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Culture Documents
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY
The technical descriptions, procedures, and computer programs in this book
have been developed with the greatest of care and they have been useful to the
author in a broad range of applications; however, they are provided as is, without warranty of any kind. Artech House, Inc. and the author and editors of the
book titled Detecting and Classifying Low Probability of Intercept Radar, Second
Edition make no warranties, expressed or implied, that the equations, programs,
and procedures in this book or its associated software are free of error, or are
consistent with any particular standard of merchantability, or will meet your
requirements for any particular application. They should not be relied upon for
solving a problem whose incorrect solution could result in injury to a person or
loss of property. Any use of the programs or procedures in such a manner is at
the users own risk. The editors, author, and publisher disclaim all liability for
direct, incidental, or consequent damages resulting from use of the programs or
procedures in this book or the associated software.
Phillip E. Pace
ISBN-13 978-1-59693-234-0
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Disclaimer:
This eBook does not include the ancillary media that was
packaged with the original printed version of the book.
To my wife,
Ann Marie Pace,
and
to our children,
Amanda, Zachary, and Molly
Contents
Foreword
xix
Preface
xxi
Acknowledgments
xxix
vii
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viii
2.3
2.4
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4 FMCW Radar
4.1 Advantages of FMCW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Single Antenna LPI Radar for Target Detection . . . . . .
4.3 Transmitted Waveform Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Triangular Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 Waveform Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3 Generating Linear FM Waveforms . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Receiver-Transmitter Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 Transmission Line Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.2 Single Antenna Isolation Using a Circulator . . . .
4.4.3 Single Antenna Isolation Using a Reflected Power
Canceler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 The Received Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 LPI Search Mode Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 Track Mode Processing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8 Eect of Sweep Nonlinearities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9 Moving Target Indication Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.10 Matched Receiver Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11 Mismatched Receiver Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table of Contents
ix
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7 Noise Techniques
7.1 Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Ultrawideband Considerations . . . . . .
7.3 Principles of Random Noise Radars . . .
7.4 Narayanan Random Noise Radar Design
7.4.1 Operating Characteristics . . . .
7.4.2 Model of RNR Transmitter . . .
7.4.3 Periodic Ambiguity Results . . .
7.5 Random Noise Plus FMCW Radar . . .
7.5.1 RNFR Spectrum . . . . . . . . .
7.5.2 Model of RNFR Transmitter . .
7.5.3 Periodic Ambiguity Results . . .
7.6 Random Noise FMCW Plus Sine . . . .
7.6.1 Model of RNFSR Transmitter . .
7.6.2 Periodic Ambiguity Results . . .
7.7 Random Binary Phase Modulation . . .
7.7.1 Model of RBPC Transmitter . .
7.7.2 Periodic Ambiguity Results . . .
7.8 Millimeter Wave Noise Radar . . . . . .
7.9 Correlation Receiver Techniques . . . .
7.9.1 Ideal Correlation . . . . . . . . .
7.9.2 Digital-Analog Correlation . . .
7.9.3 Fully Digital Correlation . . . . .
7.9.4 Acousto-Optic Correlation . . . .
7.10 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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8 Over-the-Horizon Radar
8.1 Two Types of OTHR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 Sky Wave OTHR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1 Characteristics of the Ionosphere . . . . . .
8.2.2 Example of F2-Layer Propagation . . . . .
8.2.3 Doppler Clutter Spectrum . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.4 Example Sky Wave OTHR System . . . . .
8.2.5 Sky Wave Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Sky Wave LPI Waveform Considerations . . . . . .
8.3.1 Phase Modulation Techniques . . . . . . . .
8.3.2 Costas Frequency Hopping . . . . . . . . .
8.3.3 Reducing the CIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.4 Multiple Waveform Repetition Frequencies
8.3.5 Out-of-Band Emission Suppression . . . . .
8.4 Sky Wave Maximum Detection Range . . . . . . .
8.5 Sky Wave Footprint Prediction . . . . . . . . . . .
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Table of Contents
8.6
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8.7
8.8
8.9
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xii
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Table of Contents
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
. . . .
Codes
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xiii
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16 Antiradiation Missiles
16.1 Suppression of Enemy Air Defense . . . . . . . . .
16.1.1 The Beginning of SEAD . . . . . . . . . . .
16.1.2 Early ARM Developments . . . . . . . . . .
16.1.3 Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.1.4 Post Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.1.5 Miniature Air-Launched Decoys . . . . . . .
16.2 Antiradiation Missile Seeker Design . . . . . . . . .
16.2.1 Antenna Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2.2 Receiver and Signal Processing . . . . . . .
16.2.3 Dual-Mode Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2.4 Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2.5 Future ARMsAddressing the LPI Emitter
16.3 ARM Performance Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4 Former Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact Allies . . .
16.4.1 AA-10 Alamo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.2 AS-4 Kitchen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.3 AS-5 Kelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.4 AS-6 Kingfish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.5 AS-9 Kyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.6 AS-11 Kilter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.7 Kh-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.8 AS-12 Kegler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4.9 AS-16 Kickback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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551
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553
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566
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Table of Contents
16.4.10 AS-17 Krypton . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5.1 Shrike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5.2 Standard ARM . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5.3 HARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5.4 AARGM . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5.5 Aordable Reactive Strike Missile
16.5.6 Sidearm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5.7 Rolling Airframe Missile . . . . . .
16.5.8 Army UAVs . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.6 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.7 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.8 Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.9 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.10 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.10.1 Harpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.10.2 STAR-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.11 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.12 Anti-ARM Techniques . . . . . . . . . . .
16.12.1 Decoys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.12.2 Gazetchik . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.12.3 AN/TLQ-32 ARM-D Decoy . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xv
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587
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616
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619
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642
647
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648
651
xvi
656
660
667
674
682
682
685
687
687
688
689
694
695
695
699
699
700
703
705
705
705
APPENDIXES
A Low Probability of Intercept Toolbox
709
A.1 Introduction to the LPIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
A.2 Naming Convention and Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
B Generating PAF Plots Using the LPIT Files
713
Table of Contents
xvii
731
733
741
745
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749
749
749
752
752
T3, and T4
759
. . . . . . . . . . . . 759
. . . . . . . . . . . . 763
. . . . . . . . . . . . 763
771
773
777
L QMFB
L.1 P1
L.2 P2
L.3 P3
L.4 P4
Results
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
for P1,
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P2, P3,
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and
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P4
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781
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782
788
797
805
809
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813
813
816
816
816
xviii
821
821
821
823
List of Symbols
829
Glossary
841
847
Index
849
Foreword
xx
Preface
Introduction
xxii
advances in LPI radar technology have pushed the door open for the design of extremely sensitive intercept receivers and high-speed signal processors for autonomous LPI emitter detection, classification, and counter-LPI
operations.
Whats New
LPI radar techniques added to this second edition include; random noise radar
waveforms, their periodic ambiguity characteristics, and the dierent types
of correlation receivers used (Chapter 7); sky wave and surface wave overthe-horizon radar systems and their move away from the traditional waveforms to the incorporation of new LPI modulations (Chapter 8); netted LPI
radar sensors and orthogonal polyphase modulations, network-centric warfare
principles, frequency hopping waveforms, and information network analysis
(Chapter 10).
New intercept receiver strategies and signal processing algorithms supplied
in the second edition include; the Choi-Williams time-frequency analysis of
LPI waveforms (Chapter 13); antiradiation missiles and the new seeker designs for detecting LPI emitters (Chapter 16); autonomous feature
extraction and classification algorithms for identifying the intercepted modulation (Chapter 17); and autonomous modulation parameter extraction signal
processing (Chapter 18).
A distinguishing feature of this book is investigating the LPI techniques
that go beyond the use of a single emitter and use a network to integrate several distributed sensors to provide additional aspects of the target. Employing
a sensor network can unfold new capabilities in many important applications.
Secondly, this book examines extending the detection and classification algorithms to execute autonomously, independent of any human interpretation to
the extent desired. Executing these modulation decisions autonomously can
draw these techniques closer to providing the intercept receiver the real-time
response capability needed for fast, reactive counter-LPI.
Course Structure
The book is written to serve not only as a textbook, but also as a reference for
the practicing radar and digital intercept receiver design engineer. The layout
was intended to be applicable to many dierent course structures including,
a one-semester (two quarters) course of study in low probability of intercept
radar systems design (Part I) and the noncooperative detection and classification of these types of emitters (Part II). The book is especially appropriate
for 2-, 3-, and 4-day short courses. For the prerequisites, it is assumed that
the student has at least senior-level academic experience in engineering and
Preface
xxiii
mathematics, and has the ability to write and run computer programs. A
course in radar and a course in signal processing would provide a very useful
background.
xxiv
PART I:
Fundamentals of LPI Radar Design
In Chapter 1, an introduction to LPI radar is presented which provides the
reasons for the LPI requirement that include advanced intercept receivers
and the threat of antiradiation missiles. The characteristics of LPI radar
that distinguish them from conventional radar are also presented, as well as
the LPI radar architectures emphasizing continuous waveform (CW) radar.
The detection range of the LPI radar is examined and the advantage of the
LPI radar is quantified in terms of the intercept range and processing gain.
To illustrate the analysis, several examples using the Pilot LPI radar are
presented.
In Chapter 2, an updated and comprehensive review of the applications
that utilize LPI radar technology is presented. Applications include altimeters, surveillance, navigation, and landing radar for unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs). Also discussed are the tactical multimode airborne radar, antiship
capable missile (ASCM) seekers, and torpedo seekers.
In Chapter 3, the ambiguity analysis of LPI waveforms is introduced in
order to quantify their delay-Doppler properties. The concepts are used
throughout Part I to examine the various waveforms being studied. The
mathematical tools include the autocorrelation function (ACF), the periodic
autocorrelation function (PACF), and the periodic ambiguity function (PAF).
The eect of weighting functions on the PAF is also discussed. The low probability of intercept toolbox (LPIT) is a collection of MATLAB routines that
enable the student to quickly design all of the LPI waveforms. The LPIT is
introduced in Appendix A. Appendix B discusses the download of MATLAB
code from N. Levanons Web site in order to compute the ACF, PACF, and
PAF.
Chapter 4 investigates the characteristics of frequency modulation CW
(FMCW) LPI radar. A detailed architecture is analyzed. Mathematical formulations of the transmitted waveform and the received signal are developed,
and there is an analysis of the receiver-transmitter isolation problems being
overcome (single antenna systems). The search mode signal processing is
described, including the details of the system components (e.g., filter bandwidths, analog-to-digital converter speeds, and so forth). Track mode processing techniques are also presented. Nonlinearities in the frequency sweep waveform are addressed, and the PAF of the FMCW is analyzed. As an example
of an FMCW LPI radar, details of the Parallel Array for Numerous Dierent Operational Research Activities (PANDORA) are presented. Finally, the
technology trends and latest developments in FMCW emitters are presented.
Preface
xxv
xxvi
PART II:
Intercept Receiver Strategies and Signal
Processing
To begin Part II, Chapter 11 takes a look at (noncooperative) digital intercept
receiver strategies. The trend today is toward the all-digital receiver with
the analog-to-digital conversion taking place directly at the antenna (direct
conversion). Network-centric and swarm intercept strategies are discussed.
The trade-os of various receiver architectures is presented and a new digital
analog-to-information receiver is discussed. Problems that intercept receivers
must deal with are presented as well as future trends in intercept receiver
architectures. For the remaining chapters, it is assumed that the sampled
signal is available within bulk memory of the receiver, and used as input to
the signal processor.
Chapter 12 examines the Wigner-Ville distribution (WD) time-frequency
analysis technique, including an ecient kernel transformation that helps
speed up the computation time. Two small examples are carried through
(real input signal and complex input signal) to demonstrate the WD timefrequency calculation. A two-tone input signal is analyzed to further the understanding of the WD output and to demonstrate the presence of the cross
term. Although not an LPI waveform, the binary PSK (BPSK) signal is analyzed first for various signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs), so that the WD results
can be verified and compared to other phase coding techniques. Extraction of
the signal parameters such as code period, subcode period, number of phase
codes, carrier frequency, and signal bandwidth is developed. The LPI waveforms developed in Part I are analyzed. These include the FMCW technique
and the phase coding techniques: Frank, P1, P2, P3, and P4. The advanced
phase coding techniques where the subcode width is not uniform throughout
the code period are examined next. These include the T1(n) through T4(n).
Using the WD, it is shown that the numerous LPI signals can be distinguished
and the signal parameters can be extracted, even for moderately low SNR.
The frequency coding techniques are examined last and include Costas sequences (FSK), Costas sequences with phase modulation (FSK/PSK), and
the target matched FSK/PSK signals.
In Chapter 13, the Choi-Williams distribution is presented. Using an exponential kernel and the same transformation as outlined for the Wigner-Ville
distribution, the amplitude of the cross terms is significantly reduced making
the identification of the modulation parameters easier. The LPI modulations
are calculated using the Choi-Williams to quantify the amplitude reduction
of the cross terms and to compare the results with those shown in Chapter
12. LPI modulations examined include FMCW, BPSK and polyphase modulations. Also examined are polytime, FSK, and FSK/PSK modulations.
Preface
xxvii
xxviii
Final Message
Every attempt has been made to ensure the accuracy of all materials in this
book, including the many MATLAB programs contained on the CD. I would,
however, appreciate readers bringing to my attention any errors that may
appear.
I have been extremely gratified by the tremendous success of this text.
The many improvements and additions in the second edition have been made
possible by the feedback and suggestions of a large number of instructors and
students at many companies and universities.
Finally, on a personal note, it continues to be very encouraging to learn
that many people working with or having to learn about detecting and classifying LPI radar systems have found the first edition useful. It is still my
hope that this second edition, with its new chapters and additional software,
will be of value not only to new readers, but will also be worthwhile to those
who have already read the first edition.
Acknowledgments
This book would not have been possible without the help, encouragement,
and support received during its preparation. First, I thank God for giving me
the strength and endurance to complete this work. I would also like to thank
my family Ann, Amanda, Zachary, and Molly. I could not have completed this
enormous task without their support, patience, sacrifice, and understanding
for the many hours of neglect during the completion of the first and second
editions of this book and it is to them to whom this book is dedicated.
I would also like to thank the following people who were invaluable in
reviewing the first edition of this work. Foremost, I would like to thank
Dr. David K. Barton, ANRO Engineering Inc., and Dr. Richard G. Wiley,
Research Associates of Syracuse, Inc., for taking the time to oer numerous
helpful suggestions that improved the quality of the manuscript. Many thanks
also go to Professor Nadav Levanon, Tel Aviv University, for working with
me tirelessly on the ambiguity analysis, and to Professor Herschel H. Loomis
Jr., Naval Postgraduate School, for helpful discussions in cyclostationary signal processing. I am also grateful to Professor David Styer, University of
Cincinnati, for sharing his insights into the world of number theory.
Reviewers for various portions of this second edition include Dr. Carlo
Kopp, defense analyst and consulting engineer, Air Power Australia for his
insights into antiradiation weapons, Dr. Ram Narayanan, Penn State University for his help with noise radar concepts, Dr. Jerey B. Knorr, Naval
Postgraduate School, for his many years of experience in the HF world, and
again Dr. David Barton, and Dr. Richard Wiley. I would also like to thank
graduate students Fernando Taboada, Antonio Lima, Jen Gau, Pedro Jarpa,
xxix
xxx
Siew-Yam Yeo, and Christer Persson, Taylan Gulum, You-Chen, Bin-Yi Liu,
You-Quan Chen, Teresa and Gary Upperman, Patrick Kistner, Eugene R.
Heuschel III, Micael Grahn, Jason Phillips, Pick Guan Hui, and Sharon Ai
Lin Tan for their eort in helping develop the software tools, and the many
graduate students who have contributed their valuable time to understanding
the results in the text.
I am also very grateful to the sta of Artech House, especially Mark
Walsh, senior acquisitions editor, for his interest, support, and cooperation
of this second edition; Barbara Lovenvirth, developmental editor, for helping
me along; Erin Donahue, production editor, for the production of the book;
and Igor Valdman, for managing the production of the cover. It has been a
satisfying but sometimes overwhelming task.
Phillip E. Pace
Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, CA
pepace@nps.edu
PART I:
FUNDAMENTALS OF LPI RADAR DESIGN
Chapter 1
1.1
Many users of radar today are specifying a low probability of intercept (LPI)
and low probability of identification (LPID) as an important tactical requirement. As of 2008, the ANSI/IEEE Standard 686: Radar Terms and Definitions, does not address this type of radar. The term LPI is that property of a
radar that, because of its low power, wide bandwidth, frequency variability,
or other design attributes, makes it dicult for it to be detected by means of
a passive intercept receiver. An LPID radar is an LPI radar with a waveform
that makes it dicult for an intercept receiver to correctly identify the parameters and radar type. More formal definitions for LPI and LPID are oered
below:
Definition 1.1
A low probability of intercept (LPI) radar is defined as a radar
that uses a special emitted waveform intended to prevent a noncooperative intercept receiver from intercepting and detecting its
emission.
3
Definition 1.2
Low probability of identification (LPID) radar is defined as a radar
that uses a special emitted waveform intended to prevent a noncooperative intercept receiver from intercepting and detecting its
emission but if intercepted, makes identification of the emitted
waveform modulation and its parameters dicult.
According to the definitions 1.1 and 1.2 above, an LPID radar is an LPI
radar but and LPI radar is not necessarily an LPID radar. It follows that the
LPI and LPID radar attempts detection of targets at longer ranges than the
intercept receiver can accomplish detection/jamming of the radar [13]. It is
important to note that defining a radar to be LPI and/or LPID necessarily
involves the definition of the corresponding intercept receiver. That is, the
success of an LPI radar is measured by how hard it is for the intercept receiver
to detect/intercept the radar emissions.
The LPI requirement is in response to the increase in capability of modern
intercept receivers to detect and locate a radar emitter [4]. One thing is for
certain. For every improvement in LPI radar, improvements in intercept receiver design can be expected (which is why this book addresses both areas).
In applications such as altimeters, tactical airborne targeting, surveillance,
and navigation, the interception of the radar transmission can quickly lead
to electronic attack (or jamming) if the parameters of the emitter can be
determined. Due to the wideband nature of these pulse compression waveforms, however, this is typically a dicult task. The LPI requirement is also
in response to the ever-present threat of being destroyed by precision guided
munitions and antiradiation missiles (ARMs). ARMs are designed to home
in on active, ground-based, airborne or shipboard radars, and disable them
by destroying their antenna systems and/or killing or wounding their operator crews [4]. ARMs are typically used for suppression of enemy air defense
(SEAD). The intercept receiver on board the aircraft (or the ARM system
itself) locates the victim radar. The victim radar is then designated to the
ARM if the parameters of the intercepted signal are correct. In Chapter
16, a thorough treatment of the ARM threat and the new signal processing
techniques to counter the LPI emitter are presented.
The denial of signal intercept protects the emitters from most of these
types of threats and is the objective of using a low probability of intercept
waveform. Since LPI radar tries to use signals that are dicult to intercept and/or identify, they have dierent design characteristics compared to
conventional radar systems. These characteristics are discussed below.
1.2
Many combined features help the LPI radar prevent its detection by modern
intercept receivers. These features are centered on the antenna (antenna
pattern and scan patterns) and the transmitter (radiated waveform).
1.2.1
Antenna Considerations
The antenna is the interface, or connecting link, between some guiding system
and (usually) free space. Its function is to either radiate electromagnetic
energy (the transmitter feeds the guiding system) or receive electromagnetic
energy (the guiding system feeds a receiving system). The antenna pattern is
the electric field radiated as a function of the angle measured from boresight
(center of the beam). The various parts of a radiation pattern are referred
to as lobes that may be subclassified into main, side, and back lobes [5].
The main lobe is defined as the lobe containing the direction of maximum
radiation. The side lobe is a radiation lobe in any direction other than the
intended lobe. A back lobe refers to a lobe that occupies the hemisphere in
a direction opposite to that of the main lobe. The side lobe level is usually
expressed as a ratio of the power density in the lobe in question to that of the
main lobe. That is, the side lobe level is amplitude of the side lobe normalized
to the main beam peak. The highest side lobe is usually that lobe closest to
the main beam. It is also convenient to use the side lobe ratio (SLR) which
is the inverse of the side lobe level.
The radiation intensity of an antenna is the power per unit solid angle.
The power gain of an antennas main lobe is defined as 4 times the ratio of
the radiation intensity in the maximum direction to the net power accepted
by the antenna from the transmitter. The power gain can be estimated closely
using Krauss approximation [5]
G=
4
a e
(1.1)
where a is the half-power beamwidth in the azimuth plane, e is the halfpower beamwidth in the elevation plane (in radians), and is the antenna
aperture eciency
Prad
(1.2)
=
Pin
or the ratio of the radiated power of the antenna to the total input power.
The half-power beamwidth is the angle between two directions in which the
radiation intensity is one-half the maximum value of the beam. The gain of
the antenna can also be approximated using the physical aperture area A as
G
4A
2
0.88
da , de
(1.3)
where da is the aperture dimension in the azimuth plane and de is the aperture
dimension in the elevation plane (same dimensions as ).
There are two types of antenna beams that can be used. These are the pencil beam and the fan beam. The pencil beam antenna pattern has a beamwidth
in the horizontal plane that is approximately equal to the beamwidth in the
vertical plane (e a ). The beamwidth for a radar pencil beam is generally
only a few degrees, since a small angular resolution is usually desired. From
(1.3), the resolution depends on the aperture size as well as the wavelength of
operation. For the fan beam pattern, one angular dimension is smaller than
the other (usually a < e to maintain good angular resolution in azimuth).
The bandwidth of the antenna is defined as the range of frequencies for
which the performance of the antenna conforms to a specific standard. It is
usually specified as a range of frequencies about the center frequency of radiation. The polarization of a radiated waveform is that property of the wave
that describes the time-varying direction and relative magnitude of the electric field vector (the curve traced by the instantaneous electric field vector).
Polarization of the radiation can be linear, circular, or elliptical. Polarization
modulation can also reduce the probability of intercept.
A phased array is an array antenna whose beam direction or radiation
pattern is controlled primarily by the relative phases of the excitation coefficients of the radiating elements. A single multifunction phased array radar
system can perform surveillance, fire control, communications, and electronic
warfare without requiring separate radars and antennas for these functions.
Phased arrays generally have bandwidths less than 10% and are steered by
using passive phase shifters that are controlled over electrical paths (usually
by digital signals).
More advanced phased arrays are being developed where the transmit and
receive modules employ photonic switching (at optical frequencies), allowing
high accuracy pointing and instantaneous beam positioning. They also allow multiple pulse compression modulation signals to be scanned over large
angles. An example of a recent pioneering development is shown in Figure
1.1. This figure shows the phased array used in the F-22 multimode fire
control radar [6]. The F-22s AN/APG-77 electronically scanned array antenna is composed of several thousand transmit/receive modules, circulators,
radiators, and manifolds assembled into subarrays and then integrated into
a complete array. The baseline design used thousands of hand-soldered flex
circuit interconnects to make the numerous radio frequency, digital, and direct current connections between the components and manifolds that make
Figure 1.1: Phased array antenna for the F-22 multimode radar [6].
up the subarray. The phased array aids the APG-77 with the capability to
transmit an LPI waveform. More of these types of systems are discussed in
Chapter 2.
1.2.2
The fields radiated from a linear array are a superposition (sum) of the fields
radiated by each element in the presence of the other elements. Each element
has an excitation parameter (current for a dipole, voltage for a slot, and mode
voltage for a multiple-mode element) [7]. The excitation of each element in
the aperture has a dierent amplitude and phase and is known as the aperture
distribution. The far-field radiation pattern is the discrete Fourier transform
of the array excitation. The array pattern can be written as
F (u) =
Ne
3
An ej2(n1)u
(1.4)
n=1
where An are the excitation coecients of the array which has Ne elements
and
d
(1.5)
u = (sin sin 0 )
and represents the angle from broadside, d the element spacing, and u the
array variable. The main lobe peak is at 0 . Using
w = ej2u
(1.6)
Ne
3
An wn1
(1.7)
n=1
If the aperture excitation is uniform (An = 1), it can be shown that [7]
F (u) =
(1.8)
In this case the radiation intensity has a (sin x/x)2 pattern. The field strength
voltage pattern has a sin x/x pattern with a highest side lobe level of
13 dB.
The LPI antenna must have a transmit radiation pattern with very low
side lobes. The low side lobes in the transmit pattern reduce the possibility
of an intercept receiver detecting the radio frequency (RF) emissions from
the side lobe structures of the antenna pattern. The important general rules
for developing low side lobe antennas are [7]:
Symmetric amplitude distributions give lower side lobes.
F (u) should be an entire function of u.
A distribution with a pedestal produces a far-out side lobe envelope of
1/u.
A distribution going linearly to zero at the ends produces a far-out side
lobe envelope of 1/u2 .
A distribution that is nonzero at the ends (pedestal) is more ecient.
Zeros should be real (located on the unit circle).
Far-out zeros should be separated by unity (in u).
By applying a tapered (apodized) excitation from the center to the ends
of the antenna, the side lobe level can be lowered below 13 dB. A level of
20 dB is normally acceptable, but with LPI radar, ultra-low side lobes are
required (45 dB). Table 1.1 shows three excitation tapers (cosine, triangular,
and parabolic) for a rectangular array of length d, and the resulting antenna
performance [8]. A circular array has similar numbers. Note that as the side
lobe level goes down (SLR gets larger), the beamwidth gets larger and the
antenna gain decreases.
Another significant aperture excitation is the Taylor distribution developed by T. T. Taylor in 1960 [9, 10]. Taylor realized that to produce a linear
aperture distribution with a side lobe envelope approximating a 1/u fallo,
the uniform amplitude sin x/x pattern could be used as a starting point by
realizing that the height of each side lobe is controlled by the spacing between
Relative
Gain
Full Null
Position
13.2
23.0
32.0
40.0
48.0
1.000
0.810
0.667
0.575
0.515
1.0/d
1.5/d
2.0/d
2.5/d
3.0/d
Triangular
G(x) = 1 |x|; |x| 1
1.28/d
Parabolic
G(x) = 1 (1 )x2 ; |x| < 1
26.4
0.75
2.0/d
= 1.0
= 0.8
= 0.5
=0
13.2
15.8
17.1
20.6
1.00
0.99
0.97
0.83
1.00/d
1.06/d
1.14/d
1.43/d
N
N
N
N
N
=0
=1
=2
=3
=4
0.88/d
1.20/d
1.45/d
1.66/d
1.94/d
0.88/d
0.92/d
0.97/d
1.15/d
the aperture pattern factor zeros on each side of the side lobe. That is, since
the sinc pattern has a 1/u side lobe envelope it is only necessary to modify the
close-in zeros to reduce the close-in side lobes. The shifting is accomplished
by setting zeros equal to
0
(1.9)
u = n2 + B 2
where B is a positive real parameter. The resulting pattern with the zeros
shifted can be written as
sinh B 2 u2
(1.10)
F (u) =
B 2 u2
for u B and
sin B 2 u2
F (u) =
B 2 u2
(1.11)
for u B and is a modified sinc pattern where the one parameter B controls
all of the characteristics (side lobe level, beamwidth, directivity and so forth).
Often known as the one-parameter Taylor scheme, the SLR (in decibels) can
be expressed as
sinh B
+ 13.2614
(1.12)
SLR = 20 log
B
10
B
0
0.3558
0.7386
1.0229
1.2762
1.5136
1.7415
1.9628
2.1793
3 (rad)
0.8858/d
0.9230/d
1.0238/d
1.1160/d
1.2004/d
1.2782/d
1.3504/d
1.4182/d
1.4822/d
The SLR for the Taylor weighting as a function of the B parameter, and the
3-dB beamwidth is shown in Table 1.2 as a function of the array length d and
the wavelength . Tables of circular aperture distributions and the design
process for the Taylor scheme are given in [11].
1.2.3
LPI radar systems are often identified by the type of scanning the emitter
uses. Scanning is the systematic movement of a radars antenna beam in a
particular pattern to search or track a target. The two methods of scanning
an antenna beam are mechanically and electronically. The antenna can be
mechanically scanned by using gimbals to move the entire antenna aperture in
any direction. Most often used are the two-dimensional arrays and parabolic
reflectors (where instead of moving the reflector, the reflector feed can be
nutated to provide the scan coverage needed). The antenna can also be electronically scanned by varying the phase between antenna elements (phased
array).
The simplest case of a search radar scan is the use of a stationary pencil
beam that is fixed in elevation and rotated mechanically at a scan rate of
r r s1 to obtain an a = 2 r coverage in azimuth and an e = e coverage in elevation. If range information is obtained for each beam position
in space, this is an example of a one-dimensional (1D) scan pattern. In this
case the antenna searches or scans a solid angle field of view or scan volume
s = a e = 2e sr (steradian). With a total solid angle coverage of the
sensor s sr, the number of resolution elements is this value divided by the
instantaneous field of view of the antenna or
nr =
s
a e
(1.13)
or 2/a . The elevation of the scan can also be changed after each complete
11
12
space that is illuminated by the transmitted radiation. The value of the dwell
time given by (1.14) is for one pencil beam scanning in azimuth and elevation.
If the radar system uses a stacked beam configuration to scan in azimuth and
elevation, the on target time will be increased by this factor
d =
nTf
nTf a e
=
s
nr
s
(1.15)
nTf a e
s
s Ls
(1.16)
Phased arrays provide the ability to form multiple beams at dierent frequencies to selectively search dierent portions of the scan volume. In most cases,
the transmit scan pattern of the LPI radar is controlled precisely to limit the
illumination time to short and infrequent intervals (aperiodic scan cycle). An
example of an LPI radar with this capability is described in the next section.
By subdividing the scan volume into Nd sections, with every sector simultaneously searched by a dierent stack of beams using a dierent frequency,
the dwell time in each beam direction can also be increased by a factor of Nd
(see p. 530 in [15]) as
nTf a e
s
(1.17)
d = Nd
s Ls
Figure 1.2(b) shows the multibeam sector scan where the same scan volume
s is divided into Nd sectors. For this technique (electronic scanning), each
sector has its own transmit-receive beam. Matching the coherent integration
time to the dwell time, the power emitted in any one beam direction can be
reduced by the factor 1/Nd .
To electronically scan a phased array antenna a progressive phase shift is
typically used [5]. To maintain a low side lobe level a method based on a
pattern search algorithm (PSA) has been recently proposed [16]. Instead of
an amplitude taper (such as a Taylor excitation), low side lobe scanning can
be achieved using a phase taper. The PSA is a direct search algorithm. By
defining a fitness function, the pattern search finds the best group of phase
variations to scan the main beam to the desired position while also reducing
the peak side lobe level [17].
Figure 1.2(c) shows a nonscanning single-beam transmit, multibeam receive array where enough receive beams are formed to completely fill the scan
volume s . This technique requires increased signal processing throughput
13
and uses a single beamwidth nonscanning transmit antenna with many simultaneous receive beams. Since no scanning is involved, the dwell time is
equal to the frame time
(1.18)
d = Tf s
One important flexibility with this pattern is that the transmitter does not
need to be colocated with the receive array. An example of an LPI radar that
uses this technique is the omnidirectional LPI radar (OLPI) [18, 19]. The
OLPI is discussed further in Chapter 5.
As discussed in Part II (Chapter 11 through Chapter 18) of the text, intercept receivers use a variety of strategies to identify the LPI radar, including
angle of arrival, carrier frequency, scan rate, modulation period, bandwidth,
and polarization. Randomly altering any of these parameters can therefore
provide confusion to the intercept receiver. Scan methodologies can be used
to help confuse identification if intercept occurs. For example, a scan technique that attempts to confuse identification might include amplitude modulation of a monopulse array at conical scan frequencies that are not considered
threatening. These types of scan methodologies require significant additional
processing requirements (and power) that limit the platforms that can carry
this type of capability.
1.2.4
A radar that has the capability of forming multiple beams is the advanced
multifunction RF concept (AMRFC). The AMRFC is a United States Navy
program to investigate the capability to integrate radar (including an LPI
navigation radar in the high band 4.518.0 GHz), electronic warfare, and
communication functions into a common set of wideband, low power level
RF apertures, where the functionality is mostly defined by the software [20].
Consequently, the AMRFC reduces the number of topside RF system antenna
apertures while increasing the eective functionality (through software), as
well as increasing the capability for ship signature control/reduction. The
AMRFC divides the frequency band into an optimal number of segments,
based on cost and functionality, and then utilizes separate transmit and receive apertures. The separate transmit and receive apertures allow full utilization of the entire time line for the transmitter as well as for the receiver.
The transmit array is composed of dynamically allocable subarrays that are
sectioned to form multiple simultaneous transmit beams. Since having more
than one signal present in a power amplifier is not currently feasible, each
transmit subarray is used by one function at a time. However, for the receive
array, more than one signal can be present simultaneously in a subarray.
The wideband arrays are electronically scanned and use solid state transmit and receive apertures. The use of the contiguous subarray architecture
using phase shifters at the element level and true time delays at the subar-
14
1.2.5
Transmitter Considerations
A conventional radar that uses a coherent pulse train has independent control of both range and Doppler resolution. This type of radar waveform
also exhibits a range window that can be inherently free of side lobes. The
main drawback of a coherent pulse train waveform is the high peak-to-average
power ratio put out by the transmitter. The average power is what determines the detection characteristics of the radar. For high average power, a
short pulse (high range resolution) transmitter must have a high peak power,
necessitating vacuum tubes and high voltages. The high peak power transmissions can also easily be detected by noncooperative intercept receivers.
The duty cycle dc for a pulsed emitter relates the average transmitted power
15
Pavg
Pt
(1.19)
(1.20)
16
1.2.6
Power Management
Another feature of the LPI transmitter is power management (one of the benefits to using a solid-state radar/phased array combination). Of course, the
best LPI strategy is to not radiate at all, but the next best strategy is to manage the power that is radiated. Power management is the ability to control the
power level emitted by the antenna, and limit the power to the appropriate
range/radar cross section detection requirement. The emissions are also limited in time (short dwell time). With the use of wideband pulse compression
CW emissions, it is only necessary to transmit a few watts (instead of tens of
kilowatts of peak power required by low duty cycle pulsed radars with similar
detection performance). The LPI radar operates under low SNR conditions
and it is important to recall that the radars ability to detect targets depends
17
1.2.7
18
to maximize the attenuation in order to mask the transmit signal and limit
reception by a hostile receiver (atmospheric attenuation shielding). Since the
physics of radar detection, however, depends only on the energy placed on
the target, LPI radars must still radiate sucient eective radiated power
(ERP) to accomplish detection. The loss for the radar due to atmospheric
absorption is over its total two-way path (out to the target and back), while
the interceptors loss is over the one-way path (from the radar to the intercept receiver). Because of the high absorption of the emitters energy, this
technique is always limited to short range systems. In the case of an intercept receiver on a radar target platform (such as a radar warning receiver),
the advantage lies with the interceptor, since there is only one-half the path
loss. Another approach to achieving a lower probability of interception is to
interleave the LPI radar mode with an infrared sensor (dual mode approach),
reducing the amount of time that the RF transmitter is radiating.
In summary, the important characteristics of LPI radar include wideband
CW emission, low antenna side lobes with infrequent scan modulation, or the
use of a broad nonscanning transmitting beam combined with a stationary set
of receive beams. Polarization modulation can also be used. The transmitter
uses a wideband modulation technique (for the range resolution desired) in
combination with power management and a strategic selection of frequency
to achieve the desired amount of atmospheric attenuation. That is, the wideband signals are diused in time, appearing in pseudorandom directions at
pseudorandom times.
1.3
The three general types of CW LPI radar architectures are the: (a) frequency modulating radar that includes FMCW and frequency shift keying
(hopping), (b) the phase modulating radar that includes polyphase modulation (polyphase shift keying) and polytime modulation, and (c) the radar that
is a combination of both (a) and (b). The FMCW radar architecture is now in
widespread use. A block diagram of an FMCW radar is shown in Figure 1.6.
The radar uses two antennas (one transmit and one receive). The transmitted
waveform for the FMCW radar is a linear (or nonlinear) frequency modulated
waveform, and can be generated by using a direct digital synthesizer. The
received waveform is amplified by a low noise amplifier (LNA) and correlated
(or mixed) with the transmit waveform in order to derive the target beat frequencies (homodyne detection). After the analog demodulation is used to
generate the intermediate frequency (IF) beat signals, they are digitized with
an analog-to-digital converter. The digital signal with input signal-to-noise
ratio SNRRi is processed by one or more fast Fourier transform signal processors to derive the range (and possibly Doppler) profile. As shown in Figure
1.6, a certain amount of integration is also commonly used to increase the
19
SNRRo
SNRRi
(1.21)
0.62
Pf a
(1.23)
20
and
B = ln
Pd
1 Pd
(1.24)
(1.25)
the processing gain is increased by NI . Also note that although Figure 1.6
shows an analog processing approach, the cross correlation (or homodyne detection) could also be done digitally. Additional details on FMCW LPI radar
design are discussed in Chapters 4, 7, 8, and 9.
A block diagram of a phase coded radar is shown in Figure 1.7. The
phase coded radar can also use a direct digital synthesizer to generate the
transmitted waveform. The phase coded radar transmit waveform is generated using various phase modulations and/or frequency modulations. The
target return signal is amplified and downconverted using a local oscillator
(LO), and digitized with an ADC. The digitized samples are then processed
by a digital compressor, which cross correlates the transmitted code with the
received signal. For phase modulation of a CW waveform using Nc number of subcodes, the processing gain is the code period, T , multiplied by the
transmitted bandwidth, 1/tb , where tb is the subcode period. That is,
P GR = T (1/tb ) = (Nc tb )/tb = Nc
(1.26)
In the phase coded radar, the return signal is compressed using digital techniques, and noncoherent integration will also add to this processing gain.
Additional details on phase shift keying radar are given in Chapter 5 and an
example of the processing gain distribution in a phase coded LPI radar is
given in Section 5.12.
Note that in the FMCW radar example shown in Figure 1.6, the return
signal from the target is compressed using an analog processor. Although
Figure 1.6 shows an analog processing approach, the processing could equally
well be digital. That is, the distinction between the two is the modulation, not
the method of processing or the location of the ADC in the receiver path. For
both the frequency modulation and phase modulation LPI radar, the transmitted CW signal is coded with a reference signal to spread the transmitted
energy in frequency, to avoid detection and identification by the noncooperative intercept receiver. The reference signal can take the form of either
21
22
Figure 1.8: CW transmitted waveform and receiver reference signal [24, 25].
shown is the reference signal of length N T used in the receiver to compress
the received signal. Increasing the number of receiver reference waveforms
N improves the target detection capabilities by increasing the resolution of
the receiver response. The ambiguity analysis in Chapter 3 investigates this
concept in more detail.
The LPI radar receiver can be modeled as a coherent correlation processor
of finite duration N T as shown in Figure 1.9 [27]. The return signal is received
by the correlation receiver containing a reference signal which is the conjugate
of N periods of the transmitted signal with N < P . The correlation receiver
performs a cross correlation between the received signal and a reference signal,
whose envelope is the complex conjugate of N periods of the transmitted
signal envelope. To do this, the return signal (a binary phase coded signal in
this example) is first processed by a filter matched to a rectangular subcode
of length tb , followed by a detector that sends forward a one or a zero. The
detected output signal is then piped through a tapped delay line where each
delay D is tb s. The signal in the tapped delay line is first multiplied by the
reference signal. The output of each multiplication is then summed separately
for each of the N code periods. The output of the sum block can then be
weighted as C1 through CN . With uniform weights, the first stage represents
the response of the receiver for a zero-Doppler shift signal ( = 0), and
is identical to the ideal autocorrelation function [26]. The response of the
receiver to a Doppler shifted signal is obtained from the second stage
by first multiplying the output (before addition) from the first stage with q 0
through q MN1 where q = ej2tb .
In phase coded CW radar systems, return signals with Doppler do not cor-
23
24
1.4
PCW
4R2
W/m
(1.27)
25
P DD =
W/m
(1.28)
(1.29)
where Rk is the range or path length in kilometers and is the one-way extinction coecient or power attenuation coecient in nepers per km (Np/km).
The one-way attenuation coecient as a function of frequency is shown in
Figure 1.5 in more useful engineering units (dB/km). To convert dB/km into
Np/km, multiply the attenuation coecient in Figure 1.5 by 0.23.
The reradiated power density reflected o a target with radar cross section
T (m2 ) at range RT and appearing back at the radar is
w
W
T
PCW Gt L2
P DDR =
W/m2
(1.30)
4RT2
4RT2
where RT is the range between the LPI radar and the target. The term
L2 (< 1) is the two-way atmospheric transmission factor
L2 = e2Rk
(1.31)
The LPI radar captures the reflected energy with its receive antenna. The
received signal power at the radar receiver from the target is
w
W
T
PCW Gt L2
Ae
(1.32)
PRT =
4RT2 LRT LRR 4RT2
where Ae is the eective area of the radar receive antenna and related to the
receive antenna gain Gr as
Gr 2
Ae =
(1.33)
4
and LRT is the loss between the radars transmitter and antenna, and LRR
is the loss between the radars antenna and receiver. Substituting (1.33) into
(1.32) gives the reflected power at the radar receiver as
PRT =
PCW Gt Gr 2 L2 T
(4)3 RT4 LRT LRR
(1.34)
26
PCW Gt Gr 2 T L2
(4)3 (R )LRT LRR
]1/4
(1.35)
(1.36)
PCW Gt Gr 2 T L2
=
(4)3 kT0 FR BRi (SNRRi )LRT LRR
]1/4
(1.37)
SNRRo
SNRRi
(1.38)
and depends on the particular waveform characteristics and integration techniques being used by the LPI radar. Note also that the sensitivity R can
be expressed as a function of the output signal-to-noise SNRRo required for
detection and the output bandwidth BRo as
R = kT0 FR BRo (SNRRo )
(1.39)
27
Figure 1.11: LPI radar maximum detection range for T =1, 10, 100 m2 .
1.5
Interception Range
From the configuration shown in Figure 1.10, the signal power available at
the intercept receiver from the LPI radar is
W
w
GI 2
PCW Gt L1
(1.40)
PIR =
4RI2 LRT LIR
4
where RI is the range from the LPI radar to the intercept receiver, and Gt is
the gain of the LPI radars transmit antenna in the direction of the intercept
receiver. Also, GI is the gain of the intercept receivers antenna, and LIR
represents the losses from the antenna to the receiver. If the intercept receiver
detects the radar main lobe, Gt = Gt . If the intercept receiver detects the
radar emission from the side lobes, Gt represents the gain of the antenna side
lobe in the intercept receiver direction. Replacing the signal power available,
PIR , by the intercept receivers sensitivity, I , the maximum interception
range of the receiver can be defined as
PCW Gt GI L1 2
(1.41)
RI max =
(4)2 LRT LIR (I )
where the sensitivity in the intercept receiver is similarly defined as
I = kT0 FI BI (SNRIi )
(1.42)
28
Figure 1.12: Block diagram of an intercept receiver model showing both the
predetection stage and the postdetection stage.
where FI is the intercept receiver noise factor, BI is the bandwidth of the
intercept receiver, and SNRIi is the SNR at the intercept receiver signal
processor input. The maximum interception range can then be expressed as
PCW Gt GI L1 2
(1.43)
RI max =
2
(4) LRT LIR kT0 FI BI (SNRIi )
Also recall that the intercept receiver processing gain P GI is defined as
P GI =
SNRIo
SNRIi
(1.44)
Contrary to communication or radar system receiver design where the bandwidth is matched to the known transmitted signal, the intercept receiver does
not know the exact nature of the threat signals. Figure 1.12 shows a block
diagram of an intercept receiver model showing the predetection stage and
the postdetection stage. The three major components include the RF (predetection) amplifier with bandwidth BIR , the detector (e.g., square law), and
the postdetection video amplifier with bandwidth BIV .
