again. A certain permanent
decrease in the Catalyst activity will however remain and high concentrations of Oxygen
compounds at converter inlet even for short duration should therefore be avoided.

PROCESS CONDITIONS

Ammonia Synthesis reaction is affected by the following parameters :

- Ammonia content in the feed gas

- Inert gas content in the feed gas

- H2 to N2 ratio in the feed gas

- Reaction temperature

- Circulation Rate

- Operating pressure

- Catalyst activity

Reactor

Catalyst

Size

Volume

Type

mm

M3

Bulk
Density

Bed
ht.

composi
tion

Life
time
(exp
)

Features

Preredu
ced free
iron+2wt
%O2

5-10

Catalyst
promote
rs:Ca,Al,
K

mm
R-501

KMR
(prereduced
)

1.5-3.0

26.9

2220

94%
Fe3O4

Not
pyropho

1.5

68.4

2850

KM

balance:
CaO,Al2
O3, K2O

ric
at
ambient
temp.

AMMONIA CONTENT IN THE FEED GAS

A low Ammonia concentration at converter inlet gives a high reaction rate and thus a high
production capacity.The Ammonia concentration at converter inlet is dependent on the cooling
level in the refrigeration chillers and the operating pressure.4.1% NH3 at converter inlet
corresponds to -5 deg.C at a pressure of 132 Kg/cm2g in the Ammonia Separator, V-501.

INERT GASES

The Makeup gas contains 1.33% (Vol.) of argon and methane. These gases are inerts in
the sense that they pass through the Synthesis converter without undergoing any Chemical
changes. But a high concentration of inerts reduces the partial pressures of Hydrogen and
Nitrogen thereby reducing the conversion. Therefore a constant purge of gas from the loop is
maintained to keep the inerts level in the converter inlet at about 8%. The catalyst activity
decreases with the catalyst age. This can be compensated by either increasing the loop pressure
and the circulation rate or by decreasing the inert level.

HYDROGEN/NITROGEN RATIO

By the Synthesis reaction, 3 volumes of Hydrogen react with 1 volume of Nitrogen to form 2
volumes of Ammonia. Therefore the H2/N2 ratio in the loop and makeup gas must be close to
3:1. A small change in H2/N2 ratio of the make up gas will result in a much bigger change in the
H2/N2 ratio of the circulating Synthesis gas. The H2/N2 ratio of the makeup gas should normally
be about 2.78 so that after addition of recovered hydrogen from PGR Unit the ratio will be about
3.0. The Synthesis loop is designed for operating at the H2/N2 ratio of 3.0, but special conditions

may make it favourable to operate the loop at a slightly different ratio in the range of 2.5 to 3.5.
When the ratio is decreased to 2.5, the reaction rate will increase slightly (but fall again for ratios
below 2.5), while on the other hand, the circulating Synthesis gas will be heavier. Therefore the
pressure drop through the loop will increase and the Ammonia separator efficiency may decrease,
leading to increased Ammonia concentration at the converter inlet.The H2/N2 ratio in the loop
should be kept as constant as possible. The ratio is controlled by the H2/N2 ratio in the makeup
gas which will have to be adjusted to get desired ratio in the circulating gas. After making any
change in the H2/N2 ratio of the makeup gas sufficient time should be allowed for the system to
find its new equilibrium before making further changes.

REACTION TEMPERATURE

The temperatures in the Catalyst bed are usually in the order of 360 deg.C to 520 deg.C.
At the inlet to ech Catalyst bed, a certain minimum temperature of 360 to 380 deg.C is required to
ensure a sufficient reaction rate. If the temperature at catalyst inlet is below 360 deg. C, the
reaction rate may become so low that the heat liberated by the reaction becomes too small to
maintain the temperature in the converter, and the reaction will quickly extinguish itself if proper
process adjustments (lowering the gas circulation and / or closing the cold shot) are not made
immediately. On the other hand it is desirable to keep the catalyst temperatures as low as
possible to prolong the catalyst life.It is therefore recommended that the catalyst inlet temperature
be kept as close as practically possible to the minimum temperature without extinguishing the
reactor. The Synthesis gas entering the converter at 252 deg. C is heated in the interbed heat
exchanger by the hot gas coming out of the 1st bed. Before entering the 1st bed, the temperature
of this gas is controlled to about 370-380 deg.C by mixing with cold shot. As the gas passes
through the catalyst bed, the temperature increases to a maximum temperature at the outlet from
the 1st catalyst bed, which is normally the highest temperature in the converter, called the "hot
spot". The temperature of the hot spot may be upto 520 deg.C, but should not exceed 530 deg.
C. The gas from the 1st bed is cooled in the interbed heat exchanger by the main part of the cold
inlet gas to the 1st bed in order to obtain a temperature of approx. 380 deg.C before entering the
2nd bed. In the 2nd bed the gas outlet temperature is about 439 deg. C.

CIRCULATION RATE

The capacity of the synthesis loop with regard to Ammonia production rises with increasing
circulation rate. However, the Ammonia production per cubic metre of circulation gas which is
proportional to the temperature difference between converter exit and converter inlet, will
decrease.

OPERATING PRESSURE

The Synthesis loop is designed for a maximum pressure of 155 Kg/cm2g and it is foreseen
that the Synthesis loop can operate at a pressure of 142 Kg/cm2g when operating at design
production rate, design inert level and design gas composition. The actual operating pressure is
not directly controlled and is dependent on the other process conditions, notably production rate,
inert level, ammonia concentration at converter inlet, H2/N2 ratio and Catalyst Activity. The
production rate increases with rising pressure and for a
given set of process conditions, the
pressure will adjust itself so that the production rate corresponds to the amount of Makeup gas fed
into the loop. The loop pressure will be increased by increasing the Makeup gas flow to the loop,
by decreasing the circulation rate, increasing the inert level or the concentration of Ammonia at
converter inlet and by changing the H2/N2 ratio away from the optimum. The decreases in
Catalyst activity will also increase the operating pressure.

A TYPICAL REACTOR WITH CATALYST LOADED

LT CATALYST REDUCTION

When the fresh catalyst is loaded it has to be reduced in order to attain full activity before it
is actually lined up for the shift conversion reaction i.e. water gas shift reaction.The loaded catalyst
vessel is heated to 180oc with nitrogen Circulation continuously in the loop and then hydrogen gas
is introduced into the circulation
Loop such that the H2 concentration in the loop is around 1.5% slowly the catalyst
Reduction takes place and water is thus formed is continuously removed in the
Separator the H2 concentration is maintained in the loop and the inlet and outlet
Temperatures and H2 concentrations are monitored every half an hour so as to
Keep close control over the reduction. It generally took 36-45 hrs for the reduction
To complete when the inlet and out let H2 gas concentration equals.

During the reduction the temperature of the gas and the catalyst bed rises
Owing to the exothermic reaction i.e. oxidation of H2 is taking place as a result
Water is formed in the loop and it has to be removed in order to protect the
Catalyst from loss of activity.

When the reduction is completed then the nitrogen circulation is stopped


And the process gas is introduced into the catalyst bed and is run for one week
At about 80% of the rated load. After one week the catalyst gets full activity
And the reactor is ready for full load. For the next one month the reactor outlet
CO concentration is monitered on daily basis.The bed temperature is given utmost
Care for the first month and it should never cross 240oc crossing which may
Result in sintering of the catalyst.