In the intercept receiver design it is most often necessary to match the
front-end RF bandwidth BIR to the largest coherent radar bandwidth expected, and to match the video bandwidth BIV to the inverse of the smallest
radar coherent integration time expected tI . Exact analysis of intercept receiver bandwidths and sensitivities is complicated. However, since the I in
(1.42) is dependent on the intercept receivers overall bandwidth, it is desirable to have an approximate expression for BI that includes the eects of
both the predetection and postdetection bandwidths. The approximate expressions have been derived by Klipper [28]. The bandwidth of the intercept
receiver for BIR >> BIV (which is typically the case) can be expressed as
0
(1.45)
BI = 2BIR BIV
29
10
2BIR BIV
2
(1.46)
(1.47)
1.6
The radar sensitivity R (1.36) and intercept receiver sensitivity I (1.42) can
be used to quantify the benefit of the LPI radar. The ratio of the intercept
receiver sensitivity to the radar sensitivity is
w
W
kT0 BI FI
SNRIi
I
(1.48)
=
=
R
kT0 BRi FR SNRRi
In terms of the processing gains and output signal-to-noise ratios, the ratio
of sensitivities can be expressed as
w
Ww
W
SNRIo
P GR
FI BI
(1.49)
=
FR BRo SNRRo
P GI
30
Figure 1.13: Intercept receiver with square law and linear detector BIV = 1
kHz, BIR = 60, and 120 MHz, showing maximum interception range for LPI
radar with PCW = 1W, Gt = 30 dB, and fc = 9.375 GHz.
Also, the sensitivity ratio can be written as a function of the radar and
intercept receiver antenna parameters as
=
4
T
Gt GI L1
Gt Gr L2
W w
2
RR
max
RI max
W2
(1.50)
and conveniently expresses the sensitivity ratio as a function of the maximum detection ranges. Note that this equation is independent of the radar
wavelength (directly) and the radars average transmit power.
To directly compare the radar detection range and the intercept receiver
detection range, we can solve (1.50) for the ratio of the two maximum detection ranges as
} w W
]1/2
1 4 Gt GI L1
RI max
= RR max
RR max
T Gt Gr L2
(1.51)
Here the ratio of the radar receiver sensitivity to the intercept receiver sensitivity () is in the denominator. If RI max /RR max < 1, then the radar can
be considered a quiet radar. If the ratio RI max /RR max = 1, then the radar
cannot be intercepted beyond the range at which it can detect targets. This
31
]1/2
} p Q
T L2 Gt Gr
=
4 L1 Gt GI
(1.52)
Note that this is the maximum detection range of the LPI radar without
being intercepted by the intercept receiver. This is also the noncooperative
receivers maximum intercept range. An example is developed next in order
to examine this result.
To illustrate (1.52), the detection of an LPI radar is considered with both
main lobe detection (Gt = Gt = 1,000) and side lobe detection with side
lobes Gt = 0.1 (40 dB below main beam). The target RCS T = 1m2 and
we consider that L2 = L1 = 1. The intercept receiver antenna gain GI = 1.
Figure 1.14 shows the sensitivity ratio as a function of the maximum detection
range for both main lobe intercepts and side lobe intercepts. The figure shows
the large dierence in the sensitivity ratio due to the dierence of detecting
the radar in the side lobes versus the main lobes. The figure shows that a
sensitivity ratio of 60 dB is required for a maximum radar detection range,
noncooperative intercept range of 104 m (intercept receiver intercepting the
main lobe). If the intercept receiver is required to intercept the radar in the
side lobes at this range, the intercept receiver must decrease the sensitivity
ratio from 60 dB to 20 dB. From (1.49), one of the ways this can happen
is when the intercept receiver increases its processing gain P GI which is
typically dicult to do without sophisticated signal processing techniques
(discussed in Part II).
1.7
32
Type:
Gain:
Side lobes:
Beamwidth (3 dB)
horizontal:
vertical:
Rotational speed:
Polarization:
Output power:
Frequency:
Range selection:
Frequency sweep:
Sweep repetition
frequency:
1 kHz
Receiver
IF bandwidth:
Noise figure:
512 kHz
5 dB
Processor Unit
Display System
Type:
Minimum eective
PPI diameter:
Resolution:
Tracking capacity:
Range ring accuracy:
Color
Transmitter
250 mm
768 1,024V
40
1.5% of selected scale or
50m, whichever is greater
33
34
PCW Gt Gr 2 T L2
4
(4)3 (RR
max )LRT LRR
(1.53)
(1.54)
35
(1.55)
R
= 0.013
kT0 FR BRi
(1.56)
or 19 dB.
Example 3: Processing Gain, Output SNR
For the maximum modulation bandwidth F = 55 MHz, we can calculate
the processing gain P GR and the output SNRRo . The processing gain for a
single sweep can be calculated from (1.25) as
P GR = tm F = 55,000
(1.57)
(1.58)
or 28 dB. The addition of noncoherent integration of more than one modulation period within the signal processor can increase the processing gain and
the SNRRo .
Example 4: Comparison with Conventional Pulsed Radar
If the emitter is a conventional low pulse repetition frequency (PRF) navigation radar with a peak power of Pt = 10 kW, pulse width of = 1 s, and
FR = 5 dB, neglecting losses, (a) determine the maximum detection range for
a T = 100m2 target if the minimum required receiver input signal-to-noise
ratio SNRRi = 1.7 dB and (b) for the intercept system above (I = 80
dBmi), determine the maximum intercept range (main lobe intercepts). For
(a), we can use (1.37) with PCW replaced by the peak power Pt = 10 kW and
36
Intercept Range
(km)
Intercept
Intercept
Intercept
I
I
I
40 dBmi 60 dBmi 80 dBmi
100 m2
target
1 m2
target
28
16
9.0
5.0
8.8
5.0
2.8
1.5
0.25
0
0
0
2.5
0.8
0.25
0
2.5
8.0
2.5
0.8
49.6
15.7
25
254
2.546
BRi = 1(106 ) = 1/ .2
Rconv
or
Rconv =
Pt Gt Gr 2 T L2
=
(4)3 kT0 FR BRi (SNRRi )
]1/4
(1.59)
]1/4
(1.60)
or Rconv = 49.6 km. For (b), the maximum intercept range can be determined
from (1.41) as
]1/2
}
Pt Gt GI L1 2
(1.61)
RI max =
(4)2 I LRT LIR
or
]1/2
}
10, 000 1(103 ) (1) (0.032)2
RI max =
(1.62)
(4)2 1011.0
or RI max = 2,546 km. A summary of the above results and other additional
calculations are shown in Table 1.4. Note that we use dBmi to represent dB
in mW with reference to a system containing an isotropic antenna GI = 1.
1.8
Concluding Remarks
37
codes Frank, P1, P2, P3, P4, and polytime codes T1, T2, T3, and T4. There
are several trade-os in the design of LPI emitters. The LPI modulations are
not inherently wideband (or narrowband). The radar designer chooses the
emitter bandwidth to achieve the range resolution properties needed. He also
chooses the particular code to get the ambiguity (delay Doppler frequency)
code properties needed. Implementation issues must also be addressed (such
as digital versus analog). The major question is how to get a 100% duty factor
and still get the desired range and velocity performance needed to perform
the mission.
A larger processing gain can be obtained by wideband coding of the transmitted waveform with a modulation that is known only to itself. What is
important is if the coding degrades the sensitivity of the intercept receiver
relative to the radar receiver. The coding may or may not have an eect on
the sensitivity ratio . For example, if the intercept receiver is a simple crystal video receiver, then the wideband coding has no eect on the intercept
receivers sensitivity. That is, the value of coding in LPI has to do with the
eect imposed on the interceptornot on the radar if it uses a matched filter.
The intercept receiver bandwidth BI is typically larger than the radars
coherent bandwidth in order to maximize the detection of the unknown signals
and perform well against large time-bandwidth signals. Also, the intercept
receivers noncoherent integration time should match the radars coherent
integration time. The design of the modern intercept receiver, however, is a
complicated issue due to the combined capability of an electronic support (ES)
receiver, radar warning receiver (RWR), and electronic intelligence (ELINT)
receiver in a single system, and many architectures are possible. These issues
are addressed in further detail in Part II.
References
[1] Wiley, R. G., Electronic Intelligence: The Interception of Radar Signals,
Artech House, Dedham, MA, 1985.
[2] Schleher, D. C., Low probability of intercept radar, Record of the IEEE
International Radar Conference, pp. 346349, 1985.
[3] Schrick, G., and Wiley, R. G., Interception of LPI radar signals, Record of
the IEEE International Radar Conference, Arlington, VA, pp. 108111, May
710, 1990.
[4] Rue, L. I., and Stott, G. F., LPI considerations for surveillance radars,
Proc. of the International Conference on Radar, Brighton, U.K., pp. 200
202, 1992.
[5] Balanis, C. A., Antenna Theory Analysis and Design, Harper and Row, Publishers, New York, 1982.
[6] http://www.f22fighter.com/radar.htm and
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/f-22-avionics.htm
(APG-77).
38
[10] Hansen, R. C., Tables of Taylor distributions for circular aperture antennas,
IRE Trans. on Antennas and Progagation, pp. 2326, Jan. 1960.
[11] Hansen, R. C., A one parameter circular aperture distribution with narrow
beamwidth and low sidelobes, IEEE Trans. on Antennas and Propagation,
pp. 477480, July, 1976.
[12] Skolnik, M. I., Introduction to Radar Systems, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill,
Boston, MA, 2001.
[13] http://www.naval-technology.com/contractors/weapon control/thales5/
(SMART-L).
[14] Pietrasinski, J. F., Brenner, T. W., and Lesnik, C. J., Selected tendencies
of modern radars and radar systems development, 12th International Conference on Microwaves and Radar, MIKON 98, Krakow, Poland, Vol. 1, pp.
133137, May 20-22, 1998.
[15] Stimson, G. W., Introduction to Airborne Radar, 2nd Edition, Scitech Publishing Inc., Mendham, NJ, 1998.
[16] Ebadi, S., Forouraghi, K., and Sattarzadef, S. A., Optimum low sidelobe
level phased array antenna design using pattern search algorithms, IEEE
International Symposium on Antennas and Propagation, pp. 770773, Vol.
1B, Washington DC, 2005.
[17] Ebadi, S., Forouraghi, K., Pattern scanning in low sidelobe phased array
antennas using pattern search algorithms, Proceedings of the 4th European
Radar Conference, pp. 347349, 2007.
[18] Wirth, W. D., Long term coherent integration for a floodlight radar, Record
of the IEEE International Radar Conference, pp. 698703, 1995.
[19] Wirth, W. D., Radar Techniques Using Array Antennas, IEE Radar, Sonar,
Navigation, and Avionics Series 10, 2001.
[20] Hughes, P. K., and Choe, J. Y., Overview of advanced multifunction RF
system (AMRFS), Proc. of the IEEE International Conference on Phased
Array Systems and Technology, pp. 2124, 2000.
[21] Ching-Tai Lin, and Ly, Hung, Sidelobe reduction through subarray overlapping for wideband arrays, Proc. of IEEE Radar Conference, pp. 228233
2001.
[22] Tavik, G. C., Hilterbrick, C. L., Evins, J. B., Alter, J. J., Crnkovich, J. G.,
de Graaf, J. W., Habicht, W., Hrin, G. P., Lessin, S. A., Wu, D. C., and
Hagewood, S. M., The advanced multifunction RF concept, IEEE Trans.
on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 53, No. 3, pp. 10091020, March
2005.
39
[23] Klein, L. A., Millimeter-Wave and Infrared Multisensor Design and Signal
Processing, Artech House, Inc., Norwood, MA, 1997.
[24] Levanon, N., and Freedman, A. Periodic ambiguity function of CW signals
with perfect periodic autocorrelation, IEEE Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 387395, April 1992.
[25] Levanon, N., and Getz, B., Weight eects on the periodic ambiguity function, IEEE Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 31, No. 1,
pp. 182193, July 1994.
[26] Levanon, N., CW alternatives to the coherent pulse trainsignals and processors, IEEE Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp.
387395, April 1992.
[27] Nathanson, F.E., Radar Design Principles, 2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,
1991.
[28] Klipper, H. Sensitivity of crystal video receivers with RF preamplification,
Microwave Journal pp. 8592, Aug. 1965.
[29] Beasley, P. D. L., and Stove, A. G., Pilot-an example of advanced FMCW
techniques, IEE Colloquium on High Time-Bandwidth Product Waveforms
in Radar and Sonar, pp. 10/110/5, May 1, 1991.
[30] Fuller, K. L., To see and not be seen, IEE Proc. F Radar, Sonar and,
Navigation Signal Processing, Vol. 137, Issue: 1, pp. 110, Feb. 1990.
[31] Pengelley, R. Philips Pilot, covert naval radar, International Defense Review, pp. 11771178, Sept. 1988.
[32] Lok, J. J, Navigation radars, sensors working overtime, Janes Defence
Weekly, pp. 3940, Oct. 1992.
[33] Scott, R., Covert operations: navies seek discreet radars for surveillance,
Janes International Defence Review, 9 Aug. 2006.
Problems
1. (a) Estimate the beamwidth in azimuth and elevation of a rectangular
array 10 cm by 10 cm if the wavelength is 3 cm. (b) Estimate the gain
of the antenna if the eciency is 90%.
2. An LPI radar has an active phased array antenna with a = e = 3 degrees and a total solid angle of coverage, s = 2.4 sr. (a) If the antenna
takes only 0.5s to cover the solid angle of coverage and the transmitted
CW signal is a low power phase-coded signal with 11 subcodes and a
code period of T = 11 s (repeats every 11 s), how many code periods
would be integrated in a correlation receiver? (b) If noncoherent integration is performed over the entire dwell time, what is the processing
gain of the radar?
40
Chapter 2
2.1
2.1.1
Altimeters
Introduction
In 1928, German inventor Paul Kollsman changed the world of aviation with
the invention of the worlds first accurate barometric altimeter, also called
the Kollsman Window. Barometric altimeters are operated by air pressure
but have two limitations: (a) If the atmospheric pressure changes while the
platform is in flight the altimeter reading will change, and (b) the barometric
altimeter indicates height above sea level, or some other preset level, and does
not reveal the actual platform altitude above the surface.
In 1924, Lloyd Espenschied invented the first radio altimeter. The radio altimeter is a device, most often used in aircraft and cruise missiles,
that makes use of the reflection of radio waves from the land or water to
41
42
determine the height of the platform above the surface. In 1938, the frequency modulation (FM) radio altimeter was first demonstrated in New York
by Bell Labs. In the first public display of the device, radio signals were
bounced o the ground, showing pilots the altitude of an aircraft.
Another choice for an altimeter is the use of a pulse-modulated radar. Altimeters that work on this principle give satisfactory results if the platform is
at a high altitude. At low altitudes, however, they have significant problems.
This is because pulse-modulated radar have a blind zone area surrounding
their installation where no targets can be detected. The blind zone area depends upon the pulse width. For example, with a pulse width of 0.2 s, no
target within 100 feet of the radar can be detected. Consequently, altimeters
of this type are not useful for aerial vehicles such as cruise missiles flying near
the surface.
For vehicles that fly near the surface, it is necessary to detect and to
measure the distance from the surface to the radar, down to almost zero
feet. Frequency modulation continuous wave radar is the simplest of radar
ranging techniques, and the most resistant to false-lock to undesired targets
such as the missile structure. For example, in a typical FMCW altimeter, the
transmitters carrier frequency changes linearly over a 120-MHz modulation
bandwidth that ranges from 4.24 to 4.36 GHz. The transmitter works continuously to produce the CW output, and changes frequency at a constant rate
in either a sawtooth pattern or a triangular pattern. A fixed, broad-beam
antenna system is used to illuminate a large area of the underlying terrain.
The broad beam allows for correct operation over the normal range of missile
pitch and roll. The FMCW ranging process occurs by mixing a sample of
the linearly varying frequency with the signal reflected from the surface. The
dierence produced after mixing is a low-frequency beat signal proportional
to the range of the surface being measured. A simple limiter then selects
the strongest signal from the surface directly below the vehicle. With proper
antenna installation, the FMCW processor can accurately select the surface
directly below the missile and ignore any atmospheric variations.
2.1.2
43
Figure 2.1: Assemblies of the AN/APN-232 LPI radar altimeter [1] ( c 2003
Janes Information Group).
identical antennas mounted along the bottom of the aircraft (one for transmit
and one for receive) [2]. When the system is energized, it remains in search
until the reflected signal strength is sucient for the receiver portion to lock
on to the return signal. The AN/APN-232 is used on the Lockheed Martin
C-130 Hercules and its F-16 Fighting Falcon [3]. The display presented to
the pilot is similar to that shown in Figure 2.2.
The HG-9550 LPI radar altimeter system developed by Honeywell Sensor
and Guidance Products uses power management by controlling the emitter
power to produce an echo signal at a level 10 dB above the track threshold,
and transmits less than 1Wmaking it virtually undetectable. Other programmable LPI features include high sensitivity, frequency agility, jittered
code, and pulse repetition frequency. A microprocessor allows the track rate
and EP response to be varied as a function of real-time inputs, or to be preprogrammed according to mission requirements [4]. The HG-9550 operates
at a frequency of 4.3 GHz, has a range of 0 to 50,000 ft, and a track rate of
2,000 ft/s. It also maintains an altitude accuracy of 4 ft. The HG-9550
is an o-the-shelf system currently in production for U.S. Air Force HC-130J
and C-17 Globemaster, U.K. C-130J, Argentine A-4 upgrade, the F-16 Block
60, the Boeing Joint Strike Fighter, and the Lockheed Martin Joint Strike
Fighter aircraft.
The cruise missile radar altimeter (CMRA) built by Honeywell Inc. Military Avionics was developed specifically for cruise missile programs, including
the air launched cruise missile (ALCM) and Tomahawk missile. Honeywells
CMRA is a derivative product in which a variety of features from other Honeywell altimeters are incorporated. The system has the capability to perform
terrain correlation and navigation functions [5]. Another Honeywell LPI altimeter is the AN/APN-209 LPI radar altimeter that is standard on all U.S.
44
45
Figure 2.3: GRA-2000 LPI radar altimeter set [6] ( c 2003 Janes Information
Group).
performance, with a low probability of intercept and comprehensive EP, making it suitable for a wide range of applications, including high-performance
and transport aircraft, helicopters, and missiles. The accuracy of the PA-5429
is 3 ft for heights 0-100 ft and 3% for heights between 100 and 5,000 ft
[9].
Other LPI altimeters include the Thales (originally Thompson CSF) AHV2100 digital radar altimeter [10] and the BAE AD1990, both operating at 4.3
GHz. The AHV-2100 uses power management of the RF output to reduce
the probability of interception at low altitude over water, and the combination of a narrow receiver bandwidth with digital signal processing to provide
EP from jamming. The AD1990 radar altimeter was designed for the U.K.
Royal Air Forces Tornado in the 1990s and has a maximum operating altitude of 5,000 ft down to ground level. The altimeter was ahead of its time
with LPI being achieved by spreading the transmitted signal over a very wide
bandwidth through the application of pseudorandom phase modulation and
adaptive power management.
2.2
2.2.1
Landing Systems
Introduction
Landing an aircraft and especially an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is difficult for several reasons. Landing involves the air vehicle switching between
dierent modes of operation (e.g., takeo, landing, and hovering). The air
vehicle must also coordinate with the landing site using voice or data links.
Automatic and precision landing systems transmit a beacon and can aid in
the landing operation, but must be LPI to remain active on the battlefield.
46
2.2.2
47
Figure 2.4: The tactical automatic landing system (TALS) showing the 35GHz antenna [13] ( c 2002 Janes Information Group).
Figure 2.5: Steps in the recovery of a UAV using a UCARS [14] ( c 2002
Janes Information Group).
48
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
Ericsson Microwave Systems has produced several LPI radar systems for
fire control and surveillance, including the Improved Helicopter and Aircraft/Radar Detection (HARD)-3D, the Eagle, and the Pointer. The Improved Hard-3D is a solid-state, 3D search and acquisition radar that has
been designed for use in short-range air defense systems. The Improved
HARD features an LPI capability that is due to a low output peak power
of 240W (30W average), broadband frequency agility, low side lobes, and a
narrow antenna beam [15]. The 3D capability is achieved by an electronically
scanned beam in elevation with intelligent beam control, providing a short
reaction time after the target is detected. The elevation coverage is obtained
by steering the antenna beam to a number of fixed elevations on a pulse-topulse basis. Figure 2.6 shows the HARD-3D radar mounted on a Hagglunds
vehicle. The elevation search pattern covers up to 35 degrees in elevation
within two antenna revolutions. Upon target detection, the beam pattern is
controlled so that a secondary detection will always occur in the next revolution for immediate confirmation and track initiation [15]. In a special pop-up
mode, the track will start automatically after the first detection. Up to 20
targets and five jammers can be tracked automatically in range, azimuth, and
elevation. Instrumented ranges are 12 and 20 km.
The Ericsson Microwave Systems Eagle is a fire-control LPI radar intended
for mobile ground and naval-based air defense systems. The equipment operates in the K-band (35 GHz) and is used to track low-flying targets and
perform air-to-surface missile alert and closed-loop fire control. The Ka-band
waveform provides a narrow antenna beam for low-altitude tracking at short
range, as is required for gun fire control. The Eagle system is shown in Figure 2.7 and achieves LPI operation by using a low-output peak power (20W),
pulse compression, high antenna gain with extremely low side lobes [16]. The
radiation pattern and a new transmission technique claim to make it impossible for escort or stand-o jammers to degrade the radar performance. It can
track two targets simultaneously with an angular error of less than 0.2 mrad
49
Figure 2.6: HARD-3D radar on Hagglunds vehicle [15] ( c 2002 Janes Information Group).
Figure 2.7: Missile control and launch vehicle with the mast-mounted Eagle
radar [16] ( c 2003 Janes Information Group).
50
Figure 2.8: Pointer LPI radar system antenna [17] ( c 2003 Janes Information
Group).
at 10 km.
The Ericsson Microwave Systems Pointer radar system is a short-range
LPI air surveillance 3D solid state radar system that was designed to be
integrated into short-range air defense missile systems such as the Mistral,
Stinger, and Starburst [17]. Pointer is a fully autonomous system that includes an X-band radar and the antenna shown in Figure 2.8. The range
of Pointer is typically over 20 km, and 9 to 10 km in altitude. Pointer can
be brought into action in 1 minute by a single operator. Most functions of
Pointer, including track initiation, tracking, classification of fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters, threat evaluation, and data distribution via radio or
wire are fully automatic. Target information can be sent to the firing unit 2
or 3 seconds after the target enters the line of sight. All the missile system
operator then has to do is to acquire, track, and engage the target [17]. The
Pointer operator can be positioned a long distance from the radar, using the
radar remote control laptop computer shown in Figure 2.9. The Pointer was
designed to increase the overall eectiveness of short-range air defense systems by reducing target acquisition time, as well as enabling more targets to
be engaged [17]. Pointer builds on Ericsson Microwave Systems experience
in the development of both the HARD-3D and Eagle LPI radar.
Hollandse Signaalapparaten is developing a LPI radar as an alternative
51
Figure 2.9: Pointer operators radar remote control unit that is deployed away
from the radar unit [17] ( c 2003 Janes Information Group).
to the use of infrared sensors for short-range missile and gun systems. The
companys PAGE (portable air-defense guard equipment) is a lightweight and
inexpensive 810 GHz (I-band) FMCW emitter with a transmit power of only
1020W, providing a detection range of 1015 km [18]. The PAGE LPI radar
system, shown in Figure 2.10, exploits Signaals experience in developing its
Scout family of naval and land-based FMCW ground surveillance LPI radars.1
It is also being developed as a private venture by Thales Nederland as a lowlevel air surveillance radar which provides early warning and cueing data for
short-range networked air defense applications. Especially of interest are the
man-portable surface-to-air missiles (SAM) and light anti-aircraft guns. The
PAGE can survive the most extreme EA conditions and is nearly undetectable
by ES and radar warning receivers.
The PAGE system consists of an antenna unit including a solid-state transceiver, a radar processor unit, an operator unit, and a small generator. It also
has the capability to integrate an identification friend-or-foe (IFF). (An automated datalink and weapons terminal can be added to PAGE for real-time
data processing at remote fire units). Configurations include a man-portable
tripod version, a light vehicle or trailer mounting and installation on existing
self-propelled anti-aircraft gun or SAM systems [18].
1 The GB-Squire is a variant of the PAGE, and has detected artillery shells and Browning
0.50-calibre machine gun bullets in flight during testing.
52
Figure 2.10: PAGE LPI radar system [18] ( c 2006 Janes Information Group).
The Thales Nederland (formerly Signaal) Variant shown in Figure 2.11,
is a dual-band (46 GHz and 810 GHz) radar (one octave apart) that is relatively low-cost low-power, and lightweight making it ideal for a broad range
of vessels, including fast patrol boats, amphibious vessels and support ships
[19]. It has an autonomous target detection and tracking capability and is
intended to fill three principal functions. These include surface target detection and tracking, air target detection and tracking, and gunfire targeting
support.
The Variant uses an integrated solid-state FMCW emitter with a transmit
power Pavg = 10 mW. The antenna rotates at 14 rpm for long-range surveillance and at 28 rpm for a higher update rate (for self-defense applications).
The system is fully coherent and provides pulse Doppler detection and tracking algorithms for optimal clutter suppression and air targeting. Spread spectrum techniques are used to enable detection and classification of helicopters.
Surface gunfire support is provided for by three fire-control/splash-spotting
windows, eliminating the need for a dedicated tracking radar for engagement
of surface targets [19]. The system is able to detect air and surface targets out
to instrumented ranges of 60 km and 70 km respectively. Important features
include the ability to detect hovering and slow-moving helicopters, and a high
resistance to jamming, weather clutter, and multipath propagation due to the
dual-band operation and LPI operation.
53
Figure 2.11: Variant LPI radar system [19] ( c 2006 Janes Information
Group).
The quiet naval radar CRM-100, built by Przemyslowy Instytut Telekomunikacji Telecommunications Research Institute in Poland, is a solid-state
FMCW LPI radar that uses 10 switched frequencies in the 9.3- to 9.5-GHz
subband. It has a modulation period of 1 ms and a modulation bandwidth of
54 MHz (max). The modulation bandwidth chosen depends on the selected
range scale of 1.4, 3, 5.6, 11.1, 22.2, or 44.5 km, resulting in range cell sizes
3, 6, 12, 24, 48, and 96m, respectively [20]. The range resolution is three
times the range cell size. Designed as a surface surveillance radar, this range
coverage is similar to standard navigational radar that uses a pulsed signal.
The transmit waveform is power managed, depending on the range to the target, and ranges from 1 mW to 1W. A line drawing of the CRM-100 antenna
is shown in Figure 2.12. The radar has a beamwidth of 1.8 degrees in the
horizontal dimension, and 25 degrees in the vertical dimension with side lobes
27 dB. The scan rate is 30 revolutions per minute (RPM). The receiver has
an IF bandwidth of 500 kHz and a noise figure of 3 dB. The CRM-100 is
designed to detect surface targets and determine their coordinates [20]. It
provides automatic tracking of targets and automatic transfer of data on the
tracked targets to command and control systems. The radar can be installed
on a ground vehicle as shown in Figure 2.13 (shore version) or on board a
ship (marine version).
The Chinese JY-17A, shown in Figure 2.14, is a fully coherent, mediumrange pulse Doppler battlefield surveillance radar that is designed to detect,
locate, and identify moving ground or low-altitude air targets. Built by the
54
Figure 2.12: The CRM-100 quiet naval radar antenna (measurements shown
in millimeters) [20] ( c 2003 Janes Information Group).
Figure 2.13: The CRM-100 quiet naval radar installation [20] ( c 2003 Janes
Information Group).
55
56
2.3.3
57
Figure 2.15: The Northrop Grumman B-2 bomber carries the Raytheon Electronic Systems AN/APQ-181 radar [24] ( c 2002 Janes Information Group).
Figure 2.16: The F-22 Raptor employs the LPI AN/APG-77 radar [27]
( c 2003 Janes Information Group).
58
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
The Saab Bofors Dynamics ABs RBS-15 medium-range, radar-guided, airto-surface missile is one of a family of long-range ASCMs produced in Sweden
that can be launched from the air, land, or sea [29]. The missile makes use of
low RCS materials to reduce the likelihood of early detection by enemy radar
and also has a low infrared signature to reduce the probability of detection
by infrared search and track systems. A picture of the RBS-15 is shown in
Figure 2.17. In the 1990s, the company developed and tested an LPI radar
59
60
61
Figure 2.20: Spearfish being loaded [31] ( c 2003 Janes Information Group).
receiver to detect the seekers transmission, the wide bandwidth provides an
imaging capability that makes it easier to distinguish low-flying cruise missiles from the clutter. The large bandwidth provides excellent range resolution
and a large processing gain, while the random noise pulse eliminates range
ambiguities and is resistant to certain advanced countermeasures. This approach has been made possible by recent advances in high-speed, low-power
processing [30].
Torpedo-homing performance in littoral regions has traditionally suered
due to poor acoustics found in the shallow-water environment. For example,
shallow water has more pronounced temperature gradients (particularly in
equatorial regions) that distort the sound-ray path and can result in nondetection or skip zones. Also, active sonar performance is degraded by the
proximity of the surface- and bottom-reflecting boundaries, while passive
sonar suers as a result of wave noise and marine life.
Conceived during the Cold War, the Spearfish torpedo was optimized to
defeat fast, deep-diving, Soviet nuclear-powered submarine threats [31]. With
the emphasis now on operating in littoral zones against small, ultra-quiet
diesel-electric submarines, BAE Systems and QinetiQ have been researching
torpedo sonar and signal-processing techniques that form the basis for an
upgrade to the British Royal Navys Spearfish heavyweight torpedo shown
in Figure 2.20. The Advanced Spearfish update program is intended to improve substantially the weapons performance against quiet targets in shallow water environments, while at the same time solving obsolescence issues
aecting Spearfishs existing hybrid processing architecture. Digital signalprocessing (DSP) techniques have been considered, along with microprocessor
technology, to handle the high computational loads demanded. New technology includes wide bandwidth processing, complex waveforms with additional
modulations, LPI active waveforms, adaptive beam forming, neural net clas-
62
2.5
This chapter presented several LPI radar system applications where their
design intentionally (and sometimes unintentionally) makes their transmission dicult to intercept. Table 2.1 summarizes the systems discussed, along
with their application or use. It is important to note that indentifying an
LPI radar as any radar system that uses higher than conventional duty cycles (through pulse compression or CW operation), solid state transmitters,
low side-lobe antennas, or low transmitter power, can end up leading to a
misclassification. For example, under this definition, the new ballistic missile
early warning system (BMEWS), Pave phased array warning system (PAWS)
radar, airborne warning and control system (AWACS) radar, air route surveillance radar model 4 (ARSR-4), and any police CW radar would be classified
as LPI, which is certainly not correct. In the next few chapters, details on
the LPI technology and the important pulse compression techniques used in
the above applications are presented.
63
System
LPI Use
AN/APN-232
HG-9550
GRA-2000
PA-5429
CMRA
AHV-2100
AD1990
AN/SPN-46 (V)
TALS
Pilot
Scout
Smart-L
HARD-3D
Eagle
Pointer
PAGE
Variant
CRM-100
JY-17A
MRSR
AN/APS-147
AN/APQ-181
AN/APG-77
AN/APG-70
LANTIRN
RBS-15MR
Spearfish
64
References
[1] AN/APN-232 combined altitude radar altimeter, Janes Avionics - Military
CNS, FMS, Data and Threat Management, Feb. 10, 2003.
[2] http://www.osmpf.wpafb.af.mil/.
[3] Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company, Janes All the Worlds AircraftFixed Wing-Military, Jan. 10, 2003.
[4] HG9550 LPI radar altimeter system, Janes Avionics - Military CNS, FMS,
Data and Threat Management, April 26, 2002.
[5] Cruise missile radar altimeter, Janes Radar, July 17, 1994.
[6] AN/APN-209 radar altimeter, Janes Avionics - Military CNS, FMS, Data
and Threat Management, Feb. 10, 2003.
[7] GRA-2000 low probability of intercept (LPI) altimeter, Janes Avionics Military CNS, FMS, Data and Threat Management, Feb. 5, 2003.
[8] http://www.cni.na.baesystems.com/html/low probability of intercept a.html
[9] PA-5429 radar altimeter, Janes Avionics - Military CNS, FMS, Data and
Threat Management, Feb. 5, 2003.
[10] AHV-2100 digital radar altimeter, Janes Avionics - Military CNS, FMS,
Data and Threat Management, Feb. 10, 2003.
[11] http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ship/weaps/an-spn-46.htm.
[12] AN/SPN-46(V) approach radar, Janes Radar and Electronic Warfare Systems, Military Air Trac Control, Instrumentation and Ranging Radars, Feb.
7, 2003.
[13] Sierra Nevada TALS, Janes Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and Targets - Launch
and Recovery Systems, April 17, 2002.
[14] Sierra Nevada UCARS, Janes Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and Targets Launch and Recovery Systems, April 17, 2002.
[15] Ericsson Microwave Systems Improved HARD-3D radar system, Janes
Land-Based Air Defence-Anti-Aircraft Control Systems, Oct. 23, 2002.
[16] Eagle fire-control radar, Janes Radar and Electronic Warfare Systems,
Battlefield, Missile Control and Ground Surveillance Radar Systems, Jan.
30, 2003.
[17] Ericsson Microwave Systems Pointer radar system, Janes Land-Based Air
Defence-Anti-Aircraft Control Systems, 1999.
[18] Hewish, M., Low-level air defensenew sensors enhance eectiveness, Janes
Defence Equipment and Technology, Vol. 27, No. 6, pp. 43, June, 1994.
[19] Aordable performers: surveillance radars balance cost with capability,
International Defence Review, Mar., 2008.
[20] CRM-100 surveillance radar, Janes Radar and Electronic Warfare SystemsNaval/Coastal Surveillance and Navigation Radar, Jan. 30, 2003.
[21] JY-17 battlefield reconnaissance radar, Janes C4I Systems-Land Based
Surveillance and Location, April, 22, 2002.
65
[22] Multi-role survivable radar - Tactical target acquisition and tracking, Janes
Air Defence Radar - Land and Sea, Jan. 1997.
[23] AN/APS-147 multimode airborne radar, Janes Avionics - Military CNS,
FMS, Data and Threat Management, Feb. 10, 2003.
[24] AN/APQ-181 radar for the B-2, Janes Avionics - Military CNS, FMS,
Data and Threat Management, Jan. 17, 2003.
[25] http://www.raytheon.com/products/apq181/.
[26] http://f22rap.virtualave.net/avionics.html.
[27] AN/APG-77 multimode airborne radar, Janes Radar and Electronic Warfare Systems-Airborne Fire Control Radar, Nov. 11, 2002.
[28] http://www.f-16.net/reference/armament/lantirn.html.
[29] RBS 15F, Janes Air-Launched Weapons-Air to Surface Missiles, Sept. 12,
2002.
[30] R. Wall, USAF eyes decoy, jammer as MALI demonstration ends, Aviation
Week and Space Technology, Jan. 13, 2003.
[31] Spearfish, Janes Underwater Warfare Systems - Torpedos, May 3, 2002.
Problems
1. In an FMCW altimeter such as the CARA, the frequency is swept
over the modulation bandwidth F during the modulation (coherent
processing) period tm . Ranging (determining the altitude) occurs by
mixing a sample of the transmitted signal with the reflected signal from
the surface to derive a dierence frequency (or beat frequency) f . (a)
Write an expression for the time interval that corresponds to the measured beat frequency f as a function of the sweep rate F . (b) Determine the beat frequency (in Hz) for the CARA if the modulation period
is 1 ms and the altimeter is at a height of 30m. HINT: the wavefront
takes 6.7 s/km to travel a round-trip path.
2. Estimate the maximum intercept range of the TALS ground tracking
radar if its MMW antenna is 60% ecient and the intercept receiver
sensitivity is I = 100 dBmi.
3. Estimate the HARD-3D pulse width R if the maximum unambiguous
range is 20 km.
4. Determine the maximum detection range of the Eagle radar, considering
that the antenna is 90% ecient.
Chapter 3
67
68
3.1
where is the time delay and is the Doppler frequency shift. The 3D plot,
as a function of and , is called the ambiguity diagram. The maximum of
the ambiguity function occurs at the origin ( = 0, = 0), and |(0, 0)| is
the output if the target appears at the delay and Doppler shift for which the
filter was matched. The delay-Doppler response of the matched filter output is
important for understanding the properties of the radar waveform [2]. Ideally,
the ambiguity diagram would consist of a diagonal ridge centered at the origin,
and zero elsewhere (no ambiguities). The ideal ambiguity function, however,
is impossible to obtain. For a coherent pulse train consisting of NR pulses with
pulse duration R and pulse repetition interval Tr , the ambiguity function
indicates that the Doppler resolution is the inverse of the total duration of
the signal NR Tr while the delay resolution is the pulse duration [3].
3.2
Nc
1 3
u(n)u (n + r)
Nc n=1
(3.3)
69
(3.4)
Since the CW signal is continuous, the perfect PACF is possible. Note however, that finite duration signals, such as a pulse train, cannot achieve this
ideal autocorrelation since as the first sample (or last sample) enters (or
leaves) the correlator, there is no sample that can cancel the product to yield
a zero output.
3.3
The periodic ambiguity function or PAF, introduced by Levanon and Freedman [4], describes the response of a correlation receiver to a CW signal modulated by a periodic waveform with period T , when the reference signal is
constructed from an integral number N of periods of the transmitted signal
(coherent processor length N T ). The target illumination time (dwell time)
P T must be longer than N T (see Figure 1.9). As long as the delay is
shorter than the dierence between the dwell time and the length of the reference signal 0 (P N )T , the illumination time can be considered
infinitely long and the receiver response can be described by the PAF given
as [5]
e
e
e 1 8 NT
e
e
e
u (t ) u (t) ej2t dte
(3.5)
|N T (, )| = e
eNT 0
e
where is assumed to be a constant, and the delay rate of change is represented by the Doppler shift . The PAF for N periods is related to the
single-period ambiguity function by a universal relationship
e
e
e sin(N T ) e
e
e
(3.6)
|NT (, )| = |T (, )| e
N sin(T ) e
where
1
|T (, )| =
T
e8
e
e T
e
e
j2t e
u(t )u (t)e
dte
e
e 0
e
(3.7)
is the single period ambiguity function. The single period ambiguity function
is multiplied by a universal function of N and T that is independent of the
complex envelope of the signal and that does not change with . The PAF
shows the eect of using a reference receiver consisting of N code periods (see
Section 1.3). Examination of (3.6) reveals that for a large number of code
periods N , the PAF is increasingly attenuated for all values of except at
multiples of 1/T . It also has main lobes at T = 0, 1, 2, . . . . Equation
(3.6) also reveals that the PAF has relatively strong Doppler side lobes.
70
The PAF serves CW radar signals in a similar role to which the traditional
ambiguity function serves finite duration signals. Note that for a large N , the
PAF is compressed to zero for all , except near = n/T, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
For an infinitely large N , the function |N T (, )| becomes a train of impulses.
For large N , the PAF of a sequence exhibiting perfect periodic autocorrelation
will strongly resemble the ambiguity function of a coherent pulse train.
3.3.1
The PAF formulation given in (3.5) is not unique, and alternate definitions
have also been adopted [6]. The form of the PAF in (3.5), however, represents
the straightforward implementation of a matched filter to the signal u(t)
delayed by and Doppler shifted by . It can easily be shown that the cut
along the PAFs delay axis |NT (, 0)| (zero Doppler) is the magnitude of the
PACF of the signal given by (3.3) [4, 6]. The cut along the Doppler axis (zero
delay) is
8 NT
1
|u(t)|2 ej2t dt
(3.8)
N T (0, ) =
NT 0
Assuming a constant amplitude signal, |u(t)| = 1 (e.g., phase-modulated CW
signals)
e
e
e sin(N T ) e
e
|N T (0, )| = ee
(3.9)
N T e
and
|N T (0, 0)| = 1
(3.10)
(3.11)
(3.12)
The symmetry cuts are a function of the three parameters: the code period
T , the number of phase codes Nc , and the number of code periods used in
the correlation receiver N . Additional symmetry and periodicity properties
are discussed in [4, 6].
3.3.2
The time side lobe levels in the autocorrelation function (ACF) help quantify
the LPI waveform in its ability to detect targets without interfering side lobe
targets. That is, if the ACF has high side lobes, a second nearby target
might be able to hide in a side lobe and go undetected. To quantify the LPI
71
waveform characteristics, the peak side lobe level (PSL) of the ACF can be
defined as
]
}
]
}
max side lobe power
max R2 (k)
PSL = 10 log10
(3.13)
= 10 log
(peak response)2
R2 (0)
where k is the index for the points in the ACF, R(k) is ACF for all of the
output range side lobes except that at k = 0, and R(0) is the peak of the
ACF at k = 0. The integrated side lobe level is
}
]
M
3
total power in side lobes
R2 (k)
(3.14)
=
10
log
ISL = 10 log10
2
(peak response)
R2 (0)
k=M
and is a measure of the total power in the side lobes as compared with the
compressed peak. The PSL is a useful measure when a single point target
response is of concern. Values for the PSL depend on the number of subcodes
in the code sequence Nc as well as the number of code periods N within the
receiver. The ISL is considered a more useful measure than the PSL when
distributed targets are of concern. Typical matched filter ISL values range
from 10 to 20 dB.
3.4
To demonstrate the properties of the ACF, PACF, and PAF, we look briefly
at one important type of phase modulation called the Frank code [7]. The
Frank code is a polyphase code (more than two phase states). It has a variable
length and can be used to phase modulate a complex signal every subcode
period tb .
3.4.1
Transmitted Waveform
(3.15)
2
(i 1) (j 1)
M
(3.16)
72
3.4.2
Simulation Results
A signal containing the Frank phase modulation can easily be generated with
the MATLAB low probability of intercept toolbox distributed on the enclosed
CD and described in Appendix A. The LPIT can also generate a host of other
LPI signals discussed in Chapters 47.
Figure 3.1 shows the Frank phase modulation (3.16) with M = 8
(Nc = 64). The plot is generated within the LPIT. The carrier frequency
is fc = 1 kHz, fs = 7 kHz, and cpp = 1. Figure 3.2 shows the power spectral
73
Figure 3.2: Power spectral density for Frank phase modulation for M = 8
(Nc = 64) with fc = 1 kHz, fs = 7 kHz, and cpp = 1.
density of the Frank signal. This plot is also generated within the LPIT. Note
that since the cpp = 1, the 3-dB bandwidth B = 1 kHz, as illustrated.
The ACF and PACF are shown in Figure 3.3 for the number of code
periods N = 1. These results can be obtained by using the output waveforms
from the LPIT in conjuction with Levanons ambfn7.m code as described
in Appendix B with r = 1, F M tb = 10, T = 1, N = K = 100. The
PSL can be read from Figure 3.3(a). The largest side lobe level is 28 dB
down from the peak. This is in agreement with the theoretical result PSL =
20 log10 (1/M ) = 28 dB (voltage ratio). Also note from Figure 3.3(b) that
the CW Frank signal has a perfect PACF (zero side lobes). The PAF for
N = 1 is shown in Figure 3.4.
The phase modulation signals generated
using the LPIT contain
cppfs
(3.18)
bsc =
fc
number of samples per subcode. The total number of samples within a code
period is then Nc bsc . When ambfn7.m is used to examine the signals from
the LPIT, the delay axis is normalized by the subcode period tb and so the
PAF repeats at Nc bsc since the waveform is sampled. That is, dividing this
axis by the number of samples per subcode bsc gives the delay axis in terms
of the subcode number. For the LPIT default Frank signal (cpp = 1, fs = 7
kHz, fc = 1 kHz), bsc = 7 and, as illustrated in the plot, the code repeats
74
Figure 3.3: Frank (a) ACF (PSL = 28 dB down) and (b) PACF for M = 8
(Nc = 64), cpp = 1 with number of reference waveforms N = 1.
Figure 3.4: PAF for Frank phase modulation for M = 8 (Nc = 64), cpp = 1
with number of reference waveforms N = 1.
75
Figure 3.5: Frank (a) ACF (PSL = 40 dB down) and (b) PACF for M = 8
(Nc = 64), cpp = 1 with number of reference waveforms N = 4.
every = 448/bsc = 64 = Nc . The Doppler axis is normalized with respect to
the entire signal duration Nc tb . Therefore, depending on the number of code
periods N integrated into the PAF calculation, the Doppler lobes appear at
kN for k {0, 1, 2, . . .} as illustrated in Figure 3.4 for N = 1.
Increasing the number of code periods N used in the receiver can help to
decrease the Doppler side lobes as well as the time side lobes in the ACF.
Figure 3.5 shows the ACF and PACF for when N = 4 code periods are used
within the reference receiver (r = 1, F M tb = 40, T = 0.3, N = K = 100).
Including N in the estimation of the peak side lobe level
W
w
1
dB
(3.19)
PSL = 20 log10
NM
Using N = 4, PSL = 40 dB down from the peak as shown in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.6 shows the PAF for the Frank code with N = 4 and demonstrates that by using more copies of the reference signal within the correlation
receiver, the delay-Doppler side lobe performance improves.