A TYPICAL 45 Hr LT CATALYST

REDUCTION H2 INLET AND OUTLET H2 CONCENTRATION

DURATION (Hrs)

H2 Conc.,(%)
Outlet
Inlet

0.58

0.04

0.78

0.02

10

0.90

0.01

15

0.94

0.06

20

1.38

0.16

25

1.44

0.19

30

1.55

0.38

35

2.24

1.27

40

4.53

3.97

8.53

8.37

45

CATALYST DISPOSAL

The catalyst which lose its activity has to be disposed in a proper way
As the catalysts contain metals their oxides and sometimes salts
Which on surface dumping could lead to leaching of metals in to
The ground water or surface water causing contamination of the land
And water bodies. As most of the catalysts are composed of copper
Nickel, iron, platinum. Zinc, molybdinum, vanadium,and chromium.
Also some of the organic compounds which acts as promoters
Or activators such as D.E.A, Glycine etc.,which are potential pollutents

Helamin
Helamin is a water treatment chemical. The name is a registered trademark of Filtro, SA, Geneva,
Switzerland[1]. Helamine is one of the commercial fouling, corrosion and incrustation inhibitors. It
uses the characteristics of aliphatic polyamine. In contrast to the conventional method of the water
treatment, its action is based on a preventive protection of the surfaces. Helamin forms a firmly
adhering protective film, which prevents corrosion and fouling on the water-side walls in steam
boilers and piping systems. It happens because Helamine has an affinity to metal and oxide
surfaces. Crystals which do form in the presence of Helamine are isolated, so that they cannot
group themselves any longer. Thus deposit consolidation is inhibited. Already existing oxide
surface deposits are gradually Boiler develops a fine, liquid mud, which does not tend to
accumulate in the boiler. Helamin does not significantly decompose even at high temperature and
pressure employed in the modern sub-critical -water power-plant boilers. Helamin treatment can be
successfully employed in steam generators, warm and hot water piping systems, superheaters, as
well as cooling circuits to mitigate some of the difficult problems of the corrosion and fouling.

HelaminFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Helamin is a group of water treatment


chemicals. The name is a registered trademark of Filtro, SA, Geneva, Switzerland.[2]
Chemically, most of the Helamin types are stated by the manufacturer to be a "mixture of
polyamines and polycarboxylates in aqueous solution", but some also utilize volatile amines,
ammonia, polyelectrolytes, organic polymers, and scavengers of dissolved oxygen.[1]Helamin is
one of the commercial fouling and corrosion inhibitors. It uses the characteristics of aliphatic
polyamine. In contrast to the conventional method of the water treatment, its action is based on a
preventive protection of the surfaces. Helamin forms a film (i.e., is one of numerous available
"filming amines"), which prevents corrosion and fouling on the water-side walls in steam and
piping systems. It happens because Helamin has an affinity to metal and oxide Crystals which do
form in the presence of Helamine are isolated, so that they do not tend to group themselves. Thus
deposit consolidation is inhibited. Already existing oxide surface deposits are gradually removed.
Boiler develops a fine, liquid mud, which is easier to remove from the boiler.Helamin does not
significantly decompose even at high temperature and pressure employed in the modern sub-critical
-water power-plant boilers[citation needed]. Helamin treatment can be successfully employed in
steam generators, warm and hot water piping systems, superheaters, as well as cooling circuits to
mitigate some of the difficult problems of the corrosion and fouling. cation conductivity of water
tends to increase with the use of Helamin.[2]HOW IT WORKS ?
Helamin products are proprietary formulations of a perfect blend of components that include
protective (filming) polyamines, polycarboxylates (dispersants), and volatile (alkalinizing) amines,
working in a synergistic way to provide an optimum protection and passivation of all ferrous and
non ferrous metal surfaces in the entire water & steam circuit (Turbines included).Helamin is
forming a monomolecular, continuous, and hydrophobic protective film on metal surfaces, acting as
a barrier between water and metal to prevent corrosion.The use of Helamin "All-in-one" product
to treat water and steam carrying such as water/steam and heating circuits, has many advantages
over conventional conditioning which often requires several substances to be added at various
locations and needs regular monitoring.In the boiler water of steam generators the polyelectrolytes
have a synergetic effect. The polycarboxylates (as sodium salt) cause at every temperature an
because of hydrolysis. As a polyelectrolyte it has greater affinity to bivalent cations (e.g. Fe2+ or
Ca2+), like a weak acidic ion exchanger. Hence, quite stable calcium or iron salts are formed which
can be removed by blow down. At the stoechiometric limits any residual hardness is kept in
solution. Any additional quantities are sequestered, suspended and dispersed (i.e. prevented from
crystallising and forming scale, or any other deposits). The polyamines have a greater propensity to
be adsorbed at the interfaces.In addition to the corrosion-protecting effect of the membrane, they
also prevent calcium carbonate crystals from growing on the material surface, especially in the area
of the heat transfer. Corrosion products which are transported into the boiler are also prevented
from accumulating and any existing deposits can be gently removed. If used in steam generators,
warm and hot water networks, superheaters, turbines and cooling systems, Helamin is an
efficient, economical and ecological solution to the difficult problem of corrosion and scaling.The
Helamin range of conditioners provides additional safety thanks to preventive surface protection,
the key to successful and economic operation of your systems

1. 1. Prepared by: Saba Power Company Cell # +92 321 4598293

2. 2. What is Steam Turbine? A Steam Turbine is a device that extracts Thermal


Energy from pressurized Steam and uses it to do Mechanical Energy on a
rotating output shaft. Steam Turbine is device where Kinetic Energy (Heat)
converted into Mechanical Energy (in shape of rotation). Turbine is an Engine
that converts Energy of Fluid into Mechanical energy & The steam turbine is
steam driven rotary engine. This Presentation is base on basic of Steam Turbine
& 134 MW Toshiba Steam Turbine.
3. 3. Rating & Design Data Turbine Type: SCSF-36, single cylinder, single flow
Reheat condensing turbine. Rated output: 134 MW Speed: 3000 RPM
Direction of Revolution: Counter-clock-wise (seeing from turbine front End)
Steam Condition: Main Steam Press. (before MSV): 16548 kpa (g) Main
Steam Temp. (before MSV): 538oC Reheat steam Temp. (before CRV): 538oC
Exhaust pressure: 6.77 kpa (g)
4. 4. Rating & Design Data Number of Extraction: 6 Number of Stage: 21 HP
Turbine: 9 stages IP Turbine: 7 stages LP Turbine: 5 stages Number of
Wheel: 21
5. 5.
6. 6.
7. 7.
8. 8. In order to better understand turbine operation, Four Basic Classifications are
discussed. Type of Steam Flow & Division of Steam Flow, describes the flow of
steam in relation to the axis of the rotor. indicates whether the steam flows in
just one direction or if it flows in more than one direction. Way of Energy
Conversion & Type of Blading, Reaction, Impulse and Impulse & Reaction
Combine. identifies the blading as either impulse blading or reaction blading.
Type of Compounding & Cylinder arrangement refers to the use of blading which
causes a series of pressure drops, a series of velocity drops, or a combination of
the two. (number of cylinders; whether single, tandem or cross-compound in
design) Exhausting Condition & Number of Stages is determined by whether the
turbine exhausts into its own condenser or whether it exhausts into another
piping system.
9. 9. 1. Type of Steam Flow Turbines may be classified according to the direction of
steam flow in relation to the turbine wheel or drum - Axial. - Radial. - Mixed Tangential Or Helical. - Reentry
10.10. Radial Flow: A turbine may also be constructed so that the steam flow is in a
radial direction, either toward or away from the axis. In figure illustrates an
impulse, radial flow, auxiliary turbine such as may be used as a pump drive.
The radial turbine is not nor mally the preferred choice for electricity generation
and is usually only employed for small output applications
11.11. Axial Flow: The great majority of turbines, especially those of high power,
are axial flow. In such turbines the steam flows in a direction or directions
parallel to the axis of the wheel or rotor. The axial flow type of turbi ne is the