3.5
To reduce the Doppler side lobes it is necessary to modify the reference signal
with a weighting function w(t) that converts the receiver from a matched
receiver to a mismatched receiver (with a corresponding degradation in SNR
76
Figure 3.6: PAF for Frank phase modulation for M = 8 (Nc = 64), cpp = 1
with number of reference waveforms N = 4.
and decrease in resolution). Following the development in [5], the reference
signal u (t) in (3.5) is divided into a product of two signals: r(t) which
is periodic with the same period as u(t), and w(t) an aperiodic weighting
function. That is, u (t) = r(t)w(t). The delay-Doppler response of the
mismatched receiver is
e
e8
e
e
j2t e
e
u(t )r(t)p(t)w(t)e
dte
|(, )| = e
(3.20)
(3.21)
Since (3.20) is the Fourier transform of two products (except for the missing negative sign in the exponential) it can be described by the convolution
(denoted ) of two Fourier transforms as
e8
e
u(t )r(t)ej2t dt
|(, )| = ee
e
8
e
p(t)w(t)ej2t dtee
(3.22)
77
With the first transform, since both u(t) and r(t) are infinitely long and
periodic with period T , the Fourier transform of their product (for any )
can be shown to be a series of delta functions at = n/T , n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
or
8
p
3
nQ
u(t )r(t)ej2t dt =
(3.23)
gn ( )
T
n=
where
gn ( ) =
1
T
u(t )r(t)ej2nt/T dt
(3.24)
The second integral in (3.22) is the Fourier transform of the product of the
rectangular window and the weight function
8
p(t)w(t)ej2t dt
(3.25)
W () =
or
W () =
NT
w(t)ej2t dt
(3.26)
78
References
[1] Levanon, N., Radar Principles, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988.
[2] Skolnik, M., Introduction to Radar Systems, 3rd Edition, McGraw Hill, Boston,
p. 331, 2001.
[3] Levanon, N., CW alternatives to the coherent pulse train - signals and
processors, IEEE Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 29,
No. 1, pp. 250254, Jan. 1993.
[4] Levanon, N. and Freedman, A. Periodic ambiguity function of CW signals
with perfect periodic autocorrelation, IEEE Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 387395, April 1992.
[5] Getz, B. and Levanon, N., Weight eects on the periodic ambiguity function, IEEE Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 31, No. 1,
pp. 182193, Jan. 1995.
[6] Freedman, A. and Levanon, N., Properties of the periodic ambiguity function, IEEE Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 30, No. 3,
pp. 938941, July 1994.
[7] Frank, R. L., Polyphase codes with good nonperiodic correlation properties,
IEEE Trans. IT-9, pp. 4345, 1963.
Problems
1. When the reference signal is of duration N T , the response of the correlation receiver is the PAF for N periods. Another form of the PAF can
be defined by the relationship
1
N T (, ) =
NT
NT
p
Q p
Q j2t
u t+
dt
u t
e
2
2
Hint: Split the integral into N sections and use the transformation of
variables t = t + (n 1)T .
79
where 0 t Nc tb and
un (t) = ejn
for 0 t < tb . There are periodic two-valued phase sequences that can
also yield a perfect periodic autocorrelation. That is, n = 0 or n =
and un can either be 1 or where
= ej
For Nc = 7,
and
n = {0 0 0 0 }
= cos1 (3/4)
For Nc = 11,
and
n = {0 0 0 0 0 }
= cos1 (5/6)
Chapter 4
FMCW Radar
This chapter examines the advantages of the frequency modulation CW LPI
technique, gives detailed expressions for the transmitted signal and the received signal, and discusses the isolation required when using a single antenna.
LPI search and track mode processing are discussed, and several FMCW emitter configurations are presented. Also investigated are the eects of frequency
modulation nonlinearities. Moving target indication filtering is discussed, as
well as the FMCW periodic ambiguity function. The experimental PANDORA multifrequency FMCW radar is presented as an example of FMCW
technology. Electronic attack considerations are also addressed. Finally, the
technology trends for FMCW emitters are examined.
4.1
Advantages of FMCW
81
82
FMCW is an eective LPI technique for many reasons. In some applications, such as radio altimeters, a key advantage is the simple architecture,
which is capable of giving a very high range resolution. Due to the very
low energy transmitted (low radiation hazard), the noncooperative intercept
receivers interception range is significantly reduced. This means that an
FMCW radar may be used in otherwise restrictive emission-control (EMCON) conditions that would preclude the operation of pulsed emitters. The
frequency modulation spreads the transmitted energy over a large modulation
bandwidth F , providing good range resolution that is critical for discriminating targets from clutter. The power spectrum of the FMCW signal is
nearly rectangular over the modulation bandwidth, so noncooperative interception is dicult. Since the transmit waveform is deterministic, the form
of the return signals can be predicted. This gives it the added advantage of
being resistant to interference (such as jamming), since any signal not matching this form can be suppressed. Consequently, it is a dicult matter for
a noncooperative receiver to detect the FMCW waveform and measure the
parameters accurately enough to match the jammer waveform to the radar
waveform (a subject we take up in Part II).
FMCW modulation is also readily compatible with solid-state transmitters, and represents the best use of output power available from these solid
state devices. The return signal is correlated with the transmitted signal, and
is often done using analog techniques. The correlation receiver can also be
implemented using digital techniques. The frequency processing performed
to obtain the range information from the digitized IF signals can be done very
quickly with FFTs. The ease with which the range resolution can be changed,
and the way in which very high range resolutions can be obtained without
requiring wide IF and video bandwidths is also a significant advantage. That
is, the IF and video bandwidths can be matched to the required data rate
rather than to the RF bandwidth required to give the range resolution [2].
Due to the fourth power relationship between a radars return signal power
and the targets range, an adequate amount of sensitivity time control (STC)
must be used in the receiver to selectively attenuate the returns from closein targets in order to control the dynamic range and prevent saturation [3].
Due to the frequency-range relationship in the FMCW radar, this technique
may be easily implemented in the frequency domain early on in the signal
processing. FMCW is also easier to implement than phase code modulation,
as long as there is no strict demand on linearity specifications over the modulation bandwidth. The ability to use weighting to control the range and
Doppler side lobes (mismatched correlation receiver) also allows for ecient
use of the spectrum. Finally, the advanced transceiver design allows FMCW
radars to be connected to, and operated in parallel with, any available pulsed
I-band navigation radar using a common antenna. This means that the very
presence of the LPI radar cannot be ascertained by external observation.
FMCW Radar
83
4.2
A block diagram of a homodyne triangular FMCW emitter is shown in Figure 4.1. In this search mode configuration, both the target range and Doppler
information can be measured unambiguously, while maintaining a low probability of intercept. The system uses a single antenna. A triangular waveform
generator is used to modulate the CW source for transmission. For low power
single antenna systems, a circulator can be used to allow simultaneous transmission and reception [4]. With higher power systems, the transmitter noise
side bands can hide valid targets and desensitize the receiver. In this case,
separate transmit and receive antennas must be used.
To enable the FMCW emitter to operate more eciently using a single antenna for both transmission and reception, a reflected power canceler (RPC)
is shown [3, 5]. The RPC adaptively cancels the transmit/receive feedthrough
that can limit the dynamic range of single antenna CW radar. In the case of
a linear ramp, a simple RPC can adapt during the sweep to handle a wide
modulation bandwidth, since the instantaneous bandwidth is small.
The target echo is received through the antenna and consists of a delayed
replica of the transmitted waveform. The instantaneous frequency dierence
between the received signal and the transmitted signal is a constant propor-
84
FMCW Radar
85
Figure 4.3: State transition diagram of the Markov chain used for postdetection integration.
Note that the width of each reference cell or filter is f Hz. The threshold
voltage Vt is obtained by choosing the greatest of y1 and y2 , normalizing by
the number of reference cells n and multiplying by the threshold multiplier
T . Targets are declared in range for both up slope and down slope (beat
frequencies f1b , f2b ), when the amplitude of the test filter is greater than the
threshold voltage. Other CFAR architectures can be used, depending on the
operating environment.
For each modulation period, a single target can result in a number of
GOCFAR range detections, depending on the targets extent and the size
of the range resolution R. Each detection is tagged by its range RT and
its azimuth angle a . To reduce the chance of declaring a false target, postdetection integration can be used within a single scan. A simple method of
performing postdetection integration for each range detection is through the
use of a discrete time Markov chain [8] with NM states followed by a single
scan angle threshold processor. A state transition diagram of a postdetection
integration Markov chain is shown in Figure 4.3. When the state reaches
NX , start = a , and this marks the beginning of the target position in azimuth. For each detection at RT , the state of the chain advances one level
(with probability of detection p). Upon receiving subsequent reports for this
range bin from the GOCFAR, the state either moves up or down. For each
subsequent miss at RT , the state drops one level (with probability q = 1 p).
When the state drops below NY , stop = a and this marks the end of the
86
4.3
There are two main challenges in designing a high dynamic range FMCW
radar for the detection of small targets against a high density clutter background. The first is generating a frequency sweep that is linear. The second
challenge is controlling the leakage of transmitter phase noise into the receiver.
We begin by examining a triangular FMCW waveform and the Doppler
shifted received signal as shown in Figure 4.4. The triangular modulation
consists of two linear frequency modulation sections with positive and negative slopes. With a triangular waveform, the range and Doppler frequency of
the detected target can be extracted unambiguously by taking, respectively,
the sum and the dierence of the two beat frequencies. In this section, the
triangular waveform is described, and ways of generating the LPI waveform
are discussed.
4.3.1
Triangular Waveform
The frequency of the transmitted waveform for the first section is [9, 10]
f1 (t) = fc
F
F
+
t
2
tm
(4.2)
for 0 < t < tm and zero elsewhere. Here fc is the RF carrier, F is the transmit modulation bandwidth, and tm is the modulation period. The modulation
(sweep) bandwidth F is chosen to provide the required range resolution
R =
c
2F
(4.3)
Note that the larger the bandwidth, the smaller the resolution and the more
LPI the signal becomes. The rate of frequency change or chirp rate F is
F
F =
tm
(4.4)
FMCW Radar
87
Figure 4.4: Linear frequency modulated triangular waveform and the Doppler
shifted received signal.
The phase of the transmitted RF signal is
8 t
f1 (x)dx
1 (t) = 2
(4.5)
Assuming that 0 = 0 at t = 0,
W
]
}w
F 2
F
t+
1 (t) = 2 fc
t
2
2tm
for 0 < t < tm . The transmit signal is given by
W
]
}w
F 2
F
t+
s1 (t) = a0 sin 2 fc
t
2
2tm
(4.6)
(4.7)
The frequency of the transmitted waveform for the second section is similarly
f2 (t) = fc +
F
F
t
2
tm
(4.8)
88
(4.9)
A2
2 2
(4.10)
where A is the amplitude of the signal and 2 is the white Gaussian noise
power. Note the simulation shows that the power spectrum of the linear
FMCW waveform is nearly rectangular over the band fc F/2 < f <
fc + F/2 adding to the LPI properties of the transmitted signal.
FMCW Radar
89
Figure 4.6: The FMCW signal with fc = 9.3 GHz, F = 1.0 GHz, and
SNR = 0 dB.
4.3.2
Waveform Spectrum
Without loss of generality, the instantaneous frequency for the first section
(4.2) in transmitted waveform can be rewritten as
f1 =
F
t + fc
tm
(4.11)
for |t| tm /2 where the carrier frequency fc lies at the beginning of the sweep
in frequency. The phase of the signal with instantaneous frequency (4.11) can
be calculated as
8 t
F 2
f1 (t )dt =
t + 2fc t
(4.12)
(t) = 2
tm
0
where the signal has constant amplitude. To compute the spectrum of the
waveform we use the complex form of the transmit signal as [11]
s(t) = ej(t)
and obtain the Fourier transform as
8
s(f ) =
s(t)ej2f t dt
(4.13)
(4.14)
(4.15)
90
2
cos(t + 2t)dt =
cos
C(x) + sin
S(x)
2
and
8
sin(t2 + 2t)dt =
F w 2W
w 2W
k
cos
S(x) sin
C(x)
where
2
(t + )
(4.16)
(4.17)
(4.18)
(4.19)
(4.20)
(4.21)
This spectral behavior is important when considering the out-of-band emissions that can degrade the LPI nature of the waveform. Various techniques
can be employed for reducing out-of-band emissions of FMCW waveforms.
These include amplitude tapering on a sweep-by-sweep basis (sometimes referred to as curbing) and using a smooth and finite flyback at the end of each
sweep.
FMCW Radar
4.3.3
91
(4.26)
or
N
N
p
Q
p
Q
3
3
F
+ F N
1 N, F = 2
f1 N, F = 2
fc
2
i=0
i=0
p
Q
1 N, F = F N 2 + 1 (0)
(4.27)
(4.28)
From these phases, the complex baseband amplitudes can be generated with
two accumulators as shown in Figure 4.7. The first (frequency) accumulator
92
FMCW Radar
93
2
cos
(4.30)
s = 10 log10 1 +
|Q|2
|Q|2
A detailed noise analysis of the approach above was completed by [14].
The analysis investigates a staircase phase approximation of the FMCW
chirp, and examines the spectrum of the transmitted and received signal.
The noise caused by the quantization error is then analyzed. It shows that
the FMCW signal can be digitally generated using a staircase approximation
of its quadratic phase term, without requiring a filter to smooth the signal
on transmission or reception. The noise on the transmitted waveform is not
usually a problem, except that demodulation of the return signal uses this
transmitted waveform as a reference.
A digital approximation of the parabolic phase is shown in Figure 4.8, and
ensures that each step of the phase staircase is a rectangular function. Also
shown is the holding time or subpulse width. The amplitude and phase noise
produce a noise power spectral density on the transmitted signal that depends
on the subpulse width T and the number of bits of the uniform quantizer n.
The requirement for good spectral conditions is [14]
T <
1
5Ba
(4.31)
where Ba is the bandwidth after demodulation (on the order of 100 Hz). If
the amplitude and phase noise errors are both uniformly distributed over the
relaxing the requirements on the DAC and LUT resolution.
94
For (a), 1/T = 1/8s = 125 kHz. Note that this is much larger than the
low frequency stages of the radar receiver (e.g., 100 Hz). For (b), from (4.32)
above,
W
w
V2
8 s
(4.34)
=
134
dB
PSD = 10 log
12 224
Hz
4.4
Receiver-Transmitter Isolation
FMCW Radar
95
4.4.1
reflected voltage
incident voltage
(4.35)
(4.36)
where || is the magnitude, and never greater than unity (|| 1). The phase
l is the angle between the incident and reflected voltages at the receiving
end, and is usually called the phase angle of the reflection coecient.
The general solutions of the transmission line equations consist of two
waves traveling in opposite directions with unequal amplitudes. These waves
are called standing waves. The ratio of the maximum voltage of the standing
wave pattern to the minimum voltage is defined as the voltage standing wave
ratio V
|VMax |
(4.37)
V =
|VMin |
and is usually found using Smith charts. The standing wave ratio results from
the fact that the two traveling wave components add in phase at some points,
and subtract it at other points. The standing wave ratio V is related to the
reflection coecient by
1 + ||
(4.38)
V =
1 ||
and solving for ||,
|| =
V 1
V + 1
(4.39)
These results can be used to quantify the various antenna configurations for
FMCW emitters.
96
4.4.2
One solution to isolate the single antenna transmit and receive functions is to
use a circulator. To highlight the problems with using a single antenna and
circulator, consider the configuration shown in Figure 4.9. To receive a target
echo signal and derive the correct beat frequencies, a significant amount of
isolation must be present between the transmitted waveform and the received
waveform. The transmitter sends an average power Pt to the circulator. A
certain fraction of the incident power Ic is leaked at the circulator output,
due to the finite amount of isolation. Circulators provide the best isolation
when they are terminated correctly (impedances matched). The isolation
between any two ports is the return loss due to third port mismatch. Including
transmission line loss (LRT = LRR = Lx 1) and circulator loss (Lc 1),
the average power into the antenna is Pt /Lx Lc . From above, the amount
transmitted out of the antenna is Pt (1 ||2 )/Lx Lc and the amount reflected
back to the receiver is Pt ||2 /Lx Lc . The power received from the target is Pr
and that portion of received power entering the receiver is Pr (1 ||2 )/Lx Lc .
In summary, the total signal appearing at the receiver is the addition of the
target return, the leakage, and the antenna mismatch or
Ptot = Pr
||2 Pt
(1 ||2 )
+ Ic Pt +
Lx Lc
(Lx Lc )2
(4.40)
Example 3: Calculate the total power at the receiver if the standing wave
ratio V =2:1, the transmission line loss Lx = 0.5 dB, the circulator isolation
is Ic = 60 dB, and the circulator loss Lc =1 dB. The CW transmitter provides Pt =10 dBW at fc = 9.375 GHz. The antenna has a transmit, receive
gain Gt , Gr =30 dB. The target is located at a range or 28,000m and has a
FMCW Radar
97
RCS T = 50m2 .
The first step is to calculate the magnitude of the reflection coecient. From
(4.39), =0.333. Next, the power transmitted out of the antenna is calculated
as
Pt (1 ||2 )
(4.41)
PCW =
Lx Lc
or PCW =6.3W. Using (1.23) with PCW = 6.3W and recognizing that (4.40)
takes into account the transmission line losses, the return power from the
target is Pr = PRT = 2.6(1016 ) (or 156 dBW). Using this value in (4.40),
Ptot = 0.56W or -2.5 dBW. This example shows that the amount of power
from the target that reaches the receiver is minimal, and highlights one of the
main problems with using a single circulator FMCW emitter.
4.4.3
The reflective power canceler was discussed briefly in the first section and
shown schematically in Figure 4.1. It was developed in the early 1960s as
a coherent device that could be used to cancel the transmitter feedthrough
in an FMCW emitter [17, 18]. Many of the recent improvements have been
made possible by the availability of new microwave and digital components.
The RPC is shown in Figure 4.10. The RPC takes a sample of the signal
being transmitted and vector modulates it, so that it is of equal amplitude
and opposite in phase to the transmitter leakage signal. By adding this signal
into the receiver, using a directional coupler, the leakage and noise sidebands
of the transmitted signal can be canceled out [3, 5]. The eectiveness of the
RPC depends on how accurately the amplitude and phase can be adjusted.
To perform adequately, the RPC must operate in a closed-loop fashion, with
sucient gain and bandwidth to track the leakage variations.
The principle of leakage cancellation is to generate a signal with equalamplitude and opposite-phase to the original leakage. This signal summing
up with the original leakage signal realizes the cancellation. A good cancellation requires accurate match of amplitudes and phases. If the signal to
be cancelled or leakage signal is the complex signal A, and the cancellation
signal or feedthrough signal under vector modulator control is B, assuming a
certain phase dierence and amplitude dierence A between them, the
cancellation signal is
(4.42)
B = (A + A)ej
The cancellation ratio or cancellation depth is given by [19]
e
e
eB Ae
e
e
Rcancel,dB = 20 log10 e
A e
(4.43)
98
(4.44)
The cancellation depth is very sensitive to the phase error and the amplitude
error. For example, to achieve a 30 dB cancellation depth, an amplitude
dierence of less than 0.25 dB (3%) and a phase dierence of less than 1
is required. An accurate phase match within 1o of error is very dicult to
realize using wideband analog microwave and millimeter wave circuits which
can vary with temperature and environmental changes.
One recent RPC that uses PIN (p into n) diodes and is also used by the
Pilot radar, is shown in Figure 4.10. The amplitude and phase of the leakage
power are estimated by measuring the dc levels of the I and Q outputs of the
receiver mixer. These I and Q signals are then used to control the amplitude
and phase of the leakage signal, forming a closed loop controller. The RPC
is quite robust to phase errors, on the order of 45 degrees around the loop.
Consequently, the vector modulation and quadrature mixer requirements can
be relaxed. The Pilot radar uses modern microwave components to improve
the transmit/receive isolation from about 20 dB (without RPC) to over 50 dB,
and is comparable to the isolation achieved by a dual antenna configuration.
The block diagram of a FMCW radar system that uses DDS technology
coupled with an RPC and a single antenna for shipboard surveillance is shown
in Figure 4.11 [20]. The DDS uses a clock frequency of 300 MHz integrated
with a phase-locked loop at L band which is upconverted to X band using a
FMCW Radar
99
mixer. The radar uses a solid state transmitter module for power management
(maximum transmit power of 1 W) and the modulation bandwidth can be
varied from 50 MHz to 200 MHz. The RPC provides 30 dB of cancellation
and has a vector modulator fabricated with PIN diodes, a commerical I-Q
demodulator, and a low frequency control circuit (to filter and amplify the
signals from the demodulator and apply them to the vector modulator to
generate the cancellation signal).
100
4.5
The received signal from a stationary target is the transmit signal delayed in
time by the round-trip propagation time (or transit time) to the target and
back (td ), with reduced amplitude b0 [3]
sr (t) =
or
b0
s1 (t td )
a0
W
]
}w
F
F
2
(t td ) +
s1r (t) = b0 sin 2 fc
(t td )
2
2tm
(4.45)
(4.46)
For the homodyne FMCW emitter, the receive signal is mixed with the transmit signal. The beat frequencies are derived as the dierence between the
transmitted and received signals. The beat frequency is sometimes referred
to as an intermediate frequency, although the information is not modulated
onto a conventional carrier [9]. The mixer output beat frequency signal is
W
}w
]
F
F 2 F
td
t +
td t
(4.47)
s1b (t) = c0 cos 2 fc
2
2tm d
tm
For the second segment of the triangular waveform, the mixer output beat
frequency signal is
W
}w
]
F
F 2 F
td +
td
td t
(4.48)
s2b (t) = c0 cos 2 fc +
2
2tm
tm
Equations (4.47) and (4.48) contain a frequency term that is time varying
and phase terms that are not. The beat frequency is the third term in (4.47)
and (4.48)
F
2RF
2R
td =
=
F
(4.49)
fb =
tm
ctm
c
where the delay time td = 2R/c for a stationary target at a range of R. If the
target is moving with velocity V , the beat frequency for the first segment is
f1b =
2R
2RF
2V
2V
=
F
ctm
(4.50)
2R
2RF
2V
2V
=
+
F+
ctm
(4.51)
where the second term is due to the targets Doppler frequency. For multiple
targets, multiple beat frequencies would be present and would depend on each
targets range and velocity.
FMCW Radar
101
4.6
102
range resolution, in order to calculate the ship orientation and select a waterline aimpoint with good accuracy. With this range resolution, the ship
returns could easily extend over a large number of range bins, depending on
the aspect angle. Recall that the ideal range resolution is
R =
c
2F
(4.52)
R
Vt
(4.53)
(4.54)
The spectral width of the beat frequency is the inverse of the coherent processing interval or
1
1
1
=
(4.55)
w =
t0
tm td
tm
and is the Doppler shift that causes a range error of exactly one range bin.
The eect that a Doppler shift can change the apparent range of the target is
the well-known FMCW range-Doppler cross-coupling eect. That is, the unambiguous Doppler frequency is fu = 1/2t0 Hz. The corresponding velocity
resolution or first blind speed is
v =
w
m/s
2
(4.56)
The first blind speed is the speed at which the Doppler goes through one
complete cycle from one sweep to the next (beat frequency increases by
one cycle per sweep) [3]. For our example, with a target acquisition range
FMCW Radar
103
2RF
2V
ct0
(4.59)
and
2RF
2V
(4.60)
+
ct0
Using the numbers from the example above with Vmax = 300m/s, the corresponding maximum beat frequency is fbmax = 93.35 MHz.
The analog-to-digital converter section of the LPI radar receiver must
sample at least twice the highest beat frequency or
W
w
2RF
2V
samples/s
(4.61)
+
fs = 2
ct0
f2b =
N
t0
samples/s
(4.62)
with the sampling frequency and an FFT size of N , the resulting filter width
is
f
(4.63)
f = s
N
104
1
15
10.0
12.2
12.3
2.8
8,192
9,923
2
20
7.5
16.2
9.2
3.8
8,192
13,230
3
25
6.0
20.3
7.4
5.0
8,192
16,537
4
30
5.0
24.4
6.1
5.6
16,384
19,845
5
35
4.3
28.5
5.3
6.6
16,384
23,153
6
50
3.0
40.7
3.7
9.4
16,384
33,075
7
500
0.3
406.7
0.37
93.3
262,144
330,755
8
1000
0.15
813.3
0.18
186.7
524,288
661,511
ctm
(f1b + f2b )
4F
(4.64)
R = (f2b f1b )
4
(4.65)
The Markov chain counts up the range hits during a scan, and sends the start
and stop angles of the detected target to a single-scan detection process that
thresholds the dierence between the start and stop angle (see Section 4.2).
After target declaration, the emitter fixes the antenna position at the angle
of the target, and the track mode processing takes over.
4.7
The LPI emitter starts at a range of R = 28,000m (15 nmi) from the ship.
Figure 4.12 shows the emitter-ship scenario being examined. For the track
mode processing, consider the return from a target showing up in a particular
filter fb with bandwidth f . This frequency will correspond to a target at a
FMCW Radar
105
range R where
cfb t0
(4.66)
2F
Consequently if the target range is varying, it may be tracked by adjusting the
sweep bandwidth F in order to keep the beat frequency equal to fb . This
relaxes the LPF requirements at the receiver frontend. Also recall that the
range resolution R = c/2F . The ratio of these gives the range resolution
expressed as a fraction of the range
R=
1
R
=
R
fb t0
(4.67)
and is a constant. That is, the emitter will measure the range to the target
with a resolution that is proportional to the range. As the range-to-target
gets smaller, the bandwidth F gets larger. For example, if the target at
R = 28,000 is acquired on the first transmit waveform, the target shows up
at filter number 75,675 or fb = 75, 675 1.23 kHz = 93.1 MHz. In order to
keep the target at this beat frequency, the sweep bandwidth is calculated as
F =
1.13 1013
cfb t0
=
2R
R
Hz
(4.68)
4.8
106
Figure 4.13: Block diagram of the track processing, for the triangular homodyne FMCW emitter.
f2n (t) = fc +
F
F
t + An sin 2fn t
2
tm
(4.69)
where 0 < t < tm and An is the amplitude of the sinusoidal nonlinearity, and
fn is the frequency of the sinusoidal nonlinearity. The transmitted signal is
W
}w
]
F 2
F
An
t
t +
(1 cos 2fn t)
(4.70)
s2n (t) = a0 sin 2 fc +
2
2tm
2fn
The corresponding mixer output beat frequency signal can be shown to have
the form
W
}w
F
F 2 F
td +
t
td t
s2bn (t) = c0 cos 2 fc +
2
2tm d
tm
]
An
+
[cos 2fn (t td ) cos 2fn t]
2fn
for 0 < t < tm . From this expression, the eects of the nonlinearity can be
evaluated and their significance evaluated.
FMCW Radar
107
4.9
A moving target indication (MTI) filter can also be added to the FMCW
signal processing chain, and operates in a manner similar to a pulsed radar
[3]. Figure 4.14 shows the operation of an MTI canceler, an experimental Sband FMCW radar built at Philips Research Laboratories. The upper trace
shows the video A-scope picture from one sweep of the radar. The lower trace
shows the signal at the output of a digital three-sweep MTI canceler with more
than 40 dB of cancellation. Moving target Doppler (MTD) processing can be
implemented by measuring the rate of change of phase of the output of each
FFT range bin, from one sweep to the next, as shown in Figure 4.15. This
capability can be added quite easily to existing FMCW radars.
108
Figure 4.15: MTD processing applied to FMCW radar with output a set of
range-Doppler cells [3] ( c IEE 1992).
4.10
For the FMCW emitter design shown in Figure 4.1, the weighting is uniform. That is, no weighting is applied to the homodyne detector during the
correlation process. Recall that the unweighted PAF describes the rangeDoppler response of a matched receiver, when the receivers reference signal
is constructed from an integral number of periods N of the transmitted signal
(reference signal duration N tm ). Figure 4.16(a) shows the unweighted ACF
for an FMCW waveform with tm =20 ms and F =500 Hz, where the receiver uses N = 1 reference signals for correlation. Note the peak side lobe
level PSL 15 dB. The PACF is shown in Figure 4.16(b) and indicates
that the FMCW does not have a perfect PACF. The PAF is shown in Figure
4.17. The plot shows the two peaks left out from the two diagonal ridges,
bifurcating from the main lobe at a level of 1/2. The high side lobes are unwanted, since additional targets could possibly hide at these positions. Note
that the main and side lobes do not have deep nulls, a situation that can be
rectified with additional copies of the reference signal used in the receiver.
Figure 4.18(a, b) shows the ACF and PACF, respectively, for the triangular FMCW with N = 4. Note the well-defined main lobe repeating at every
2tm fs = 280 samples, resulting from the use of N = 4 copies of the reference signal in the correlation receiver. Figure 4.19 shows the PAF for N = 4
and demonstrates the more pronounced Doppler lobes appearing at kN for
FMCW Radar
109
Figure 4.16: Triangular FMCW (a) ACF and (b) PACF with F = 500 Hz,
tm = 20 ms, and N = 1.
Figure 4.17: Triangular FMCW PAF with F = 500 Hz, tm = 20 ms, and
N = 1.
110
Figure 4.18: Triangular FMCW (a) ACF and (b) PACF with F = 500 Hz,
tm = 20 ms, and N = 4.
k {0, 1, . . .}. The side lobes are reduced significantly.
4.11
where
1
gn ( ) =
T
(4.71)
u(t )r(t)e2nt/T dt
(4.72)
FMCW Radar
111
tm
tm
2
W2
(4.74)
where 0 t tm and zero elsewhere. Using (4.74) and (4.73) and the
reference signal r(t) = u (t) in (4.72)
]
w
W
}
sin(n ) jn /tm
sin
gn ( ) =
+ (1)n 1
e
(4.75)
tm
tm
n
where
=
[F (tm ) + n]
tm
(4.76)
112
FMCW Radar
113
where n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . Using the same weighting function discussed previously, the new function to reduce the time (range) side lobes can be shown
to be
1c
[gn+1 ( ) + gn1 ( )]
(4.78)
gnw ( ) = gn ( )
2c
The result for the tm F = 10 waveform is shown in Figure 4.20(b) and
demonstrates the reduction in the range (time) side lobes using c = 0.53836
(Hamming window).
4.12
114
Figure 4.21: Block diagram of the PANDORA radar [25] ( c IEEE 2000).
FMCW Radar
4.13
115
FMCW radars are hard to detect due to their wideband waveforms and consequently, potential jammers have a significant problem measuring the waveform parameters with sucient accuracy in order to match the jamming waveform to the radar waveform. In a realistic environment with a large number
of other radar systems operating in the same frequency band, an FMCW
radar is significantly more dicult to detect. These types of jammers and
their requirements are discussed in Part II. Also, since the FMCW transmit
waveform is deterministic, a good deal of robustness against electronic attack
is inherent. This stems from the fact that with this deterministic transmitted
signal, the return target signature has a general form that may be predicated.
This leads to a significant suppression of many interfering waveforms that are
uncorrelated, such as narrowband interference and pulsed radar emissions.
Of course, if the modulation period tm and bandwidth F can be determined, then coherent deception jamming is feasible and very eective, since
the jammer waveform looks like the radar waveform.
Antijam aspects of linear FM waveforms using simulations have also been
performed [27]. White Gaussian noise, continuous wideband jamming, and
jamming signals that were identical to the transmitted chirp signal were evaluated. They conclude that the FMCW signal can be recovered in moderate
noise conditions, but the radar has a hard time distinguishing a genuine chirp
signal from a hostile jammer signal when the jammer produces signals that
have a similar frequency spectrum to the chirp signal.
4.14
The FMCW limitations discussed above are quickly being overcome, with
such devices as solid-state transmitters and high-speed DSPs. This section
discusses some of the recent advances and their impact on the FMCW radar
performance.
As shown in Figure 4.1, the same antenna is used for both transmission
and reception, and the signals are separated with a circulator connected to the
antenna. In the FMCW emitter, transmission and reception are simultaneous,
and it is necessary to detect target returns on the order of a picowatt or
less in the presence of watts of transmitted power. The transmitter noise
can swamp out the valid targets, and the power leakage can desensitize the
receiver. Although two antennas (one transmit, one receive) can solve the
problem, many FMCW emitters (e.g., LPI missile seekers) must use a single
antenna. Consequently, the leakage must be canceled before it desensitizes
the receiver performance.
Conventionally, the vector modulator RPC adjusts a sample of the signal
being transmitted so that it is of equal amplitude to, and directly out of
116
Figure 4.23: Block diagram of C-band FMCW radar MMIC with electronic
circulator and photograph of GaAs chip (1.08 2.15 0.25 mm) [28] ( c IEEE
1989).
phase to the transmitter leakage signal [3, 4]. By adding the signal into the
receiver via a directional coupler, the leakage, including the noise sidebands
of the transmitted signal, can be canceled out. This reflected power-canceling
circuit must operate closed loop, with sucient gain and bandwidth to track
the leakage variation.
The demand for the low cost and small size makes modern front-end solutions based on microwave monolithic integrated circuits (MMICs) the most
favored approach. In order to allow single antenna operation, the first lowpower C-band FMCW radar MMIC chip that incorporated an electronic circulator in a single gallium arsenide (GaAs) integrated circuit was reported
in [28] and shown in Figure 4.23. The chip also included the VCO, buer
amplifier, and the mixer. In this circuit, the VCO drives a two-stage amplifier to form the FM transmitter. The receiver consists of an active field eect
transistor (FET) mixer with a bandpass input filter. The electronic circulator
circuit provides the interface to transmitter and receiver. The reference or
local oscillator signal for the mixer is provided by the reflected power from
the antenna mismatch. The signal reflected from the antenna mismatch is
suciently greater than the inherent circulator leakage to capture the mixer
and serve as the local oscillator signal [28].
The circulator can also be a passive ferrite device, but this typically has
to be placed outside the MMIC circuitry. The use of a power divider has
also been suggested, but wastes one half of both the transmitted and received
power. The FET transceiver is one promising approach to separate two signals that are closely spaced in frequency [29]. A circuit diagram of the FET
transceiver is shown in Figure 4.24, and overcomes the disadvantages associated with diode circuits as well as being well suited to MMIC technology.
The circuit eliminates the need for dual antennas, a circulator, or a coupler
for the separation of the transmit and receive signal paths. The FET is used
simultaneously as an amplifier for the transmitted signal, and as a resistive
mixer to downconvert the received signal. At optimum bias point, the cir-
FMCW Radar
117
Figure 4.24: Circuit diagram of the X-band FET transceiver [29] ( c IEEE
2000).
cuit has an output power of 7 dBm and a conversion loss of 9 dB. Although
the output power in this technology is limited, by 2011 the output power
capabilities are expected to be suitable for missile seeker applications.
An indium phosphide (InP)-based MMIC for use in millimeter wave
FMCW emitters was reported in [30] for a two-antenna system. For the transistor of this MMIC, an indium aluminum arsenide/indium gallium arsenide
(InAlAs/InGaAs) on InP pseudomorphic high electron mobility transistor
(HEMT) was used with a 0.5m gate length. Because of the high electron
mobility and the high sheet charge density, the HEMT performed with 8
dBm output power gain in the millimeter wave frequency range. The millimeter wave circuitry consisted of a 30-GHz voltage-controlled oscillator, a
30/60-GHz frequency doubler, a 60-GHz amplifier, and a 60-GHz singlebalanced mixer. Other GaAs HEMT technology for W-band FMCW receivers
have been recently reported in [3133].
A 25-GHz nonlinear, single antenna FMCW front-end, that uses a highprecision 2.45-GHz surface acoustic wave (SAW) reference and adaptively
compensates for phase errors (linearizing the target signal) by software, is
reported in [34]. The compensation of phase errors is based on measuring
the target signal against an exactly known distance standard. This standard
is implemented using the SAW delay line. By moving the VCO and the reference delay line to a 2.45-GHz IF, a complete planar design of the 24-GHz
front-end is realized as shown in Figure 4.25. A control voltage m(t) sweeps
the frequency of the 2.45-GHz VCO monotonically over the sweep bandwidth. The VCO feeds the SAW delay line and a mixer yielding the reference
signal sr(t). The other part is upconverted with a 21.7-GHz LO signal, bandpass filter, amplified and fed through a directional coupler to the antenna.
The transmit/receiver hybrid diverts the delayed echo signal from the an-
118
Figure 4.25: Block diagram of a 24-GHz FMCW sensor with 2.45-GHz SAW
reference [34] ( c IEEE 1997).
tenna to the downconverter that is pumped by the LO. The resulting delayed
2.45-GHz IF signal is then mixed with the IF transmit signal, providing the
sensor signal sm (t) for further digital signal processing. A 77-GHz version of
the architecture incorporating a flip-chip MMIC VCO was also reported in
[35].
The precision of FMCW emitters depends largely on the linearity of the
frequency ramp generator. Many frequency synthesizer concepts have been
explored. One method is to directly linearize the VCO. The linearity, however,
that is achievable with a direct linearization circuit at the VCO input is poor
[36]. The linearity can also be improved by controlling it within a phaselocked loop (PLL) that uses a stable crystal-controlled oscillator. This can
result in linearity better than 10-4. The conventional PLL linearization circuit
consists of a programmable frequency divider with a unity division ratio N .
The analog ramp frequency results from the moving average of the reference
frequency fref multiplied by N . To increase the number of steps the divider
executes on the ramp, a fractional divider circuit can be used to make any
desired step size. This way, many more division ratio steps can be executed
on the ramp [36]. A block diagram of the FMCW system with a fractional
ramp generator is shown in Figure 4.26, and includes a modified setup for
measuring the ramp quality. Digital techniques to generate the sweep signals
have also gained much attention. Use of a direct digital synthesizer, for
example, has many advantages over analog methods, including good flexibility
in changing the sweep bandwidth and sweep rate. Also, these techniques are
not as susceptible to environmental factors.
High-temperature superconductor (HTS)-based systems have made the
FMCW Radar
119
Figure 4.26: Block diagram of an FMCW system with fractional ramp generator [36] ( c IEEE 1999).
transition from the laboratory to the field. The use of HTS systems has recently gained significant attention, since they can solve a number of recurring
problems in digital receiver designs, such as noise figure, bandwidth, gain,
loss, size, and dynamic range. For example, the insertion loss in the preLNA
filter shown in Figure 4.1 can degrade the system noise figure and dynamic
range. Superconductor tunable filters are very attractive due to the low loss
that is achievable. A compact superconducting-ferrite filter operating at 77K
with insertion loss of 1 dB is reported in [37]. An HTS filter with noise figure on the order of 0.3 dB is reported in [38]. Note that these filters have
a flat passband, sharp filter edge skirts, and superior out-of-band rejection
characteristics. The filter and the LNA are often contained together in a
cryo-cooled Dewar. The use of HTS for an FMCW radar is discussed in [39].
Here, a self-contained FMCW radar incorporating a compact 2.2-ns broadband superconducting delay line operating at 80K is described and is the first
demonstration of an integral microwave system utilizing HTS circuitry that
incorporates a closed-cycle cooler, and a long-life permanently sealed Dewar.
References
[1] Mahafza, B. R., Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB, Chapman & Hall/CRC, Boca Raton, Jan. 2000.
[2] Stove, A. G., Modern FMCW radar - techniques and applications, European
Radar Conference, Amsterdam, pp. 149152, 2004.
[3] Stove, A. G., Linear FMCW radar techniques, IEE Proc. F, Vol. 139, No.
5, pp. 343350, Oct. 1992.
[4] Griths, H. D., New ideas in FM radar, IEE Electronics and Communications Engineering Journal, pp. 185194, Oct. 1990.
[5] Beasley, P. D. L., et al., Solving the problems of a single antenna frequency
modulated CW radar, Record of the IEEE 1990 International Radar Conference, pp. 391395, 1990.
120
[6] Nathanson, F. E., and Luke, P. J., Loss from approximations to squarelaw detectors in quadrature systems with postdetection integration, IEEE
Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, AES-8 pp. 7577, Jan. 1972.
[7] Filip, A. E. A bakers dozen magnitude approximations and their detection
statistics, IEEE Trans. of Aerospace and Electronic Systems, AES-12, pp.
8689, Jan. 1976.
[8] Cassandras, C. G., Discrete Event Systems Modeling and Performance Analysis, Aksen and Irwin Associates, Homewood, IL, 1993.
[9] Piper, S. O., Receiver frequency resolution for range resolution in homodyne FMCW radar, Proc. National Telesystems Conference, Commercial
Applications and Dual-Use Technology, pp. 169173, 1993.
[10] Piper, S. O., Homodyne FMCW radar range resolution eects with sinusoidal nonlinearities in the frequency sweep, Record of the IEEE International Radar Conference, pp. 563567, 1995.
[11] Turley, M. D. E., FMCW radar waveforms in the HF band, ITU-R JRG
1A-1C-8B meeting, Nov. 2006.
[12] Griths, H. D., and Bradford, W. J., Digital generation of high timebandwidth product linear FM waveforms for radar altimeters, IEE Proc.
F, Vol. 139, No. 2, pp. 160169, April 1992.
[13] Pace, P. E., Advanced Techniques for Digital Receivers, Artech House, Inc.,
Norwood, MA, July 2000.
[14] Abousetta, M. M., and Cooper, D. C., Noise analysis of digitized FMCW
radar waveforms, IEE Proc. F, pp. 209215, Aug. 1998.
[15] Turner, S. E., Chan, R. T., and Feng, J. T., ROM-based direct digital synthesizer at 24 GHz clock frequency in InP DHT technology, IEEE Microwave
and Wireless Components Letters, Vol. 18, No. 8, pp. 566568, Aug. 2008.
[16] Liao, S. Y., Microwave Devices and Circuits, 2nd Edition Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey, 1980.
[17] Harmer, J. D., and OHare, W. S., Some advances in CW radar techniques,
IRE 5th Mil-E-Con Record, pp. 311323, 1961.
[18] OHara, F. J., and Moore, G. M., A high performance CW receiver using
feedthrough nulling, Microwave Journal, Vol. 6, No. 9, pp. 6371, Sept.
1963.
[19] Lin, K., Wang, Y. E., Pao, C.-K., and Shih, Y.-C., A Ka-Band FMCW radar
front-end with adaptive leakage cancellation, IEEE Trans. on Microwave
Theory and Techniques, Vol. 54, No. 12, pp. 4041 4048, Dec. 2006.
[20] Grajal, J., Asensio, A. and Requejo, L., From a high-resolution LFM-CW
shipborne radar to an airport surface detection equipment, Proceedings of
the IEEE Radar Conference, pp. 157160, Madrid, Spain, 2004.
[21] Kim, C.-Y., Kim, J.-G., and Hong, S., A quadrature radar topology with Tx
leakage canceller for 24-GHz radar applications, IEEE Trans. on Microwave
Theory and Techniques, Vol. 55, No. 7, pp. 14381444, July 2007.
FMCW Radar
121
122
[37] Oates, D. C., Dionne, G. F., and Anderson, A. C., Magnetically tunable
superconductor filters, GOMAC Session 15, Advanced Receiver Technology,
Monterey, CA, pp. 396399, March 1999.
[38] Terrell, J., High temperature superconducting filters for military applications, GOMAC Session 15, Advanced Receiver Technology, Monterey, CA,
pp. 400403, March 1999.
[39] Kapolnek, D. J., et al., Integral FMCW radar incorporating an HTSC delay
line with user-transparent cyrogenic cooling and packaging, IEEE Trans. on
Applied Superconductivity, Vol. 3 No. 1, pp. 28202823, Aug. 1992.
Problems
0
1. Calculate the error between the envelope detector output xe = I 2 + Q2
and the envelope approximation detector output (4.1) when I = 1.3 and
Q = 3.1 for (a) a = 1, b = 1/2, and (b) a = 1 and b = 1/4.
2. An LPI emitter scans at a rate of 65 deg/s using a triangular FMCW
waveform with modulation period tm = 1 ms. The GOCFAR range
processor sends the report sequence
{0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}
for a target at RT , to a Markov chain with NX = 6 and NY = 3.
Calculate the targets azimuth extent .
3. An FMCW LPI waveform is shown in Figure 4.27. If the modulation
period tm = 5 ms, the noise factor FR = 10, and the signal-to-noise
ratio required at the receiver output is 13 dB, determine the receivers
sensitivity in dBmW.
4. For the FMCW waveform shown in Figure 4.27, if the modulation bandwidth F = 1 GHz, determine the range resolution.
FMCW Radar
123
Chapter 5
5.1
Introduction
While linear FMCW has established itself as one of the most popular LPI
waveforms, PSK CW waveforms have recently been a topic of active investigation, due to the their wide bandwidth and inherently low PAF side lobe
levels achievable. For the LPI radar (as with pulsed radar), it is important
to have a low side lobe level to avoid the side lobes of large targets from
masking the main peak of smaller targets. The choice of PSK code aects
the radar performance and the implementation. For the PSK waveforms, the
125
126
5.2
In the PSK radar, the phase shifting operation is performed in the radars
transmitter, with the timing information generated from the receiver-exciter.
The transmitted complex signal can be written as
s(t) = Aej(2fc t+k )
(5.1)
(5.2)
tolerance is measured by how well the code compresses in the matched receiver,
when the received signal is Doppler shifted with respect to the reference code.
127
and
Q = A sin(2fc t + k )
(5.3)
Within a single code period, the CW signal is phase shifted Nc times, with
phase k every tb seconds, according to a specific code sequence. Here tb is
the subcode period. The resulting code period is
T = Nc tb s
(5.4)
Rc = 1/Nc tb s1
(5.5)
uT =
k=1
uk [t (k 1)tb ]
(5.6)
(5.7)
for 0 t tb and zero otherwise. The range resolution of the phase coding
CW radar is
ctb
(5.8)
R =
2
and the unambiguous range is
Ru =
cNc tb
cT
=
2
2
(5.9)
If cpp is the number of cycles of the carrier frequency per subcode, the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is
B = fc /cpp = 1/tb Hz
(5.10)
The received waveform from the target is digitized and correlated in the
receiver using a matched (unweighted) or mismatched (weighted) filter that
contains a cascade of N sets of Nc reference coecients. The results from
each correlation are combined to concentrate the targets energy and produce
a compressed pulse having a time resolution equal to the subcode duration tb
and a height of Nc . For this reason, the number of phase code elements Nc is
also called the compression ratio. Recall that the PAF describes the rangeDoppler performance of this type of receiver, and depends on the number of
reference sets used.
128
5.3
In 1953, R. H. Barker presented binary sequences for synchronization purposes in telecommunications [5]. The binary Barker sequences are finite
length, discrete time sequences with constant magnitude, and a phase of
either k = 0 or k = . The formal definition of a Barker sequence is given
below [6].
Definition 5.1
A Barker sequence is a finite length sequence A = [a0 , a1 , . . . , an ]
of +1s and 1s of length n 2 such that the aperiodic autocorrelation coecients (or side lobes)
nk
rk =
aj aj+k
(5.11)
j=1
129
Table 5.1: Nine Barker Codes with Corresponding PSL and ISL
Code
Length
2
3
4
4
5
7
11
13
Code Elements
PSL
(dB)
ISL
(dB)
+, +
++
+ + +
+ + +
++++
++++
+++++
+++++++++
6.0
9.5
12.0
12.0
14.0
16.9
20.8
22.3
3.0
6.5
6.0
6.0
8.0
9.1
10.8
11.5
130
Figure 5.2: (a) ACF and (b) PACF for the Nc = 13-bit Barker binary PSK
signal (PSL = 22 dB).
shown, PSL = 20 log10 (1/Nc ) = 22.3 dB. The number of cycles per phase
cpp = 1. Figure 5.2(b) shows the PACF and reveals the fact that the Barker
codes do not have a perfect PACF side lobe characteristic (zero side lobes),
but have a lowest side lobe level that equals the PSL shown for the ACF
(22 dB). In Figure 5.3, a plot of the PAF is shown for N = 1. The delay axis
is normalized by the bit period tb so the PAF repeats every = Nc bsc = 91
samples. Note the presence of the large Doppler side lobes.
Upon reception of the targets return signal, the receiver uses a detector to
generate a + or for each subcode. Figure 5.4 demonstrates the binary phase
coding technique and receiver architecture using an Nc = 13-bit Barker code.
In this figure, the receiver output uses a single tapped delay line matched
filter to compress the transmitted waveform. When the return signal vector
is centered within the filter, the + filter coecients line up with the signal
+s and filter coecients line up with signal s, and a maximum output
results as shown.
In addition to having a limited code length, Barker codes are very sensitive
to Doppler shifts, as illustrated by the large PAF Doppler lobes shown in
Figure 5.3. The Doppler shift of the return waveform (due to a motion of the
target) can compress the waveform within the filter such that the matched
filter gives incorrect results. This characteristic restricts binary Barker code
applications. As a final note, Barker codes are not considered LPI since
they are easily detected by an intercept receiver that uses frequency doubling.
This simple technique involves multiplying the received signal by itself and
131
Figure 5.3: PAF for 13-bit Barker binary PSK signal showing the large
Doppler side lobes.
132
Figure 5.4: Binary phase coding techniques and receiver architecture using a
13 Barker code (Nc = 13).
133
5.4
Polyphase Codes
Polyphase sequences are finite length, discrete time complex sequences with
constant magnitude but with a variable phase k . Polyphase coding refers to
phase modulation of the CW carrier, with a polyphase sequence consisting
of a number of discrete phases. That is, the sequence elements are taken
from an alphabet of size Nc > 2. Increasing the number of elements or
phase values in the sequence allows the construction of longer sequences,
resulting in a high range resolution waveform with greater processing gain in
the receiver or equivalently a larger compression ratio. The trade-o is that
a more complex matched filter is required compared to a Barker code filter.
Note that a greater sequence length Nc does not aect the signal bandwidth
at the antenna and/or change the transmitted signal bandwidth (B = 1/tb ).
Polyphase sequences that satisfy the Barker criteria (so-called polyphase
Barker codes) are currently under investigation in order to try and find longer
sequences. Polyphase compression codes have also been derived from stepapproximation-to-linear-frequency modulation waveforms (Frank, P1, P2)
and linear-frequency modulation waveforms (P3, P4). These codes are derived by dividing the waveform into subcodes of equal duration, and using a
phase value for each subcode that best matches the overall phase trajectory
of the underlying waveform. An alternate approach to approximating these
waveforms is to quantize the underlying waveform into a user-selected number
of phase states, where the time spent at each phase state changes (in time)
throughout the duration of the waveform. These codes are referred to as
polytime codes. Other codes, such as the P (n, k) polyphase codes, have been
derived using a step approximation of the phase function from a nonlinear
frequency modulation waveform with a favorable energy density.
The importance of polyphase coding to the LPI community is that by increasing the alphabet size Nc , the autocorrelation side lobes can be decreased
significantly while providing a larger processing gain. By narrowing the subcode width tb (so there are fewer cycles per phase), the transmitted signal
can also be spread over a large bandwidth, forcing the receiver to integrate
over a larger band of frequencies. Polyphase signals can easily be generated
using the LPIT contained on the enclosed CD (see Appendix A). The user
can select any sequence length, carrier frequency fc , sampling frequency fs ,
and number of code periods to generate. The cycles per subcode cpp and the
134
5.5
Polyphase Barker codes allow the LPI emitter a large amount of flexibility
in generating the phase modulated waveforms. Since the number of dierent
phase terms (or alphabet) is not two-valued, there is considerable advantage
to their use since they are unknown to the noncooperative intercept receiver.
Over the years Nc 63 codes have been discovered and are presented below.
Consider the generalized Barker sequences {aj } of finite length n where
the terms aj are allowed to be complex numbers of absolute value 1 where the
correlation is now the Hermitian dot product2
nk
aj aj+k
rk =
(5.12)
j=1
ur ur+
rru =
(5.13)
j=1
(5.14)
where m is any nonzero integer. We can then observe the fact that the
autocorrelation function rv satisfies
k
vr vr+
(5.15)
(5.16)
rv =
r=1
or
rv =
r=1
for all . Since |ej2 /m | = 1, |rv | = |ru | for all Also from (5.13) |vr | = |ur |.
A more general transformation between vr and ur is given in [6].
2 The Hermitian
n
x y .
i=1 i i
135
Code Elements
+1, +j
+1, +j, +1
+1, +j, 1, +j
+1, +j, 1, +j, +1
+1, +j, 1, +j, 1, +j, +1
+1, +j, 1, +j, 1, j, 1, +j, 1, +j, 1
+1, +j, 1, j, +1, j, +1, j, +1, j, 1, +j, +1
Taking m = 4 in (5.13), the sequence (u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 . . . , uk ) is transformed into (u1 , ju2 , u3 , ju4 , . . . , (1)k1 uk ) which sets up a one-to-one
correspondence between ordinary (binary) Barker sequences and four-symbol
(1, j) Barker sequences in which the real and imaginary terms alternate.
This set of sequences is shown in Table 5.2. Note that the alternating Barker
sequences of odd length are all palindromic (i.e., read the same forward and
backward) and show a symmetry that is obscured in the binary representation. For a list of all the generalized Barker sequences whose terms are
restricted to the complex sixth roots of unity with Nc 13 the reader is
referred to [6].
Until recently, construction methods for generating Nc phase Barker sequences with low autocorrelation side lobes were not known and exhaustive
search routines were used. These methods and results are discussed below.
In [8] an exhaustive search for all sixth-root Barker sequences was conducted
through Nc = 22, for all eighth-root sequences through Nc = 15, and for all
12th-root sequences through Nc = 15. Table 5.3 shows these results. In the
results, the sequence values ai are rth roots of unity. That is, they are the
roots of the polynomial z r 1 = 0. Their search extended the list of known
Barker sequences up to Nc = 19 where the terms of the sequence are sixtieth
roots of unity. In Table 5.3, the terms ai are expressed in terms of their phase
angles as multiples of 6 degrees. Their results illustrate the smallest r known
for each Nc where r divides 60.
An iterative algorithm based on constrained iteration techniques is applied
to generate polyphase Barker sequences in [9]. Uniform sequences meeting the
Barker condition with Nc = 3 up to Nc = 25 elements are reported (except
for Nc =20 elements). The sequence values ai are shown in Table 5.4.
The list of uniform sequences was extended up to Nc =31 using the great
136
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
1
2
2
2
6
2
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
12
17
15
18
60
19
60
Sequence ai
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
30
0
50
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
0
30
0
0
40
50
0
45
0
0
45
0
0
0
0
0
4
54
0
41
31
42
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
40
0
30
0
30
0
40
0
0
0
40
20
0
45
30
0
45
30
0
48
20
0
7
57
0
3
56
30
30
0
10
0
0
30
30
30
0
0
30
40
0
30
20
0
20
0
10
0
30
10
0
0
0
20
40
0
50
30
0
0
40
0
30
20
40
30
30
50
10
0
0
30
20
30
30
30
0
10
10
20
10
40
0
10
0
15
0
0
15
0
0
40
4
9
35
35
9
58
32
15
30
15
45
0
15
15
30
35
4
4
32
8
32
3
4
20
28
15
45
0
15
20
28
56
53
15
30
16
43
11
16
32
47
37
8
15
57
2
137
ai
3
4
5
0.0121
2.5016
+1.3354
+0.2608
+1.3630
+1.6235
+0.8688
+1.7924
0.3131
2.9788
0.6896
0.7098
+2.8670
0.5887
1.7728
+1.6298
+2.0760
0.8944
1.2395
+2.2363
1.5832
+1.9194
+2.7188
+1.6773
+0.6941
+1.2749
0.7019
+2.0131
+2.5855
+2.9666
+0.5655
0.9322
+1.8799
2.8457
0.3146
0.0918
+0.0895
0.1218
1.6448
+0.7623
2.9279
0.3226
1.9249
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
1.1943
2.7749
0.8992
+0.1409
1.2319
1.8595
+3.0246
+1.1919
+0.9106
+0.0223
1.2660
1.4428
2.6573
1.7158
0.5804
+3.1349
0.9048
+2.6777
+2.8067
+2.1516
+7.2661
0.6370
0.6238
Nc
ai
18
+2.1297
2.5280
+0.2331
0.8630
+2.4890
1.9461
+2.1067
2.7650
0.4287
+1.1451
+0.4786
+2.2135
2.5136
2.8818
+2.4420
+1.8087
+1.3209
0.1876
0.0882
1.7205
+0.9588
+2.7208
+1.5822
2.1716
1.3843
1.6386
+2.6576
+0.0179
+3.1247
2.7484
+2.3777
1.4822
+2.3422
+1.4496
1.4167
1.5464
1.1339
0.8155
+2.8658
+2.6251
1.5638
2.0911
1.3895
0.1824
2.8375
2.0333
+2.1417
1.4368
19
+2.6116
1.8044
1.0342
+1.5811
1.8332
0.8423
+2.8294
0.6452
+1.5958
1.1485
2.6854
+3.0342
0.6520
+1.3744
0.2793
2.8756
+2.1561
1.9530
0.3414
0.7544
+2.3212
+1.8337
1.6531
+3.1305
0.0850
0.3623
+2.0519
+3.0833
1.8306
+1.9586
+1.6372
2.2825
+2.2090
+2.4207
2.6327
+0.2147
+2.6090
+2.0924
0.4439
+0.1656
+1.2243
+2.8601
1.1910
+0.8837
2.4826
2.7891
0.0768
+1.2537
+1.7266
0.6031
1.4914
+2.9683
+0.1768
0.4469
+1.0432
2.9651
+1.5204
+0.1834
2.7713
+0.2766
2.9903
2.7783
+2.1345
2.5196
1.8421
0.5837
0.8091
0.6062
2.8078
+2.2462
3.0102
+0.6899
+2.2955
0.4901
+0.4540
1.9528
+2.5677
+1.6009
0.0189
0.1942
0.3109
1.9773
20
21
22
23
24
25
2.4221
0.2354
+2.3578
+0.5150
+3.7406
+2.6015
+0.5609
0.4415
+1.5349
+0.3446
+0.6706
2.1501
+0.0993
+0.0677
+2.5909
+0.7662
+0.0701
1.9735
+0.2233
+2.1529
1.6995
0.1811
0.4065
1.6150
+0.3822
+1.3279
+0.0976
2.7582
0.0648
+2.4323
+1.6424
+2.3556
+0.7259
+1.5770
+0.8608
+1.7860
1.3544
+1.1860
0.5432
0.8463
+1.7062
+1.3810
2.4726
1.3004
1.6685
1.4620
+1.0432
+2.7943
+1.7885
0.9320
+0.8799
+1.3802
+0.6222
+1.1156
2.6283
1.6192
1.6192
2.6283
+1.1156
0.3890
+2.3177
2.5852
+1.2976
0.1505
+3.0213
+2.9578
0.4785
0.9913
1.5432
2.7280
+0.6143
+2.4522
2.9352
+0.8861
2.1043
0.2948
+2.0044
1.3904
+2.2276
+2.4527
1.8923
+2.3422
1.4822
+2.3777
2.7484
+3.1247
+0.0179
2.1404
+0.2333
+0.8093
3.0525
+2.1155
+2.3375
+1.8614
1.0745
+1.2308
2.6046
2.8259
2.2693
+1.8448
+1.2732
0.5946
+1.2732
+1.8448
+1.8712
+1.1924
0.3836
2.4389
0.6338
1.5944
1.4062
1.4345
+2.8241
0.5451
+1.4554
+0.4296
+2.0150
0.8208
+2.6104
+2.6871
+2.4892
0.9767
+2.8284
+1.4961
0.1689
+1.4167
138
20
26
27
28
29
30
31
ai
0.000000
0.000000
4.553049
4.086800
2.215325
1.894461
3.945793
3.770581
0.092210
0.967971
2.931040
1.003241
2.452194
3.460843
1.330362
3.745265
1.916620
4.431156
2.297439
4.416524
0.000000
0.000000
0.895841
2.043260
2.412575
4.632634
4.659854
3.061830
2.055563
4.540587
3.491350
2.376147
2.690606
3.123204
1.322308
5.951858
3.270461
5.356688
3.393189
1.614152
3.319561
0.300302
1.920568
4.368801
0.674586
3.485233
0.000000
0.000000
0.184756
0.381913
0.501476
5.667001
5.383231
4.897648
2.065845
1.731439
1.958458
4.965856
3.500713
5.477305
2.029632
5.701172
3.226034
0.931898
0.153375
3.384669
1.694949
4.205310
5.841580
1.796881
3.989645
5.794346
1.622635
0.000000
0.000000
5.463798
4.811496
3.381014
3.739787
2.796088
4.448612
4.248550
5.258279
4.368063
0.595450
5.859119
2.969228
5.908823
2.858973
5.257347
0.584991
4.028262
1.763293
0.929504
4.128530
4.342097
0.824984
1.073402
3.249433
4.575381
0.561518
0.000000
0.000000
0.120401
5.552993
4.186235
4.619877
4.174523
2.799691
5.262097
5.715868
0.326038
5.580307
1.481594
1.894634
3.910927
0.109814
0.547566
3.212265
2.928542
1.569419
5.675662
3.971280
2.537828
5.757173
1.598000
4.602239
1.641441
4.413265
1.039439
0.000000
0.000000
0.577184
0.603685
0.587563
0.207471
5.237221
4.913640
0.461842
0.945976
2.715992
3.698029
4.041807
2.346154
1.326526
5.544522
4.813630
1.179540
5.217885
3.222122
1.267677
2.683552
0.115401
4.583854
1.642393
4.237597
6.267467
2.612215
5.346838
1.248448
0.000000
0.000000
0.495357
2.054263
2.880816
4.126907
5.387150
5.322754
4.127543
3.776533
5.713595
4.877785
3.687515
4.313581
3.350924
1.665117
0.296297
4.764131
0.920844
5.779411
3.908770
5.301284
2.568618
0.379536
4.286983
0.511796
2.539604
5.184811
1.089083
3.330664
0.135490
deluge algorithm (GDA) in [10]. The GDA is a stochastic optimization routine that outperforms other routines such as simulated annealing or threshold
accepting. First, a quality factor Q is established based on the autocorrelation properties. Searching for a global maximum value for the quality factor
Q, the GDA allows every phase step size that does not result in a Q value
lower than a certain threshold. During optimization, this threshold is continuously increased. The algorithm terminates when the phase step size becomes
smaller than a predefined minimum phase step size. These results are shown
in Table 5.5 for 20 Nc 31.
In [11] uniform complex sequences of lengths 32 Nc 36 are presented.
These sequences are also derived using a stochastic optimization algorithm to
optimize a set of continuous phase values after properly selecting the starting vectors. After optimization, the phase values are quantized into a finite
alphabet. The results are shown in Table 5.6. Exhaustive search routines are
not feasible for large alphabet sizes. In addition, a suitable initial value for
the quality factors must be chosen. In [12], a systematic method is presented
139
Nc
32
720
27 33 181 220 190 121 666 614 578 563 171 328
497 670 343 152 128 443 596 220 74 545 359 39 358
576 165 584 266 659
33
720
34
360
35
11,520
36
180
2,984
6,322
9,634
7,826
2,094
1,797
4,748
2,363
5.6
Frank Code
140
ai = P i /2, i = 2 Nc 1
37
60
0 0 11 15 20 39 39 54 2 46 37 55 0 46 33 55 8 54 42 48 27
23 13 59 20 3 51 20 59 39 7 29 51 17 30 59 23
38
90
0 0 10 24 28 57 64 71 85 59 53 70 84 57 46 74 15 56 11 73
3 43 86 6 63 74 44 34 9 9 59 13 78 49 89 54 30 89
39
90
0 0 10 23 21 47 62 58 76 55 68 44 59 49 78 26 50 41 83 89
46 49 1 79 56 52 21 47 2 12 67 72 34 71 35 9 65 29 85
40
90
0 0 7 6 11 14 23 18 83 76 63 53 10 85 47 38 51 19 8 55 2
85 46 39 58 76 21 20 74 33 59 79 15 45 10 61 13 54 1 41
41
120
0 0 18 21 10 1 1 8 32 38 74 79 111 101 68 47 28 26 0 86 52
102 101 40 49 98 29 26 78 115 68 22 103 54 104 29 71 6 61
117 52
42
120
0 0 3 13 12 45 58 63 75 27 26 36 44 17 109 21 51 119 58
117 26 74 12 116 96 67 56 6 14 88 80 5 52 80 22 3 65 118
68 27 97 47
43
120
0 0 16 25 31 21 18 24 32 65 84 118 8 28 112 86 57 33 90
119 4 75 63 10 62 75 30 32 6 103 30 91 110 60 101 41 102
57 28 91 23 80 21
44
120
45
90
0 0 7 1 76 71 76 63 56 73 87 9 9 14 25 53 62 5 32 35 85 69
40 76 57 26 9 83 56 57 21 5 52 89 48 11 68 26 62 6 37 73
19 58 12
141
K
190
55
150
54
200
53
100
52
185
51
50
50
150
49
90
48
70
47
80
46
90
Phase
0, 0, 13, 37, 43, 95, 83, 115, 109, 145, 111, 12, 117, 86, 127, 116, 184, 109,
65, 121, 125, 116, 36, 92, 79, 85, 12, 1, 72, 183, 156, 135, 62, 139, 95, 16,
67, 134, 17, 138, 59, 92, 161, 46, 79, 176, 10, 127, 114, 48, 23, 148, 162,
88, 117, 35
0, 0, 8, 18, 18, 19, 22, 105, 100, 127, 119, 128, 117, 118, 53, 33, 112,
147, 132, 46, 30, 1, 133, 48, 117, 83, 31, 35, 38, 64, 144, 129, 100, 56, 39,
92, 104, 32, 140, 49, 110, 88, 14, 91, 134, 38, 84, 3, 111, 33, 95, 140, 43,
101, 19
0, 0, 23, 43, 16, 9, 40, 51, 20, 7, 67, 126, 178, 180, 71, 120, 144, 151, 61, 25,
45, 100, 86, 9, 172, 161, 142, 22, 85, 8, 96, 128, 81, 1, 18, 137, 0, 95, 132, 59,
44, 155, 16, 129, 157, 98, 47, 174, 73, 18, 145, 65, 170, 100
0, 0, 5, 3, 4, 5, 9, 13, 23, 58, 79, 99, 42, 68, 66, 99, 2, 41, 68, 29, 41, 76, 22,
25, 94, 98, 74, 59, 16, 58, 35, 62, 22, 93, 85, 19, 54, 17, 56, 94, 64, 92, 43,
26, 13, 70, 47, 95, 57, 21, 13, 86, 51
0, 0, 20, 11, 30, 26, 15, 27, 57, 26, 133, 97, 177, 149, 123, 45, 11, 140, 76,
85, 105, 3, 133, 31, 28, 58, 150, 103, 149, 39, 32, 137, 170, 100, 122, 58,
42, 86, 2, 172, 50, 128, 163, 49, 136, 76, 122, 17, 20, 108, 171
0, 0, 4, 4, 18, 20, 27, 25, 25, 26, 24, 15, 15, 14, 9, 32, 36, 2, 21, 17, 9, 27,
46, 49, 19, 29, 9, 32, 7, 43, 21, 46, 22, 47, 18, 35, 0, 22, 9, 31, 44, 5, 29, 21,
4, 49, 33, 24, 9, 49, 29
0, 0, 16, 20, 44, 48, 72, 66, 103, 40, 142, 59, 4, 92, 129, 96, 112, 82, 58, 71,
94, 67, 1, 52, 58, 112, 92, 37, 14, 59, 107, 3, 68, 146, 71, 102, 40, 58, 0, 124,
62, 67, 129, 41, 51, 138, 136, 76, 66, 13
0, 0, 5, 12, 7, 1, 0, 88, 6, 25, 43, 68, 72, 51, 29, 13, 55, 62, 10, 21, 78, 79, 28,
23, 63, 50, 81, 57, 37, 5, 9, 23, 84, 61, 47, 54, 24, 75, 23, 88, 51, 7, 43, 78,
35, 65, 15, 51, 7
0, 0, 1, 5, 14, 23, 35, 36, 26, 22, 17, 5, 68, 16, 16, 51, 53, 0, 21, 13, 63, 50,
59, 43, 21, 1, 52, 27, 53, 62, 28, 28, 0, 55, 24, 51, 5, 22, 51, 15, 50, 8, 44, 21,
64, 24, 52, 12
0, 0, 10, 13, 15, 11, 9, 15, 31, 41, 66, 74, 5, 77, 46, 35, 65, 53, 32, 15, 77,
59, 37, 30, 42, 4, 8, 39, 74, 71, 25, 57, 60, 24, 54, 23, 41, 75, 19, 58, 13,
55, 11, 61, 33, 65, 28
0, 0, 3, 14, 21, 34, 50, 70, 75, 79, 57, 61, 47, 61, 79, 22, 55, 71, 71, 25, 44,
85, 9, 67, 5, 56, 81, 59, 26, 64, 11, 58, 25, 14, 83, 85, 62, 42, 4, 56, 23, 81,
50, 24, 11, 71
142
K
2000
62
3000
61
1930
60
210
59
340
58
500
57
240
56
190
55
150
Phase
0, 0, 88, 200, 250, 89, 1832, 1668, 1792, 145, 308, 290, 528, 819, 1357,
1558, 1407, 1165, 930, 869, 274, 97, 10, 1857, 731, 789, 1736, 150, 1332,
1229, 390, 944, 1522, 1913, 648, 239, 1114, 1708, 200, 666, 1870, 1124,
1464, 265, 845, 1751, 1039, 53, 737, 1760, 798, 1880, 851, 1838, 1103, 419,
1711, 1155, 546, 1985, 1325, 754, 44
0, 0, 459, 324, 361, 2987, 152, 432, 2963, 2907, 112, 598, 1276, 1489, 2216,
1814, 1505, 2536, 2949, 197, 1039, 1241, 2809, 2780, 1388, 590, 2233, 1352,
2458, 2284, 962, 172, 1453, 2245, 799, 558, 2461, 1258, 34, 1666, 2834,
1364, 2755, 1369, 2284, 796, 724, 2118, 198, 1327, 2858, 2962, 2021, 1774,
1604, 698, 1059, 100, 2995, 1923, 2278, 884
0, 0, 58, 1761, 1762, 1703, 1724, 193, 721, 241, 247, 1855, 187, 416,
1379, 1421, 1385, 922, 362, 784, 1401, 1383, 584, 1709, 284, 807, 285, 373,
1404, 1739, 1173, 179, 750, 1, 1239, 1215, 1691, 1092, 490, 17, 160, 1047,
704, 536, 1515, 820, 1892, 1138, 1630, 139, 288, 1065, 1780, 733, 613,
1309, 1452, 550, 1673, 1049, 143
0, 0, 16, 208, 180, 153, 126, 161, 135, 78, 83, 98, 143, 127, 162, 153, 183,
141, 72, 207, 149, 167, 15, 13, 146, 58, 23, 109, 169, 208, 74, 143, 173, 199,
51, 50, 31, 142,152, 84, 74, 6, 147, 205, 151, 66, 31, 151, 27, 101, 170, 75,
172, 91, 20, 131, 1, 78, 166, 68
0, 0, 5, 321, 293, 253, 251, 285, 268, 262, 286, 14, 96, 65, 33, 43, 152, 220,
235, 71, 142, 49, 262, 176, 285, 31, 181, 150, 305, 337, 108, 138, 13, 209,
274, 163, 24, 100, 320, 169, 221, 4, 48, 209, 339, 109, 192, 33, 222, 301, 128,
45, 228, 130, 299, 188, 45, 288, 134
0, 0, 1, 47, 209, 191, 154, 364, 437, 363, 420, 51, 437, 413, 277, 382, 78,
4, 428, 267, 308, 352, 238, 115, 205, 179, 474, 425, 234, 52, 443, 311, 482,
491, 400, 234, 297, 495, 492, 169, 397, 464, 75, 259, 476, 121, 437, 183, 34,
263, 0, 64, 242, 496, 292, 68, 318, 127
0, 0, 18, 51, 31, 37, 6, 39, 43, 64, 128, 167, 187, 19, 22, 226, 163, 103, 97,
238, 200, 172, 111, 201, 72, 95, 75, 172, 2, 91, 49, 220, 209, 57, 212, 168, 116,
206, 110, 102, 25, 131, 2, 30, 143, 182, 42, 107, 216, 89, 10, 161, 29, 170, 106,
205, 86
0, 0, 13, 37, 43, 95, 83, 115, 109, 145, 111, 12, 117, 86, 127, 116, 184, 109,
65, 121, 126, 116, 36, 92, 79, 85, 12, 1, 72, 183, 156, 135, 62, 139, 95, 16,
67, 134, 17, 138, 59, 92, 161, 46, 79, 176, 10, 127, 114, 48, 23, 148, 162, 88,
117, 35
0, 0, 8, 18, 18, 19, 22, 105, 100, 127, 119, 128, 117, 118, 53, 33, 112,
147, 132, 46, 30, 1, 133, 48, 117, 83, 31, 35, 38, 64, 144, 129, 100, 56,
39, 92, 104, 32, 140, 49, 110, 88, 14, 91, 134, 38, 84, 3, 111, 33, 95, 140, 43,
101, 19
143
Figure 5.5: Phase relationship between the quantized linear FM and Frank
coded signals with M = 4.
documented and has recently been used successfully in LPI radars (such as
the OLPI). The Frank code is derived from a step approximation to a linear
frequency modulation waveform using M frequency steps and M samples per
frequency. The Frank code has a length or processing gain of Nc = M 2 . In
the case of a single side band detection, the result is the Frank code [15]. As
an example, consider that a local oscillator is at the start of the sweep of the
step approximation to the linear frequency waveform. The first M samples of
the polyphase code are 0 phase. The second M samples start with 0 phase,
and increase with phase increments of (2 /M ) from sample to sample. The
third group of M samples start with 0 phase and increase with (3-1)(2/M )
increments from sample to sample and so on.
Figure 5.5 shows the phase relationship between the quantized linear FM
and Frank code signal for M =4. If i is the number of the sample in a given
frequency and j is the number of the frequency, the phase of the ith sample
of the jth frequency is
i,j =
2
(i 1) (j 1)
M
(5.17)
144
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
2
4
..
..
..
.
.
.
0 (M 1) 2(M 1)
0
(M 1)
2(M 1)
..
.
(M 1)2
(5.18)
where the numbers represent multiplying coecients of the basic phase angle
2/M . For the Frank code, the PSL = 20 log10 (1/(M )) [16, 17]. For M =8,
Nc =64, the PSL = 28 dB.
Figure 5.6(a) shows the discrete phase values that result for the Frank
code for M = 8 (Nc = 64). Figure 5.6(b) shows the signal phase modulo 2,
and demonstrates that the Frank code has the largest phase increments from
sample to sample in the center of the code. Consequently, when the Frank
code is passed through a bandpass amplifier in a radar receiver, the code
is attenuated most heavily in the center of the waveform. This attenuation
tends to increase the side lobes of the Frank code ACF.
Figure 5.7 shows the power spectrum magnitude of a Frank signal with
fc =1 kHz, fs =7 kHz, and cpp = 1 with M = 8. Figure 5.7(a) shows the
power spectrum for the signal only, and shows the wideband characteristics
(B =1 kHz) resulting from the phase modulation. Figure 5.7(b) shows the
power spectrum for the SNR = 0 dB case. Figure 5.8(a) shows the ACF and
the PACF for the Nc = 64 Frank code with N = 1. The ACF reveals the
peak side lobe level PSL = 28 dB. Figure 5.8(b) shows the PACF, and the
fact that the Frank code has a perfect PACF. Figure 5.9 shows the PAF for
the Frank code for Nc = 64 and N = 1. Note the delay and the Doppler side
lobe levels are much lower than the BPSK code examined in Section 5.3.
Another formulation to generate the Frank code can be found by examining a linear transformation. In a linear transformation of the Frank code,
the kth phase element can be expressed as [18]
k =
2
M
k k(mod M )
[k(mod M )]
M
(5.19)
where M is any positive integer that defines the code sequence length Nc =
M 2 . If the phase-coded signal given in (5.1) is converted into digital form
with a sample period t = tb , then the kth signal sample of the polyphase
Frank code sequence envelope is
sk = A exp [jk ] = exp j
2 k k(mod M )
k(mod M )
M
M
(5.20)
Figure 5.6: Frank code phase values for M = 8 (Nc = 64), showing
(a) discrete phase jumps and (b) signal phase modulo 2.
145
146
Figure 5.8: Frank code (a) ACF and (b) PACF for Nc = 64, N = 1.
147
148
5.7
P1 Code
(5.22)
149
Figure 5.10: P1 code phase values for M = 8 (Nc = 64), showing (a) discrete
phase jumps and (b) signal phase modulo 2.
150
Figure 5.12: P1 code (a) ACF and (b) PACF for Nc = 64, N = 1.
151
152
5.8
P2 Code
For the P2 code M even, the phase increment within each phase group is the
same as the P1 code, except that the starting phases are dierent [15]. The
P2 code also has a length or compression ratio of Nc = M 2 . The P2 code is
given by [17]
[2i 1 M ][2j 1 M ]
(5.23)
i,j =
2M
where i = 1, 2, 3 . . . , M , and j = 1, 2, 3 . . . , M , and where M = 2, 4, 6, . . ..
The requirement for M to be even in this code stems from the desire for low
autocorrelation side lobes [15]. For the P2 code, the PSL = 20 log10 (1/(M ))
and is the same as the Frank code and P1 code. Figure 5.14(a) shows the
discrete phase values that result for the P2 code for M = 8. Figure 5.14(b)
shows the signal phase values modulo 2, and demonstrates the fact that
the phase changes are largest toward the end of the code. Figure 5.15 shows
the power spectrum magnitude of the P2 code for M = 8 (Nc2 =64) with
fc = 1 kHz, fs = 7 kHz, and cpp = 1. Figure 5.15(a) shows the power
spectrum for the signal only, and Figure 5.15(b) shows the power spectrum
for the SNR = 0 dB.
Figure 5.16(a, b) shows the corresponding ACF and PACF, respectively.
Note that the P2 code does not have a perfect PACF. In fact, the PACF is
identical to the ACF. Figure 5.17 shows the PAF for the P2 code for Nc = 64
and N = 1. An interesting observation is that the P2 PAF has an opposite
slope compared to the other PSK sequences.
5.9
P3 Code
The P3 code is conceptually derived by converting a linear frequency modulation waveform to baseband, by using a synchronous oscillator on one end of
the frequency sweep (single sideband detection), and sampling the I and Q
video at the Nyquist rate (first sample of I and Q taken at the leading edge
of the waveform) [15]. The phase of the ith sample of the P3 code is given by
i =
(i 1)2
Nc
(5.24)
153
Figure 5.14: P2 code phase values for M = 8 (Nc2 = 64), showing (a) discrete
phase values and (b) signal phase modulo 2.
154
Figure 5.15: P2 code power spectrum magnitude for M = 8, for (a) signal
only and (b) SNR = 0 dB.
Figure 5.16: P2 code (a) ACF and (b) PACF for Nc = 64, N = 1.
155
156
Figure 5.18: P3 code phase values for Nc = 64, showing (a) discrete phase
steps and (b) signal phase modulo 2.
157
signal, and Figure 5.19(b) shows the power spectrum magnitude for the SNR
= 0 dB. Figure 5.20(a) shows ACF and the side lobe structure of the P3 for
Nc = 64 and N = 1. The peak side lobe ratio for the P3 code is larger than
the Frank, P1, and P2 codes. Here PSL = 20 log10 2/(Nc 2 ) dB, down
from the peak. With Nc = 64, PSL = 25 dB. This is revealed in Figure
5.20(a) which shows the corresponding ACF. Figure 5.20(b) shows the PACF
for the P3 code and indicates that the P3 has a perfect PACF. The PAF for
the P3 code is shown in Figure 5.21. Here Nc = 64 and N = 1. Note that
the PAF slope for the P3 code is opposite to that of the P2 code.
5.10
P4 Code
The P4 code is conceptually derived from the same linear frequency modulation waveform as the P3 code, except that the local oscillator frequency is
oset in the I and Q detectors, resulting in coherent double sideband detection. Sampling at the Nyquist rate yields the polyphase code named the P4
[15, 16]. The P4 code consists of the discrete phases of the linear chirp waveform taken at specific time intervals, and exhibits the same range Doppler
coupling associated with the chirp waveform. However, the peak side lobe levels are lower than those of the unweighted chirp waveform. Various weighting
techniques can be applied to reduce the side lobe levels further. The phase
sequence of a P4 signal is described by
i =
(i 1)2
(i 1)
Nc
(5.25)
158
Figure 5.19: P3 code power spectrum magnitude for Nc = 64, for (a) signal
only and (b) SNR = 0 dB.
Figure 5.20: P3 code (a) ACF and (b) PACF, for Nc = 64, N = 1.
159
160
Figure 5.22: P4 code phase values for Nc = 64, showing (a) discrete phase
steps and (b) signal phase modulo 2.
161
Figure 5.23: P4 code power spectrum magnitude for Nc = 64, for (a) signal
only and (b) SNR = 0 dB.
162
Figure 5.24: P4 code (a) ACF and (b) PACF, for Nc = 64, N = 1.
5.11
163
Polytime Codes
The Frank, P1, P2, P3, and P4 codes discussed above were developed by approximating a stepped frequency or linear frequency modulation waveform,
where the phase steps vary as needed to approximate the underlying waveform, and the time spent at any given phase state is a constant. Another
approach to approximating a stepped frequency or linear frequency modulation waveform is to quantize the underlying waveform into a user-selected
number of phase states. In this case, the time spent at each phase state
changes throughout the duration of the waveform. The code sequences that
use fixed phase states with varying time periods at each phase state are given
the name polytime coding [19].
Two types of polytime coded waveforms can be generated from the stepped
frequency model and are denoted as T1(n) and T2(n), where n is the number
of phase states used to approximate the underlying waveform. The T3(n) and
T4(n) polytime sequences are approximations to a linear frequency modulation waveform. Increasing the number of phase states increases the quality
of the polytime approximation to the underlying waveform, but also reduces
the time spent at any given phase state, complicating the generation of the
waveform. The phase state (or bit) durations change as a function of time.
The minimum bit duration sets the waveform bandwidth.
5.11.1
T1(n) Code
The T1(n) sequence is generated using the stepped frequency waveform that
is zero beat at the leading segment. The expression for the wrapped phase
versus time for the T1(n) polytime sequence is [19]
T 1 (t) = mod
jn
2
INT (kt jT )
, 2
n
T
(5.26)
164
165
at zero. The second segment accumulates one full cycle (360 degrees) over the
duration of 4 ms. The third segment accumulates an additional two full cycles
(720 degrees) over its duration of 4 ms. The fourth segment accumulates an
additional three full cycles (1,080 degrees) over its duration of 4 ms resulting
in a total accumulated phase change of 2,160 degrees. As the phase of the
stepped frequency waveform crosses increments of 180 degrees, the quantized
phase changes to the alternate state (between 0 degrees and 180 degrees) and
remains there until the phase reaches the next 180-degree boundary as shown.
The power spectrum magnitude of the T1(2) signal only is shown in Figure
5.27(a). Figure 5.27(b) shows the power spectrum magnitude for the SNR
= 0 dB case. These plots serve to demonstrate the wideband nature of this
type of phase modulation. Note that the bandwidth is not equal to B but is
the result of the phase state with the smallest duration.
Figure 5.28(a) shows the ACF and its side lobe structure for the T1(2)
code with N = 1. The PSL is high (PSL 10 dB). From the PACF shown
in Figure 5.28(b), it is clear that the T1(2) also does not have a perfect PACF.
Figure 5.29 shows the PAF for the T1(2) code for N = 1. The plot reveals
the high Doppler side lobes expected.
5.11.2
T2(n) Code
The T2(n) sequence is generated by approximating a stepped frequency waveform that is zero at its center frequency. For stepped frequency waveforms
with an odd number of segments, the zero frequency is the frequency of the
center segment. If an even number of segments is used, the zero frequency is
the frequency halfway between the two centermost segments. The expression
for the wrapped phase versus time for the T2(n) polytime sequence is
T 2 (t) = mod
2
INT (kt jT )
n
2j k + 1
T
n
, 2
2
(5.27)
166
Figure 5.27: Polytime code T1(2) power spectrum magnitude, for (a) signal
only and (b) SNR = 0 dB.
Figure 5.28: T1(2) code (a) ACF and (b) PACF for N = 1.
167
168
169
The power spectrum magnitude of the T2(2) signal for signal only is shown
in Figure 5.31(a), and Figure 5.31(b) shows the power spectrum magnitude
for SNR = 0 dB. Note again, that the bandwidth is not equal to B but is the
result of the phase state with the smallest duration.
Figure 5.32(a) shows the ACF for the T2(2) code with N = 1. The
peak side lobe level is approximately the same as the T1(2) examined above,
except that it occurs at a larger delay ( /tb = 38). Figure 5.32(b) shows the
PACF and reveals that the T2(n) code also does not have a perfect PACF.
Figure 5.33 shows the PAF and, as also expected, has fairly large side lobes.
5.11.3
T3(n) Code
A linear FM waveform that is zero beat at its leading edge generates the
T3(n). The equation for the wrapped phase versus time for a T3 polytime
sequence is
nF t2
2
INT
, 2
(5.28)
T 3 (t) = mod
n
2tm
where tm is the modulation period and F is the modulation bandwidth.
An example of a T3(2) waveform generated using fc =1 kHz, F =1 kHz,
and tm =16 ms is given in Figure 5.34. Figure 5.34(a) shows the unwrapped
phase change in the time domain. Figure 5.34(b) shows the wrapped phase
quantized to phase state 0 and 180 degrees. Figure 5.34(c) shows the resulting
1-kHz time domain signal, illustrating the imposed phase modulations. The
quadratic phase accumulates 2,880 degrees after 16 ms. The wrapped phase
shifts between 0 and 180 degrees, as the quadratic phase of the linear FM
waveform passes through increments of 180 degrees.
The power spectrum magnitude of the T3(2) signal only is shown in
Figure 5.35(a) and Figure 5.35(b) shows the power spectrum magnitude for
SNR = 0 dB. Figure 5.36(a) shows the ACF for the T3(2) code with N = 1,
and indicates that the side lobe performance is somewhat better than the
T1(2) or T2(2) code (PSL 18 dB). Figure 5.36(b) shows the corresponding PACF, also indicating that the T3(2) does not have a perfect PACF.
Figure 5.37 shows the PAF for the T3(2) code. As expected, the side lobes
are relatively high.
5.11.4
T4(n) Code
If the linear frequency modulation waveform is zero beat at its center and
is quantized into n discrete phase states, the T4(n) polytime sequence is
generated. The equation for the wrapped phase versus time for a T4(n)
polytime sequence is
T 4 (t) = mod
nF t2 nF t
2
INT
, 2
n
2tm
2
(5.29)
170
Figure 5.31: Polytime code T2(2) power spectrum magnitude, for (a) signal
only and (b) SNR = 0 dB.
Figure 5.32: T2(2) code (a) ACF and (b) PACF for N = 1.
171
172
173
Figure 5.35: Polytime code T3(2) power spectrum magnitude, for (a) signal
only and (b) SNR = 0 dB.
174
Figure 5.36: T3(2) code (a) ACF and (b) PACF for N = 1.
175
176
177
Figure 5.39: Polytime code T4(2) power spectrum magnitude, for (a) signal
only and (b) SNR = 0 dB.
178
Figure 5.40: T4(2) code (a) ACF and (b) PACF for N = 1.
179
Figure 5.42: Photo of the OLPI radar (a) transmit antenna and (b) receive
antenna.
5.12
The objective of the omnidirectional LPI radar concept is to provide mediumrange surveillance while avoiding antiradiation missile attacks [20, 21]. The
transmitting antenna beam illuminates the observation space continuously
using a Frank phase-coded CW waveform. The CW signal is transmitted from
an antenna that uses a nonscanning main beam, as illustrated in Figure 1.4(c).
The transmitter is separated from the receiving system by approximately
100m. By separating the transmit and receive antennas, no direct coupling
exists, providing good isolation. In a tactical situation, several transmitters
can be used (with dierent frequencies and phase codes) to provide backup, or
as decoys. Figure 5.42 shows a picture of both the OLPI transmitter antenna
and receive antenna.
In the transmitting antenna, eight vertical dipoles in a column are combined by a microstrip-feeding network, resulting in a fan-beam pattern with
a width of 20 degrees in elevation and 120 degrees in azimuth. The gain of
the transmitting antenna is Gt = 8. The objective here is to distribute the
energy evenly within the observation space. The transmitter power is 10W
at 2.82 GHz [22].
The receive antenna uses a multiple beam array to provide continuous
coverage of the illuminated space. The multiple beam antenna also provides
180
181
signals for each resolution are integrated during a time of Ts =2s. The range
resolution is matched to the azimuth resolution at 30 km, which is 600m.