most preferred for electricity generation as several cylinders can be easily


coupled together to achieve a turbine with a greater output. .
12.12. Reverse Flow In some modern turbine designs the steam flows through part
of the high pressure (HP) cylinder and then is reversed to flow in the opposite
direction through the remainder of the HP cylinder. The benefits of this
arrangement are: outer casing joint flanges and bolts experience much lower
steam conditions than with the one direction design reduction or elimination of
axial (parallel to shaft) thrust created within the cylinder lower steam
pressure that the outer casing shaft glands have to accommodate A simplified
diagram of a reverse flow high pressure cylinder is shown in Figure
13.13. 2. Way of Energy Conversion & Types of Blading - Impulse turbines Reaction turbines - Impulse & Reaction Combine
14.14. By Types of Blading: The heat energy contained within the steam that
passes through a turbine must be converted into mechanical energy. How this is
achieved depends on the shape of the turbine blades. The two basic blade
designs are: 1. Impulse 2. Reaction
15.15. Impulse: Impulse blades work on the principle of high pressure steam
striking or hitting against the moving blades. The principle of a simple impulse
turbine is shown in Figure. Impulse blades are usually symmetrical and have an
entrance and exit angle of approximately 200. They are generally installed in
the higher pressure sections of the turbine where the specific volume of steam
is low and requires much smaller flow areas than that at lower pressures. The
impulse blades are short and have a constant cross section.
16.16. Reaction: The principle of a pure reaction turbine is that all the energy
contained within the steam is converted to mechanical energy by reaction of
the jet of steam as it expands through the blades of the rotor. A simple reaction
turbine is shown in Figure. The rotor is forced to rotate as the expanding steam
exhausts the rotor arm nozzles. In a reaction turbine the steam expands when
passing across the fixed blades and incurs a pressure drop and an increase in
velocity. When passing across the moving blades the steam incurs both a
pressure drop and a decrease in velocity A section of reaction type blading is
shown in Figure
17.17. Impulse stage Whole pressure drop in nozzle (whole enthalpy drop is
changed into kinetic energy in the nozzle) Reaction stage Pressure drop both in
stationary blades and in rotary blades (enthalpy drop changed into kinetic
energy both in stationary blades and in the moving blades in rotor)
18.18. An impulse stage consists of stationary blades forming nozzles through
which the steam expands, increasing velocity as a result of decreasing
pressure. The steam then strikes the rotating blades and performs work on
them, which in turn decreases the velocity (kinetic energy) of the steam. The
stream then passes through another set of stationary blades which turn it back
to the original direction and increases the velocity again though nozzle action.
19.19. In Reaction Turbine both the moving blades and the non- moving blades
designed to act like nozzles. As steam passes through the non-moving blades,
no work is extracted. Pressure will decrease and velocity will increase as steam

passes through these non- moving blades. In the moving blades work is
extracted. Even though the moving blades are designed to act like nozzles,
velocity and pressure will decrease due to work being extracted from the
steam.
20.20. This utilizes the principle of impulse and reaction. It is shown
diagrammatically : There are a number of rows of moving blades attached to
the rotor and an equal number of fixed blades attached to the casing. The fixed
blades are set in a reversed manner compared to the moving blades, and act as
nozzles. Due to the row of fixed blades at the entrance, instead of nozzles,
steam is admitted for the whole circumference and hence there is an all-round
or complete admission.
21.21. Compounding of Impulse Turbine This is done to reduce the rotational
speed of the impulse turbine to practical limits. (A rotor speed of 30,000 rpm
is possible, which is pretty high for practical uses.) Compounding is achieved
by using more than one set of nozzles, blades, rotors, in a series, keyed to a
common shaft; so that either the steam pressure or the jet velocity is absorbed
by the turbine in stages. Three main types of compounded impulse turbines
are: a) Pressure compounded, b) velocity compounded and c) pressure and
velocity compounded impulse turbines.
22.22. With pressure compounding the total steam pressure to exhaust pressure is
broken into several pressure drops through a series of sets of nozzles and
blades. Each set of one row of nozzles and one row of moving blades is referred
to as a stage This involves splitting up of the whole pressure drop from the
steam chest pressure to the condenser pressure into a series of smaller
pressure drops across several stages of impulse turbine. The nozzles are fitted
into a diaphragm locked in the casing. This diaphragm separates one wheel
chamber from another. All rotors are mounted on the same shaft and the blades
are attached on the rotor. Pressure staging is also known as RATEAU staging.
23.23. When the velocity energy produced by one set of fixed nozzles is unable to
be efficiently converted into rotational motion by one set of moving blades then
it is common to install a series of blades as shown in Figure. This arrangement
is known as velocity compounding. Velocity drop is arranged in many small
drops through many moving rows of blades instead of a single row of moving
blades. It consists of a nozzle or a set of nozzles and rows of moving blades
attached to the rotor or the wheel and rows of fixed blades attached to the
casing.
24.24. This is a combination of pressure-velocity compounding. Most modern
turbines have a combination of pressure and velocity compounding. This type of
arrangement provides a smaller, shorter and cheaper turbine; but has a slight
efficiency trade off. Turbines using this arrangement are often referred to as
CURTIS turbines after the inventor. Individual pressure stages (each with two or
more velocity stages) are sometimes called CURTIS stages.
25.25. This setup of a nozzle followed by a set of moving blades, non-moving
blades, and moving blades makes up a single Curtis stage. After steam exits the
nozzle there are no further pressure drops. However, across both sets of moving
blades there is a velocity drop. This causes the Curtis stage to be classified as
velocity compounded blading.

26.26. Turbines can be arranged either single cylinder or multi-stage in design. The
multi-stage can be either velocity, pressure or velocity-pressure compounded
(discussed as earlier. Single cylinder construction or Single Flow Turbine Single
cylinder turbines have only one cylinder casing(although may be is multiple
sections). Steam enters at the high pressure section of the turbine and passes
through the turbine to the low pressure end of the turbine then exhausts to the
condenser. Figure shows a single cylinder turbine with a high, intermediate and
low pressure section contained within the one cylinder casing.
27.27. Tandem construction or Compound Flow Turbine Dictated by practical design
and manufacturers considerations modern turbines are manufactured in
multiple sections also called cylinders. Greater output and efficiency can be
achieved by coupling a number of individual cylinders together in what is
referred to as tandem (on one axis). Tandem compound Large electric power
generating turbines commonly have a high pressure casing, which receives
superheated steam directly from the boiler or steam generator. The high
pressure turbine may then exhaust to an intermediate pressure turbine, or may
pass back to a reheat section in the boiler before passing to a reheat
intermediate pressure turbine. The reheat turbine may then exhaust to one or
more low pressure casings, which are usually two exhaust flow turbines, with
the low pressure steam entering the middle of the turbine and flowing in
opposite directions toward two exhaust end before passing into the condenser.
When the turbine casings are arranged on a single shaft, the turbine is said to
be tandem compounded.
28.28. Tandem construction or Compound Flow Turbine A tandem two cylinder
turbine with a single flow high pressure (HP) cylinder and a double flow low
pressure (LP)cylinder is shown in Figure.
29.29. Tandem Three Cylinder Turbine It has a double flow LP cylinder with an IP
cylinder arranged so that the steam flow through it is in the opposite direction
to the HP cylinder. This design also greatly reduces the axial thrust on the rotor.
Tandem three cylinder turbine is shown in Figure as under:
30.30. Tandem Four Cylinder Turbine Large modern turbines are required to deliver
high output and are generally constructed of four cylinders with the exhaust
steam from the HP cylinder passing through are heater before entering the IP
cylinder. Tandem Four cylinder turbine is shown in Figure as under:
31.31. Tandem Cross-Compounding Turbine In cross compound turbines, the highpressure, exhaust passes over to intermediate or low pressure casings which
are mounted on separate shafts. The two shafts may drive separate loads, or
may be geared together to a single load. In some larger overseas installations
that operate at 60 hertz (frequency) the use of cross-compounding is some
times employed. Cross-compounding is where the HP and IP cylinders are
mounted on one shaft driving one alternator while the LP cylinders are mounted
on a separate shaft driving another alternator. This is done so as the LP cylinder
with its large diameter blading can be operated at a greatly reduced speed thus
reducing the centrifugal force. Tandem cross-compounding turbine is shown in
Figure:
32.32. Tandem four cylinder turbine with reverse flow The final turbine
arrangement that is becoming increasingly popular is the Tandem four cylinder

turbine with reverse flow HP cylinder, double flow IP and twin double flow LP
cylinders. This arrangement is shown in Figure:
33.33. 04. Number of Stages - Single stage - Multi-stage
34.34. In an impulse turbine, the stage is a set of moving blades behind the
nozzle. In a reaction turbine, each row of blades is called a "stage." A single
Curtis stage may consist of two or more rows of moving blades.
35.35. 5. Exhaust Conditions - Condensing - Extraction - Back-pressure
36.36. By steam supply and exhaust conditions: Condensing Extraction,
(Automatic or controlled ) Non-condensing (back pressure), Mixed pressure
(where there are two or more steam sources at different pressures), Reheat
(where steam is extracted at an intermediate stage, reheated in the boiler,
and re- admitted at a lower turbine stage).
37.37. Condensing The condensing turbine processes result in maximum power
and electrical generation efficiency from the steam supply and boiler fuel. The
power output of condensing turbines is sensitive to ambient conditions. The
cooling water condenses the steam turbine exhaust steam in the condenser
creating the condenser vacuum. As a small amount of air leaks into the system
when it is below atmospheric pressure, a relatively small compressor (Vacuum
pump) or Air Ejector System removes non-condensable gases from the
condenser.
38.38. Extraction In an extraction turbine, steam is withdrawn from one or more
stages, at one or more pressures, for heating, plant process, or feed water
heater needs. They are often called "bleeder turbines. The steam extraction
pressure may or may not be automatically regulated. Regulated extraction
permits more steam to flow through the turbine to generate additional
electricity during periods of low thermal demand by the CHP system. In utility
type steam turbines, there may be several extraction points, each at a different
pressure corresponding to a different temperature. The facilitys specific needs
for steam and power over time determine the extent to which steam in an
extraction turbine is extracted for use in the process.
39.39. Back-pressure Figure shows the non- condensing turbine (also referred to as
a back- pressure turbine) exhausts its entire flow of steam to the industrial
process or facility steam mains at conditions close to the process heat
requirements.
40.40. 4. Rotational Speed - Regular - Low-speed - High-speed 5. Inlet steam
pressure - High pressure (p>6,5MPa) - Intermediate pressure(2,5MP a
<p<6,5MPa) - Low-pressure (p<2,5MPa)
41.41. 8. Application - Power station - Industrial - Transport
42.42. In actual practice, not all of the energy in the steam is converted to useful
work. Losses common to all turbines are described below: Loss of working
substance. Loss of steam along the shaft through the shaft glands where the
shaft penetrates the casing. Work loss. Loss due to mechanical friction between

moving parts. Throttling loss. Wherever there is a reduction in steam pressure


without a corresponding production of work, such as in a throttle valve.
43.43. Leaving loss. The kinetic energy of the steam leaving the last stage blading.
This leaving loss can be minimized by lightly loading the last stage blading by
increasing the annular exhaust area of the turbine. This is often optimized
through economic studies. Windage loss. This is caused by fluid friction as the
turbine wheel and blades rotate through the surrounding steam. Friction loss as
the steam passes through nozzles and blading. Diaphragm packing loss as the
steam passes from one stage to another through the diaphragm packing. Tip
leakage loss in reaction turbines as steam passes over the tips of the blades
without doing any useful work.
44.44.
45.45. Rankine cycle with superheat Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from
low to high pressure. Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where
it is heated at constant pressure by an external heat source to become a dry
saturated vapor. Process 3-3': The vapour is superheated. Process 3-4 and 3'-4':
The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine, generating power. This
decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapor, and some condensation
may occur. Process 4-1: The wet vapor then enters a condenser where it is
condensed at a constant pressure to become a saturated liquid.
46.46.
47.47. Foundation Rotor or Shaft Cylinder or Casing Blades Diaphragm
Steam Chest Coupling Bearings Labyrinth Seal Front Pedestal TSI DEHC (Governor) MSV (Main Steam Stop Valve) CV(Control Valve) IV
(Intercept Valve) CRV (Combined Reheat Valve) Turbine Turning Gear
Turbine Bypass & Drains Atmospheric Relief Diaphragm (Rupture Disk) Lube
Oil System EHC Oil System Gland Steam System Condenser Steam Jet
Ejector Vacuum Breaker
48.48.
49.49. Frame (Base): Supports the stator, rotor and governor pedestal. Shell:
Consists cylinder, casing, nozzles, steam chest & bearing. Rotor: Consists of
low, intermediate, and high pressure stage blades, and possible stub shaft (s)
for governor pedestal components, thrust bearing, journal bearings, turning
gear & main lube oil system. Governor Pedestal: Consists of the EHC oil
system, turbine speed governor, and protective devices
50.50. An multistage steam turbines are manufactured with solid forged rotor
construction. Rotors are precisely machined from solid alloy steel forgings. An
integrally forged rotor provides increased reliability particularly for high speed
applications. The complete rotor assembly is dynamically balanced at operating
speed and over speed tested in a vacuum bunker to ensure safety in operation.
High speed balancing can also reduce residual stresses and the effects of blade
seating.
51.51.

52.52. The casings of turbine cylinders are of simple construction to minimize any
distortion due to temperature changes. They are constructed in two halves (top
and bottom) along a horizontal joint so that the cylinder is easily opened for
inspection and maintenance. With the top cylinder casing removed the rotor
can also be easily withdrawn with out interfering with the alignment of the
bearings.
53.53. Most turbines constructed today either have a double or partial double
casing on the high pressure (HP) and intermediate pressure (IP) cylinders. This
arrangement subjects the outer casing joint flanges, bolts and outer casing
glands to lower steam condition. This also makes it possible for reverse flow
within the cylinder and greatly reduces fabrication thickness as pressure within
the cylinder is distributed across two casings instead of one. This reduced wall
thickness also enables the cylinder to respond more rapidly to changes in steam
temperature due to the reduced thermal mass.
54.54. The high-pressure end of the turbine is supported by the steam end bearing
housing which is flexibly mounted to allow for axial expansion caused by
temperature changes. The exhaust casing is centerline supported on pedestals
that maintain perfect unit alignment while permitting lateral expansion. Covers
on both the steam end and exhaust end bearing housings and seal housings
may be lifted independently of the main casing to provide ready access to such
items as the bearings, control components and seals.
55.55. HP Turbine Casing IP Turbine Casing LP Turbine Casing Atmosphere Relief
Diaphragm HP Turbine Casing CV CV
56.56.
57.57. One method of joining the top and bottom halves of the cylinder casing is
by using flanges with machined holes. Bolts or studs are insertion into these
machined holes to hold the top and bottom halves together. To prevent leakage
from the joint between the top flange and the bottom flange the joint faces are
accurately machined. A typical bolted flange joint is shown in Figure.
58.58. Another method of joining the top and bottom cylinder flanges is by clamps
bolted radially around the outer of the cylinder. The outer faces of the flanges
are made wedge-shaped so that the tighter the clamps are pulled the greater
the pressure on the joint faces. This method of joining top and bottom casings is
shown in Figure.
59.59. Blade design is extremely important in attaining high turbine reliability and
efficiency. A large selection of efficient blade profiles have been developed and
proven by extensive field service allowing for optimal blade selection for all
conditions of service. Blades are milled from stainless steel within strict
specifications for proper strength, damping and corrosion resistant properties.
Disk profiles are designed to minimize centrifugal stresses, thermal gradient
and blade loading at the disk rims.
60.60. 09HP Turbine Blades 07 IP Turbine Blades 05 LP Turbine Blades Rotary
Blades