Therefore, the range resolution is 600m, resulting in a subcode width of
tb = 4 s. With fs = 250 kHz, each subcode period contains one I and
Q pair. The Frank code length is Nc = 64, resulting in a code period of
T = 256 s and is equivalent to an Ru =38.4 km.
The first step in the signal processing is to suppress the (mostly stationary)
clutter echoes, using a recursive notch filter. After clutter suppression, the
code compression is accomplished by using an FFT that eciently compresses
the Frank code. The processing gain due to code compression is Nc = 64.
Because the phase is unknown, however, there is a loss of 1 dB compared
to fully coherent integration resulting in a net processing gain of P GR =
10 log10 (Nc ) 1 or 17 dB.
The phase code compression is followed by Doppler filtering to extract the
moving targets. To detect targets with velocity v =250m/s at 38 km within
an integration time of Ts = 2s, the resulting Doppler spectral width is
2v 2 Ts
2v
=
(5.30)
R
or 60 Hz. The filter width is matched to this value, resulting in a coherent
integration time of 16 ms and corresponds to 64 code periods, each 256 s
long. That is, 64 code periods are integrated for each range bin.
To simplify the hardware complexity of having to process 4,096 range bins,
the signal is digitized into a single bit (1) [22]. The processing gain due to
the Doppler filtering of 64 phase codes is P G = 10 log10 (64) = 18 dB. Due
to the digitization into a single bit, however, a loss of 2 dB is encountered.
Also, since the Doppler frequency and phase are unknown, an additional loss
of 2.5 dB is included, resulting in a processing gain due to Doppler filtering
of P GR = 18 2.5 2 = 13.5 dB.
The fourth step described in [22] is the noncoherent integration of the
outputs of the Doppler filter bank. The noncoherent integration is carried
out over the frame time (T = 2s). During the total integration time of
Ts = 2s, a further 128 signals are integrated in amplitude individually. With
64 beams, 64 range bins, and 64 Doppler filters per range bin, a total of
262,144 resolution cells are available. The processing gain due to noncoherent
integration is 12.7 dB. The total processing gain for all three stages is then
P GR = 17 + 13.5 + 12.7 =43.2 dB. With an output detection threshold of
SNRRo = 13 dB, the required input SNRRi = 30.2 dB. With BRi = 1/tb =
250 kHz and FR = 5.6 dB (including Butler matrix loss), the sensitivity of
the OLPI can be estimated as
=
(5.31)
The OLPI radar has been used experimentally to detect hovering helicopters
(above terrain masking for only a short time), and is described more fully
182
in [22]. Although the OLPI is only one example of an LPI radar that uses
phase modulation, there have also been others built that use much longer
phase codes such as the Hughes Aircraft Company quiet radar built in the
early 1980s.
5.13
Summary
In this chapter we have examined several popular PSK LPI radar schemes,
as well as some new techniques recently developed. The phase structure was
examined for each type of code, along with an analysis of the magnitude of
phase change throughout the code. The power spectrum results were also
presented. The correlation and ambiguity functions from Chapter 3 were
used to examine each waveforms ACF, PACF, and PAF in order to determine
its suitability for use as an LPI waveform. In the next chapter we look at
frequency shift keying techniques for LPI radar applications, as well as hybrid
FSK/PSK techniques.
References
[1] Lee, W. K., and Griths, H. D., Pulse compression filter generating optimal
uniform range sidelobe level, IEE Electronics Letters, Vol. 35, No. 11, pp.
873875, May 1999.
[2] Lee, W. K., Griths, H. D., and Benjamin, R., Integrated sidelobe energy
reduction technique using optimal polyphase codes, IEE Electronics Letters,
Vol. 35, No. 24, pp. 20902091, Nov. 1999.
[3] Grishin, Y. P., and Zankiewicz, A., A neural network sidelobe suppression
filter for a pulsecompression radar with powers-of-two weights, IEEE 10th
Mediterranean Electrotechnical Conference, Vol. 2, pp. 713716, 2000.
[4] Lee, W-K., and Griths, H. D., A new pulse compression technique generating optimal uniform range sidelobe and reducing integrated sidelobe level,
Record of the IEEE International Radar Conference, pp. 441446, 2000.
[5] Barker, R. H., Group synchronizing of binary digital systems, in Communications Theory, Butterworth, London, pp. 273287, 1953.
[6] Golomb, S. W., and Scholtz, R. A., Generalized Barker sequences, IEEE
Trans. on Information Theory, Vol. IT-11, No. 4, pp. 533537, Oct. 1965.
[7] Eliahou, S., and Kervaire, A., Barker sequences and dierence sets, L
Enseignement Mathematique, Vol. 38, pp. 345382, 1992.
[8] Zhang, N., and Golomb, S. W., Sixty-phase generalized Barker sequences,
IEEE Trans. on Information Theory, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp. 911912, April
1989.
[9] Bomer, L., and Antweiler, M., Polyphase Barker sequences, IEE Electronics
Letters, Vol. 25, No. 23, pp. 15771579, 1989.
183
[10] Friese, M., and Zottmann, H., Polyphase Barker sequences up to length 31,
IEE Electronics Letters, Vol. 30, No. 23, pp. 19301931, Nov. 1994.
[11] Friese, M., Polyphase Barker sequences up to length 36, IEEE Trans. on
Information Theory, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 12481250, July 1996.
[12] Brenner, A. R., Polyphase Barker sequences up to length 45 with small
alphabets, IEE Electronics Letters, Vol. 34, No. 16, pp. 15761577, Aug.
1998.
[13] Borwein, P., and Ferguson, R., Polyphase sequences with low autocorrelation, IEEE Trans. on Information Theory, Vol. 51, No. 4, pp. 15641567,
April 2005.
[14] Frank, R. L., Polyphase codes with good nonperiodic correlation properties,
IEEE Trans. IT-9, pp. 4345, 1963.
[15] Lewis, B. L., Kretschmer, F. F., and Shelton, W. W., Aspects of Radar Signal
Processing, Artech House, Norwood, MA, 1986.
[16] Lewis, B. L., Range-time-sidelobes reduction technique for FM-derived polyphase PC codes, IEEE Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol.
29, No. 3, pp. 834840, July 1993.
[17] Painchaud, G. R., et al., An experimental adaptive digital pulse compression subsystem for multi-function radar applications, Record of the IEEE
International Radar Conference, pp. 153158, 1990.
[18] Lesnik, C. J., et al., Ecient matched filtering of signal with polyphase
Frank coded sequences, IEEE 12th International Conference on Microwaves
and Radar, MIKON 98, Krakow, Poland, Vol. 3, pp. 815819, May 2022,
1998.
[19] Fielding, J. E., Polytime coding as a means of pulse compression, IEEE
Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 716721,
Apr. 1999.
[20] Wirth, W. D., Long term coherent integration for a floodlight radar, Record
of the IEEE International Radar Conference, pp. 698703, 1995.
[21] Wirth, W. D., Polyphase coded CW radar, Proc. of the IEEE Fourth
International Symposium on Spread Spectrum Techniques and Applications,
Mainz, Germany, Vol. 1, pp. 186190, Sept. 2225, 1996.
[22] Wirth, W. D., Radar Techniques Using Array Antennas, IEE, London, United
Kingdom, 2001.
Problems
1. For an LPI CW radar with an fc =9 GHz, (a) what is the subcode
period tb of the transmitted waveform if the cycles per subcode cpp = 5?
(b) What is the transmitted bandwidth of the signal? (c) If the number
of phase codes used is Nc = 128, what is the code rate Rc and the range
resolution?
184
185
Chapter 6
6.1
Much of the LPI radar technology fielded today is linear FMCW, with the
simplicity of this technology being its main advantage.1 The FMCW approach spreads the transmitted energy out over the modulation bandwidth
to eectively reduce the power spectral density (PSD). The main disadvantage, as illustrated in Chapter 4, is the high side lobe values that occur on
the order of 13 dB down from the peak response, and so this type of waveform requires that some type of weighting be applied to the matched filter
response. The PSK radar uses polyphase codes to reduce the side lobe levels, and the waveforms are directly compatible with digital generation and
1A
187
188
compression, making their use more attractive. In addition, the codes must
be chosen carefully in order to maintain Doppler tolerance.
An LPI radar that uses FH techniques hops or changes the transmitting
frequency in time over a wide bandwidth in order to prevent an unintended
receiver from intercepting the waveform.2 The frequency slots used are chosen from an FH sequence, and it is this unknown sequence that gives the
radar the advantage in terms of processing gain. That is, the frequency sequence appears random to the intercept receiver, and so the possibility of it
following the changes in frequency is remote. This prevents a jammer from
reactively jamming the transmitted frequency.3 In contrast to the FMCW
and PSK techniques, the FH technique of rapidly changing the transmitter
frequency does not lower the PSD of the emission, but instead moves the
PSD about according to the FH sequence. Consequently, the FH radar has a
higher probability of detection than a PSK or FMCW waveform, but retains
a significantly low probability of interception.
In a PSK radar, all the control circuitry, modulators, and demodulators
must have enough bandwidth in order to avoid transmitting second order
eects, thereby making the overall system expensive [1]. A major advantage of the FH radar is the simplicity of the FSK architecture, especially for
track processing and generating large bandwidth signals. Large bandwidth
frequency hopping radar waveforms can be generated by using coherent direct analog synthesizers that generate the output frequencies using standard
VCOs and very simple digital circuitry. Drawbacks of this approach include
spurious frequencies and high levels of phase noise, due to the complex analog
circuitry required. Direct digital methods can also be used, and involve using
a digital frequency synthesizer and a digital-to-analog converter, followed by
a lowpass filter. The major disadvantage here is that the output bandwidth
is limited by the speed of the digital devices. Single or multiple phaselocked
loops can also be used and have the advantage of large bandwidths and the
ability to filter spurious frequencies outside the loop bandwidth [2].
Another advantage of the FH radar is that the range resolution is independent of the hopping bandwidth (unlike that of the FMCW and PSK
techniques). Range resolution in an FH radar depends only on the hop rate.
A significant benefit also resides in the secrecy of the FH sequence that is
used. FH radar performance depends only slightly on the code used, given
that certain properties are met. This allows for a larger variety of codes,
making it more dicult to intercept. By comparison, a PSK radar must
choose from a group of well-known codes, due to the ambiguity properties
2 A frequency hopping radar is dierent than a frequency agile radar, in that the frequency agile radar is usually regarded as a pulse radar that uses a dierent frequency on a
pulse-to-pulse basis. The LPI frequency hopping radar transmits a CW frequency hopped
signal.
3 A jammer can preemptively jam a FH radar if its bandwidth and power are large enough
to cover the FH band.
189
required. Although the length of the PSK code may be unknown to the intercept receiver, it may still cycle through, and attempt to correlate specific
signal patterns for detection and jammer waveform construction (more about
this in Part II).
The order in which the frequencies are transmitted significantly aects the
ambiguity performance of the signal. The PAF for FH signals can easily be
approximated, because the cross-correlation signals at dierent frequencies
approach zero when the frequency dierence is large relative to the inverse of
the signal duration (or multiples of that inverse) [1]. In a multiple LPI emitter
environment, an important requirement is to keep the mutual interference
between transmitters as low as possible. Mutual interference occurs when
two or more emitters transmit the same frequency slot at the same time. The
degree of mutual interference is related to the cross correlation properties of
the FH sequences. Another advantage is that the glint (target scintillation)
error spectrum is broadened significantly, since the glint error is eectively
decorrelated when the transmitter changes frequency.
6.2
In an FSK radar, the transmitted frequency fj is chosen from the FH sequence {f1 , f2 , . . . , fNF } of available frequencies for transmission at a set of
consecutive time intervals {t1 , t2 , . . . , tNF }. The frequencies are placed in the
various time slots corresponding to a binary time-frequency matrix. Each frequency is used once within the code period, with one frequency per time slot
and one time slot per frequency. The expression for the complex envelope of
the transmitted CW FSK signal is given by
s(t) = Aej2fj t
(6.1)
6.3
CW FSK radars using multiple frequencies can compute very accurate range
measurements. To illustrate, consider a CW radar that transmits the waveform
(6.2)
s(t) = A sin(2fj t)
where the received signal from a target at a range RT is
W
w
4fj RT
s(t) = A sin(2fj t T ) = A sin 2fj t
c
(6.3)
190
Solving for RT
RT =
c
T
4fj
(6.4)
The unambiguous range occurs when T is maximum or T = 2 and therefore with one frequency, RT is limited to extremely small values that are not
practical [3]. If two frequencies are used
s1 (t) = A1 sin(2f1 t)
(6.5)
s2 (t) = A2 sin(2f2 t)
(6.6)
W
w
4f1 RT
s1 (t) = A1 sin(2f1 t T 1 ) = A sin 2f1 t
c
(6.7)
W
w
4f2 RT
s2 (t) = A2 sin(2f2 t T 2 ) = A sin 2f2 t
c
(6.8)
and
the received signals are
and
After mixing with the carrier frequency in the receiver, the phase dierence
between the two signals is
T =
4RT
4RT
(f2 f1 ) =
f
c
c
(6.9)
c
2f
(6.10)
and is very large since f << c. From the measurement of the phase dierence, T , the range of the target is then
RT =
cT
4f
(6.11)
T
2
(6.12)
Since the range to the target depends on the frequency dierence, the
range resolution then depends on the duration of each frequency as
R =
ctp
2
(6.13)
191
The transmitted power for each frequency must be such that the energy content within the target echo is sucient for detection, and enough to ensure
that accurate phase measurements can be made.
In summary, for the FSK CW radar, the frequency dierence f determines the maximum unambiguous detection range. The targets range is
computed by measuring the return signal phase dierence from two consecutive transmitted frequencies. The range resolution, R, depends only on the
FH period.
6.4
Costas Codes
6.4.1
(6.14)
192
6.4.2
The first step to verifying (6.14) and deriving the PAF is to form a dierence
triangle. To form the dierence triangle, we start by writing the NF frequency
values in the sequence (fj where j = 1, . . . , NF ) as column headers across the
top as illustrated in Figure 6.2(a). The NF 1 rows in the dierence triangle
correspond to the delays, with each row number i representing the delay value.
To calculate each cell value in the dierence triangle i,j
i,j = fj+i fj
(6.15)
6.4.3
The PAF can be approximated by overlaying the binary time-frequency matrix upon itself, and shifting one relative to the other according to a particular
193
delay (horizontal shifts) and particular Doppler (vertical shifts). At each combination of shifts, the sum of coincidences between points of the fixed and
the shifted matrix, represents the relative height of the PAF. An easier way
to derive the PAF is using the dierence triangle, as shown in Figure 6.2(a).
In Figure 6.2(b) the PAF of the 10-frequency Costas signal is derived from
the dierence triangle. The PAF is constructed by considering each row (delay) in the dierence triangle, and placing a 1 in the PAF delay-Doppler
cell corresponding to each i,j . The delay i = 1 is shaded as an example. The PAF derived from this complex Costas signal with fs = 27.5 kHz
(power spectrum magnitude shown in Figure 6.1) is shown for comparison in
Figure 6.2(c).
6.4.4
There are many analytical procedures for constructing Costas frequency hopping arrays. Although Costas arrays may exist in principle for any positive
integer NF , these analytical construction methods are typically limited to
values of NF related to prime numbers [6, 8, 9]. Most construction methods
to produce a large number of Costas arrays of equal length are based on the
properties of primitive roots (see the tutorial in Appendix C).
For the Welch construction of a Costas array, an odd prime number p is
chosen first. The number of frequencies and the number of time slots in the
Costas sequence are then NF = (p) = p 1 where (p) is the Euler function.
Next, a primitive root g modulo p is chosen. As discussed in Appendix C, if g
is a primitive root modulo p, then g is an integer belonging to the Euler-(p)
function modulo p. Since g is a primitive root modulo p, g, g 2 , . . . , g (p) are
mutually incongruent and form a permuted sequence of the reduced residues
p. Welch showed that this reduced residue sequence is a Costas sequence.
Theorem 6.1 Let g be a primitive root of an odd prime number p. Then the
(p1) by (p1) permutation matrix A has elements ai,j =1 i j g i (mod p)
for 1 i, j p 1 and this is a Costas array [10].
Example: The first step is choosing a prime number p. We choose the prime
number p = 7. For p = 7, NF = 6, which is the number of frequencies
in the FH code. The complete residue system is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. With p
prime, we know that the number of elements in the reduced residue system
is (p) = p 1 = 6. The reduced residue system is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} (deleting
the one element that is divisible by p). From Appendix C, for p = 7 we know
there are exactly {(7)} = {6} = 2 mutually incongruent primitive roots
modulo p = 7. We start with the smallest value g = 2, but the order of g =2
is 3 (not 6). Next we pick g = 3 and get the desired result {3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1},
which is the Costas array as shown below. The left-hand column shows i
from 1 to p 1, and the right-hand column shows the frequency j using
194
Figure 6.2: Costas sequence with (a) the dierence triangle, (b) the PAF
derived from the dierence triangle, and (c) the PAF derived from the complex
signal.
195
Theorem 6.1.
i
1
2
3
4
5
6
j = g i (mod7)
31 = 3
32 = 2
33 = 6
34 = 4
35 = 5
p1
= 36 = 1
3
(6.16)
6.5
The hybrid LPI radar technique discussed in this section combines the technique of FSK (FH using Costas sequences) with that of a PSK modulation
using sequences of varying length [11, 12]. This type of signaling can achieve a
high time-bandwidth product or processing gain, enhancing the LPI features
of the radar. Ambiguity properties of the signal are retained by preserving
the desirable properties of the separate FSK and PSK signaling schemes. The
FSK/PSK techniques can maintain a high Doppler tolerance, while yielding
an instantaneous spreading of the component frequencies along with an enhanced range resolution [11]. Below, a Costas-based FSK/PSK signal (Barker
5-bit PSK over each frequency) is investigated as an example. Other PSK
techniques from Chapter 5 can also be investigated using the LPIT.
6.5.1
Recall that for the FH LPI radar, the CW waveform has NF contiguous frequencies within a bandwidth B, with each frequency lasting tp s in duration.
The hybrid FSK/PSK signal further subdivides each subperiod into NB phase
slots, each of duration tb as shown in Figure 6.3. The total number of phase
slots in the FSK/PSK waveform is then
NT = NF NB
(6.17)
196
(6.18)
Figure 6.4: Power spectrum magnitude plot for a Costas waveform, with
(a) no phase modulation and (b) 5-bit phase modulation.
197
198
Figure 6.5: (a) ACF and (b) PACF plot for the Costas sequence with a 5-bit
Barker phase modulation.
Figure 6.6: PAF plot for the Costas sequence with a 5-bit Barker phase
modulation.
6.6
199
200
201
6.7
Concluding Remarks
202
Figure 6.8: Transmitted signal showing (a) 32 complex points describing the
simulated range response and (b) the normalized power spectrum magnitude
representing the probability density function. (After [13].)
203
Figure 6.9: (a) Synthetic or transmitted signal histogram and (b) the original
histogram defined by the spectral characteristics of the target.
204
205
References
[1] Sanmartin-Jara, J., Burgos-Garcia, M., and Retamosa-Sanchez, J., Radar
sensor using low probability of interception SS-FH signals, IEEE Aerospace
and Electronics Magazine, pp. 2328, April 2000.
[2] Benn, H. P. and Jones, W. J., A fast hopping frequency synthesizer, Second
International Conference on Frequency Control and Synthesis, pp. 6972,
April 1989.
[3] Mahafza, B. R., Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB, Chapman & Hall/CRC, New York, 2000.
[4] Costas, J. P., A study of a class of detection waveforms having nearly ideal
range-Doppler ambiguity properties, Proc. of the IEEE, Vol. 72, No. 8, pp.
9961009, August 1984.
[5] Golomb, S. W., and Moreno, O., On periodicity properties of Costas arrays
and a conjecture on permutation polynomials, IEEE Trans. on Information
Theory, Vol. 42, No. 6, pp. 22522253, Nov. 1996.
[6] Golomb, S. W., and Taylor, H., Construction and properties of Costas arrays, Proc. of the IEEE, Vol. 72, No. 9, pp. 11431163, Sept. 1984.
[7] Levanon, N., Radar Principles, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY 1988.
[8] Maric, S. V., Seskar, I., and Titlebaum, E. L., On cross-ambiguity properties
of Welch-Costas arrays, IEEE Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems,
Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 10631071, Oct. 1994.
[9] OCarroll, L., et al., A study of auto- and cross-ambiguity surface performance for discretely coded waveforms, IEE Proc. F Radar and Signal
Processing, Vol. 137, No. 5, pp. 362370, Oct. 1990.
[10] Lemieux, J. A., Analysis of an optimum hybrid radar waveform using frequency hopping and locally optimum signals, Proc. of the IEEE National
Radar Conference, pp. 98102, March 1213, 1991.
[11] Donohoe, J. P., and Ingels, F. M., The ambiguity properties of FSK/PSK
signals, Record of the IEEE 1990 International Radar Conference, 1990, pp.
268273 May 710, 1990.
[12] Skinner, B. J., Donohoe, J. P., and Ingels, F. M., Simplified performance
estimation of FSK/PSK hybrid signaling radar systems, Proc. of the IEEE
1993 National Aerospace and Electronics Conference, NAECON, Vol. 1, pp.
255261, May 2428, 1993.
[13] Skinner, B. J., Donohoe, J. P., and Ingels, F. M., Matched FSK/PSK radar,
Record of the 1994 IEEE National Radar Conference, pp. 251255, March
2931, 1994.
[14] Marsaglia, G., Random variables and computers, Proc. of the Third Prague
Conference on Information Theory, Statistical Decision Functions, Random
Processes, Liblice, pp. 499512, June 513, 1962.
[15] Guosui, L., Hong, G., and Weimin, S., Development of random signal radars,
IEEE Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 770
777, July 1999.
206
[16] Garmatuk, D. S., and Narayanan, R. M., ECCM capabilities of an ultrawideband bandlimited random noise imaging radar, IEEE Trans. on Aerospace
and Electronic Systems, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 12431255, Oct. 2002.
Problems
1. An FSK CW radar is required to perform ranging up to a maximum of
15 nmi. What is the required frequency dierence f ?
2. Derive the Costas frequency sequence given in Figure 6.1. Hint: Start
by choosing the correct prime modulus p and writing down the two
primitive roots.
3. The frequency hopping sequence
{3, 9, 10, 13, 5, 15, 11, 16, 14, 8, 7, 4, 12, 2, 6, 1}
is being considered for a new LPI radar. (a) Show that this is a Costas
sequence. (b) If so, how many primitive roots are there? (c) Derive the
sequence by determining p and the primitive roots.
4. Consider the Welch construction of a Costas frequency hopping sequence with p = 13. (a) How many frequencies are contained in the
frequency hopping sequence? (b) Write the elements of the reduced
residue system. (c) How many primitive roots are there in the system?
Do not forget to show your work. (d) What are the primitive roots of
the system? (e) Write out the Costas sequence for each primitive root.
(f) For the sequence resulting from the largest primitive root, show that
the sequence is Costas by forming the dierence triangle. (g) Draw a
contour grid of the periodic ambiguity function for the sequence in (f)
making sure that you label the side lobe levels and main peak amplitude.
5. (a) Edit the costas.m file to include the Costas sequence given in (6.16).
(b) Compute the power spectrum magnitude and PAF of this sequence.
6. Using the fsk psk costas.m file, generate the power spectrum, ACF,
PACF, and PAF for the first Costas sequence with (a) NB = 5 and
(b) NB = 13. What is the dierence in the side lobe level you observe?
Chapter 7
Noise Techniques
In this chapter the principles of random noise radar are presented. A discussion of each noise technology is then described in detail including a comparative discussion of the advantages and the disadvantages of each. The major
focus is on the radar systems transmitted waveform. Mathematical models
of each transmitter have been developed in MATLAB and are included on
the CD within the Part I, LPIT Toolbox folder. The autocorrelation function
(ACF), the periodic autocorrelation (PACF) and the periodic ambiguity function (PAF) for each transmitted waveform are examined in order to compare
their Doppler side lobe and time side lobe characteristics. The four types of
noise technology radar systems discussed include: random noise radar, random noise plus FMCW, random noise FMCW plus sine, and random binary
phase modulation.
7.1
Historical Perspective
The concept of random noise radar (RNR) is not new but was considered as
early as the 1950s as a way to eliminate all the range-Doppler ambiguities
in the radar (i.e., thumbtack ambiguity function). RNR systems transmit a
random or random-like low power microwave noise waveform that may (or
may not be) modulated by a lower frequency waveform. The peak value of a
cross-correlation process (delayed copy of the transmitted signal corresponds
with the echoes of the target) can be used to determine the distance to the
target. The earliest reported investigations of noise technology used as a range
measurement system are given by Horton [1] and Craig [2] in the Institute of
Radio Electronics. A short time later Grant et al. [3], Cooper et al. [4], and
McGillem [5] at Purdue University put forth a theoretical analysis and some
prototypes were built. Further experimental results of a complete noise radar
207
208
system were obtained in [6] showing that it was possible to detect a target in
very poor SNR conditions even with nonoptimum hardware.
The research however, was quickly dropped since the development of noise
waveform sources with the required bandwidth was dicult. Also since crosscorrelation processing of the transmitted and received signal was necessary
the use of variable microwave delay lines was required [7]. Before the 1960s,
the manufacturing of these devices was complicated. From the 1960s to the
1970s, the research into RNR ramped up quickly and several experimental
systems were built and tested. A good overview of the dierent techniques is
given in [8] and an extensive bibliography of the early development in RNR
is given in [9].
With the development of solid-state microwave techniques and high-speed
integrated VLSI circuits the technology began to support the RNR concepts
and implement the required processing. Today the RNR waveform can be generated digitally followed by a digital-to-analog converter and up-conversion
onto a carrier signal. They are also relatively inexpensive to build and many
dierent variants on the RNR are possible including the use of UWB waveforms.
Noise technology radar can be used to detect targets in both range and
Doppler. RNR emitters have good electronic protection properties by possessing a natural immunity to jamming and interference from other radar
systems operating in the same theater of operations [10, 11]. The use of a
RNR provides the advantage that it is uncorrelated with the intentional and
unintentional interference as well as other noise sources. That is, the correlation process used in the receiver allows it to sort out the incoming signals even
within the same band making it attractive in multi radar environments [10].
These advantages are due to the properties of the RNR featureless waveform.
These include transmitting the lowest obtainable instantaneous power spectral density possible by spreading its energy over a wide signal bandwidth and
the use of non-redundant waveforms that appear random and are concealed
in the ambient thermal noise and interference environment [12].
The exception is the use of deception. Deception is a repeater technique
(constant gain) in which false targets are created in the radar receiver that
are interpreted as valid targets. The jam-to-signal ratio is independent of the
range between the repeater jammer and the radar. Post detection integration
of target signal returns can normally provide a significant decrease in jam-tosignal ratio however, for deception techniques, the integration gain is equal
for valid and false targets.
RNR systems that use random noise also have a significant processing
gain unavailable to the noncooperative intercept receiver since their low mean
power and noise-like characteristics result in a very low SNR. Even if the
signal is detected, it is unlikely to be identified making these types of emitters
important for many LPI and LPID applications.
RNR systems and waveforms are becoming useful in certain (limited) ap-
Noise Techniques
209
2hr ht
R
where hr and ht are the radar and target altitudes and R is the range. For a
low-grazing-angle target not resolvable by the antenna beamwidth, the range
dierence can be quite small. Even if the waveform bandwidth were increased
to make the resolution smaller than this range dierence, the scatterers in
210
the initial range cell of the target would have to be large enough to provide
a signal for tracking, before the multipath catches up with the direct signal
and generates a tracking error. Whether a noise waveform or other type of
waveform is used, resolution of this sort has not provided significant tracking
advantages in any known system.
The majority of MIMO radar configurations have focused on multistatic
arrays that have sucient spatial separation to decorrelate the targets radar
cross section scintillation. These networks combine the received data noncoherently to average out the scintillations. Another form of MIMO radar
uses multiple orthogonally coded waveforms from individual transmitter elements of a phased array which are then combined coherently upon receive to
form multiple beams [23]. Recently, the extension of noise radar to MIMO
configurations has been explored. Two transmission techniques are described
and include an element-space and beam-space approach [24]. In the elementspace approach, K channels of independent (noncoherent) noise are transmitted separately by K omnidirectional antennas. In the beam-space approach,
each independent noise source is fed into each antenna but is either delayed or
phase shifted so as to form a beam illuminating a selected sector of the radar
systems field of view-eectively coding each sector according to a particular
noise source. The direction of each noise sector is determined by the phase
shifts and the sector width is determined by the beamwidth of the array.
7.2
Ultrawideband Considerations
The combination of RNR and ultrawideband (UWB) technology can give significant benefits and overcome inherent drawbacks of narrowband radar. A
few definitions concerning UWB waveforms are given below. Consider for example a wideband RNR signal with bandwidth spanning fmin to fmax . The
first definition is for the absolute bandwidth B,
Definition 7.1
The absolute bandwidth B defines the width of the frequency
interval occupied by the signals spectrum and is the dierence
between the maximum frequency and the minimum frequency or
B = fmax fmin
(7.1)
Noise Techniques
211
Definition 7.2
The instantaneous fractional bandwidth f is defined as the ratio
of the absolute bandwidth (fmax fmin ) to the mean frequency
(fmin + fmax )/2. Thus the fractional bandwidth is defined as [25]
}
]
2(fmax fmin )
100%
f =
(7.2)
100% =
fmin + fmax
0.5 + fmin /B
The maximum fractional bandwidth is 200% and is reached if fmin = 0. Note
that this value is not fmax dependent. A small fractional bandwidth f indicates that the behavior of the radar system devices being used are not likely to
change much within the absolute bandwidth B. With a large f , the device
behavior may show changes throughout B because the device characteristics
may be dierent across the large number of transmit frequencies. That is,
it is more dicult to build devices which cover a large bandwidth with the
same eciency or properties.
Another important term used to evaluate UWB RNR signal bandwidth
when the waveform is produced by random binary phase shifts is the spreading ratio (or processing gain) [26].
Definition 7.3
The spreading ratio or processing gain of a random binary phase
shift keying signal is defined as
P GR =
T
= Nc
tb
(7.3)
212
the United States (FCC) and 30 MHz18 GHz frequency range is envisioned
for wall and ground penetrating radar in Europe [25].
An important aspect of the UWB radar in addition to its LPI and LPID
characteristics are its immunity from electromagnetic radiation eects which
enable frequency spectrum sharing and a significant immunity from deceptive
jamming. Note that noise jamming has the same eect on radar systems that
use noise waveforms as it does on systems that use of any other type of
waveforms of similar bandwidth. On the other hand, there are worries in the
community about the influence of the UWB RNR on small signal receiver
devices such as GPS, cell phone and wireless LAN communications [27].
Another major problem in the radar application of UWB noise waveforms
is that they exhibit the thumbtack ambiguity function and require the use
of a correlator that covers many range-Doppler cells to detect targets whose
range and velocity are unknown. The techniques examined in this chapter describe systems in which the correlator covers a single cell, requiring
two-dimensional sequential search to detect targets with unknown position.
Although useful for some geophysical applications, the technology is currently
inadequate for most military radar applications. Detection of buried mines
and tracking a target after it has been detected by other conventional waveforms are examples of current military applications. The processing throughput for parallel coverage of large regions in range-velocity space is a major
problem that must still be addressed.
7.3
Noise Techniques
213
Figure 7.1: Main components of a noise radar using a delay line. (After [28].)
Doppler filters following the correlator can be used to calculate the velocity
of the target.
Consider the detection of a point target. Following the development by
Axelsson, the transmitted noise signal can be modeled as a stationary process
in complex form as [29, 30]
S(t) = [X(t) + jY (t)] exp(j2fc t)
(7.4)
where 2fc is the frequency of the carrier and X(t) and Y (t) are stationary
Gaussian processes with zero means and bandwidth B. For moving targets,
the received signal is compressed or expanded in time as a result of the relative
velocity between the point target and the noise radar. For a point target
positioned at R with a relative velocity v, the received signal is S(t td ),
c.
where as before td = 2R/c. Also = (c v)/(c + v) 1 2v/c when v
Cross-correlation of S(t td ) with the reference signal S(r t Tr ), which is
delayed by Tr and time compressed by r = 1 2vr /c, becomes proportional
to [29]
8 Tint
w(t)S(t td )S (r t Tr )dt
(7.5)
C(td , ; Tr , r ) =
0
where Tint is the measurement time and a window function w(t) is included in
the correlation integral to improve the Doppler side lobe suppression. After
214
Tint
w(t) [X(t td ) + jY (t td )]
(7.6)
[X(r t Tr ) jY (r t Tr )]
exp [jc (td Tr ) + j( r )c t] dt
The correlation output is close to its mean value when the time-bandwidth
product BTint is large. The average of (7.6) is found with = r and
T = td Tr
8 Tint
Rc (T, ) = 2 exp(jc T )
w(t) [RX (t T ) (7.7)
0
where RX () and RXY () are the autocorrelation and cross-correlation functions of X(t) and Y (t). For a symmetric noise power spectrum about the
carrier frequency, the cross-correlation term can be neglected and
Rc (T, ) = 2 exp(jc T )
Tint
(7.8)
The parameters Tr and r are varied until the maximum is found, represented
by r0 and Tr0 , from which range and velocity are estimated: R = cTr0 /2
fc ), the phase
and v = c(1 r0 )/2. For narrowband noise processes (B
term of (7.7) and (7.8) generates the dominant decorrelation. Hence, c t
should be kept small over the integration time to avoid a degradation of the
correlation peak [30].
As in previous LPI waveforms, the range resolution depends upon the
bandwidth B. There is a limiting relationship between the range resolution
R = c/(2B), the relative velocity of the target, v, and the available correlation time Tint . Note that this is similar to the FMCW range-Doppler
cross coupling eect discussed in Chapter 4. The time taken for the target to
pass through a range resolution cell Tp = R/v should be greater than the
measurement time Tint , giving the limitation R/v = c/(2Bv) > Tint . If the
number of statistically independent samples is represented by N = 2BTint ,
an upper limit can be derived as [29]
N = 2BTint < c/v
(7.9)
As an example, for v < 300 m/s, N < 106 is required. Longer sequences
can be applied if the delay of the reference signal is made variable and is
adapted to the predicted target velocity. From (7.7) and (7.8), the correlation
peak degrades as a result of the t term in RX (t T ) if Tint =
Noise Techniques
215
2|v|Tint /c exceeds the correlation time (1/B) of the noise process. This
gives the requirement 2BTint < c/|v|, which is equivalent to (7.9).
The RNR system shown in Figure 7.1 uses a noise source working at a
microwave frequency. Equally eective is the use of a baseband noise source
followed by the upconversion to a carrier frequency. A digital implementation could also generate the noise signal and provides the flexibility to include
other noise waveforms. For example, the use of tailored or colored noise waveforms can be used and have been shown to enhance target detectability [31].
The receiver can also include a homodyne or heterodyne detection of the
in-phase and quadrature components of the received signal and an I/Q demodulator used to generate the correlation response. As in a typical CW
LPI radar, leakage or lack of isolation between transmit and receive antennas
can degrade the receiver sensitivity and can aect long range target detection
performance. One approach to eliminate the leakage is the reflected power
canceler (discussed earlier in Chapter 4). In a bistatic configuration, the noise
radar can also use external transmitters where the correlation is between the
direct wave from one antenna and the target reflection from another antenna.
Another approach that can eliminate the CW leakage between the transmitter and receiver entirely is to use an interrupted CW waveform (long noise
pulses). This technique improves the isolation by using a transmit/receive
(T/R) switch to switch the antenna between transmitter and receiver several
times per transmitted noise waveform. Typically, T/R switches can receive
more than 60 dB of isolation between transmitter and receiver. The system
is no longer a true continuous wave noise radar but under certain conditions
the essential properties of noise radars are preserved.
7.4
216
that is used to set the minimum range to the target [33].1 For example, in a
ground-penetrating system this minimum delay ensures that the correlation
operation is performed only at depths below the air-soil interface [14]. A
programmable delay line DL2 is also used to step through the entire range of
available delays so that various probing depths can be obtained.
The delay line output is mixed with a 160 MHz phase locked oscillator
OSC2 in a lower sideband up converter MXR1. The upconverter output
(0.841.84 GHz) feeds the mixer MXR2 that receives the 12 GHz return signal. The mixer MXR2 output is the 160 MHz correlation output (correlation
coecient) and is filtered in a 160 MHz BPF of 5 MHz and then fed to the I
and Q detector which is also fed by the 160 MHz oscillator OSC2 [34]. The
output of the I and Q detector is then sampled, integrated and the envelope
of the signal is extracted.
Worthy of mention in Figure 7.2 are a few points on the Doppler resolution.
The Doppler return from the slow-moving target will show up at roughly
50 Hz about the carrier frequency, when using fc = 1.5 GHz. Seeking to
isolate and keep this Doppler information, the model uses a low-pass filter
at 100 MHz. This filtering also rejects the undesirable harmonics of the 160
MHz LO frequency. Although not shown the system also houses a second
receive chain that may be used for fully polarimetric measurements or spaced
receiver interferometry [32]. A polarimetric noise radar system measures the
complex scattering matrix of a target [S] given by
]
}
SV V SV H
(7.10)
[S] =
SHV SHH
where Sij represents the target scattering coecient for transmit and receive
polarizations i and j respectively. Subscripts V and H stand for vertical and
horizontal respectively. Reciprocity implies that SV H = SHV . The measured
scattering coecients of obscured targets are multiplied by the product TA TB
where Tk is the one-way complex transmission coecient through the medium
for the polarization k. The transmit polarization alternately switches between
V and H while the receiver processes both polarizations simultaneously [17].
Simulation and field test results have been shown to demonstrate the potential
of combining a UWB waveform with coherent processing for high-resolution
subsurface imaging.
7.4.1
Operating Characteristics
The system shown in Figure 7.2 can achieve a significant probability of detection Pd with arbitrarily small probability of false alarm Pf a . Taking the real
1 Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers can also been used as an ultrawideband microwave noise
source. Based on their amplified spontaneous emission characteristics, the low coherence
output light can have an absolute bandwidth approaching B = 1,200 GHz [33].
Noise Techniques
217
(7.11)
where
B
2
The received signal back at the radar can be expressed as [35]
2fc >
(7.12)
(7.13)
(7.14)
Y (t) = AY [(1 + )t td ]
(7.15)
and
where A2 is the power reflection coecient that is related to the targets
range, radar antenna gain, and target geometry. The delayed reference signal
218
sin{(c IF )t c Tr }
2
(7.16)
or
ej = lim
$T
0
Xr (t)Xd (t)dt
1 2
(7.18)
where 1 is the total received power (signal + noise) and 2 is the total
power in the delayed replica. In practice, T cannot go to infinity and one
has to use the short-time correlation function over a finite time Tint . The
maximum value of the correlation coecient occurs when the received and
delayed reference signal are completely correlated.
The data acquisition, storage and analysis performs an integration of the
I and Q channels and then a square law detector
i1/2
D
(7.19)
Z = I 2 + Q2
1 2
[N ln Pf a ]1/2
2
(7.22)
Noise Techniques
219
SNRi
1 + SNRi
]1/2
(7.23)
2
2
2
and SNRi = sr
/n1
where sr
= A2 s2 is the power in the received signal;
s2 is the transmitted signal power and A2 is the power reflection coecient
that is related to the antenna gain, targets range and geometry. The term
2
is the receiver noise power.
n1
Depending on the interference that corrupts the return signal, the correlation coecient can have a value anywhere from 0 to 1.
7.4.2
The RNR transmitter uses a random white Gaussian microwave noise source
that is band-limited and amplified. To evaluate the characteristics of the
transmitted waveform, Figure 7.3 shows a block diagram of the transmitter
configuration used in this chapter to evaluate the PACF and PAF characteristics [36]. The transmitter is modeled in MATLAB and is part of the LPIT
(contained on the CD). With inputs consisting of the carrier frequency fc ,
bandwidth B, amplitude A, and noise power level, the model produces the
in-phase and quadrature components of the waveform as it would appear at
the output of a noncooperative intercept receiver with an ADC sampling at
3 GS/s.
Figure 7.4 illustrates the wideband white Gaussian noise magnitude that
is generated prior to bandlimiting. A key performance element is the transmitted noise bandwidth. For good range resolution, clutter discrimination,
and LPI characteristics, the noise signal needs to spread the energy over a
large modulation bandwidth. Without loss of generality, our example models the transmitted noise to have an absolute bandwidth of B = 300 MHz
(200 MHz B 500 MHz) giving a range resolution of 0.5 m. Figure 7.5
shows the white Gaussian noise after bandlimiting. The carrier frequency is
fc = 350 MHz. Note from (7.2) that this model demonstrates a UWB waveform with a fractional bandwidth of f = 85%.
7.4.3
To examine the periodic ambiguity side lobe characteristics, Figure 7.6 shows
the ACF and the PACF for the CW noise signal shown in Figure 7.5. The
number of transmitted code periods used in the correlation receiver is N = 1.
The delay oset axis is normalized by the subcode period tb which in this case
220
Noise Techniques
221
222
7.5
The random noise plus FMCW radar (RNFR) was first introduced by Liu
et al. in 1984 [37]. In the RNFR, a white Gaussian noise source is linearly
frequency modulated by an FMCW waveform. Figure 7.8 shows the radar
Noise Techniques
223
Figure 7.8: Block diagram of random noise plus FMCW radar system (from
[38]).
system and illustrates both the transmit and the receive functions. A portion
of the transmitted signal is used as a local oscillator input to the receivers
front-end mixer where the correlation between target echo and transmitted
signal takes place [38]. The mixer output is a beat frequency that represents
the targets range. The output spectrum of the mixer is a single Doppler
frequency for a zero-range target and becomes gradually larger with the target range increasing. Following the mixer is an amplifier and two bandpass
filters [9]. Optimized filters pass either the targets Doppler signal with some
noncorrelation signal or strictly the noncorrelation signal. The power detectors detect the signal envelope and a dierence amplifier selects the correct
channel to determine the targets range from the measured power dierence
output. The emitter design has good electronic protection capability and also
good resolution for precise, simultaneous distance and velocity measurements
[79]. Its low mean power and noise-like characteristics result in a very low
SNR in the intercept receiver that does not have access to the noise waveform
to compress the signal. The RNFR has good distance measurement capability but the CW leakage makes it dicult to measure target speed and detect
long range targets [9].
7.5.1
RNFR Spectrum
The RNFR transmitter uses a white Gaussian noise source that is linearly
frequency modulated by a triangular FMCW waveform. The transmitted
noise plus FMCW signal is
e(t) = E cos[c t + (t)]
(7.24)
224
where
(t) =
Df (t1 )dt1
(7.25)
and E is the amplitude and Df is the angular frequency per volt of the
FMCW and (t1 ) is the noise voltage of a stationary process with zero mean.
Following the development given in [38], the power spectrum of e(t) is
]
}
1
( c )2
2
(7.26)
We (f ) = E
exp
2F 2
2F
where F is the angular frequency deviation of the transmitted noise signal.
The echo of the moving target is
eR (t) = ER cos[(c + d )(t td ) + (t td )]
(7.27)
where ER is the amplitude of the echo, td is the delay between the echo and
the transmitted signal and fd = d /2 is the Doppler frequency. At the mixer
output
(7.28)
V (t) = A cos[d (t td ) c td + (t td ) (t)]
The correlation function at the mixer output is then given approximately
by [38]
} 2
]
1 (td )t2
A2
Rv (t) =
exp
cos(d t)
(7.29)
2
2
and 12 (td ) = K 2 t2d and assumes that K is a normalizing constant, and
2 (td ) = 12 (td )/42 . The Fourier transform of Rv (t) is
]
}
1
f2
(7.30)
SR1 (f ) =
exp 2
2 (td )
2(td )
Assuming that (td ) >> fd
Sv (f ) =
A2
A2
A2
SR1 (f fd ) +
SR1 (f + fd ) =
SR1 (f )
4
4
2
exp 2
Sv (f ) =
2 2(td )
2 (td )
for f > 0. Note the spectrum behavior as a function of td .
(7.31)
(7.32)
Noise Techniques
225
Figure 7.9: Model of random noise plus FMCW transmitter (from [36]).
7.5.2
7.5.3
Using the same signal duration as in Section 7.4, the ACF and the PACF
of the RNFR waveform are shown in Figure 7.13. For the RNFR waveform
the peak side lobes occur at approximately 21 dB down from the main lobe
showing the advantages of the FMCW modulation over a strictly random
noise modulation. To examine the side lobe performance in the delay-Doppler
226
Figure 7.10: Magnitude of the FMCW signal shown in Figure 7.9 (1) with
F = 300 MHz, and fc = 350 MHz.