61.61. Partitions between pressure stages in a turbine's casing are called


diaphragms. They hold the vane-shaped nozzles and seals between the stages.
Usually labyrinth-type seals are used. One-half of the diaphragm is fitted into
the top of the casing, the other half into the bottom. Nozzle rings and
diaphragms are specifically designed and fabricated to handle the pressure,
temperature and volume of the steam, the size of the turbine and the required
pressure drop across the stage. The nozzles used in the first stage nozzle ring
are cut from stainless steel. Steam passages are then precision milled into
these nozzle blocks before they are welded together to form the nozzle ring.
62.62. The nozzles in the intermediate pressure stages are formed from profiled
stainless steel nozzle sections and inner and outer bands. These are then
welded to a circular center section and to an outer ring then precision
machined. The low-pressure diaphragms in condensing turbines are made by
casting the stainless nozzle sections directly into high-strength cast iron. This
design includes a moisture catching provision around the circumference which
collects released moisture and removes it from the steam passage. Additional
features such as windage shields and inter-stage drains are used as required by
stage conditions to minimize erosion. All diaphragms are horizontally split for
easy removal and alignment adjustment. Steam Turbine Components And
Relative Equipments
63.63. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments Various root fixing
shapes have been developed for turbine blading to suit both construction
requirements and conditions under which turbines operate. The most popular
types of blade root fixing available are: Grooves Straddle Rivet
64.64. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments Groove construction
The groove type of root fixing fits into a machined grove around the
circumference of the rotor wheel or disc. Some examples of typical groove type
blade root designs are shown in Figure A while a rotor disc with a machined
groove arrangement is shown in Figure B. Blade roots are installed through the
closing blade window and then slid around the circumference of the disc into
their desired position. The last blade root is installed in the closing blade
opening and secured in position by dowel(s).
65.65. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments Straddle construction
Straddle construction is where the blade root fits over the machining on the
outer periphery of the rotor wheel or disc. An example of straddle fir-tree blade
root construction is shown in Figure A. while the disc peripheral machining is
shown in Figure B. Once again with this type of construction the blade roots are
installed through the closing blade window slid around the circumference of the
disc into position, then the last blade inserted is doweled in the closing blade
window location.
66.66. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments Rivet construction
Rivet construction is where the blade root either inserts into a groove or
straddles the disc and all blades are doweled into position. Peripheral blade
fixing On larger blading where the blade length is relatively long a system of
lacing wire or shroud rings are installed to give the blading additional support
and reduce vibration. The lacing wire is installed a small distance from the outer
ends of the blades while the shoud rings are fitted to tangs on the outer edges
of the blades and secured by peening the tangs. A section of blading showing

the installation of the lacing wire is shown in Figure A while a section of blading
showing shroud ring installation is shown in Figure B.
67.67. Steam chest: The steam chest, located on the forward, upper half of the HP
turbine casing, houses the throttle valve assembly. This is the area of the
turbine where main steam first enters the main engine. The throttle valve
assembly regulates the amount of steam entering the turbine. After passing
through the throttle valve, steam enters the nozzle block. Steam Turbine
Components And Relative Equipments
68.68. With multi-cylinder turbines it is necessary to have some method of
connecting individual cylinder rotors. It is also a requirement to connect the
turbine to the alternator rotor. To achieve these connections we use a device
known as a coupling. These couplings must be capable of transmitting heavy
loads and in some turbines are required to accommodate for axial expansion
and contraction. The types of couplings generally employed in power plants are:
Flexible coupling Solid shaft coupling Steam Turbine Components And
Relative Equipments
69.69. Flexible couplings Where axial shaft movement is required a flexible
coupling is employed and these are either: 1. Sliding claw (or tooth) 2. Flexible
connection (between the two flanges) With both of the above flexible couplings
it is necessary to have a separate thrust bearing for each shaft to maintain the
same relative position between rotor and cylinder casing. Steam Turbine
Components And Relative Equipments
70.70. Sliding claw (or tooth) Sliding claw couplings consists of an inner gears or
tooth coupling half. The inner half is shrunk onto its respective shaft and
secured by keys or driven pins. The outer coupling half; machined in the reverse
shape is installed onto the other shaft. The gear or teeth coupling is positioned
inside the outer coupling half where it is able to slide back and forth to allow for
expansion or contraction. A diagram of a sliding claw coupling prior to the inner
claw section being inserted into the outer half is shown in Figure A, while a gear
tooth coupling is shown in Figure B. Steam Turbine Components And Relative
Equipments
71.71. Flexible connection coupling Flexible connections such as the bibby coupling
are constructed in two halves. Each half is shrunk onto their respective shaft
and secured with keys or driven pins. The halves are machined with groves
parallel or nearly parallel to that of the alignment of the shaft. Flexible spring
steel grids are inserted into these machined groves and held in place with an
outer cover. This type of coupling is effective in allowing axial expansion and
contraction along with the ability to tolerate minor misalignment. A bibby
coupling is shown in Figure. The flexible couplings just mentioned are by no
means the only flexible couplings available but they are the preferred choice for
high load applications. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments
72.72. Solid shaft coupling When shaft movement is not required it is usual to
install a solid type coupling. Two flanges are installed onto their respective
shafts and then the two flanges are bolted together to form a solid joint as
shown in Figure A. Often teeth are machined on the outer rim of these couplings
and used as a point for barring the turbine shaft. (more about barring the

turbine later). Figure B shows a solid shaft coupling with a barring gear fitted
Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments
73.73. Turbine Bearings Journal Bearing: The turbine rotors are supported by two
journal bearings. Both the No.1 and No.2 bearings are of a double-tilting pad
type. The bearing metal is divided into six pads which are self-aligned. A center
adjustment of these bearings can easily be made with shimmed pads.
74.74. Turbine Bearings Journal Bearing Design Data: Bearing # Location Type
Nominal dia in inches Nominal effective width in inches 1 HP DTP 15 8 2 LP
DTP 18 12 Note; D.T.P stands for Double Tilting Pad Steam Turbine
Components And Relative Equipments
75.75. Turbine Bearings DOUBLE TILTING PAD TYPE JOURNAL BEARING Double
tilting pad bearing provides maximum stability and freedom from shaft
vibration. The tilting-pad design consists generally of six steel pads (shoes) with
Babbitt linings on the bearing surface. The pads are installed on the inner of
bearing ring, and can move radial and axial direction. Therefore, the pads Move
smoothly, and maintain the correct alignment at all conditions. Hook fits in the
inner of bearing ring retain the pads, and the pads are prevented from rotating
by means of loose-fitting lock pins.
76.76. Turbine Bearings TAPERED-LAND THRUST BEARING The thrust bearing is
located on the main shaft of the turbine. Independently mounted inside the
standard, the thrust bearing absorbs the axial thrust of the turbine and
generator rotors, which are connected by a solid coupling.
77.77. Turbine Bearings TAPERED-LAND THRUST BEARING This tapered-land thrust
bearing consists of two stationary thrust plates and two rotating Thrust collars
on the turbine shaft which will provide the front and back faces to the bearing.
These plates are supported in a casing so that they may be positioned against
the rotating faces of the collars. The thrust collar faces are machined and
lapped, producing smooth, parallel surfaces.
78.78. Thrust Bearing Thrust Bearing # 1 General Bearing General Bearing Steam
Turbine Components And Relative Equipments
79.79. A labyrinth seal is a type of mechanical seal that provides a tortuous path to
help prevent leakage. An example of such a seal is sometimes found within an
axle's bearing to help prevent the leakage of the oil lubricating the bearing. A
labyrinth seal may be composed of many grooves that press tightly inside
another axle, or inside a hole, so that the fluid has to pass through a long and
difficult path to escape. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments
80.80. Labyrinth seals are utilized as end gland seals and also inter- stage seals.
Stationary labyrinth seals are standard for all multistage turbines and grooves
are machined on the rotating part to improve the sealing effect. The leakage
steam from the outer glands is generally condensed by the gland condenser.
Some leakage steam from the intermediate section of the steam end gland
seals can be withdrawn and utilized by re- injecting it into the low-pressure
stage or low- pressure steam line. Steam Turbine Components And Relative
Equipments