Figure 7.11: Magnitude of the noise modulated FMCW signal in Figure 7.9
(2) with F = 300 MHz, and fc = 350 MHz.
Noise Techniques
227
Figure 7.12: Magnitude of the noise FMCW high-pass filter output signal in
Figure 7.9 (3) with F = 300 MHz, and fc = 350 MHz.
oset domain the PAF is then calculated and is shown in Figure 7.14. The
PAF main lobe repeats every code period or 6,000 samples. Note that the
zero delay Doppler side lobes are also less compared to the RNR results. As a
final note for comparison, closed form expressions for the average ambiguity
function for the RNFR waveform are given in [38].
7.6
The random noise FMCW plus sine radar (RNFSR) uses an additional sine
signal at a frequency of fm that modulates the noise source [8]. The composite signal is then modulated by the FMCW waveform. The additional
sine signal that is added helps minimize the leakage from the transmitter to
the receiver as explained below. A block diagram of the RNFSR is shown in
Figure 7.15. The receiver is similar to the RNFR receiver with the received
signal correlated to a time-delayed version of the emitted waveform using a
mixer. The mixer output contains the noise and all the sinusoidal harmonics.
The amplifier is a wideband automatic gain control circuit with a large dynamic range [7]. To account for the injected sine wave, the receiver uses two
bandpass filters to expand the receivers frequency range for the Doppler plus
noncorrelation signal and for the noncorrelation signal only. The transmitted
228
Figure 7.13: Random noise plus FMCW autocorrelation function and periodic
autocorrelation function.
Noise Techniques
229
(7.33)
(7.34)
with
D1 =
and
2 (t) =
F
m
(7.35)
Df V (t2 )dt2
(7.36)
where the variable Df is the angular frequency per volt and V (t2 ) is the
modulated noise voltage of a normal stationary process with zero mean and
m is the additional tone frequency. As expected, the derivation of the mixer
output spectrum for the RNFSR is considerably more complicated and the
reader is referred to [7].
The major dierence between the RNFR and the RNFSR are the filters
shown in Figure 7.15. The filters have bandwidths expanded to include multiples of the added sine signal within the return signal. The bandwidth of the
first bandpass filter is selected to be B1 = nfm + fdmin and the bandwidth
of the second bandpass filter is selected to be B2 = nfm + fdmax where n
represents the nth harmonic of the added sine waveform that is picked up
by the radar. This technique takes advantage of the harmonic characteristics of the sinusoidal signal to eliminate the CW leakage at and close to zero
range [79]. This zero range hole characteristic does not let the radar respond
to close-in targets and only produces an output detection when a target is
present between the two chosen ranges determined by the filter bandwidths.
Even with the addition of the sinusoidal modulation, the RNFSR cannot measure the speed of a moving target or detect a long-range target (similar to
the RNFR). The RNFSR is suitable for short-range LPI applications such as
harbor control, missile fuse systems and UAV landing systems.
7.6.1
The RNFSR noise technology employs an additional tone signal that is modulated by the white Gaussian noise, which further modulates the FMCW
waveform. Figure 7.16 shows a block diagram of the transmitter model
used in this chapter [36]. A microwave noise generator produces a white
Gaussian noise waveform. After this, the signal is band-limited to 300 MHz,
centered on fc = 350 MHz. After band-limiting, the noise signal is added
(added in frequency, multiplied in time) to a single tone with a frequency of
fm = 350 MHz. The upper band is centered at 700 MHz (from the modulation
230
Figure 7.15: Random noise FMCW plus sine radar block diagram (from [9]).
product) and this new signal modulates an FMCW signal with a modulation
bandwidth of F = 300 MHz. After noise modulation, the resultant signal is
low-pass-filtered to remove the upper sideband modulation products. Finally,
the 600-MHz bandwidth signal with center frequency of 350 MHz is amplified
before transmission.
To examine the model development, Figure 7.17 shows the noise source
with the added tone modulation fm = 350 MHz. Note the frequency shift
of the waveform to a center frequency of 700 MHz. Figure 7.18 shows
the magnitude spectrum of the FMCW signal that is used to modulate
the noise with the added tone. The signal has a modulation bandwidth of
F = 300 MHz. In Figure 7.19, the modulation of the sine plus noise by the
FMCW signal is shown. Shown are the resulting upper and lower sideband
products. The upper sideband is not needed and eliminated. Figure 7.20
shows the magnitude spectrum of the output waveform.
7.6.2
For the RNFSR transmitted waveform, a sine wave is added to the noise plus
FMCW modulation. To compare the side lobe performance of this waveform
with the other noise modulations, the autocorrelation function and periodic
autocorrelation function are shown in Figure 7.21 for a 2-s period of the
waveform. In this case the peak side lobe level is approximately 21 dB.
Note that the side lobe structure is nearly the same as the RNFR waveform
and the peak side lobe is not the first side lobe. The periodic ambiguity
function is shown in Figure 7.22. Of interest here is the lower Doppler side
lobe level and the smaller extent of the Doppler side lobes.
Noise Techniques
231
Figure 7.16: Random noise FMCW plus sine transmitter model (from [36]).
Figure 7.17: Sine plus random noise FMCW model in Figure 7.16 showing
(1) the magnitude spectrum of the tone modulation of noise.
232
Figure 7.18: Sine plus random noise FMCW model in Figure 7.16 showing
(2) the magnitude spectrum of FMCW signal.
Figure 7.19: Sine plus random noise FMCW model in Figure 7.16 showing (3)
the magnitude spectrum of noise plus sine after modulation by the FMCW
signal.
Noise Techniques
233
Figure 7.20: Sine plus random noise FMCW model in Figure 7.16 showing
(4) the magnitude spectrum of output waveform after eliminating the upper
sideband.
Figure 7.21: Sine plus random noise FMCW autocorrelation and periodic
autocorrelation function.
234
Figure 7.22: Sine plus random noise FMCW periodic ambiguity function.
7.7
(7.37)
Nc ctb
2
(7.38)
R =
and the maximum range performance is
Rmax =
1
2Nc tb
(7.39)
where Nc is the number of phase codes and tb is the subcode width. Note that
simultaneously extending the Doppler tolerance and the range performance
is not possible since they are inverse relationships.
To improve the performance of the RBPC emitter, several pulse compressors can be used in series. A block diagram of this RBPC emitter is shown in
Noise Techniques
235
M Nc ctb
2
(7.40)
236
Figure 7.24: Block diagram of a random binary phase code radar (from [36]).
present.
7.7.1
A block diagram of the RBPC transmitter is shown in Figure 7.24 [36]. For
the example shown, the CW tone fc = 900 MHz and the phase change for each
subcode is randomly selected as either 0 or . The number of carrier cycles
per subcode cpp = 3 (B = 300 MHz) with number of subcodes Nc = 600. This
allows comparisons to be made with the previous noise radar configurations.
7.7.2
Noise Techniques
237
Figure 7.25: Random binary phase code autocorrelation and periodic autocorrelation function.
238
7.8
Millimeter wave (MMW) signals are most appropriate for applications such as
environment monitoring, remote sensing, short range target detection, vehicle
collision warning and automatic landing systems [40]. Several MMW solidstate noise transmitters have been investigated. These systems rely on the
use of a chaotic waveform generator as a source of CW noise and a digitalanalog correlator with an electronically controllable delay line as the main
part of the correlation receiver. Three MMW noise sources were investigated.
Dynamical chaotization2 was undertaken for: (1) microwave oscillations in
a waveguide multiresonant system (25 resonant frequencies) containing one
or more Gunn-diodes that can couple two or more modes, (2) microwave
oscillations in a microstrip ring or linear resonator, and (3) angle modulation
of a VCO signal by an RF noise signal [41].
Ka- and W-band solid state noise generators have also been developed
on the principles of chaotization of nonlinear systems using both IMPATTand Gunn-diodes. Power outputs on the order of 300 mW with bandwidths
ranging from 30 MHz to 300 MHz were generated. Special designs have
also been tested oering bandwidths up to 2 GHz with an output power of
40 maw. To process the received signal from the target, fast digital real-time
correlators were developed with clock frequencies on the order of 500 MHz.
The use of ADCs were avoided by using a simple two-level quantization of
the reference signal.
7.9
The received noise signal reflected from the target is the delayed version of
the transmitted signal. By measuring the delay, the receiver can determine
the location of the target. To compute the position of the target, the receiver
computes the cross-correlation between the time delayed, conjugated transmit
signal and the received signal. The analog cross-correlation function is defined
as in (7.5). The correlation coecient or normalized correlation function is
defined as in (7.17). Signals are said to be correlated or alike to the extent that
their correlation coecient approaches unity. Below we examine the dierent
approaches to implementing the cross-correlation function in the receiver.
It can be shown that the received target response is a convolution between
the target reflectivity profile (t) and the ACF of the radar transmit waveform
p( ) [42]
g( ) = (t) p( )
(7.41)
where
8
T /2
p( ) = lim
2 Chaotization
T /2
S(t)S (t )dt
(7.42)
Noise Techniques
239
(7.43)
(7.44)
That is, for a radar that uses a band-limited Gaussian noise waveform as the
transmit signal, its ACF is a sinc-pulse modulated by the carrier frequency
fc [14].
7.9.1
Ideal Correlation
Figure 7.27 shows the block diagram of an ideal analog correlation receiver.
The receiver consists of a noise source and an ideal time delay line that
produces a delayed copy of the transmit signal. A mixer followed by a lowpass
filter performs the correlation integration between the received target returns
and the delayed transmit signals. The response is generated using an I & Q
demodulator. The cross-correlation function for the ideal analog correlation
receiver has been shown to be [42]
CI ( ) = a0 2 sinc(B )e(j2fc 0 )
(7.45)
and preserves both the target amplitude and the initial phase.
7.9.2
Digital-Analog Correlation
N
a0 3 i2 22
e 2 CI ( )
i=0
(7.46)
240
Noise Techniques
241
7.9.3
A fully digital cross-correlation receiver can also be used. In this configuration, both the received target echo signal and the copy of the transmit signal
are digitized and the cross-correlation is done digitally. A block diagram of
this approach is shown in Figure 7.29.
To avoid the use of ADCs, the principle of two level quantization of the
reference signal has been proposed. Fast correlator hardware can be developed
since only the monobit (two-level) version of the noise waveform reference is
delayed in a fast controllable digital delay line made up of shift registers or fast
random access memory. For the case when the delayed transmit signal and
the received signal are both clipped to be either 1 or +1 before performing
correlation, the cross-correlation function has been shown to be [42]
CD ( ) =
2
sin1 [sinc(B )]
(7.47)
242
set of Walsh Cooley functions for calculating the correlation [44]. Parametric
and nonparametric algorithms are compared in [45].
7.9.4
Acousto-Optic Correlation
Due to the physical delay lines that are used a limited number of range bins is
available. This either limits the range gate extent (maximum detectable range
scanned by the variable delay line) or the range resolution must be sacrificed.
In addition, the slow switching speed (several seconds) of the variable delay
lines can limit the data acquisition rate and constrain the ability to do realtime signal processing. This ultimately limits the ability to do range-Doppler
processing to detect fast moving targets.
Acousto-optic (AO) devices are well known for their utility in correlation
processing [46]. The use of an AO processor oers another approach to correlation processing in the random noise radar. The receiver still employs a fiber
optic fixed-delay line to choose the coarse range delay but an acousto-optic
(AO) time-integrating correlator is used to allow parallel range bin processing [47]. Here the received signal is heterodyned using the AO as the time
integrating correlation receiver as shown in Figure 7.30. The noise signal is
transmitted through the transmit antenna and the replica of the transmitted
Figure 7.30: Acousto-optic correlation receiver for noise radar (from [47]).
Noise Techniques
243
noise signal is delayed in the fixed fiber delay line (sets minimum detectable
range). After addition of a fixed bias and level adjustments, the signal modulates the laser diode of the AO correlator. The laser diode light is then
collimated with a lens and focused on the AO device.
The received signal is used to drive a piezoelectric transducer, which
launches a traveling acoustic wave into the AO device. The correlation of the
delayed transmit and received signal is achieved by imaging the AO device
aperture onto a 1-D CCD. The time-integrated correlation signal is produced
by detecting the interference between the undiracted beam and the polarization switched, diracted traveling wave received signal by projecting both
optical beams through a polarizer that can be rotated to optimize the beam
ratio for good interferometric modulation depth.
0 The correlator provides the
amplitude as a function of range as A = I 2 + Q2 . Further details and
experimental results can be found in [47].
The use of the AO crystal provides up to 1,000 range cells that work
simultaneously over the aperture of the crystal providing the capability for
real-time data acquisition. The sensitivity is also improved up to 60 dB.
Dynamic range and linearity are limited by the acoustic nonlinearities and
scattering and by the limited dynamic range of CCD but could be increased by
improved CCD detector arrays providing higher bit resolution (e.g., 16 bits).
There is also a noise figure penalty for the electrical to fiber to electrical
conversion in the fiber delay line and AO correlator. This was oset by the
processing gain achieved by the long integration time.
7.10
Concluding Remarks
Today noise waveforms can be generated digitally followed by a digital-toanalog converter and up-conversion onto a carrier signal. With the increasing
integration of solid-state microwave techniques and high-speed VLSI circuits,
the correlation signal processing required for noise radar is leading the way
to real-time range-Doppler implementation. They are also relatively inexpensive to build and there is considerable interest in relating the technology
to military applications such as covert surveillance and reconnaissance, target detection and tracking, through-the-wall imaging, ground-penetration,
foliage-penetration profiling, synthetic aperture radar and inverse synthetic
aperture imaging.
The use of wideband noise waveforms can result in high resolution and
reduced ambiguities in range and Doppler estimation. The periodic ambiguity analysis for the four noise technology emitters are compared in this
Chapter. Table 7.1 summarizes the peak range side lobe level (in dB) and
the peak Doppler side lobe level of the noise radar configurations simulated
in this chapter. These results do not include any side lobe suppression techniques which can lower these values significantly. The use of noise waveforms
244
can result in a large mismatch in processing gain between the radar and the
noncooperative intercept receiver making their presence hard to detect. The
most significant consequence on the traditional intercept receiver is a slight
increase in the receivers noise floor. Finally, the use of several noise waveforms in a netted radar configuration can minimize the mutual interference
between emitters while providing an increase in surveillance volume and also
lowering the CW power required even further (see Chapter 9).
Table 7.1: Summary of Ambiguity Peak Side Lobe Performance
Noise Technique
RNR (Figures 7.6 and 7.7)
RNFR (Figures 7.13 and 7.14)
RNFSR (Figures 7.21 and 7.22)
RBPC (Figures 7.25 and 7.26)
References
[1] Horton, B. M., Noise-modulated distance measuring system, Proceedings
of the IRE, Vol. 49, No. 5, pp. 821828, May 1959.
[2] Craig, S. E., Fishbein, W. and Rittenbach, O. E., Continuous-wave radar
with high range resolution and unambiguous velocity determination, IRE
Transactions MIL-6, pp. 153, April 1962.
[3] Grant, M. P., Cooper G. R., and Kamal, A. K., A class of noise radar
systems, Proceedings of the IEEE Vol. 51, No. 7, pp. 10601061, July, 1963.
[4] Cooper, G. R., and McGillem, C. D., Random Signal Radar, Final Report
NASA Grant-NSG 543, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN, June 1967.
[5] McGillem, C. D., Cooper, G. R., and Waltaman, W. B., An experimental
random signal radar, Proceedings of the National Electronics Conference,
Dayton, Ohio, pp. 409411, Oct. 1967.
[6] Smit, J. A., and Kneefel, W. B. S. M., RUDARAn experimental noise
radar, De Ingenieur, Vol. 83, No. 32, ppm. 99-110, Aug. 1971.
[7] Guosui, L., Hong, G., and Weimin, S., Hongbo, S., Jianhui, Z., Random
Signal RadarA Winner in Both the Military and Civilian Operating Environments, IEEE Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 39, No.
2, pp. 489498, April 2003.
[8] Guosui, L., Hong, G., Xiaohua, Z., and Weimin, S., The Present and Future
of Random Signal Radars, IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, Vol. 12, No. 10, pp. 3540, October 1997.
[9] Guosui, L., Hong, G., and Weimin, S., Development of random signal radars,
IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp.
770777, July 1999.
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[24] Gray, D. A., and Fry, R., MIMO noise radar element and beam space comparisons, Proceedings of the International Waveform Diversity and Design
Conference, Pisa Italy, pp. 344347, June 2007.
[25] Zetik, R., Sachs, J. and Thoma, R. S., UWB short range radar sensing,
IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 3945,
April 2007.
[26] Sun, H. Possible ultra-wideband radar terminology, IEEE Aerospace and
Electronic Systems Magazine, Vol. 19, No. 8, pp. 38, Aug. 2004.
[27] Sun, H. Lu, Y., and Guosui, L., Ultra-Wideband Technology and Random
Signal Radar: An Ideal Combination, IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, Vol. 18, No. 11, pp. 37, November 2003.
[28] Dawood, M., and Narayanan, R. M., Generalized wideband ambiguity function of a coherent ultrawideband random noise radar, IEE Proceedings-F
Radar, Sonar, Navigation Vol. 150, No. 5, pp. 379386, Oct. 2003.
[29] Axelsson, S. R. J., Noise Radar for Range/Doppler Processing and Digital
Beamforming using Low-bit ADC, IEEE Trans. on Geoscience and Remote
Sensing, Vol. 41, No. 12, pp 27032720, December 2003.
[30] Axelsson, S. R. J., Noise Radar Using Random Phase and Frequency Modulation, IEEE Trans. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing Vol. 42, No. 11,
pp. 23702384, Nov. 2004.
[31] Narayanan, R. M., Henning, J-A, and Dawood, M., Enhanced detection of
objects obscured by dispersive media using tailored noise waveforms, Proceedings of the SPIE Conf. on Detection and Remediation Technologies for
Mines and Minelike Targets III, Orlando, FL, Vol. 3392, pp. 604614, April
1998.
[32] Narayanan, R. M., Xu, Y., Homeyer, P. D., and Curtis, J. O., Design performance and applications of a coherent ultra-wideband random noise radar,
Optical Engineering, Vol. 37 No. 6, pp. 18551869, June 1998.
[33] Jiang, R., Wolfe, K. W., and Nguyen, L., Low coherence fiber optics for random noise radar, Proceedings of the IEEE Military Communications Conference (MILCOM), Los Angeles, CA, pp. 907911, Oct. 2000.
[34] Li, Z., and Narayanan, R. M., Doppler visibility of coherent ultrawideband
random noise radar systems, IEEE Trans. in Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 904916, July 2006.
[35] Dawood, M., and Narayanan, R. M., Receiver operating characteristics for
the coherent UWB random noise radar, IEEE Trans. on Aerospace and
Electronic Systems, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 586594, April 2001.
[36] Heuschel, E. R., III, Time-Frequency, Bi-Frequency Detection Analysis of
Noise Technology Radar, U. S. Naval Postgraduate School Masters Thesis,
Sept. 2006.
[37] Liu, G., and Xiangquan, S., Average ambiguity function for random FMCW radar signal, International Conference on Radar, Paris, pp. 339346,
2124 May 1984.
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[38] Guosui, L., Xiangquan, S., Jinhui, L., Guoyu, Y., and Yaoliang, S., Design
of noise FM-CW radar and its implementation, IEE Proceedings-F Radar,
Sonar, Navigation , Vol. 138, No. 5, pp. 420426, October 1991.
[39] Hong, G., Guosui, L., Xiaohua, Z., Weimin, S., and Xi, L., A new kind of
noise radarrandom binary phase coded CW radar, Proceedings of the IEEE
National Radar Conference, Syracuse, NY, pp. 202206, May 1997.
[40] Lukin, K. A., Millimeter wave noise radar technology, Proceedings of the
3rd International Symposium on Physics and Engineering of Microwave, Millimeter Wave and Submillimeter Waves, Kharkov Ukraine, Sept. 1517, 1998.
[41] Lukin, K. A., Millimeter wave noise radar applications: Theory and Experiment, Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Physics and Engineering of Microwave, Millimeter Wave and Submillimeter Waves, Kharkov
Ukraine,, June 49, 2001.
[42] Xu, X., and Narayanan, R. M., Impact of dierent correlation receiving techniques on the imaging performance of UWB random noise radar, Proceedings of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium,
IGARSS, Toulouse, France pp. 45254527, 2125 July, 2003.
[43] Pace, P. E., Advanced Techniques for Digital Receivers, Artech House, Norwood, MA, 2000.
[44] Sinitsyn, R. B., and Beletsky, A. J., Fast signal processing algorithms for
noise radar, Proceedings of the 3rd European Radar Conference, Manchester,
U.K., pp. 245248, Sept. 2006.
[45] Yanovsky, F. J., and Sinitsyn, R. B., Ultrawideband signal processing algorithms for radar and sodars, Proceedings of the Ultrawideband and Ultrashort
Impulse Signals, Sevastopol, Ukraine, pp. 6671, 1822 Sept. 2006.
[46] Hecht, D., Characteristics of acoustooptic devices for signal processing,
Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Ultrasonics, San Francisco, CA, pp.
369380, 1985.
[47] Narayanan, R. M., Zhou, W., Wagner, K. H., and Kim, S., Acoustooptic
Correlation Processing in Random Noise Radar, IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 166170, July 2004.
Problems
1. Determine the instantaneous fractional bandwidth of a noise waveform
if the absolute bandwidth B = 3 GHz and the maximum bandwidth
fmax = 4 GHz.
2. Consider a moving target. The instantaneous Doppler frequency is not
a constant but varies due to the varying nature of the instantaneous
wavelength . Since varies between min and max , the Doppler frequencies vary from fdl to fdh . If fdc = (fmin + fmax )/2 is the average
248
2fmin fdc
fmin + fmax
(7.48)
fdh =
2fmax fdc
fmin + fmax
(7.49)
and
(b) Derive the expression for the targets velocity as a function of fdl
and also as a function of fdh . (c) Calculate fdl , fdh and the targets
velocity if min = 0.15m and max = 0.3m.
3. Show that a transmitted noise signal (7.11)
St (t) = Re{S(t)} = X(t) cos(2fc t) Y (t) sin(2fc t)
(7.50)
can be expressed as
St (t) =
1
[sc (t)e2fc t + sc (t)e2fc t ]
2
(7.51)
4. Using the algorithms in the noise folder, generate the four types of noise
waveforms discussed in the chapter. Examine the ACF, PACF and PAF
of each waveform and compare the highest time side lobe and Doppler
side lobe level (in dB) for each waveform.
Chapter 8
Over-the-Horizon Radar
In this chapter, we examine the sky wave over-the-horizon radar (OTHR)
concept including the characteristics of the ionosphere on the propagation of
the radio waves and the clutter spectrum. Sky wave processing and modern
LPI waveform considerations are presented. The sky wave maximum detection range is also quantified for the Chinese OTH-B. Simulation results using
PROPLAB PRO, an ionospheric radio propagation tool published by Solar
Terrestrial Dispatch, are shown to demonstrate the coverage region of the
emitter. Surface wave OTHR are also presented including the LPI waveform
considerations. The surface wave radar equation is developed and simulation results of the maximum detection range are shown as a function of the
required input SNR.
8.1
250
OTH radars continues around the world, systems that exploit surface wave
propagation are attracting greater long-term interest due to their more convenient size and transportability. The significant dierence between sky wave
and surface wave radars is that sky wave radars have large detection ranges
beyond the horizon (starting at about 800 km and extending out to 1,000
4,000 km) while surface wave systems can see out to 400 km. The reason for
the extended detection range for the sky wave propagation is that the losses
caused by the ionization and absorption in the ionosphere are much less than
the surface wave diraction loss. Ionospheric eects such as multipath and
Doppler spreading are also significant. Targets such as cruise missiles, stealth
aircraft, ballistic missiles and aircraft carriers can be detected with OTHR
systems at distances well beyond the horizon.
Several types of emitter waveforms for OTHR have been used in the past.
Transmitted waveforms such as a simple pulse (e.g., cosine-squared), a chirped
pulse or a pulse Doppler waveform have been used [3]. Due to the very small
duty cycles, large peak powers were required to overcome the propagation
losses incurred. With the necessity of having to operate across bands in
which other authorized users were emitting many anti-interference measures
had to be included [2]. The high-power, pulsed waveforms eectively detected
the targets however, they allowed the long-range interception of the emitter
by noncooperative intercept receivers leading to direction finding, emitter
identification, electronic attack (jamming), and deception.
In order to provide a more covert military capability as well as a more ecient use of the HF spectrum, the modern OTHR is moving towards the use of
CW LPI waveform modulations such as CW phase modulation and frequency
hopping [4]. Low power FMCW using multiple waveform repetition frequencies [5, 6] are being used that can relax the transmit power requirements to
provide a more covert sky wave system. In addition these types of waveforms
can resolve the range/Doppler ambiguity usually associated with HF FMCW
radar. Surface wave systems using random low power FM interrupted CW
(FMICW) are also being pursued [7]. The FMICW is a FMCW waveform
that is gated on and o either randomly or with a well-defined sequence.
The main problem caused by the spectra discontinuity is the high-range side
lobes. Optimal sparse waveform designs [8] are being explored. They find
the interference-free channels in the HF band by frequency monitoring, enabling the target detection to be accomplished using clear channels while also
lowering the transmit power and minimizing the range side lobes. Shorter
coherent integration times (CIT) [9], adaptive transmit frequency techniques
[10], antijamming through the use of a radar waveform with discontinuous
spectra using two carrier frequencies [11] and orthogonal MIMO waveforms
[12] are also resulting in a quieter and more eective OTHR.
The ionospheric propagation and movement of the layers, contaminates
the transmitted waveform resulting in a low, and fading SNR at the target.
Traditionally, anti-interference measures such as adaptive frequency tuning,
Over-the-Horizon Radar
251
adaptive filtering (including tunable band reject filters) and spatial filtering
have been used by the emitter [2]. Modern OTHR signal processing techniques such as adaptive interference suppression [1315] and clutter cancelation algorithms [16] are now able to eliminate the ionospheric propagation
path contaminants and compensate for the smearing of sea echo very eectively. Adaptive time-frequency analysis has also been used to parameterize
the radar signal so the interference can be identified and removed [17].
On the other hand, the ionospheric propagation makes the noncooperative
detection of the OTHR more dicult. The ionospheric contamination makes
the polarization at the receiver indeterminable and consequently, the detection and DF (azimuth and elevation estimates) of the OTHR waveforms is
tricky especially in the presence of the other interference within the HF band
[18]. The antenna aperture required is large in size and must also be useful
across the HF band with no grating lobes. Large shipboard multifunction arrays are hampered by limitations on the physical size of the aperture required
and problems with electromagnetic interference and compatibility [19]. Single sight location techniques using complex time delay estimation algorithms
have been used to DF the OTHR signals [20]. Furthermore, the received HF
signals are nonstationary which limits the noncoherent integration eciency
within the signal processing. Due to multipath presence, high-resolution spectral estimation techniques such as multiple signal classification (MUSIC) and
the cepstrum must also be used [18].
Since the HF signals have a large wavelength (10 100m) the OTHR
also has an inherent resistance to the ARM threat. This is because HF
wavelengths are greater than 10m and any antenna mounted in a missile
seeker (diameter = 0.5m) would have significant diculty deriving any useful
guidance information from the emitted HF waveform. In addition to counterARM capacity, the HF CW waveforms can also detect stealth aircraft and
low level penetrators providing strategic and long distance early warning1 [21].
The OTHR systems are able to survey large areas of land and sea for air and
maritime targets. The OTHRs operating wavelength is nearly the same size
as many of the targets being pursued which puts the targets in the resonant
scattering region (increase in RCS and target detection performance).
In this chapter, sky wave OTHR systems and the eect the ionosphere
has on the waveforms is presented. LPI waveforms are discussed and PROPLAB PRO simulation results are shown to demonstrate the typical footprint
coverage as a function of the HF frequency. Example results for the Chinese
OTH-B system are shown. MATLAB simulations showing the maximum
detection range as a function of the minimum required SNR are also discussed. Surface wave systems are examined including the FM interrupted
CW approach. With the focus on new emitter waveforms, incorporation of
electronic protection, signal processing and spectrum management, the inter1 Stealth
252
8.2
The emitted waveform from the sky wave OTHR system is bounced o the
ionosphere and then down to the targets. Reflections from the targets are
bounced back through the ionosphere to the receiver array as shown in Figure 8.1 [23]. Note the similarity to the MIMO (or spatially waveform diverse)
architecture as discussed in Chapter 10. Due to the amount of sea clutter
being returned the term backscatter is often used. Use of the term backscatter is intended to identify the system geometry, in which the small separation
between transmitter and receiver results in an eective monostatic radar, as
opposed to a bistatic geometry in which the large angle between the transmit
and receive path modifies the target and clutter RCS. These backscatter systems consist of two modes for detection of targets. Detection of air targets,
and ballistic missiles during the launch phase constitute an air mode. Detection of surface targets is called a surface mode. Although they are typically
separate operating modes, eorts to combine the modes is also being pursued.
Both modes are aected significantly by the ionosphere and these eects are
presented below.
Over-the-Horizon Radar
253
Figure 8.2: Temperature and plasma density of neutral gas and ionized gas
as a function of altitude (after [25]).
8.2.1
The ionosphere is defined as that part of the upper atmosphere where sucient ionization can exist to aect the propagation of radio waves [24]. Examining the LPI characteristics of OTHR systems requires an understanding
of the ionosphere and its eects. The structure of the neutral atmosphere
and the ionosphere containing ionized gas surrounding the Earth is shown in
Figure 8.2 [25]. The left side of the figure (neutral gas) shows the altitude (in
kilometers) as a function of temperature (in Kelvin). The layer right above
the Earths surface up to 10 km is the troposphere and all weather phenomena
occur here. The layer above the troposphere is the stratosphere and the air
flow is horizontal. The layer above the stratosphere is the mesosphere where
the temperature increases with altitude. The layer above the mesosphere is
the ionosphere. The right side of Figure 8.2 (ionized gas) shows the altitude
254
(km) as a function of plasma density (in units of cm3 ). It also shows the
layer structure in both daytime (solid line) and night time (dashed line). The
plasma is typically the ionized gas and the plasma density refers to electron
density.
The ionosphere is the region at heights of above 80 km and is also the most
outlying area from the center of the Earth [26, 27]. The ionosphere consists of
ionized atoms. It makes long-distance propagation possible by reflecting the
radio waves typically at a height between 90 and 350 km above the Earths
surface. The free electron density is an indicator of the degree of ionization
and is used to measure the structure of the ionosphere in layers. They are
D-, E-, F1- and F2-layers in the daytime. There is always an F-layer at night
and sometimes an E-layer is present as well. The radio waves that propagate
through the troposphere are called surface waves or ground waves. The radio
waves refracted from the ionosphere are called sky waves.
The D-layer below the ionosphere is between the height of 48 and 80
km above the Earths surface. This layer only exists in daytime and its
absorption causes the shorter propagation distance for the radio waves [28].
The distribution of layers in the ionosphere, except the D-layer, is shown
in Figure 8.3. The E-layer exists between 88 and 145 km above the Earths
surface. The maximum electron density in this layer is 1.5105 electrons/cm3
at the height of about 110 km. The E-layer can refract the HF radio wave
inducing propagation distances up to 2,000 km in the daytime. The F-layer
splits into the F1- and F2-layers in the daytime and remains only the F-layer
at night. The F-layer exists between 273 and 321 km. The F1-layer usually
exists between 160 and 240 km and sometimes the electron density in this
layer is not great enough to distinguish it as a separate layer. The F2-layer
exists between 257 and 402 km and most HF radar signals are refracted from
this layer to maximize the propagation range. The nominal height for each
layers peak is 90 km for the D-layer, 110 km for E-layer, 200 km for F1-layer,
and 300 km for F2-layer.
The International Reference Ionosphere (IRI) is a joint project of the
Committee of Space Research (COSPAR) and the Union of Radio Science
International (URSI) [29]. The ionospheric model, IRI-2001, uses input data
that includes the time (universal or local time), date and year, the latitude and
longitude of the desired location, the profile type (height, latitude, longitude,
year, month, day of month, day of year and hour profile), and the parameters
of the profile itself. The optional input includes the sunspot number (SSN)
and ionosphere index (IG) [30].
Figures 8.4 and 8.5, produced by the IRI model, illustrate diagrams of
the electron density profile versus altitude at Nanjing, China (32.0 N and
241.7 W) for daytime and nighttime in the winter and summer, respectively.
In Figure 8.4, the time was set to be 1000 and 2400 (local time) in January
(winter). The same times were used in Figure 8.5 for July (summer). Both
months are in the year of 2007. In these figures, the value along the abscissa
Over-the-Horizon Radar
255
Figure 8.3: Distribution of layers in the ionosphere during the daytime and
nighttime.
(from left to right) represents the electron density (electrons/cm3 ) for each altitude. The electron density is generated by semilog calculation method. The
numbers along the ordinate of the figure correspond to the altitude above the
ground (in kilometers). The first three lines on the top of the graph represent
the information of the geographic coordinates, time, day, and month. The
fourth line shows the optional inputs, SSN and IG index, that are generated
by the model itself unless input by the user. In the daytime results shown
in Figure 8.4(a) and Figure 8.5(a), the D, E and F2-layers are easily defined,
but the F1-layer is not well defined. In the night time results shown in Figure
8.4(b) and Figure 8.5(b), both E and F-layer are well defined. These results
demonstrate that the successful noncooperative interception of the OTHR
waveforms depend heavily on the conditions of the ionosphere, time of day,
and sun spot number (SSN) as well as the emitter power and range.
Modeling the ionospheric electron density Ne and refractive index is
useful for HF propagation studies and OTHR system planning and performance prediction. Exploitation of this predictability by the targets can also
be used to avoid detection by the OTHR (e.g., by flying when the propagation losses and ionospheric modulation are the worst). The electron density
256
Figure 8.4: Electron density in (a) winter day (January 2007) and (b) winter
night (January 2007).
(electrons/cm3 ) of the ionosphere at the desired height from the Earths center
can be calculated using a quasiparabolic ray path to represent the waveform
within the ionosphere as [2628]
l
W2 p Q M
w
rb 2
r rm
(8.1)
Ne = Nm 1
ym
r
for
rb r
rm rb
rb ym
Over-the-Horizon Radar
257
Figure 8.5: Electron density in (a) summer day (July 2007) and (b) summer
night (July 2007).
The critical frequency (kHz) is the maximum frequency of the emitted
waveform that is returned from a layer at normal incidence. That is, when the
emitted waveform is transmitted straight up towards the ionosphere (vertical
incidence), the waveform will be returned to earth at all frequencies below
the critical frequency fcr (kHz) which takes the form [2]
0
fcr = 81Nm
(8.2)
(8.3)
258
+
(8.4)
= 1
f2
F
F ym
r
Over-the-Horizon Radar
259
Figure 8.7: Coverage range for fc = 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20 and 22 MHz for
SSN = 200 and the AI = 5 on 0:00 UTC 2007/7/31 [22].
8.2.2
Consider the electron density profile for the summer daytime in Figure 8.5.
Here the maximum electron density Nm of the F2-layer is at the height of
rm = 6618.1 km (240+6,378.1), with a value of 3 105 electrons/cm3 . The
F2-layer semithickness (half-thickness) ym = 50 km or ym = 0.5(300 200),
and the base height of the F2-layer rb = rm ym or 6568.1 km, which means
the base height of the F2-layer is 190 km above the Earths surface (also shown
in Figure 8.5). At a desired height of 230 km above the Earths surface, the
electron density is calculated from (8.1) as Ne = 2.8814 105 electrons/cm3 .
The critical frequency depends only on the maximum electron density of the
F2-layer fcr = 4.93 103 kHz. Based on (8.4), the refractive index is
a function of electron density Ne and operating frequency f (kHz). If a
frequency of f = 5.1 103 kHz is considered, the refractive index = 0.32.
If the waveform is launched at an angle of incidence of i = 10 degrees,
MUF= 5 103 kHz.
8.2.3
How the targets appear in the Doppler space relative to the clutter is important in determining the HF frequency to be used. The excessive noise
caused by ionospheric propagation is due to the electron density variations.
This process decorrelates the radio signal as it propagates and broadens the
Doppler spectrum. The Doppler radar spectrum of HF radiation backscattered from the ocean surface is shown in Figure 8.8 and characterized by two
strong peaks appearing above and below the carrier frequency [32]. The phys-
260
Figure 8.8: Bragg peaks along with air and surface targets within the cluttertarget Doppler profile (after [32]).
ical mechanism producing this phenomenon is single-bounce Bragg scattering
from wave trains. The Bragg peaks represent the radiation
being reflected.
The Doppler frequencies of the Bragg peaks are 0.102 fc Hz where fc is the
operating frequency in megahertz and the sign indicates the resonant ocean
waves advancing towards or receding away from the radar. The sidebands surrounding the Bragg peaks are due to wave-wave interactions and higher order
Bragg scattering [33]. The ocean properties that can be extracted from features of the HF radar sea echo spectrum include (from easiest to measure)
radial surface currents, sea state, surface wind speed, dominant wave period
and direction [34].
Radial velocity variation of maneuvering targets (aircraft) with high speed
may cause significant spread on the radar echo in the Doppler spectrum.
These eects make the echo energy disperse and degrades the eciency of
the coherent integration operation (coherent integration loss). Aircraft target
speeds separate them well from surface targets and clutter for many geometries and provide a good match to the radar capabilities. Many ways have
been proposed to deal with maneuvering targets in OTHR systems. For aircraft, the modulation periods are typically several seconds. Ships which have
radial speeds between 5 and 25 ms1 require coherent modulation periods
longer than tens of seconds to achieve high resolution in the Doppler domain
so as to distinguish the targets from the clutter [32]. The positioning accuracy
Over-the-Horizon Radar
261
can also be improved by the use of active transponders, clutter storage and
display technology (to calibrate coast lines) and the use of one transmitting
site and multiple receiving sites. Many targets of interest may be concealed
by the clutter and this obscuration is predictable and hence exploitable by
ships wishing to evade detection. For OTHR, reducing the severity of clutter
masking is actively being investigated.
8.2.4
8.2.5
For sky wave systems, the receivers and transmitters are almost always separated by as much as 100 km or more. Sky wave systems have large immovable
antenna arrays that are spread out over a long distance and are positioned
inland such that they are relatively immune to most forms of enemy attack by
rockets and missiles. Sky wave OTHR transmitters use adaptive frequency
262
Over-the-Horizon Radar
263
selection, low side lobe adaptive digital beam forming, and require sophisticated frequency management systems using ionosondes in order to operate
via the ever-changing ionosphere [32]. Ionosondes are devices that send a
spectrum of radio wave pulses straight up to measure: (a) the length of time
it takes for a reflection to be returned, (b) the strength of the reflection, and
(c) how high of a frequency can be reflected. From these three measurements
(time, strength, frequency), the device can determine ionization density, altitude of the ionization, and the MUF. The transmitting system is usually
implemented as a number of separate antenna arrays, each covering a certain
frequency subband. Due to the large area being illuminated, these systems
provide the users with a significant surveillance capability to detect targets
at any altitude from the ionosphere to the surface of the Earth.
The receive antenna is usually a long (> 1 km) array of monopoles sometimes with a backscreen to reduce the back lobe radiation. The receiver
array is connected to a beamformer, receiver and ADC. The receiver output
is digitized by an ADC and strobed into a bulk memory for target detection
processing. The samples within a range gate (all range bins of interest) are
added together coherently for a period of time that may vary anywhere from
several seconds to several minutes depending on the targets being detected.
Beyond the time where coherent integration is performed, the returns from
the sea may be added noncoherently. That is, since the samples from beyond
the horizon are stored digitally, a good deal of flexibility in the processing
now exists (mostly to correct for the ionospheric modulation of the Doppler).
Pulse OTHR systems use short pulses or pulse compression to obtain highrange resolution and a high peak power is required to obtain the necessary
average power for target detection. This high transmitted power can lead to
antenna design constraints and gives rise to impulsive interference that can
easily be identified within the HF band. The engineering compromise to using
high peak power, low duty cycle waveforms is to use CW frequency sweeping
such as the FMCW. Modern sky wave emitters for example, take advantage
of low power (30W in the case of WERA [36]) FMCW modulation. Although
there is currently no military OTHRs that use tens or hundreds of W, the
low power emitted makes it easy for them to hide within other HF radio
services and interference. sky wave OTHRs for air vehicle detection must use
much higher powers than 30W. JORN and the US OTH-B use hundreds of
kW average power. The use of FMCW modulation to transmit and receive
continuously maximizes the average power out of the transmitters amplifiers
providing the range resolution inherent in a given transmission bandwidth.
The disadvantages in using an FMCW are the spectral purity required in
the waveform generator and the high dynamic range required in the receiver
which has to handle the strong direct path (transmit antenna to receive antenna) and the weak signals from far ranges. Doppler information must also
be derived by repeating the FM sweep a number of times (e.g., 64 or 128) and
then performing the FFT in each range gate to examine the phase history
264
of any target in that gate. After these repeated FMCW sweeps in any given
dwell or surveillance time, the OTHR moves to survey other azimuths and
ranges that are part of the surveillance plan.
Due to the frequency range of OTHR systems and the low volume data
rates, new digital receivers can now directly digitize the returned CW signal
with high resolution without the need for down conversion to intermediate
frequencies (as is conventionally done for microwave emitters). The signal
processor uses a primary FFT to sort the echo returns into range bins and a
second FFT is used to calculate the range-Doppler map. For the OTHR, the
unambiguous range of operation is given by [37]
Ru =
c
2WRF
(8.5)
cWRF
2fc
(8.7)
Over-the-Horizon Radar
265
WRFs are used while the target is being illuminated and this solves the range
Doppler ambiguity. Multiple carrier frequencies (either simultaneous or time
multiplexed) are also used to enhance the target detection capability.
8.3
The repetitive nature of the frequency sweeping is one of the main drawbacks
of the FMCW technique. The concentration of power into narrow HF bandwidths and the additional element of repetition (e.g., with the same WRF)
makes the OTHR vulnerable to detection, which can lead to electronic attack
and deception. Consequently, the move away from these traditional waveforms to the incorporation of new LPI modulations is being actively pursued.
Changing the modulation parameters makes it even more dicult to DF the
emitter and identify the OTHR system location.
8.3.1
266
8.3.2
Frequency hopping Costas codes are also being explored. The peak side lobe
level for a given Costas time-bandwidth product is
W
w
1
(8.10)
PSL = 20 log10
B(WRF)
For example, for B = 20 kHz and a WRF = 5 s, a PSL = 100 dB can be
achieved in addition to a thumbtack ambiguity function.
Increasing the time-bandwidth product of these CW modulations using
larger bandwidths is also being pursued entailing operations over a discontinuous signal spectrum (due to all of the other radio trac), an approach
similar to the surface wave techniques that are used.
8.3.3
In addition to the goal of LPI, a surveillance plan to scan, detect and track
surface targets over large areas requires a short CIT in order that the tracker
can receive the periodic updates in a timely fashion. To enable a short
CIT, ecient clutter cancelation algorithms are actively being pursued to
improve signal-to-clutter ratio. Fourier-based clutter cancelation algorithms
have shown success for OTHR and are based on modeling the first order clutter as a sinusoid and subtracting it from the data. The Fourier technique
estimates the clutter frequency, amplitude and phase [9] from the Doppler
spectrum. A high clutter-to-noise ratio for the Bragg peaks is required in
order to estimate the initial phase for the clutter subtraction.
8.3.4
Over-the-Horizon Radar
267
cfb t0
2F
(8.11)
c
ctmin
=
2F
2
(8.12)
where tmin = 1/F s is the minimum time delay that can be detected.
Due to the range-Doppler cross coupling eect, if the target is moving at
a velocity such that fd > 1/2t0 , the beat frequency is fm = fb fd and
corresponding range of the target is given by
Rm =
cfb t0
cfd t0
2F
2F
(8.13)
and shows that the measured range is a function of the true range and an
error due to the Doppler shift or Rm = R Rd . The range error due to the
Doppler shift can be re-written in terms of range bins as [5]
fd
Rd
=
R
WRF
(8.14)
where WRF = 1/t0 . This shows that the measured range is increased (or
decreased) by one range bin as the Doppler shift is decreased (or increased)
by a frequency equal to the WRF.