81.81. Turbine front standard supports the No.1 bearing, thrust bearing and the
front end of the turbine casing. Front standard is shaped like a box. Upper half
of the standard can be disassembled at horizontal flange. A manhole located
front of upper half is used oil strainer maintenance. This box is not only the
bearing standard but control box which contains some important equipment.
FRONT STANDARD & TSI Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments
82.82. There are some instruments and button on the outside of the front pedestal
cover. These are used for turbine operation and supervision. Some protective
devices and speed detectors are installed inside the standard. Inside space of
the standard is connected to oil tank and is kept slightly vacuum so that the oil
drain or mist inside can not leak out. FRONT STANDARD & TSI Steam Turbine
Components And Relative Equipments
83.83. Lubricating oil is supplied from oil pipe which is located left side of front
standard and flow out to oil tank through 1ST journal and thrust bearings. Oil
strainer is located up stream of bearing. FRONT STANDARD & TSI Steam Turbine
Components And Relative Equipments
84.84. Toothed-wheel for speed sensors The turbine rotating speed is sensed by
the magnetic pickups faced to the toothed-wheel (96 teeth) installed on the
control rotor. The pulse signal is produced when each tooth passes the pickups.
The frequency signals from two (2) pickups are converted into digital value
proportional to the turbine speed through F/D (Frequency to Digital) converters.
Other three (3) sensors are located around toothed-wheel. These sensors are
used for trip detector. FRONT STANDARD & TSI Steam Turbine Components And
Relative Equipments
85.85. The electromagnetic pickup use for speed detector is fixed facing the tooth
face of the speed detecting gear connected directly to the rotor end of the
turbine. (Inside of front standard) The turbine speed can be detected as the sine
wave frequency signal in proportion to the turbine speed. This frequency signal
is converted to an digital signal by means of the F/D converter to become a
feedback signal to the speed control circuit. Over speed detector also make
frequency signal in proportion to the turbine speed. They face to tooth- wheel
on control rotor. Pickup is used eddy current type. Clearance between sensor
face and tooth face is different from electromagnetic pickup type. FRONT
STANDARD & TSI Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments
86.86. Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation (TSI) or Turbine Supervision Equipment
(TSE) is a generic term used in the power generation industry. TSI refers to
instrumentation systems that specifically perform measurements of critical
control parameters on large steam turbine generator trains. The size of the
machines can range between 501200 MW and their age can often be in excess
of 30 years. TSI systems are normally a mandatory requirement. The same
technology is employed on other turbine types and in other industries, such as
the hydrocarbon- processing sector. Steam Turbine Components And Relative
Equipments
87.87. Although the turbine is not readily accessible during operation, the turbine
supervisory instrumentation is sufficient to detect any potential malfunction.
The turbine supervisory instrumentation includes monitoring of the following:
(1) Vibration and eccentricity (2) Thrust bearing wear (3) Exhaust hood

temperature and spray pressure (4) Oil system pressures, levels, and
temperatures (5) Bearing metal and oil drain temperatures (6) Shell
temperature (7) Valve positions (8) Shell and rotor differential expansion (9)
Shaft speed, electrical load, and control valve inlet pressure indication (10)
Hydrogen temperature, pressure, and purity (11) Stator coolant temperature
and conductivity (12) Stator-winding temperature (13) Collector air
temperatures (14) Turbine gland sealing pressure (15) Gland steam condenser
vacuum (16) Steam chest pressure (17) Seal oil pressure Steam Turbine
Components And Relative Equipments
88.88. The use of, and experience with, TSI assists in reducing operating costs of
the generation units by: Reducing Turbine Roll Time: During the run-up and
coast-down of large turbines, there are extensive soak periods to ensure
stationary and rotating parts thermally expand equally. These periods are
usually of a conservative length, but times can be further reduced with
continuous and accurate measurement of key expansion clearances (and
related parameters) available with TSI systems. Time Between Overhauls: By
using precise TSI measurement information, in an outage, the exact amount of
work can be scheduled with reduced risk of unknown problems occurring after
the overhaul is completed. Steam Turbine Components And Relative
Equipments
89.89. Diagnostic and Troubleshooting The trending of TSI data provides the user
with the machines basic operating characteristics. Early detection of changes
in trended data and comparison to normal conditions allows decisions to be
made more quickly and inexpensively. More advanced analysis methods of this
same raw data can diagnose problems like mass unbalance, misalignment,
loose or broken parts, shaft cracks, seal rubs, and bearing instabilities caused
by improper lubrication or bearing design. Early identification of these problems
allows for corrections to be made at a time that is convenient to both the work
force and system load. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments
90.90. Automatic Shutdown Sometimes unanticipated problems arise quickly,
however, TSI has the capability to limit damage to the machine and protect
against total destruction or catastrophic failure. Confining damage flagged by
vibration can make the difference between a two week outage and three to six
months of down time. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments TSI
system measurements can be broken down into four major categories: Motion
Measurements Eddy current (proximity) probes, case mounted velocity
(seismic) transducers, shaft riders, and/or accelerometers can be used to
monitor vibrations. Monitoring points may include vibration on main turbine
generator and exciter, may also be used to measure rotor eccentricity.
91.91. Position Measurements Eddy current probes, LVDTs and linear/rotary
potentiometers can be used to monitor thrust bearing wear, rotor position,
casing (shell) expansion, differential expansion and control valve position.
Speed Measurements Active or passive electromagnetic or eddy current probes
can be used to monitor main turbine speed and acceleration, over-speed
detection, zero speed detection. Process Measurements Thermocouples or RTDs
can be used to monitor bearing white metal temperature, shell differential
temperature, and lube oil temperature. Piezoelectric or strain gauge pressure
transducers can be used to measure oil and hydraulic pressures. Steam Turbine
Components And Relative Equipments