In the multiple WRF technique, three WRFs are used during a single
target illumination time as shown in Figure 8.11. Since the waveform repeti-
268
WRF sweeps are chosen to resolve the range ambiguities and to achieve the
required Doppler resolution respectively.
The Doppler shifts are unique for each WRF block and estimated sequentially using two FFTs as in normal FMCW processing. For OTHR surface
mode targets, it is only necessary to extend the unambiguous Doppler to
70 Hz so WRF3 = 7, WRF2 = 6, and WRF1 = 5 are sucient giving a
maximum unambiguous Doppler coverage of
3
fd =
1
WRFi = 105 Hz
2 i=1
(8.15)
In selecting the WRF, the first limitation is the maximum unambiguous range
Rmax
ctm2
ctm1
ctm3
<
<
2
2
2
(8.16)
where tmi are the corresponding modulation periods for the three WRFs
(tmi = 1/WRFi ) [6]. The dierence in range bins between the three WRFs
should be large enough to separate the clutter. If NRB is the number of bins
covered by the clutter then to ensure a clutter free range
NRB =
F
F
WRF1
WRF2
(8.17)
NRB =
F
F
WRF2
WRF3
(8.18)
and also
(8.19)
(8.20)
A fixed waveform repetition frequency emitter is able to resolve Doppler frequencies within WRFi /2. With the WRFi satisfying WRF3 > WRF2 >
WRF1 , the Doppler shift of the target can be written as [5]
fd = n1 WRF1 + x1 = n2 WRF2 + x2 = n3 WRF3 + x3
(8.21)
Over-the-Horizon Radar
269
Below we present the alternate solution using the Chinese remainder theorem (CRT) and repeat the example in [5]. The problem is first set up as a
set of simultaneous congruences
fd x1 (mod WRF1 )
fd x2 (mod WRF2 )
fd x3 (mod WRF3 )
(8.22)
When WRFi are N positive integers that are coprime, the set of congruences
have a unique solution modulo
M=
N
WRFi
(8.23)
i=1
N
3
j=1
or for N = 3
M
bj xj
WRFj
(8.24)
270
8.3.5
F 2
t + 2fc t
tm
(8.28)
(8.29)
The function vf m can then be inverse Fourier transformed to derive the signal.
Taper functions such as the Hann taper function have been used. The taper
however, does change slightly, the signals phase, amplitude and instantaneous
frequency.
The instantaneous frequency of the FMCW waveform is also a discontinuous function. A simple method to reduce this discontinuity is to introduce
Over-the-Horizon Radar
a counter sloping chirp at the waveform end as [14]
W
w
F
1
fI (t) =
t + fc
1 tm
271
(8.31)
(8.32)
This technique provides excellent out-of-band emission control even with low
percentage tapering (e.g., 10%) causing only a small amount of loss in coherent gain.
The penalty when using this approach is that the Fresnel ripples, which
are usually a characteristic of the spectrum of the weighted chirp signal, now
appear in the time domain waveform. The waveform to be transmitted has
small amplitude ripples that must be preserved if the desired spectral performance is to be maintained [13]. That is, high linearity must be maintained
at full output power levels.
8.4
The relative performance of the best known sky wave OTHR systems is shown
in Figure 8.12. One of the important performance parameters of the OTHR
is the maximum detection range. Figure 8.13 shows the OTH-B sky wave
target detection geometry. The received power at the radar receiver from the
target can be expressed as
PRT =
PCW GT GR 2 T
2L
(4)3 RT2 RR
P 2 LF L
(8.33)
272
Figure 8.12: Relative performance of the best known sky wave OTHR systems
(after [22]).
o of the ionosphere. Understanding the ionosphere, and how it aects the
transmit and received waveform (from the target) is critical to predicting the
OTHR capability. For example, the ionosphere can modulate the targets
Doppler profile making it undetectable. This is discussed in greater detail in
the following sections.
The minimum input signal-to-noise ratio SNRRi is related to the receivers
sensitivity R . The receiver can detect and process an incoming target signal
at this signal level or higher. Substitution of the sensitivity for PRT in (8.34),
the maximum detection range (reflecting o of the ionosphere) of the radar
becomes
W1/4
w
PCW GT GR 2 T
(8.34)
RR max =
(4)3 R LP 2 LF L
where RRmax is calculated by assuming that the OTHR transmitter and receiver are located at the same range from the target RT = RR . The sensitivity
R is the product of the minimum SNR required at the input SNRRi times
the noise power in the input bandwidth of the receiver or
R = kT0 FR BRi (SNRRi )
(8.35)
where k is the Boltzmanns constant (k = 1.38071023 J/K), T0 is the standard noise temperature (290 K), FR is the receiver noise factor and includes
Over-the-Horizon Radar
273
274
Figure 8.14: FMCW OTH-B maximum detection range (RR max ) for T = 1,
10, and 100 m2 [22].
From [21], the Chinese OTH-B radar has a skip zone or minimum detection
range of 700 km and a maximum detection range of 3,500 km. For a maximum
detection range along the flat Earth Rfootprint = 3,500 km, the RR max
is calculated as 3,532 km from (8.36). The minimum required input SNR
(SNRRi ) for fc = 14.5 MHz for T = 1, 10, and 100 m2 is 107, 97 and
87 dB respectively from Figure 8.16. The processing gain of the emitters
waveform used then provides the sucient SNR for target detection.
After target detection, coordinate registration is used for multipath tracking to convert the slant ranges and slant azimuth to surface coordinates.
Several methods based on planar and spherical models have been reported
recently [4244]. Furthermore, with sophisticated processing to eliminate the
coherent integration loss caused by irregular target motions, the transmit
power can be lowered considerably.
8.5
Over-the-Horizon Radar
275
276
8.6
While the principles of HF surface wave or ground wave OTHR have been
known for decades, they still present challenges to remain covert. Figure 8.22
shows the surface wave OTHR concept that uses a spatial separation of the
transmit and receive system. The OTHR transmitter (XMTR) emits radio
waves that follow the surface of the sea extending over the horizon. Surface
wave radar works best when using vertically polarized antennas in contact
with salty conducting water. The sea water is a good conductor and the air
acts as the dielectric. As a result, the lowest layer of air and uppermost layer
of sea form a waveguide in which the HF radiation is constrained by internal
Over-the-Horizon Radar
277
Figure 8.17: Example transmitter antenna radiation pattern for the OTH-B
radar system [22].
Figure 8.18: Electron density profile for SSN = 200 and AI = 5 on 2007/6/21
[22].
278
Over-the-Horizon Radar
279
Figure 8.20: Ray tracing results for SSN = 200 and the AI = 5 on 0:00 UTC
2007/7/31 for several elevation angles at (a) 10 MHz and (b) 14 MHz [22].
280
Figure 8.21: Ray tracing screen for SSN = 200 and the AI = 5 on 0:00 UTC
2007/7/31 for several elevation angles at (a) 18 MHz and (b) 22 MHz [22].
Over-the-Horizon Radar
281
8.6.1
282
8.7
There are two problems with FMCW for surface wave systems. First, the
necessary isolation between the transmitter and receiver for continuous-wave
operation at HF frequencies is more dicult to achieve. Second, due to the
propagation losses, the signal levels decrease rapidly with distance and the
dynamic range of the signals exceeds that of any available receiver hardware
[7]. Due to heavy user congestion, surface wave OTHR systems are also
restricted to operating within narrow frequency bands.
8.7.1
FMICW Characteristics
Over-the-Horizon Radar
283
(8.39)
P
1
3
n=0
rect[(t nq R /2)/R ]
(8.40)
284
Figure 8.25: SWR-503 detection capability for various classes of surface and
air platforms [47].
where P is the number of short bursts, R is the pulse width in seconds,
rect(t/R ) is a rectangular pulse of width R centered at the origin and q is
the gating period. The signal fT (t) = AT (t)s1 (t) represents a single FMICW
sweep [49].
In Figure 8.26(a), the FMCW signal used to generate the FMICW is
shown. In Figure 8.26(b, c) the transmitter gating sequence and the receiver
gating sequence (complement of transmit sequence) are shown respectively.
In Figure 8.26(d) the FMICW signal generated using the gating sequence in
Figure 8.26(b) is shown. The eect of target range on the received signal
is shown in Figure 8.27 where for the same transmitted signal, the received
signals are shown for two dierent target ranges [7].
The FMICW concept is to transmit for a specific period of time and
after the transmitter has been turned o, to receive during the quiet period.
Both the transmit and receive waveforms are subjected to dierent interrupt
sequences. The FMICW allows the weak return signals to be more easily
detected. With a duty factor of, for example, 50%, the average transmitted
power is reduced by 3 dB compared to the FMCW waveform and the improved
isolation typically decreases the system noise floor by more than 3 dB adding
to the LPI nature of the emitter. It is important to remember that to prevent
Over-the-Horizon Radar
285
Figure 8.26: (ad) FMICW generation showing transmit and receive gating
(from [7]).
eclipsing, the receiver must always be o whenever the transmitter is on.
Further dierences between the two sequences are introduced by soft gating
which is used to suppress transients that would be caused if the interrupt
sequences were switched rapidly between on and o states [7].
The radar returns from the targets are delayed by the two-way travel time
td and are modified by the receiver gating sequence AR (t) as
fR (t) = AR (t)AT (t td )s1 (t td )
(8.41)
(8.42)
or
With the FMICW, the receiver must always be o whenever the transmitter
is on so that the transmitter and receiver interrupt sequences are not identi-
286
Figure 8.27: FMICW radar echo from target with two-way travel time of
(a) t1 s and (b) t2 s (from [7]).
cal. This interrupted spectrum gives rise to high-range side lobes and consequently a low dynamic range [50]. Dierences between the two sequences are
introduced by the soft gating used to suppress these transients that would
be caused if the interrupt sequences were switched rapidly between the on
and o states. Depending on the targets range, the transmitted waveform is
generally not received at the radar in its entirety.
There are three ways to extract the spectrum of the received echo from
the target. The first method is to weight the return signal bursts individually
and process the complete return as for a conventional FMCW receiver using
a single long FFT. The second method is to weight each burst individually
and pack the remainder of the signal with zeros and process the complete
return as for a conventional FMCW receiver. The third method is to weight
each burst individually and process each short section using an FFT matched
to its length. Here an FFT with a duration equal to the burst period is used
to produce a spectrum. The number of floating point operations required
Over-the-Horizon Radar
287
8.7.2
The relative time delays in the receiver gating sequences significantly change
the actual signals gated into the receiver. The ambiguity function will also
be dierent for these two ranges and must be carefully considered for long
range applications. Since the target Dopplers are very small, the zero Doppler
ambiguity is sucient to evaluate the performance of the waveform. The zero
Doppler ambiguity function for the FMICW can be computed using
8
p
p
p
Q
Q
Q j2 t
AT t +
dt (8.43)
AR t + td
AT t
e
(, , td ) =
2
2
2
288
range bin samples to calculate the covariance matrix and correlation vector as
described in [15]. Improvements in signal-to-interference ratio on the order
of 20 dB can be achieved. The sparse waveform approach is to find the
interference-free channels in the HF band and then transmit the signal in
these clear channels. The main problem caused by the spectrum discontinuity
is the range side lobes that are created [8]. Another interesting approach is to
use a multiparametric generalization of the nonuniform FMICW train and by
exploiting a factorization of the ACF based on genetic algorithms, an optimal
solution has been proposed [8].
A new FMICW waveform is presented in [51] and provides high-range
resolution using a larger modulation bandwidth and a narrow modulation
period to achieve a longer coherent integration time for high-speed targets.
To prevent the high speed targets from smearing into many range cells during
the longer integration periods, two frequency sweep bandwidths with dierent sweep repetition intervals are used to determine the required coherent
integration time (CIT) and R independently. The target velocities are estimated using one waveform and then applied to compensate the velocity phase
terms to account for the target movement. Due to the ability of higher order
correlation and spectral analysis methods to eectively suppress symmetrical
distributions such as Gaussian noise, these techniques have also been explored
for interference cancelation and signal detection in OTHR [52].
8.8
Over-the-Horizon Radar
289
Gain (dB)
RISP dBi
0
0
0
3
1.8
1.8
1.8
4.8
2.2
5.2
and target with their images in the ground modifies their radiation resistances
and this is the root cause of eects (2) and (3). In this section it is convenient
to describe the gain of an antenna as Relative to an isotropic antenna at the
same position (RISP). The RISP gain of some example antennas are presented
in Table 8.1 along with the dBi value.
To develop the surface wave equation we follow the development in [53]
and begin with the power flux Fi , incident on a target due to transmission
from a vertical Hertzian dipole over a perfectly conducting ground plane
Fi =
E2
pt gt [2 sin cos(kht cos )]2
=
Z0
4d2 (1 + t )
(8.44)
4 (1 + x )
(8.47)
290
gx 4
pt gt
4
(8.48)
Prerad =
4d2 (1 + t )
(1 + x )
The power flux back at the receiver antenna FRR can be found by reapplying
(8.46), to extend (8.48) as
p 2Q
g
x
4
gx
pt gt
4
4
(8.49)
FRR =
4d2 (1 + t )
(1 + x ) 4d2 (1 + x )
The second gx is the gain term for the power reradiated by the target, the
trailing 4 indicates that the direct and ground-reflected waves from the target
add in phase.
The power available from the receiving antenna with RISP gain gr , when
located above a perfectly conducting plane, is given by
p 2Q
gr 4
(8.50)
(1 + r )
Multiplying (8.49) and (8.50) gives the received power pr
p 2Q
p 2Q
gx 4
gr 4
gx
pt gt
4
4
pr =
4d2 (1 + r )
(1 + t ) 4d2 (1 + x )
(1 + t )
(8.51)
and is the main HF surface wave radar equation and includes the ground plane
eects on antennas, target, and propagation. The target backscattering term
is evident only indirectly by the target gain gx . To be useful, it is necessary
to relate gx to a target backscattering cross-section T .
Three definitions of the target backscattering cross-section coecient are
considered.
1. Conventional microwave radar definition:
w 2W
4gx2
T =
2
(1 + x )
4
(8.52)
Over-the-Horizon Radar
291
2
F S = gx
4
(8.53)
gx2
2
4
(1 + x )2
(8.54)
4
T (1 + x )2
pt g t
D 2 i
(8.55)
pr =
2
4d (1 + t )
(1 + x )
4 4
p 2Q
g
r
4
1
4d2 (1 + x )
(1 + r )
p 2Q
4
F S
pt g t
D 2 i
pr =
(8.56)
4d2 (1 + t )
(1 + x )
4
p 2Q
g
r
4
1
4
4d2 (1 + x )
(1 + r )
p 2Q
4
s (1 + x )2
pt g t
D 2 i
pr =
(8.57)
2
4d (1 + t )
(1 + x )
4
p 2Q
g
r
4
1
4
4d2 (1 + x )
(1 + r )
292
The propagation loss must now be addressed to be included in the expression for pr . Two definitions are given below and are ratios of transmitted
power to received power and thus are values greater than unity.
ITU-R Definition: The internationally recognized definition of basic transmission loss Ib is the ratio of radiated power to power available from a matched
receiving antenna when the actual antennas are replaced by isotropic antennas at the same location as the actual antennas. For a one-way path above a
perfectly conducting ground plane
W2
w
2d
(1 + t )(1 + r )
(8.58)
Ib =
Note the two propagation loss quantities Ib and IBar are related as
Ib = IBar (1 + t )(1 + r )
(8.60)
For the ITU-R version of loss Ib and the free-space definition of cross-section
F S :
1 F S 1
(8.62)
pr = pt gt D 2 i gr
Ib
Ib
4
Over-the-Horizon Radar
293
For the ITU-R version of loss Ib and the Shearman definition of cross-section
s :
1 s (1 + x )2 ) 1
D 2 i
pr = pt gt
(8.63)
gr
Ib
Ib
4
For the Barrick version of loss IBar and the microwave definition of crosssection T :
pr
T (1 + x )2
1
D 2 i
IBar (1 + t )(1 + x )
4 4
1
gr
IBar (1 + r )(1 + x )
= pt gt
(8.64)
For the Barrick version of loss IBar and the free-space definition of crosssection F S :
pr = pt gt
F S
1
1
D 2 i
gr
IBar (1 + t )(1 + x )
I
(1
+
Bar
r )(1 + x )
4
(8.65)
For the Barrick version of loss IBar and the Shearman definition of crosssection s :
pr
= pt g t
s (1 + x )2
1
D 2 i
IBar (1 + t )(1 + x )
4
(8.66)
1
gr
IBar (1 + r )(1 + x )
The maximum detection range of the surface wave emitter can be determined by substituting the receivers sensitivity
I = kT0 FR BRi (SNRRi )
(8.67)
for the return power pr (given by the six equations) and then solving for the
distance d. Figure 8.28 shows the results of two simulations (fc = 5 MHz and
fc = 15 MHz) using the surface wave MATLAB code surface detect.m on the
CD. Other (default) parameters include pt = 100 kW, gt = gr = gx 3 dB,
ht = hr = 10m, hx = 5m. The emitter input bandwidth BRi = 30 MHz and
the receiver has a noise factor of FR = 10 dB with kT0 = 4 1021 W/Hz.
294
Over-the-Horizon Radar
8.9
295
Concluding Remarks
Both surface wave and sky wave radars experience ionospheric clutter (unwanted backscatter from the moving ionosphere) that can sometimes hide
the presence of the desired target echoes. Sky wave radars can also suffer significant polarization losses and focusing/defocusing problems due to
ionospheric eects. Military HF radars are susceptible to deliberate jamming
and consequently they are incorporating LPI waveforms and techniques to
prevent their detection while fulfilling their early warning role while avoiding
electronic warfare measures (for example, see [4, 15]).
Another significant problem in OTHR is robust high-resolution Doppler
processing of accelerating or decelerating targets. The ionosphere often modulates the return signals and spreads the Doppler, which makes it dicult
to detect targets. This Doppler eect arises during aircraft and ship target
maneuvers and during observations of rockets in boost phase and mid-course
phase flight. Most OTHR systems use classical Doppler processing, where
one Doppler spectrum is computed using one full CIT. Typically, the CIT is
on the order of 1100 seconds in OTHR systems. Some systems use overlapped Doppler processing to provide a spectrogram analysis of time-varying
Doppler [6].
Today, more than ever, the prediction of OTHR performance is important
especially for naval systems that are trying to avoid being detected at a longrange distance. Sky wave simulation results show that for Rfootprint = 3500
km, the minimum required input SNR (SNRRi ) for fc = 14.5 MHz for T =
1, 10, and 100 m2 is 107, 97 and 87 dB, respectively, from Figure 8.16.
PROPLAB results have been shown for one day. The results however will
change depending on the time of year as well as the time of day.
References
[1] Wise, J.C., Summary of Recent Australian Radar Developments, IEEE
Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, pp. 810, Dec. 2004.
[2] Kolosov, A. A., Over-the-Horizon Radar, Artech House Inc., Norwood, MA,
1987.
[3] Headrick, J. M., and Skolnik, M. I., Over-the-horizon radar in the HF band,
Proc. of IEEE, Vol. 62, No. 6, pp. 664673, 1974.
[4] Green, S. D., Kingsley, S. P., and Biddiscombe, J. A., HF radar waveform
design, Proceedings of the HF Radio Systems and Techniques Conf., 47
July, pp. 202206, 1994.
[5] Musa, M., and Salous, S., Ambiguity elimination in HF FMCW radar systems, IEE Proc. Radar, Sonar and Navig. Vol. 147, No. 4, pp. 182188,
Aug. 2000.
296
[6] Musa, M., and Salous, S., Evaluation of multiple WRF-HF-FMCW radar
waveforms, Proc. of the IEE HF Radio Systems and Techniques Conf., pp.
207211, 2000.
[7] Khan, R. H., and Mitchell, D. K., Waveform analysis for high-frequency
FMICW radar, IEE Proc.-F, Vol. 138, No. 5, pp. 411419, Oct. 1991.
[8] Liu, W. X., Lu, Y. L., and Lesturgie, M., Optimal sparse waveform design
for HFSWR system, International Waveform Diversity and Design Conf.,
pp. 127130, 48 June 2007.
[9] Guo, X., Ni, J. L., Liu, G. S., Ship detection with short coherent integration
time in over-the-horizon radar, Proc. of the International Conf. on Radar,
pp. 667671, 35 Sept. 2003.
[10] Anderson, S. J., Mei, F. J., and Peinan, J., Enhanced OTHR ship detection
via dual frequency operation, Proc. of the CIE International Conf. of Radar,
pp. 8589, 2001.
[11] Wei, Y., and Liu, Y., New anti-jamming waveform designing and processing
for HF radar, Proceedings of CIE International Conf. of Radar, pp. 281284,
2001.
[12] Frazer, G. J., Abramovich, Y. I., and Johnson, B. A., Spatially waveform
diverse radar: perspectives for high frequency OTHR, Proc. of the IEEE
Radar Conf., pp. 385390, 2007.
[13] Topliss, R. J., Maclean, A. B., Wade, S. H., Wright, P. G., and Parry, J. L.,
Reduction of interference by high power HF radar transmitters, Proc. of
the IEE HF Radio Systems and Techniques Conf., No. 411, pp. 251255,
July 1997.
[14] Turley, M. D. E., FMCW radar waveforms in the HF band, Input to the
ITU-R JRG 1A-1C-8B meeting, November 2006.
http://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/meetings/itu-r/contributions4/jrg-73.pdf.
[15] Xianrong, W., Hengyu, K., and Biyang, W., Adaptive cochannel interference
suppression based on subarrays for HFSWR, IEEE Signal Processing Letters,
Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 162165, Feb. 2005.
[16] Lu, K., Liu, X., and Liu, Y., Ionospheric decontamination and sea clutter
suppression for HF skywave radars, IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering,
Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 455462, April 2005.
[17] Guo, X., Hongbo, S., and Yeo, T. S., Transient interference excision in overthe-horizon radar using adaptive time-frequency analysis, IEEE Trans. on
Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 722735, April 2005.
[18] Tarran, C. J., Operational HF DF systems employing real time superresolution processing, Proc. of the IEE HF Radio Systems and Techniques Conf.,
No. 411, pp. 311319, July 1997.
[19] Dawber, W. N., Pote, M. F., Turner, S. D., Graddon, J. M., Barker, D.,
Evans, G., and Wood, S. G., Integrated antenna architecture for high frequency multifunction naval systems, Proc. of the CIE International Conf.
of Radar, pp. 15, 2006.
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[20] Huang, G., Meng, J., and Yang, L., Time-delay estimation for sub-sampling
sinusoidal signals, Proc. of the International Conf. on Communications,
Circuits and Systems, pp. 761764, 2005.
[21] Xiaodong, T., Yunjie, H., and Wenyu, Z., Sky wave over-the-horizon backscatter radar, Proceedings of the CIE International Conf. on Radar, pp. 9094,
1518 Oct. 2001.
[22] Liu, B-Y, Pace, P. E., and Knorr, J. B., HF skywave FMCW OTH-B systems
expected emitter footprint, Proc. of the IEEE System of Systems Engineering Conf., Monterey, CA, June 2008.
[23] Kingsley, S., and Quegan, S., Understanding Radar Systems, Scitech, Mendham, NJ, 1999.
[24] Davies, K., Ionospheric Radio, IEE Electromagnetic Waves Series, Vol. 31,
IEEE Electromagnetic Waves Series, 1990.
[25] http://www.utdallas.edu/research/spacesciences/ionosphere.htm
(The Earths Ionosphere).
[26] Dyson, P. L., and Bennett, J. A., Exact ray path calculations using realistic
ionospheres, IEE Proc. - H, Vol. 139, No. 5, pp. 407413, Oct. 1992.
[27] Ong, C. Y., Bennett, J. A., and Dyson, P. L., An improved method of
synthesizing ground backscatter ionograms for spherical ionospheres, Radio
Science, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 11731185, 1998.
[28] Croft, T. A., and Hoogasian, H., Exact ray calculations in a quasi-parabolic
ionosphere with no magnetic field, Radio Science, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 6974,
Jan. 1968.
[29] http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nssdc news/june01/iri.html Ionospheric Model
(IRI-2001).
[30] http://modelweb.gsfc.nasa.gov/models/iri.html IRI Model, Space Physics
Data Facility (SPDF).
[31] Jordan, E. C., and Balmain, K. G., Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating
Systems, Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Clis, NJ, 1968.
[32] Barnes, R. J., Automated propagation advice for OTHR ship detection,
IEE Proc. Radar, Sonar, Navig., Vol. 143, No. 1, pp. 5363, Feb. 1996.
[33] Gill, E. W., Howell, R. K., Hickey, K., Walsh, J. and Dawe, B. J., High frequency ground wave radar measurement of ocean surface parameters during
the ERS-1 calibration-validation experiment, Proc. of OCEANS 93 Engineering in Harmony with Ocean, pp. I55I60, 1821 Oct. 1993.
[34] Georges, T. M., and Harlan, J. A., New horizons for over-the-horizon radar,
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 1424, Aug.
1994.
[35] Jindalee Operational Radar Network (JORN), Janes Radar and Electronic
Warfare Systems, Land-Based Air Defence Radars, January 10, 2007.
[36] Gurgel, K-W, Essen, H-H, Schlick, T., HF surface wave radar for oceanography
a review of activities in Germany, Proc. of the International Radar Conf.,
pp. 700705, 2003.
298
Over-the-Horizon Radar
299
[52] Zongchuang, L., Zingzhao, L., and Yongtan, L., A signal detection algorithm
based on higher-order statistics for HFSW-OTH radar, Proceedings of CIE
International Conf. of Radar, pp. 9961000, 2001.
[53] Milsom, J. D., HF groundwave radar equations, Proc. of the IEE HF Radio
Systems and Techniques, No. 411, pp. 285290, July 1997.
[54] Barrick, D. E., First order theory and analysis of MF/HF/VHF scatter from
the sea, IEEE Trans. on Antennas and Propagation, AP-20, pp. 210, 1972.
[55] Barrick, D. E., Theory of HF and VHF propagation across the rough sea,
Parts I and II, Radio Science Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 517533, 1971.
Problems
1. A targets range is measured with a t0 = 200 ms and shows up in range
bin 15. If the target has a Doppler shift of 20 Hz, what is the corrected
range bin of the target?
2. Wideband clutter covers 200500 km. If a FMCW waveform with
F = 10 kHz is used, in what range bins will the clutter appear?
3. In the multiple WRF technique, if the F = 10 kHz and if the number of range bins covered by the clutter is NRB = 40 (a) what is the
maximum integer value for WRF2 ? and (b) what are the three WRFs?
4. Consider a multiple WRF FMCW radar with a bandwidth
F = 20 kHz and WRF1 = 7 Hz, WRF2 = 8 Hz, and WRF3 = 9 Hz
and an integration time of 150s (each block is 50s). For the first block
(WRF1 ), determine (a) the total number of range bins, (b) the range
resolution, and (c) the corresponding maximum unambiguous range.
(d) Repeat (a)(c) for WRF2 and WRF3 . (e) What is the maximum
clutter width (in km) in order that sea echoes and other unambiguous
targets can be detected?
Chapter 9
9.1
Antiship cruise missiles have been a significant threat to navy surface ships
for many years. The first generation of ASCM threats (prior to 1969) used a
single-frequency RF pulse with a constant pulse repetition interval [1]. The
301
302
9.2
Stealthy ship designs, such as the Lafayette-class frigate shown in Figure 9.1,
are a response to the ASCM threat. Future ASCM threat technology will be
the result of the balance between the available technology and required littoral
warfare capabilities, and the aordability and export sales potential that
exist. The number of development programs for cruise missiles has greatly
increased, following the publicity given to the use of the Tomahawk missiles
during the 1991 Gulf War [2]. Including the United States, 19 countries
now have cruise missile programs with missile ranges extending to 3,000 km
(e.g., the Chinese HN-3, and the Russian AS-15C and Kh-101). Ship-based
helicopters capable of firing ASCMs, such as the Saudi Dauphin II shown in
Figure 9.2, are already gaining popularity in the international market.
The capabilities that will be required for ASCMs in the future include
fire-and-forget and man-in-the-loop. Cruise missiles such as the Chinese C802
ASCM are all-weather, fire-and-forget missiles that have a range greater than
400 km. The seekers will have the capability to select a target very accurately,
ignoring any land clutter or other ships in the vicinity, and they will also
ignore any decoys that are used. To defeat the protection systems that could
possibly shoot down the missile on its way to the target, programmable way
points will be commonly used in antiship threats, such as the Swedish RBS-15.
The capability will also exist to come back around for a reattack in case
the ship was missed. In order to strike the ship at the most vulnerable point,
future ASCMs will have programmable aimpoints, along with the ability to
adjust their attack aspect. With high-G maneuverability, integrated EA and
self protection, and a stealthy cross section (with regard to both RF and IR),
303
Figure 9.1: Stealthy ship designs, such as this Lafayette-class frigate, are a
response to the ASCM threat [1]. (Source: Horizon House c 1998. Reprinted
with permission.)
Figure 9.2: Saudi Dauphin II firing an antiship cruise missile [1]. (Source:
Horizon House c 1998. Reprinted with permission.)
304
305
Figure 9.3: Swedish RBS-15 ASCM in flight [3] ( c 2002 Janes Information
Group).
that is designed to operate in all surface attack roles, from littoral warfare to
blue-water situations, and includes a day-and-night, all-weather, land-attack
capability. Its long range (over 200 km) and flexible trajectory mean that
it can attack hostile vessels well beyond the horizon, but also at very close
ranges. The missiles, each individually prepared in a salvo, can be preprogrammed to enable attacks to be mounted from dierent directions, with a
preselected time of arrival for each missile to confuse air defenses. Using an
advanced missile engagement planning system, the missiles can make use of
terrain masking for a concealed approach, to minimize warning time.
9.3
To adequately defend the ship, the ASCM must be detected before it comes
over the horizon. The detection of an incoming cruise missile seeker at the
horizon ( 24 km) is dicult with modern ES intercept receivers. Since the
missile usually flies just above the water surface, it is hard to detect and
extract it from the clutter using radar, since the RCS can be very small. The
ASCM is also hard to detect with infrared sensors. It can possibly be detected
when the seeker turns on, but that does not give much time for the ships self
defense.
Ships receive insucient warning against the missiles being developed today. An even greater problem exists within the littoral theater, where anything can be fired in short order [4]. Detection techniques being researched
today extend the first engagement of the cruise missile out to 300 km, expanding the ASCM area-defense capability. To detect the missile at this
range requires an airborne adjunct system capable of 3-D surveillance with a
high-fidelity tracking capability. The concept of using an airborne platform
to guide ship-launched missiles for intercepting low-flying targets beyond the
ships horizon was considered over two decades ago. Since the completion
of the Mountain Top tests [5], infrared search and track (IRST) surveillance
technology has also been investigated for airborne ASCM detection. Long-
306
wave IR focal plane arrays oering 640 480 resolution were developed in
1994, with the resolution expected to exceed 960 1,280 by 2005. Sensor
platforms include, for example, the E2-C Hawkeye flying at altitudes above
7,600m, extending the engagement range out past 220 km.
9.4
In this case study we have used an FMCW waveform to illustrate the power
management LPI technique, and assume that the problems of transmitterreceiver isolation and transmitter phase noise can be solved satisfactorily in
the single-antenna seeker environment, even with the reflected power from
antenna and radome mismatch near the 0.1W level. The ASCM-target scenario being evaluated in this case study was introduced in Chapter 4, and
is shown in Figure 9.4. The FMCW technique separates the target echo in
frequency from the transmission by a significant fraction of the modulation
bandwidth, while tolerating relatively high levels of transmitter leakage into
the receiver. Practical solutions to the leakage problems are becoming available to the seeker designer such as those discussed in Section 4.4. The missile
contains an FMCW LPI emitter, and flies at the ship starting at a rangeto-target of R = 28 km at a height of 70m o the surface of the water at a
speed of Mach 0.9 (300 m/s). Below the target model, the sea clutter model
and the emitter model are described. Simulation results are described to predict the detection performance of the emitter. Note that this is a first-order
analysis, and the results shown do not include any standard or nonstandard
propagation eects such as spherical spreading and ducting [6, 7].
9.4.1
The future design of naval vessels will have a low RCS in addition to other
signature reduction techniques. For example, the HMS Visby is the first of
five Visby-class stealth corvettes under construction for the Swedish Navy
by HDW-owned Kockums shipyard in Karlskrona, Sweden. It is shown in
Figure 9.5 performing high-speed sea trials o the German Baltic coast [3].
The stealth corvette has a length of 72m, is constructed almost entirely
from carbon fiber-reinforced plastic material, and features a variety of innovative signature-reduction techniques covering radar cross-section, infrared,
acoustic, magnetic, and hydrodynamics.
The most favorable situation for the seeker is when the ship is broadside
(largest return within a range bin). To detect a stealthy target, the CW
frequency should be between 30 and 960 MHz. This is also the frequency
range that contains public broadcasting and mobile communication systems.
At broadside, however, there is no Doppler separation between the ship and
the clutter, which is why most nonimaging missile seekers do not use Doppler
307
Figure 9.5: The Swedish stealth corvette HMS Visby conducting high-speed
trials in the Baltic. (Source: Michael Nitz. c 2002 Janes Information
Group.)
308
Table 9.1: Normalized Mean Sea Backscatter Coecients for Grazing and 0.1
to 10.0 Degrees for Sea States 0 to 4 in Decibels Below 1 m2 /m2 for 9.3
SEA STATE
Grazing Angle
(degrees)
0.1
0.3
1.0
3.0
10.0
0
70
62
57
52
46
1
60
58
50
45
42
2
56
52
44
41
36
3
51
45
39
38
32
4
48
43
37
35
29
processing. Also note that since the emitter is at a height of 70m within the
model, the waterline of the ship is visible throughout the entire flight. If the
height of the emitter is lower, then the waterline only becomes visible at a
closer range. For example, with a sea-skimming missile at a height of 9m,
the waterline is visible at a max range of about 13 km. This is why most
seekers turn on at 713 km (in addition to minimizing the time the ship has
to react). For the detection analysis below, we choose 50, 100, and 500 m2 as
examples of low RCS values for the ship target.
9.4.2
To model the sea clutter, a set of normalized mean sea backscatter coecients
for low grazing angles and sea states is given in Table 9.1. This figure gives
the normalized mean sea backscatter coecients for grazing angles 0.110.0
degrees for sea states 0 to 4 in decibels below 1m2 /m2 for 9.3 GHz, vertical
polarization (adapted from [8]). Sea clutter exhibits very dierent spectral
characteristics at higher frequencies compared to those at low frequencies.
Some of the values have been estimated, since errors in the reported values
are not unlikely, and some values are not reported at all (especially for low
grazing angles) [8]. Other experimental sea clutter coecients as a function
of the grazing angle for various frequencies are reported in [9, 10].
To extract the correct value for the mean sea backscatter coecient 0i
as a function of the grazing angle, a polynomial was developed for each sea
state
(9.1)
0i = A2 + B + C (dB below 1 m2 /m2 )
where i is the sea state, is the grazing angle (in radians), and the coecients A, B, and C are given in Table 9.2. Using these coecients, the value
of 0i for the five sea states (00 04 ) is shown in Figure 9.6. It is in-
309
1.8289
2.0882
9.7730
4.6285
9.0787
A
(104 )
(103 )
(104 )
(103 )
(103 )
1.1146
7.3396
1.5948
2.6412
5.3639
B
(104 )
(104 )
(103 )
(103 )
(103 )
2.5296
1.4661
2.1903
2.6779
3.5646
C
(108 )
(106 )
(106 )
(105 )
(105 )
310
teresting to note that the sea state of one backscatter coecient does not
increase as dramatically as the other sea states when the grazing angle gets
larger. Also note that these clutter calculations minimize the fact that the
clutter distribution becomes highly non-Gaussian at low grazing angles, due
to sea spikes. For increased accuracy, lognormal, Weibull, or K-distributed
analysis can be used and will typically increase the required SNR by 1020
dB. In the next section, the transmitter power management is discussed. The
backscatter coecient polynominals are then used to predict the detection
capability of the LPI emitter design for three RCS values (50, 100, 500 m2 ).
9.4.3
da
rad
(9.3)
311
fc
tm
t0
F
F
R
R
N
t0 F
Pavg
fs
SNR
F
f
L
da
a
Gt
9.3 GHz
1.0 ms
0.81 ms
15 MHz
12.2 MHz
10.0m
12.3m
8,192
9,922
Adaptive
10.1 MHz
20 dB
10
1.23 kHz
10
0.3m
0.90
7.9
810
312
9.4.4
Target-to-Clutter Ratio
Since the primary purpose of the FMCW emitter is to detect and track ship
targets in the presence of sea clutter, the target-to-sea clutter ratio within
a range bin is examined for sea states 0 to 4 and ship RCS values 50, 100,
and 500 m2 . Using the backscatter coecients 0i , the power of the clutter
within the targets range bin can be estimated as
PRC =
PCW G2t 2 0i RT a R
(4)3 RT4 L
(9.6)
313
(9.7)
314
315
RCS = 50 m2
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes (R < 4 km)
No
110 W
RCS = 100 m2
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes (R < 15 km)
Yes (R < 6 km)
100 W
RCS = 500 m2
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
90 W
9.5
References
[1] Pace, P. E., and Burton, G. D., Antiship cruise missiles: Technology, simulation and ship self-defense, Journal of Electronic Defense, Vol. 21, No. 11,
Nov. 1998.
[2] Lennox, D. Cruise missile technologies and performance analysis, Janes
Strategic Weapons Systems 38, Nov. 2002.
[3] Janes International Defence Digest, Sept. 2002.
316
[4] Jurcheck, J., Visualizing the littoral battlespace, Surface Warfare, Vol. 22,
pp. 1015 Aug. 1997.
[5] Zinger, W. H., and Krill, J. A., Mountain top: Beyond-the-horizon cruise
missile defense, Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp.
501520, 1997.
[6] Hitney, H. V., Refractive Eects from VHF to EHF Part A: Propagation
Mechanisms, Propagation Modeling and Decision Aids for Communications,
Radar and Navigation Systems, NATO AGARD Lecture Series 196, Ottawa,
Canada, Oct. 1994.
[7] Hitney, H. V., Refractive Eects from VHF to EHF Part B: Propagation Models, Propagation Modeling and Decision Aids for Communications,
Radar and Navigation Systems, NATO AGARD Lecture Series 196, Ottawa,
Canada, Oct. 1994.
[8] Nathanson, F. E., Radar Design Principles, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill
Inc., New York, 1991.
[9] Paulus, R. A., Evaporation duct eects on sea clutter, IEEE Trans. on
Antennas and Propagation, Vol. 38, No. 11, pp. 17651771, Nov. 1990.
[10] Chan, H. C., Radar sea-clutter at low grazing angles, IEE Proc. Part F,
Vol. 137, No. 2, pp. 102112, April 1990.
[11] Barton, D. K., Modern Radar Systems Analysis, Artech House, Inc., Norwood, MA, pp. 155, 1988.
[12] Defense information and infrastructure common operating environment
Users manual for advanced refractive eects prediction system, SPAWAR
Systems Command, METOC Systems Program Oce, Jan. 9, 2003.
Problems
1. It is an easy matter to modify the second-order polynomial describing
the normalized mean sea backscatter 0i as a function of grazing angle for the five sea states (useful when better empirical data might be
obtained). Recall that these coecients were derived by curve fitting
the values given by Nathanson [8]. The polynomial coecients (p0p4)
are used in ascm.m and can be regenerated by adjusting the backscatter coecients in clutter polynomial x.m (y0bs through y4bs). (a) Run
lpi fmcw design.m to design the F = 15 MHz LPI seeker discussed
in Section 7.4. (b) Edit the file clutter polynomial x.m and change the
sea state three normalized mean sea backscatter values to
y3bs = [53
46
40
39
37]
(9.8)
317
Chapter 10
Network-Centric Warfare
and Netted LPI Radar
Systems
LPI radar systems can be networked together into a system of systems to
covertly gather and share surveillance and targeting data as part of a networkcentric warfare architecture. In this chapter, network-centric warfare concepts
are introduced including the information grid (network), the sensor grid, and
the weapons grid. A set of metrics is presented to quantify the value added
to an operation by the network. Electronic attack on the network is also considered. Advantages of netted LPI radar systems (part of the sensor grid) are
discussed, including the improvement in emitter sensitivity that is gained, and
a multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) signal model is presented. Network
analysis and netted radar system analysis are presented. Simulation results
using LPIsimNet are shown. LPIsimNet is a MATLAB program included
with the CD that allows the user to evaluate any general netted radar configuration and the operational performance of a sensor network. Orthogonal
PSK, FSK, and noise waveforms for netted LPI radar applications are also
presented. Use of MIMO techniques for OTHR is discussed.
10.1
Network-Centric Warfare
320
321
322
protocols are described in [2] and secure routing techniques in the presence
of electronic attack are described in [3].
The shooter grid consists of both weapons and jammers. It enables the
joint war fighter to plan and execute operations in a manner that achieves
power projection at a precise time and place. By exploiting the battlespace
awareness, new operational capabilities are realized including the execution
of time-critical missions, and the rapid acquisition and execution of targets
in a timely manner. The shooter grid is also a transient grid where the piece
parts are physical. The grid exists for the task only and is reformed for every
mission. In Figure 10.1, the NCW architecture is used to track a low RCS
target using a netted LPI sensor grid (advantages of netting the distributed
radar systems together are discussed in Section 10.5). The target is disabled
with a missile from the weapons grid.
10.1.1
NCW Requirements
There are several requirements for NCW operations. To achieve a force that
is network-centric, a wideband RF transmit/receive capability is required to
compress and transport large amounts of data. Also required is a wideband local area network which can process and transmit information locally between
the sensors and/or weapons. Eective information management or the ability to eciently use, process and apply information is also required. Finally,
a critical mass of platforms, sensors, and weapons that have the information processing capability is required. When forming the NCW architecture,
questions to be answered include: How do dierent degrees of networking impact the strategic, operational and tactical outcomes? What is the optimal
network topology (physical, virtual, arrangement of nodes)? How will the
network impact the C2? What is the correct balance of sensors, shooters and
network technology? Can we quantify how the network processing sustains
degradation from events such as an electronic attack?
The answer to these questions is dicult since there are complex relationships between the network space and the battlespace. For example, from
the information standpoint, the overall information processing capability is
mainly determined by the number of nodes, the individual node capability,
and the topology of the network as shown in Figure 10.2. Note that this
figure does not show information flow but shows an overall relationship dependence. For example, the number and distribution of LPI emitters on a
network must be sucient to build a precise and timely picture of the battlespace taking into account the limited detection ranges available. The data
distribution and data association between nodes must correlate the data accurately avoiding any misidentification. The increase in information processing
capability sequentially results in an enhancement in the situational awareness and operational tempo that aect the maneuverability, decision speed,
lethality, and agility on the battlefield.
323
10.1.2
Situational Awareness
10.1.3
Maneuverability
A far-reaching netted radar system of systems can also improve force maneuverability, which is the capability to perform a strategic or tactical movement.
To evaluate the maneuverability performance, we consider three of its prop-
324
10.1.4
325
10.1.5
Agility
326
10.1.6
Lethality
Lethality is the ability to damage an enemy. Only with the sucient situational awareness and ecient operational tempo can the forces perform with
the best lethality. The radar sensor network plays a key role in the measure of
lethality. For example, the artillery can perform with high lethality with accurate targeting information and timely approval of attack. Infantry attacks
also do well with enough intelligence and under quick and timely command.
It is important to note that if the enemy is aware of the targeting information being gathered, the characteristic tempo is slowed due to the further
reconnaissance that is necessary. The lethality of the action is also severely
degraded emphasizing the need for the battlefield sensors to be LPI.
10.2
10.2.1
NT
CM (t) =
L, (d, t)
K (t)
=1
(10.1)
=1 =1
327
The term route is the possible connection from one node to another
node. The term link represents the direct connection between any two
nodes. One route contains at least one or more links. Figure 10.6 shows
three information nodes deployed with dierent capability values K . The
link from node = 1 to node = 2 is not available. A list of all available
links and routes are shown in Tables 10.1 and 10.2, respectively.