92.92. Thermocouples for water Induction When water flows into the turbine due to
an unexpected accident, there occurs a difference in temperature between the
upper half and the lower half of the casing. As a result, (humped effect)
phenomenon is generated on the casing, giving great damages to HP and IP
casings, rotor blade, and thrust bearing. To detect any flow of water, therefore,
thermocouples are provided at several positions of the upper and lower parts of
the casing respectively to watch the difference in temperature between the
upper and lower parts of the casing. Steam Turbine Components And Relative
Equipments
93.93. At the time of cold starting of the turbine, there occurs a difference in
temperature between the internal and external surfaces of casing with
subsequent generation of thermal stress, which shortens the lives of turbine
parts, To control the lives of turbine parts, a thermocouple is provided at each
part of the casing for the purpose of carrying out life control for the parts. For
the information on the fitting positions, see the thermocouples mounting
drawings. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments
94.94. Principles Of Governing During operation of a Turbine-Generator Unit the
Load carried by the Generator may vary over time. In order to respond to
changing System Load demands the amount of steam directed to the Turbine
must be varied in proportion to each demand. The function of a governor is to
provide rapid automatic response to load variations. STEAM TURBINE SPEED
CONTROL
95.95. STEAM TURBINE SPEED CONTROL
96.96. STEAM TURBINE SPEED CONTROL The Speeder Gear of a Turbine Governor
In order to maintain the system frequency constant and at the same time allow
load variation to occur, it is necessary to be able to compensate for the loss of
speed experienced with increasing load and the speed increase which
accompanies load rejection. To achieve this a device is fitted in conjunction with
the governor which effectively changes the speed-load characteristic of the
turbine in such a way that speed effectively becomes independent of load. The
device is known as the speeder gear.
97.97. STEAM TURBINE SPEED CONTROL Relays In all but the smallest turbine, it is
necessary to use some means of amplifying the power of the governor in order
to maintain a small sensing and control device and yet still have the motive
force to position large sized throttle valves. The devices used as amplifiers are
known as relays. The most common type of relay uses an oil system employing
valve and a power piston. There are two types of these relays in use: Double
acting Single acting
98.98. System Features Application: D-EHC system can be applied to control,
protection and monitoring of steam turbines for various type of power plants
including conventional fossil-fired power plants, combined cycle plants, cogeneration plants, and atomic power plants. Powerful and reliable controllers:
High-speed control with state-of-the-art microprocessor based control system
Distributed and hierarchical architecture consists of; System controller, Master
controller, Programmable logic device, Valve interface Normal Operation: During
Normal Operation, the main stop valves, intermediate stop valves and intercept
valves are wide open. Operation of the T-G is under the control of the Electro-

Hydraulic Control (EHC) System. The EHC System is comprised of three basic
subsystems: the speed control unit, the load control unit, and the flow control
unit. The normal function of the EHC System is to generate the position signals
for the four main stop valves, four main control valves, and intermediate stop
valves and intercept valves. Steam Turbine Components And Relative
Equipments
99.99. Improved monitoring and operation ability: Windows-2000 based HMI
(Human Machine Interface) and IES (Integrated Engineering System) Standard
interface (RS232C Modbus, TCP/IP Ethernet, opc, etc.) with external systems
Fully automatic turbine startup sequences turbine is automatically started
based on start up sequence determined by inlet steam/turbine metal
temperature miss-match, which enables optimum operation and longer
equipment life. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments
100.
100. D-EHC System (Steam Turbine Startup) Auto Start Sequence Manual
Start Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments
101.
101. Turbine speed and Load Control Automatic Turbine Start-up
control Line Speed Matching Control Full Arc admission (FA)/Partial Arc
admission (PA) Transfer, if applicable Initial Pressure Regulator (IPR) Power
Load Unbalance (PLU) Turbine Trip Function Turbine Trip Initiation (Primary
overspeed, backup overspeed, EHC failure) Test Function (Valve Test,
Overspeed Trip Test, Back up Overspeed Trip Test) Control and monitoring
function of turbine generator auxiliaries Extraction Steam Pressure Regulation
(if applicable) Thermal Stress Calculation TSI (Turbine Supervisory
Instruments) monitoring Back up operation and monitoring at monitor panel of
EHC cabinet Interface with Distributed Control System (DCS) Prepared by
Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments
102.

102.

103.

103.

104.
104. The main stop valve is located in the main steam piping between
the boiler and the outlet piping to turbine control valve chest in turbine casing.
The main stop valve has one inlet and two identical outlet pipe connections.
Outlet pipes are welded directory. The primary function of the main stop valves
is to quickly shut off the steam flow to the turbine under emergency conditions
such as failure of the control valves to close on loss of load.
105.
105. The control valves are arranged into an upper and lower valve group
with each group mounted on common chest which is an integral part of the
upper and lower turbine outer shells. Each control valve admits steam from the
valve chest of its group to an individual nozzle box, after that controlled steam
flow into a particular section of the turbine first stage nozzles.
106.
106. During starting and loading operation without turbine bypass
system the intercept valves are operated fully opened for full arc admission
starting. They remain fully open during transfer of steam flow control to the
control valves, as well as all other periods of normal operation. The other side,
when turbine bypass system is available for the starting up and loading. The

intercept valves are used to control the steam flow to the intermediate turbine
in conjunction with the control valves. After the turbine bypass operation is
finished the intercept valves will be fully opened by EHC control system. The
primary function of the intercept valve is pre-emergency protection: however,
they also trip closed upon actuation of the emergency trip system. The
secondary one is to control the steam flow during the starting and loading with
turbine bypass system. The reheat stop valve is provided to quickly shut off the
steam flow storage in the reheater line to the turbine under emergency
condition.
107.
107. Two combined reheat valves are provided, one in each hot reheat
line. Supplying reheat steam to the turbine. As the name implies. The combined
valve is actually two valve. The intercept valve and the reheat stop valve,
incorporated in one valve casing. Although they utilize a common valve casing,
these valves provide entirely different functions.
108.
108. The motor driven turning gear is mounted on the turbine bearing
cap, adjacent to the turbine-generator coupling so as to mesh with a bull gear
(spacer disk gear type). Which is bolted between the turbine- generator
coupling faces. The primary function of the turning gear is to rotate the turbinegenerator shaft slowly and continuously during shutdown periods when rotor
temperature changes occur. Turning Gear Driven Motor Turning Gear Driven
Chain Turning Gear Turning Gear Oil Supply
109.
109. When the turbine is shutdown, cooling of its inner elements is
continues for many hours. If the rotor is allowed to remain stationary during this
cooling period, distortion begins almost immediately. This distortion is caused
by the flow of hot vapors to the upper part of the turbine casing, resulting in the
upper half of the turbine being at a higher temperature than the lower half. The
parts do not return to their normal position until the turbine has cooled to the
point where both the upper and lower halves are at approximately the same
temperature.
110.
110. Water induction can happen at any time; however the most common
situations are during transients such as start up, shut down and load changes.
In figure illustrates the percentage of times various events contribute to water
induction for a conventional steam cycle. It is interesting that only 18 percent of
water induction incidents occur when the unit is at load. Turbine drains are
necessary to avoid slugging nozzles and blades inside the turbine with
condensate on start-up; this can break these components from impact. The
blades were designed to handle steam, not water. Turbine casing drains remove
the condensate from the turbine casing during warm-up, securing, maneuvering
and other low flow conditions.
111.
111. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments Turbine Water
Induction Protection (TWIP) Turbine Water Induction Protection, often
abbreviated as TWIP, is the broad category of equipment that is installed to
prevent water damage to steam turbines. Any connection to the turbine is a
potential source of water either by induction from external equipment or by
accumulation of condensed steam. Steam turbine damage by water induction is
a costly economic, safety and reliability concern. The American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) formed a committee to address this issue, and
the first standard was issued in 1972. ASME publication ASME TDP-1-1998 is
titled Recommended Practices for the prevention of Water Damage to Steam

Turbines used for Electric Power Generation. This practice covers the design,
operation, inspection, testing, and maintenance of these systems. TWIP
equipment is installed in the following power
112.
112. In Figure shows a typical drain pot with redundant level elements.
This configuration is typically used in "high risk" areas. One change in this
standard that is shown is the level sensing device, which is labeled as a level
element (LE). Drains should be installed at each low point in the motive steam
piping. Drain Pots are recommended at the following locations to enhance
condensate collection: Cold reheat line at first low point downstream of the
steam turbine exhaust. (This application requires redundant level elements.)
Motive steam lines that operate (admit steam to the steam turbine
continuously) with less than 100 F (56 C) superheat unless a continuous drain
has been provided. (This application requires redundant level elements.) Motive
steam lines with attemperators - e.g. attemperator in HP steam line. The drain
pot should be between the attemperator and the steam turbine. (This
application requires redundant level
113.
113. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments Turbine Water
Induction Protection (TWIP) 1. Main steam system, piping and drains 6. Turbine
drain systems 2. Reheat steam systems, piping and drains 7. Turbine steam seal
system, piping and drains 3. Reheat attemperating system 8. Main steam
attemperator sprays 4. Turbine extraction systems, piping and drains 9. Start-up
systems 5. Feedwater heaters, piping and drains 10. Condenser steam and
water dumps. TWIP equipment is installed in the following power plant systems:
Avoid discharging high-energy bypass steam into the area between the
condenser hotwell and the tube bundle Locate the curtain spray and bypass
sprayer a safe distance from the condenser tube bundles to allow a sufficient
reduction in kinetic energy, so that high-energy steam does not reach areas
above and below the tube bundles and cause a recirculation backflow with
entrained water toward the turbine. Determine an incidence angle of highenergy steam jets that will avoid reflected velocity vectors toward the turbine
exhaust.
114.
114. Water induction damage Water induction can damage steam
turbines in several ways. The damage can be caused by the impact of large
slugs of water or by the quenching effect of cold water on hot metal. The
severity of water damage can vary from minor seal rubs all the way to
catastrophic damage to the turbine. Generally, water damage falls into the
following categories: Thrust bearing failure Damaged blades Thermal cracking
Rub damage Permanent warping distortion Secondary effects Secondary effects
include items such as seal packing ring damage, pipe hangar and support
damage, damage to instrumentation and controls, etc.
115.
115. Sources of water induction Water can be inducted into a steam
turbine from several sources. The following are some of the most common
sources of water: Motive steam systems Steam attemperation systems Turbine
extraction/admission systems Feedwater heaters Turbine drain system Turbine
steam seal system Start-up systems Condenser steam and water dumps (steam
bypass) Steam generator sources
116.
116. Turbine bypass systems should be provided with the same level of
protection as motive steam piping. These should include drains and drain pots
(if applicable) with power-operated drain valves. Attemperators in bypass

systems that discharge to the cold reheat system (or any other line connected
back to the steam turbine) should be designed to the same requirements on
motive steam system attemperators. Non-return valves should be provided in
the cold reheat system to prevent the reverse flow of bypass steam into the
steam turbine. Designers should carefully consider the location, design and
orientation of large steam dumps (such as turbine bypasses) into the
condenser. Turbine Bypass system
117.
117. The atmospheric relief diaphragm is a safety feature which protects
the exhaust hood and condenser against excessive steam pressure in case the
condenser water for any reason is lost. The device consists of hard rolled silver
bearing copper sheet of sufficient area to pass full throttle steam flow at a safe
protective pressure. In normal operation of the turbine with proper vacuum
conditions, the diaphragm is dished inward against the supporting grid by
atmospheric pressure should the vacuum conditions fail for any reason and the
internal exhaust hood pressure raise to approximately 5 psig, it would force the
diaphragm outward against the cutting knife. The diaphragm would be cut free
as a disk relieving the exhaust pressure to atmosphere. Steam Turbine
Components And Relative Equipments
118.

118. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments

119.

119. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments

120.
120. Function The function of lubrication is to interpose a film of lubricant
such as grease or oil between the moving surfaces in a bearing. Lubrication
reduces friction, minimizes wear, provides cooling and excludes water and
contaminants from bearing components. The protection of rotating heavy
machinery depends greatly on the effective operation and supervision of
lubricating oil systems and bearings. Steam Turbine Components And Relative
Equipments
121.
121. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments Establishment
of Oil Film Oil lubricated bearings rely on the physical separation of the two
bearing surfaces by a thin film or wedge of oil. In order to establish and
maintain this oil film the following conditions must be established. 1) There
must be relative motion between the two beari ng surfaces to build up sufficient
pressure within the oil to prevent the film breaking down. 2) There must be an
uninterrupted supply of oil available to the bearing. 3) The bearing surfaces
must not be parallel and need a narrow angle between them. This is to enable
the oil to be shaped into a thin wedge tapering off in the direction of the motion
122.
122. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments Oil Film
Dynamics 1). With the shaft at rest the journal lies in the bottom of the bearing.
The weight of the shaft tends to squeeze the oil out of the bearing so that metal
to metal contact occurs. 2). As the shaft commences to rotate the first action of
the journal is to climb up the bearing wall until it begins to slip and some metal
to metal contact occurs. 3) As the shaft continues to increase in speed the oil is
dragged around by virtue of viscosity until it forms a thin oil wedge. it's
123.
123. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments Oil Film
Dynamics 4) With the shaft now at final or rated speed the increased pumping
action on the oil increases the journal internal oil pressure. This displaces the

journal from the central position in the bearing enabling an ideal oil wedge to be
created.
124.
124. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments Components
of a Turbine Lubricating Oil System Main Oil Tank Oil Purification Systems
Oil Pumps Oil Coolers Strainers / Filters Instrumentation Jacking Oil
Pumps Hydraulic Accumulator
125.

125. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments

126.
126. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments The purpose
of the gland steam system is to reduce steam leakage to a minimum and to
prevent air ingress. Or Function of the gland sealing system falls into two
categories: Seal the turbine glands under all operating conditions Extract
leak-off steam from the turbine glands.
127.
127. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments Steam
leakage leads to the requirement for increased make up; this increases the load
on the feed and boiler water treatment chemicals and to a deterioration of the
working environment surrounding the power plant. Air ingress leads to a loss of
vacuum and hence reduction in plant efficiency, and causes problems of
thermal stressing around the gland as well as increases oxygen content of the
exhaust steam.
128.
128. Steam Turbine Components And Relative Equipments Gland Steam
Condenser The gland steam condenser is cooled by the condensate extracted
from the main condenser and so acting as a feed heater. The gland steam often
shares its condenser with the air ejector reducing the cost of having two units. A
fan is fitted to induce a flow through the system without incurring a negative
pressure in the final pocket as this would allow the ingress of air. This is ensured
by the fitting on valves to the exhaust line from the glands so enabling the back
pressure to be set.
129.
129. A surface condenser is a commonly used term for a water- cooled
shell and tube heat exchanger installed on the exhaust steam from a steam
turbine in thermal power stations. These condensers are heat exchangers which
convert steam from its gaseous to its liquid state at a pressure below
atmospheric pressure. Where cooling water is in short supply, an air-cooled
condenser is often used. An air- cooled condenser is however significantly more
expensive and cannot achieve as low a steam turbine exhaust pressure as a
water- cooled surface condenser.
130.
130. For water-cooled surface condensers, the shell's internal vacuum is
most commonly supplied by and maintained by an external steam jet ejector
system. Such an ejector system uses steam as the motive fluid to remove any
non-condensable gases that may be present in the surface condenser. The
Venturi effect, which is a particular case of Bernoulli's principle, applies to the
operation of steam jet ejectors. Motor driven mechanical vacuum pumps, such
as the liquid ring type, are also popular for this service.
131.

131.

132.
132. The purpose of a Vacuum Breaker Valve is to quickly allow air into
the vacuum space of the condenser and low pressure turbine exhaust hood. The
vacuum breaker valve is usually located on the steam turbine or the condenser
shell/transition. A vacuum breaker valve is typically operable by a controller
responsive to losses of load on the steam turbine. Once opened, the vacuum
breaker valve will allow air into the steam space to quickly reduce the existing
vacuum and hence reduce the acceleration of the steam turbine upon loss of
load by the generator.
133.
133. (1) Emergency trip pushbutton in control room (2) Boiler Trip,
Turbine trip (3) Low condenser vacuum (4) Low lube oil pressure (5) LP turbine
exhaust hood high temperature (6) Thrust bearing wear (7) Emergency trip at
front standard (8) Low hydraulic fluid pressure (9) Loss of EHC (10) Excessive
turbine shaft vibration (11) Loss of two speed signals - either Normal Speed
Control or Emergency Over speed Trip (12) Over Speed Trip 1 (13) Over Speed
Trip

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