The functional dependence of L, on the length of the route d (number
of links) and time t can be simplified by separating it into a time-independent
component L, and a time dependent flow coecient F, (t), which is scaled
by the route length d raised to the power . The expression for CM (t) then
becomes [8]
CM (t) =
K (t)
=1
N,
NT
L
=1
=1
F, (t)
(d )
(10.2)
328
End Node
2
3
1
Routes
132
13
21
231
23
213
31
321
32
NT
CM (t) =
K
=1
=1 =1
F, (t)
d
(10.3)
10.2.2
R
The reference connectivity measure (CM
) is defined to represent a fully connected network configuration. The reference network has all nodes fully connected with bidirectional links [8]. In addition, each node has a capability
value of K = 1. For example, Figure 10.8 shows a realistic four-node information transfer network deployed with dierent capability values K . There
329
K
1
1
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.25
0.25
0.25
d
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
CM
Contribution
0.500
1.000
0.750
0.375
0.750
0.375
0.250
0.125
0.250
CM = 4.375
(NT 2)(NT 3) 2 1
NT 2
+ +
2
NT 1
(10.4)
The term outside the square brackets in (10.4), NT (NT 1), represents the
number of possible connections in a given network with NT nodes. The
numerator in each term inside the square brackets is the number of possible
routes of the length given in the denominator. The reference network has
the highest connectivity measure of any network with same number of nodes.
R
for 3 NT 8 and shows the exponential
Table 10.4 shows the value of CM
R
increase in CM with a linear increase in the number of nodes.
10.2.3
Network Reach
R
The reference connectivity measure CM
provides a means to normalize the
connectivity measure (10.3) resulting in the network reach IR as [8]
IR =
CM
R
CM
(10.5)
330
Figure 10.9: Reference network for the radar information network shown in
Figure 10.8.
Table 10.4: List of Reference Connectivity Measures
Node Number
3
4
5
6
7
8
R
CM
9
32
120
534
2,905
18,976
331
nodes/links and the eect of broken symmetries due for example, to electronic
attack of the network.
10.2.4
Suppression Example
3 32 321
+
+
2
3
4
(10.6)
R
or CM
= 120. Note that this value only depends on the number of nodes
participating in the network. Using this value, the expression for the network
reach is
N,
N
NT =5
,
F
1
K
L,
(10.7)
IR =
120 =1
d
=1
=1
(10.8)
Continuing on, the other node to node flow coecients scaled by the route
332
1
120 (1.0 [3(2.67)
2
1
3
2
3
1
4
2
4
1
4
3
2
5
1
3
4
2
333
IR = 0.4167.
10.2.5
We can generalize (10.3) by considering the case where 0 < F, < 1 exists
(partial eciency of route). For instance, if a traversed node on one route
1), this route will not be able to maintain full
has a low capability (K
capability in the flow of sensor information [6]. Consider for example the
network shown in Figure 10.6. The route node 1 node 3 node 2 is
evaluated as K1 /d = 1/2 = 0.5. However, the traversed node K3 = 0.25
gives indication that the sensor information flow from node 1 to node 3 cannot
be eciently exchanged via node 3. Taking the limitation of the traversed
intermediate nodes into account, from (10.3) we get an extended definition of
connectivity measure as
NT N N,
CMe (t) =
=1 =1 =1
K F,
d
(10.10)
10.2.6
At each node or source, the rate at which information is sent has a direct
impact on the operational tempo of the grid. Consider the set of J possible
sample values (or source symbols) by S = {x1 , . . . , xJ }. We assume the
334
Bottleneck
Node
3
1
2
3
2
2
3
3
3
CM
d
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
K
0.25
1
0.75
0.25
0.75
0.75
0.25
0.25
0.25
Contribution
0.125
1.000
0.750
0.125
0.750
0.375
0.250
0.125
0.250
CM = 3.750
(10.11)
H(S) = E{I(j)} =
pj log2 (pj )
(10.12)
j=1
(10.14)
where B is the channel bandwidth (in Hertz) and SNR is the signal-to-noise
power ratio (not in decibels) at the receiver input [9].
The channel capacity can be used as a unifying principle for EA and EP
actions in EW. Every EA measure (except exploitation) is an attempt to reduce the bandwidth of an adversary signal and/or to reduce the SNR. Every
1 Since
the entropy is measured in bits per sample, the binary logarithm must be used.
335
0,
if < min
min
ln
<
< e min
,
if
min
(10.15)
Q ( ) =
min
min
ln
=
1,
if
min
NT
=1
Q( )
NT
s1
(10.16)
336
Figure 10.11: Time spent in each phase in OODA cycle. (After [8].)
From this equation, if a node cannot provide the knowledge at a rate above its
minimum value, the nodes contribution Q( ) degrades the overall value
RQ . In addition, there is little advantage to generating sensor data faster
than knowledge can be generated and absorbed.
10.2.7
(10.17)
337
Using the OODA tempo parameters, the maximum operation tempo of the
network (OODA ) is of interest and represents the maximum tempo of the
network to perform an entire OODA including responding to events as
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+
+
T
C2 T
d
T
f
OODA
(10.18)
C2
1+
1
d
1
f
C2 +
(10.19)
3C2
T
Note that C2 in the numerator emphasizes that the fact that while technology can help increase the network and action tempos, the C2 tempo plays a
limiting role not helped by technology alone [8]. Also note that in practice the
operational tempo is not a fixed value. The operational tempo calculated here
represents the maximum value due to the limitation of the network topology
and nodes capabilities. It provides a direct link between the internal metrics
of the network and the operational outcome of a sensor and weapons network
through a single equation. It is also significant in that it enables direct evaluation of the networks capability to collect, process and disseminate information
(information superiority) to the combat outcome (battlespace superiority).
10.3
Electronic Attack
Jamming of the information grid is a form of electronic attack and can take
on many forms such as partial band jamming, and tone jamming [11]. The
eectiveness of the jamming waveform depends on the signaling format used
to transfer the data and the type of jamming used. When a jammer is taken
into consideration, the jam-to-signal ratio (JSR) at the victim nodes receiver
causes a link failure to occur if the jam-to-signal ratio is greater than a particular threshold causing the bit error rate to be unacceptable. Figure 10.12
shows a jammer (node 4) added into the previous example shown in Figure
10.6.
The JSR is determined by many factors including jamming and signal
power, jammer range, jamming strategy, RF waveform bandwidth, and properties of the receiver. To simplify the calculation, considering only power and
range, the JSR in a single information link can be written as
JSR =
ERPJ
ERPJ /4(RJ )2
=
ERPC /4(RC )2
ERPC
RC
RJ
(10.20)
where ERPJ is the eective radiated power of the jammer (node 4), ERPC is
the eective radiated power of the data/communication signal emitted from
338
ERPJ
ERPC
RC
RJ
KJ
K
RC
RJ
(10.21)
The JSR is used to represent the eect of the jamming on an existing information exchange link. When the JSR is higher than a given threshold, the
information link is regarded as unavailable.
10.4
The MATLAB folder LPIsimNet (see Appendix D) provides the tools to calculate the metrics discussed above and generates a visual summary of the
simulation results for any user-defined global information grid configuration.
339
In this section, several simulations are presented to illustrate the metrics discussed above including the eects of an electronic attack. The label notation
used is in the form of (i, j) XYZ. The i represents the node type and can be
any one of the following:
N: Friendly information/data transfer communication node;
R: Friendly LPI radar node (discussed in the next section);
NR: Friendly node with both information/data transfer capability and
radar capability;
JN: Hostile communication jammer node;
JR: Hostile radar jammer node;
JNR: Hostile communication and radar jammer node.
The j indicates the index of the node and ranges from 1 to the number of
nodes utilized NT . The XYZ represents the name of the node (e.g., EA-6B,
E2C).
The first simulation considers a sensor network with three nodes as shown
in Figure 10.13. In this simulation, the communication between an E-2C, an
F-16 and an AC-130 are being studied. Figure 10.14 shows the scenario setup
used to generate the simulation. Note that the user can control the number
and characteristics of each node within the scenario (including the placement
and movement). Top-level properties are in rows 2 through 5. Rows 6 through
10 show the characteristics of the individual nodes. The last section shows
the node connectivity. For the simulation shown in Figure 10.13, there are
two bidirectional links and one unidirectional link indicated by the direction
arrows. The simulation is run and the results are summarized in Table 10.7.
The sensor network simulation results can be generated for any number of
nodes and connectivity but can take a significantly longer period of time for
simulations with a large number of nodes. The details of the connectivity
measure CM and network richness RQ are shown in Tables 10.8 and 10.9,
respectively.
To quantify the eect of an electronic attack, a jammer onboard a Russian
Su-34 is added to the sensor network. The sensor network under attack is
shown in Figure 10.15. The Russian Su-34 is located at the bottom right
corner and is represented by a hollow circle. The jamming connection is shown
by a dashed line to E-2C. The initial scenario configuration is shown in Table
10.16. The total time index row represents the number of time indexes that
are calculated in the simulation. This oers the ability to include movement
of all assets. For the setup shown in Figure 10.15, total time indexes is set
to 3. When the simulation is run, the jammer moves closer to the E-2C at
each time index and all metrics are recalculated (total of 3 times). Position
340
Values
9
3.75
0.42
271.60
113.16
26.78
341
Bottleneck
Node
3
1
2
3
2
2
3
3
3
CM
Contribution
0.125
1.000
0.750
0.125
0.750
0.375
0.250
0.125
0.250
CM = 3.750
200
200
300
Q (/m )
0.69315
0.69315
1.7918
Q (/m )
138.630
138.630
537.540
814.800
RQ = 814.8/3 = 271.600
342
10.5
Despite recent advances in monostatic radar systems (colocated single transmitter and receiver), two major disadvantages are inherent. They oer little
343
344
345
346
10.5.1
There are two important characteristics of a netted radar system; the spatial dispersion of the nodes (i.e., transmitter and receiver locations) and the
data fusion processing (i.e., processing performed in the receiver at a node
to combine multiple receiver outputs). These characteristics lead to several
advantages of a netted LPI radar system.
The spatial distribution (or geometry) of the nodes enable the surveillance area to be tailored according to the specific mission objective [14]. The
multisite emitters can be used to form a specially designed surveillance area
to more eciently detect targets based on known patterns of military behavior. The network also allows a multiperspective SAR or ISAR image to
be generated. By using a number of distributed transmitters and receivers
to collect the echos from the target at dierent aspects or directions, the
independent angular samples provide spatial diversity of the targets RCS.
With widely separated antennas, netted radar systems also have the ability
to handle slow moving targets by exploiting Doppler estimates from multiple
directions. If coherent processing is used, high-resolution target localization
can be achieved with a resolution that far exceeds that supported by the
radars waveform [15]. This however, comes with a price. The receiving
and processing requirement for such a coherent summation is highly demanding. For example, if each waveform produces 1,000 resolvable range cells and
10 Doppler cells, integration would be required simultaneously in 10, 000N 2
cells (possibly reduced by excluding regions not mutually covered). Given the
high-resolution in both range and Doppler, the numbers used here may in-
347
348
10.5.2
The spatially distributed and networked LPI radar system of systems can
be broken down into a set of M N transmitter-receiver pairs each with a
bistatic component contributing to the entirety of the netted radar sensitivity
[13]. Figure 10.19 can be considered as a connected series of bistatic radar
systems where the transmitter and receiver are separated. With this, it is
necessary to calculate the target-to-transmitter range and target-to-receiver
range separately. These range values then replace the single range term in
the monostatic radar equation. In addition, a separate bistatic RCS value for
each bistatic radar pair must be computed. Thermal noise at each receiver
can be assumed to be statistically independent. The overall netted radar SNR
can be calculated by summing up the partial SNR of each transmitter-receiver
pair as [12, 19]
M
SNRnet =
i=1 j=1
(10.22)
where PCWi is the ith average CW transmitter power, Gti is the ith transmit
antenna gain, Grj is the jth receive antenna gain, T ij is the RCS of the target
for the ith transmitter and jth receiver, i is the ith transmitted wavelength,
BRi is the bandwidth of the matched filter for the ith transmitted waveform,
k is Boltzmanns constant, T0ij is the receiving system noise temperature at a
particular receiver, FRj is the noise factor for each receiver, Lij is the system
loss for the ith transmitter, jth receiver (Lij > 1), Rti is the distance from
the ith transmitter to the target and Rrj is the distance from the target to
the jth receiver. Note that this assumes that all signals can be separately
distinguished at each receiver and that all antenna beams are pointed at the
target. Also note that with i = j = 1, (10.22) reverts to the monostatic case.
An important characteristic of netted radar systems can be identified when
we consider each radar to be identical with every transmitter-receiver combination the same [12]. In this case the netted radar SNR equation can be
written as
M N
1
PCW Gt Gr T 2
(10.23)
SNRnet =
2
2
3
(4 )kT0 BFR L i=1 j=1 Rti Rrj
Insight is gained if we group all of the range independent parameters together
into a constant K, then the netted radar SNR can be expressed as
M
SNRnet =
i=1 j=1
K
2 R2
Rti
rj
(10.24)
349
Normalizing (10.24) by the SNR for a single monostatic radar (10.37) we have
M
SNRnet
1
= R4
2 R2
SNR1
R
ti rj
i=1 j=1
(10.25)
which shows that the SNR of the system is related to the power received
from the contributing transmit and receive paths. Further, if Rti = Rrj and
M = N it follows that [19]
SNRnet
N2
SNR1
(10.26)
That is, the system SNR is a function of the square of the number of nodes for
coherent operation. This represents an N -fold improvement over the noncoherent case ( = 0.5). For noncoherent netted radar processing, the number
of transmit antennas serves as a factor in the number of diversity paths. For
coherent processing the number of transmit antennas contributes to reducing the spurious peaks. In either mode, the processing at the receiver scans
through all the possible target locations.
It must be pointed out that for each of the N radars to receive and process
the N dierent waveforms transmitted by those radars all with antenna gains
Gt and Gr , achieving SNRnet applies to the sum of N 2 coherently combined
signals. Since antenna gain G 4/b where b is the solid angle within the
half-power beam contour, there are in the hemisphere visible to each radar
2/ = G/2 beam positions. Unless the target has been acquired and placed
in track by a single radar, using the single-radar (monostatic) SNR available
to that radar, and used to point the other radars, the probability that all
1.
radars illuminate the target simultaneously is extremely small for Gt Gr
This implies that near omni-directional antennas must be used to achieve
initial detection based on SNRnet . If designation from a monostatic radar
is used, then the other radars must each place a transmitting and receiving
beam on each target for which SNRnet is to be obtained, implying either near
omnidirectional or multiple directional beams that require splitting transmitter energy amongst multiple targets. In summary, for most cases SNRnet will
only be available for tracking or identifying a target that is first detected by
a single monostatic radar in the network.
10.5.3
Signal Model
To develop the netted radar (spatial MIMO) signal model, a distributed target with Q independent isotropic scatterers is considered. Figure 10.20 shows
four such scatterers located in a 2-D plane along with the M LPI transmitters Tk = (xtk , ytk ), k = 1, . . . , M that illuminate the target and the N
receivers Rl = (xrl , yrl ), l = 1, . . . , N that collect the scattered energy. We let
350
E/M sk (t) be the set of transmitted waveforms where E is the total transmitted energy. Normalization by M makes the total energy independent of the
number of transmitters used to illuminate the target [18]. The target reflectivity can be expressed in a diagonal QQ matrix with
= diag(1 , . . . , Q ).
T
The target average RCS is E[tr(
)] = 1 and is independent of the number of scatterers. For the netted radar case, spatial diversity is achieved with
the distributed antenna positions. The M waveform generators (W Gk ) transmit orthogonal (noncoherent) waveforms in order that the energy from the
dierent transmitters may be easily separated at the receiver where each of
the receive antennas has M matched filters (M Fi1 . . . M FiM with one corresponding to each orthogonal waveform).
Neglecting the path loss and summing over all of the scatterers, the total
signal received can be expressed as
zlk (t) =
E
M
q=1
where tk (Xq ) = d(Tk , Xq )/c is the propagation time delay between the
kth transmitting sensor and the scatterer at Xq . The distance d(Tk , Xq ) =
(xtk xq )2 + (ytk yq )2 . The propagation time delay rl X(q) is defined
analogously. The two exponential terms in (10.27) reflect the phase shift due
to the propagation from transmitter k to scatterer q and the phase shift due
to the propagation from the scatterer q to the receiver l.
The channel components of (10.27) are often collected as [18]
(q)
(10.28)
E
M
Q
(q)
q=1
(10.29)
(q)
hlk =
hlk
q=1
(10.31)
351
Figure 10.20: Netted radar with M transmit antennas each with a separate
orthogonal waveform generator. Receive array consists of N antennas each
with a parallel set of M matched filters. Target is shown with distributed
scatterers located at Xq with reflectivity . Targets RCS center of gravity is
located at X0 .
352
Accounting for additive noise, the observed waveforms at the receive antenna
l can be expressed as
rl (t) =
E
hlk sk [t tk (X0 ) rl (X0 )] + wl (t)
M
(10.32)
where wl (t) is the additive circularly symmetric, zero mean, complex Gaussian
noise that is spatially and temporally white with autocorrelation function
2
( ).
w
Properties of the elements hlk of the channel matrix and the conditions
for spatial decorrelation E[hlk hli ] 0 are further addressed in [18, 21]. In
essence, the spatial decorrelation means that dierent receive antennas measure a dierent value of the RCS. Also discussed is the relationship of the
model to other types of emitters such as phased arrays, adaptive radar STAP
and multistatic radar. Properties of the MIMO radar ambiguity functions are
given in [2224]. As a final point, we point out that the maximum number
of targets Kmax , that can be uniquely identified simultaneously by a phased
array with N receive antenna elements is
Kmax =
2N
3
(10.33)
while the maximum number of targets that can be uniquely identified simultaneously by a MIMO radar is [25]
Kmax =
2M N
3
(10.34)
That is, the maximum number of targets that can simultaneously be uniquely
identified by a MIMO radar is up to M times its phased array counterpart.
10.5.4
The JSR as defined by the jamming power and signal (radar echo) power is
given by
jamming power
(10.35)
JSR =
signal power
Unlike communication antennas that often use dipole antennas for omnidirectional communication, radar antennas frequently use highly directional
antennas that can identify the target angle in azimuth and elevation. The
shape of the radar antenna pattern (pencil beam) results in degradation of
the jamming signal when the jamming signal is not incident on the main lobe.
The jam-to-signal ratio is
2
2
ERPJ 4 (RJ )
cos = ERPJ RT
cos
(10.36)
JSR =
ERPR RJ
ERP 4 (R )2
R
353
10.6
The LPIsimNet MATLAB tools (see Appendix D) are used in this section
to demonstrate the SNR advantages of a netted-radar configuration. Any
user-defined netted radar configuration can be analyzed [26]. Results are also
shown when a jammer is included in an electronic warfare topology. We start
by examining the SNR contour tools for a monostatic LPI emitter.
10.6.1
PCW Gt Gr T 2
(4)3 kT0 FR BR RT4 L
(10.37)
354
To develop a useful analysis tool for an LPI emitter, a contour chart is constructed with the RCS T = 1m2 . This normalized contour chart can easily
be scaled for any RCS. In addition, the SNR is only dependent on the radar
properties and target range. By plotting the results in a 2-D geometric map,
the SNR of the radar can be read as shown in Figure 10.22.
Figure 10.22: Example of SNR contour chart for a monostatic LPI emitter.
This chart illustrates the SNR contour generated by the MATLAB software contained on the CD (LPIsimNet.m). For this simulation, the Pilot
radar is used with an ERPR = PCW Gt = 1,000W, Ae = 0.0815 m2 and is
the eective receiving aperture area (equal to Gr 2 /2), and noise power
kT0 FR BRi = 7.5 1013 W. For any target position selected, the value of
SNR can be read from the figure.
10.6.2
355
356
Table 10.10: LPI Sensor Network: Parameters for the Three Emitter Nodes
Node Index
Type
Name
ERP (W)
Ae (m2 )
Noise Power (W)
Position (Km)
1
Blue Force
Radar1
1000
0.0815
7.5 1013
(15, 40)
2
Blue Force
Radar2
100
0.0815
1 1012
(15, 15)
3
Blue Force
Radar3
10
0.0815
1.5 1012
(30, 25)
Figure 10.24: SNR contour chart for three emitters without sensor network.
357
Figure 10.25: SNR contour chart for three emitters with sensor network.
358
Figure 10.26: Jammer attack on a sensor network containing two LPI emitters. Target is 1 m2 at position (15, 25) km.
10.6.3
10.7
The increased area of coverage using a system of netted radar systems, each
diverse and independent, make netted radar sensing and the development
of appropriate waveforms an important area of investigation. Multiradar
systems can operate in both monostatic and multistatic modes simultaneously
359
Table 10.11: LPI Sensor Network: Parameters for the Two Emitters and One
Jammer
Node Index
Type
Name
ERP (W)
Ae (m2 )
Noise Power (W)
Position (Km)
1
Blue Force
Radar1
1000
0.0815
7.5 1013
(15, 40)
2
Blue Force
Radar2
100
0.0815
1 1012
(15, 15)
3
Hostile Jammer
Su-34
10
(30, 25)
Figure 10.27: SJR for jammer attack on two LPI emitters. Target is 1 m2 at
position (15, 25) km.
360
Figure 10.28: Jammer attack on a sensor network containing two LPI emitters. Target is 1m2 at position (15, 25) km.
361
and can retain the favorable features of both a monostatic radar system and
a multistatic radar system if each system transmits a distinct signal from a
set of orthogonal signals in which any two signals are not cross-correlated and
each receiver uses multiple matched filters. As discussed in Chapter 5, in order
to achieve high range resolution and multiple target resolution, the periodic
autocorrelation function of any transmitted code sequence should have a low
peak side lobe level (PSL). For moving targets, Doppler loss occurs at the
matched filter output of the correlation receiver. For a sequence of length Nc ,
with Doppler shift fd and signal duration T the excessive phase increments
from one sequence to the next is 2fd T /Nc .
Netted LPI radar systems require a code sequence with low PSL, resistance to Doppler loss and the use of orthogonal waveforms that have a low
cross-correlation between them. This is to avoid interference and to provide
independent information about the target at various angles. The concept of
orthogonal netted radar systems is dierent than the traditional netted radar
systems. Consider the multiradar system shown in Figure 10.19 consisting of
L LPI radar systems where each system transmits a distinct low power CW
signal using an orthogonal code set {sl (t), l = 1, 2, 3, . . . , L}. Any two signals
in the set are uncorrelated or
C
sp (t)sq (t + )dt = 0
(10.38)
1
E
sl (t)sl (t + ) = 1
(10.39)
362
10.7.1
S(L, Nc , Mc ) =
1 (1)
2 (1)
..
.
2 (2)
2 (2)
..
.
..
.
1 (Nc )
2 (Nc )
..
.
(10.43)
363
Nc k
Nc
n=1
A(l , k) =
Nc
(10.44)
for l = 1, 2, . . . , L and
Nc k
Nc
n=1
C(l , k)
Nc
(10.45)
for p = q and p, q = 1, 2, . . . , L where k is the discrete time index.
To design the polyphase code set with the properties given in (10.44) and
(10.45), the minimization of a cost function that is based on the total autocorrelation side lobe energy and the cross-correlation energy is performed. This
minimization then leads to uniformly distributed autocorrelation side lobe
and cross-correlation energies among all possible locations thus minimizing
the autocorrelation side lobe peaks and cross-correlation peaks. Given values
of Nc , Mc and L, the energy-based cost function used is
L
E=
l=1
Nc 1
k=1
L1
|A(l , k)|2 +
Nc 1
|C(p , q , k)|2
(10.46)
364
Code 1
/2
0
0
3/2
/2
3/2
3/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
3/2
3/2
/2
/2
3/2
0
0
3/2
/2
/2
3/2
3/2
3/2
/2
3/2
3/2
3/2
/2
3/2
/2
Code 2
3/2
/2
0
0
/2
/2
3/2
0
/2
/2
/2
3/2
0
/2
3/2
/2
/2
3/2
/2
0
0
3/2
/2
/2
3/2
/2
3/2
/2
3/2
/2
/2
Code 3
3/2
0
/2
/2
3/2
/2
3/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
0
/2
3/2
/2
3/2
0
/2
0
0
/2
3/2
/2
0
0
3/2
0
Code 4
/2
/2
0
0
0
/2
3/2
3/2
0
3/2
3/2
0
0
0
/2
3/2
3/2
/2
3/2
0
/2
0
3/2
0
0
/2
/2
3/2
/2
/2
0
3/2
/2
365
Table 10.13: Autocorrelation Side Lobe Peaks (Diagonal Terms) and CrossCorrelation Peaks (O-Diagonal Terms) of Orthogonal Polyphase Code Set
with Nc = 40, L = 4 and Mc = 4. (from [27])
Code
Code
Code
Code
1
2
3
4
Code 1
0.1521
0.2062
0.1904
0.2121
Code 2
0.2062
0.1414
0.2064
0.1768
Code 3
0.1904
0.2064
0.1346
0.2016
Code 4
0.2121
0.1768
0.2016
0.1820
Nc = 40 orthogonal codes for Code 4 are shown in Figure 10.33. Note the
cross-correlation between any two of these four codes is approximately zero.
The ACF and PACF for the Code 1 sequence is shown in Figure 10.34. Note
the PSL = 16 dB. The PAF is shown in Figure 10.35. The characteristics
of the other three codes are very similar. Note the low Doppler side lobes in
PAF. The polyphase code sequences described in the section can be generated
using ortho40.m in the LPIT.
10.7.2
For moving targets, the polyphase sequences above degrade severely in the
presence of small Doppler shifts. The Doppler loss results in a degradation
of the autocorrelation and cross-correlation properties at the matched filter
outputs of the correlation receiver. In [28], an algebraic design method for
generating polyphase orthogonal sequences with good Doppler tolerance is
presented. The method uses a Hadamard matrix construction technique with
circulant matrices3 based on polyphase complementary sequences (sum of
their aperiodic autocorrelation functions equals zero except for the zero shift).
In [28], Frank complementary sequences are used to create the Hadamard matrix. For their Nc = 36 length sequence, a Doppler tolerance of |fd T | = 1.7
was achieved compared to 0.7 for the Deng sequences above with Nc = 40. Depending on the allowable reduction in output SNR, this implies that the tolerant waveform, when detecting a subsonic target (v = 300m/s) at S-band
( = 0.1m), for which fd 6 kHz, would be limited to T < 1.7/12, 000 =
0.141 ms. Code lengths beyond this value would require multiple Doppler
filters (or correlators) to retain sensitivity to subsonic targets of unknown
velocity. The mean autocorrelation PSL = 16 dB compared to the Deng
sequences with PSL = 16.3 dB. Although the length of the codes that can
be developed is constrained, the waveform design methodology addresses all
three issues (autocorrelation, cross-correlation and Doppler tolerance).
3 A circulant matrix is a special type of Toeplitz matrix where each row vector is shifted
one element to the right relative to the preceding row vector.
366
367
368
369
370
10.7.3
L1
E=
l=1
|A(sl , )|2 +
p=1 q=p+1
|C(sp , sq , )|2 d
(10.47)
Details on the minimization algorithm can be found in [30]. Table 10.16 lists
the three frequency hopping sequences of the designed waveform set with
NF = 32 and L = 3. The autocorrelation side lobe peaks and cross-correlation
peaks of the designed frequency hopping sequence sets in
Table 10.16 are given in Table 10.17.
The discrete frequency hopping sequence Code 1 was generated with a
base frequency multiplier of 1,000 Hz. The NF = 32 codes were sampled
with fs = 100 kHz with tp = 0.001 s. The power spectrum magnitude of
the discrete frequency hopping sequence Code 1 is shown in Figure 10.36.
The ACF and the PACF are shown in Figure 10.37 and the PAF is shown in
Figure 10.38. Note the extremely well behaved time and Doppler side lobe
levels. The PSL = 20 dB. The discrete frequency coding waveforms can be
generated using dfc32.m in the LPIT.
371
Code 1
8/5
6/5
4/5
9/5
2/5
27/20
21/20
3/10
3/20
27/20
27/20
/5
0
/10
4/5
0
3/5
/20
/5
/20
/4
9/10
9/10
/5
7/10
0
/5
6/5
27/20
0
0
6/5
3/10
7/5
3/5
/5
6/5
6/5
8/5
Code 2
3/5
/5
6/5
9/5
9/5
3/20
3/5
27/20
3/10
27/20
6/5
/2
4/5
/2
0
7/10
4/5
0
/20
/10
/20
4/5
/10
4/5
/10
9/10
3/5
6/5
9/20
9/20
0
27/20
6/5
2/5
6/5
7/5
3/5
0
9/5
Code 3
4/5
2/5
0
0
9/5
21/20
9/20
6/5
9/20
21/20
27/20
4/5
9/10
/10
/5
9/10
9/10
0
/20
/20
/4
0
9/10
0
4/5
4/5
/5
27/20
3/20
27/20
27/20
3/10
3/4
6/5
3/5
3/5
6/5
7/5
7/5
372
Table 10.15: Autocorrelation Side Lobe Peaks (Diagonal Terms) and CrossCorrelation Peaks (O-Diagonal Terms) for the Cross Entropy Sequence Set
of Length Nc = 40 (from [29])
Code 1
Code 2
Code 3
Code 1
0.1365
0.1820
0.1799
Code 2
0.1820
0.1303
0.1840
Code 3
0.1799
0.1840
0.1413
Code 1
31
28
1
30
3
8
10
12
7
25
11
15
23
13
27
22
26
17
5
21
6
2
29
14
16
19
9
20
18
0
24
4
Code 2
2
11
12
14
29
16
6
1
9
21
24
23
5
26
19
3
7
30
13
8
20
17
18
4
0
28
31
15
27
10
25
22
Code 3
31
13
18
20
11
7
29
27
8
22
0
1
21
14
9
17
5
25
26
10
19
16
30
15
12
23
4
3
6
2
28
24
373
Code 1
0.0764
0.0979
0.1250
Code 2
0.0979
0.0881
0.1068
Code 3
0.1250
0.1068
0.0855
374
Figure 10.37: ACF and PACF of the orthogonal discrete frequency hopping
Code 1 with fs = 100 kHz.
10.7.4
Noise Waveforms
The concept of a multiuser, wireless netted LPI radar system using random
noise is proposed in [31]. The proposed system uses noise signals for radar
surveillance and a multiradar communication network for transferring the
sensor data to a central command center where informed decisions can be
made. Due to the spectral characteristics of the UWB random noise waveform, an LPI capability is provided while also eciently sharing the frequency
spectrum with other users. A number of UWB random noise radar systems
can operate over the same frequency band with minimal cross-interference
since each transmitted noise waveform is uncorrelated with the others. It
is this property that allows a number of the UWB noise radars to be integrated into a NCW architecture [31]. The bandlimited noise (12 GHz) is
also notch filtered (1.21.3 GHz) to provide room for the intrasensor network
communications among the dierent emitters. The spectral fragmentation
for the embedded communication causes no distortion if the gap in the noise
375
Figure 10.38: PAF of the orthogonal discrete frequency hopping Code 1 with
fs = 100 kHz.
376
Figure 10.39: Noise radar concept with (a) element-space approach and
(b) beam-space approach (after [32]).
band is not excessive ( 30%). The sensor data to be shared is modulated
onto a CW signal whose frequency lies within the notch of the UWB noise
signal. Orthogonal frequency division multiple access modulation is used for
transporting the target data between sensors.
The development of a netted noise radar is also presented in [32]. Two
transmission approaches are compared as shown in Figure 10.39. The first
approach shown in Figure 10.39(a), is the element space approach where multiple channels (antennas) of independent noise are transmitted. K incoherent
noise sources are transmitted. Ignoring the angular variation in the targets
RCS, the received power is independent of the angle of the scatterer from
the transmit array. The second approach shown in Figure 10.39(b), is the
beam-space approach where each independent noise source is fed into each
antenna but is delayed i (or phase shifted) so as to form a beam illuminating a selected sector of the radar field of view (FOV). This eectively codes
each sector in the FOV according to a particular noise source. The direction of each sector is determined by the delay (or phase shift) and the width
is determined by the beamwidth of the array. Comparison of element- and
beam-space approaches to the netted noise radar indicate that when operating the transmit array at frequencies such that d/ < 0.5 where d is the
receiver spacing, the beam-space approach is a more ecient method of con-
377
centrating the wave number spectrum of the transmit signal in the radiating
region and minimizes the problem of nonradiating waves.
10.8
Future OTHR systems are expected to deliver dramatically improved capability in every performance dimension including LPI. There are three direct
benefits to applying MIMO radar concepts to OTHR [33]. First it provides
a means to implement radar management trade-os between radar sensitivity and surveillance footprint coverage allowing a more ecient use of resources (surveillance area requirements, sensitivity, target dynamic behavior,
and the interaction of the target characteristics with the data processing algorithms). MIMO radar is also a convenient method to implement adaptive
processing algorithms on transmit for clutter mitigation. By changing the
illumination source at the transmit array, the clutter is more eectively suppressed. Consequently, orthogonal waveforms have also found application in
netted OTHR systems [33]. The use of multiple simultaneously transmitted
orthogonal waveforms permit better sensitivity and more flexible trade-os
in footprint coverage. It also allows for adaptive management of the transmitted beam to minimize clutter and simplifies propagation mode selection
for improved clutter rejection.
In an OTHR, both the transmitter and receiver subsystems can be considered as M and N dimensional digital arrays. The transmit subsystem
consists of one waveform generator per transmit power amplifier and transmit antenna element. The receive subsystem consists of one digitizing receiver
per array element. Achieving full orthogonality with the CW waveform set
over the space-time ambiguity of concern is not possible. Space-time adaptive
processing using multiple transmitters and receivers allows using one waveform generator per transmit element and enabling the transmit and receive
beamforming to be performed entirely at the receive site [34]. The diversity
of target scattering leads to better detection performance using lower power
waveforms.
Orthogonal waveforms that can be used in OTHR include time-staggered
FMCW, Doppler oset FMCW and noise waveforms. The time-staggered
FMCW uses a time oset between dierent FMCW waveforms to exploit the
fact that the range interval of interest is frequently limited by ionospheric
propagation. In surface modes (high Doppler resolution mode), low WRFs
are used over extended CITs. It is therefore possible to provide orthogonality between a number of waveforms after range correlation with a single
reference waveform. The approach maintains the attractive power eciency
and spectral occupancy of the FMCW waveform. For the Doppler oset
FMCW a small frequency oset between FMCW waveforms provides orthogonality after slow-time Doppler processing (slow-time MIMO). In this case,
378
the Doppler extent of the clutter and expected target Doppler shifts limit
the number of concurrent orthogonal waveforms that can be supported. This
waveform approach is more appropriate to the air-mode for aircraft detection.
The band-limited noise waveforms also provide an orthogonal waveform choice
despite the large peak to average power ratio and poor Doppler sensitivity.
This approach provides a broad class of orthogonal waveforms.
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Problems
1. A netted LPI radar transmits the target parameters using 1.0 and 0.0V levels with a probability of 0.2 each and 3.0- and 4.0-V levels with a
probability of 0.3 each. Determine the average information being sent.
2. A C2 operator uses a numerical keypad that has the digits 0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Assume that the probability of sending any one
digit is the same as that for sending any of the other digits. Calculate
how often the operator must press the buttons in order to send out
information at the rate of 2 bits/s.
3. An army field computer has 110 characters on the keyboard and each
character is sent using binary words. (a) What is the number of bits
required to represent each character? (b) How fast can the characters
be sent (characters/s) over a channel if the channel bandwidth is 3.2
kHz and the SNR=20 dB? (c) What is the entropy of each character if
each is equally likely to be sent?
4. A 480-by-500 pixel range-Doppler image is to be transmitted from a
netted LPI radar where each pixel can have one of 32 intensity values.
The emitter sends 30 images/s. If all image elements are assumed to
be independent and all 32 intensity levels are assumed to be equally
381
382
383
10. (a) Repeat the problem above for the cross-entropy orthogonal sequences
given in Table 10.14 with correlation properties given in
Table 10.15. (b) Repeat for the discrete frequency hopping sequences
given in Table 10.16 and correlation properties given in Table 10.17
using a scale factor of 102 Hz.
PART II:
INTERCEPT RECEIVER STRATEGIES AND
SIGNAL PROCESSING
Chapter 11
11.1
11.1.1
Traditional Approach
Electronic warfare intercept receivers are used to process threats on the modern electronic battlefield, and consequently, must cover extremely wide bands
from 300 MHz to 100 GHz and above, since they do not know the characteristics of the signal that they are attempting to intercept. The wideband
nature of LPI threat signals presents a significant challenge to the intercept
387
388
receiver design. The interception of LPI radar signals has been a topic of
investigation for over a decade [13]. Traditionally, EW receivers have been
divided into three categories: radar warning receivers, electronic support receivers, and electronic intelligence receivers. RWRs are designed to passively
intercept enemy radars in time to enable the pilot to react quickly through
maneuvering or employing appropriate electronic attack techniques. Their
use on the battlefield is time-critical, and combat action is taken directly
from their threat information output. Electronic support receivers encompass all actions necessary to provide the information required for immediate
decisions involving EW operations, threat avoidance, targeting, and homing.
Although not as time-critical as RWRs, information operations rely heavily
on ES receivers for intelligence updates and important operational decisions.
For electronic intelligence receivers, the information provided is extracted
from detailed analysis of radar signals and other noncommunication emitters in a timely manner. Although their operation is the least time critical,
their threat identification is used to update national databases. Examples
of U.S. collection ELINT assets include the U2 Senior Ruby, the Armys
Guard Rail, and the Air Forces RC-135 Rivet Joint. These high-value stando assets typically operate hundreds of kilometers from the emitter and at
a high altitude. Together, these receivers provide the underlying intelligence
needed for weapon systems deployment. In a platform-centric configuration,
each weapon system traditionally had its own receiver system and, if that
receiver was remote, there was a stovepipe communication system providing
the intercept data back to the shooter.
There are limitations to the use of intercept receivers in a platform-centric
configuration. Geometrical limitations include extended stand-o ranges and
alignment problems, which make it especially dicult to detect and jam LPI
emitters. Also, the intercept receiver is limited by look-through. The lookthrough process allows the jammer to observe its eectiveness on the LPI
emitter by stopping the jamming assignment to listen periodically. This results in inecient jammer management, and limited coordination during a
mission.
11.1.2
389
supplied by the Litton LR-700 intercept receiver, working together with the
AN/ALQ-99 tactical jamming system (TJS). The Litton LR-700 is the new
intercept receiver system in the Increased Capability III (ICAP III) version
of the EA-6B, and gives the Prowler a selective-reactive jamming capability
with the TJS. During a SEAD operation, the LR-700 receiver on board the
suppression aircraft must detect the threat emitters and manage the TJS in
order to prevent the radar from detecting the inbound strike aircraft it is
trying to protect.
During the jamming process, a certain amount of look-through is required.
For example, with an EA-6B reactively jamming a frequency-hopping radar,
the jamming must stop in order to sense the radars transmit frequency. Of
course, the duty cycle of the intercept receiver look-through process must be
less than the time necessary for the radar to sense it is being jammed, and
switch frequencies. The bottom line is that any amount of look-through is
not desired, since this allows the threat radar a window in which to detect
the strike aircraft.
If however, the EA-6B integrates threat parameters from an electronic
order-of-battle database, a reconnaissance aircraft with near real-time onscene intelligence collection, analysis, and dissemination capabilities (e.g.,
Rivet Joint), and frequency data from an o-board stand-in sensor (e.g., a
UAV) to cue the on-board intercept receiver (tip and tune), a fast reactive
electronic attack can be performed that eliminates the need for look-through.
For the reactive jamming assignments to be eective, however, the data link
used to provide the cueing data must not induce a delay time of any significance to the reactive assignment. That is, if the frequency-hopping radar can
switch frequencies faster than the cueing data can arrive from the o-board
intercept receiver, then the eectiveness is significantly degraded.
11.1.3
Due to the complex emitter modulations now available, and the speed with
which information is shared, the distinction between the roles of RWRs, ES,
and ELINT receivers is fast disappearing, and all capabilities are being integrated within a single EW receiver system, in order to provide a complete
situational awareness for ships, helos, and high-value aircraft. In addition,
these receivers must now include precision direction finding, countermeasures
control, cueing of weapon systems, enhanced radar warning, fusion of oboard sensors and databases, and full integration with the electronic combat
system. Other capabilities will include emitter classification and identification, emitter-to-platform correlation, detailed analysis, and signal recording.
Eliminating the limitations inherent in a platform-centric configuration
comes from a distributed system of systems. A distributed system of systems
provides significant geometric flexibility, and can reduce or eliminate the need
for look-through. In addition, coordinated jammer responses and improved
390
391
11.2
392
11.3
The EW community has long debated and ranked many dierent intercept
receiver architectures based on their ability to process signals [5, 6]. The
comparisons, however, have limited usefulness, since dierent mission scenarios require dierent capabilities. What is certain, however, is that future EW
receivers will be digital, and will incorporate various technologies as discussed
below.
11.3.1
There are many variations of intercept receivers. These passive receivers can
be used to detect the LPI emitter emissions over considerable distances. In
this section, three popular intercept receiver architectures are compared in
terms of their ability to detect several types of LPI emitter waveforms. The
receivers that are compared include the square-law, wideband and channelized
receivers [7]. These receivers are relatively inexpensive, readily accessible and
are shown in Figure 11.3. The square-law receiver is an energy detector.
The parameters of the square-law receiver are given in Table 11.1. The
wideband crystal video receiver is characterized by a wide RF bandwidth to
account for the uncertainty in the intercepted signal parameters. The specifications of the wideband receiver are given in Table 11.2. The channelized
393
Specification
8 dB
1 GHz
76 dBm
12 dB
60 kHz
period matched
SNR = 12 dB
12 MHz
12 MHz
394
Specification
8 dB
4 GHz
70 dBm
10 dB
1 MHz
100 ns
SNR = 12 dB
12 MHz
Specification
40
10 dB
2 GHz
50 MHz
92 dBm
5 dB
1.25 MHz
100 ns
SNR = 12 dB
395
all have the same LPI/LPID properties [8]. Six waveforms were compared
including a rectangular pulse, an FMCW, P1, P2, P3 and P4 all with a
range resolution of 50m. The polyphase codes each have a subcode period of
tb = 333 ns (B = 3 MHz) and a code period of T = 64tb = 21.3 s. The
FMCW has a modulation period tm = 64tb or 21.3 s and the modulation
bandwidth is F = 3 MHz (starting at dc). The rectangular pulse has a pulse
duration R = tb = 333 ns with a pulse repetition interval PRI = 64tb = 21.3
s. The average power transmitted by each emitter is PCW = 100W and
= 3 102 m. The emitter transmit antenna gain in the direction of the
intercept receiver is Gr = 0 dB [8].
Intercept Range and Sensitivity Comparison
A MATLAB simulation was run first to determine the sensitivity. The sensitivity I is the minimum signal at the back end of the receiver that is
detectable given the noise floor associated with that particular receiver. The
sensitivity was determined by iteratively adjusting the front-end signal amplitude that achieves the required back-end SNR. Since the noise floor, noise
figure, bandwidths and integration times are defined for each receiver, the
amplitude was adjusted until detection was achieved [8].
Models were developed in MATLAB for each receiver in order to find the
front-end signal strength necessary to satisfy the minimum back-end SNR.
A voltage gain of 20 dB was used for each receiver. After determining the
sensitivity for each receiver, the intercept range (direct path) was calculated
from (1.41) as
5
PCW Gt GI
(11.1)
RI max =
4
I
where LRT = LIR = L1 = 1. Also, the propagation loss was assumed to
be zero. Each receiver uses a 12-dB detection threshold. In the case of the
channelized receiver, the detection threshold applies to each channel. By
keeping the threshold the same across all receivers, the relative detection
capability can be quantified. A 1-hour false alarm interval was assumed for
each receiver and for each channel of the channelized receiver. The sensitivity
and interception range for each intercept receiver is given in Table 11.4.
The square-law detector was most eective and detected all signals at
essentially the same range ( 25 km). The least eective receiver was the
wideband receiver. The most detectable waveform in the wideband and channelized receiver was the rectangular pulse. The P1, P2 and P4 perform significantly better than the rectangular pulse, P3 and FMCW in the channelized
receiver. The P2 waveform represents a factor of 2.3 reduction in range over
the rectangular pulse in the channelized receiver [8].
396
Table 11.4: Sensitivity and LPI Interception Range for Three Intercept
Receivers (After [8])
Waveform
Pulse
FMCW
P1
P2
P3
P4
11.3.2
Square-Law
I
(dBm)
80.30
80.57
80.38
80.39
80.34
80.36
RI max
(km)
24.70
25.49
24.94
24.97
24.83
22.88
Wideband
I
(dBm)
59.00
52.96
52.20
52.79
52.54
52.54
RI max
(km)
2.10
1.06
0.97
1.04
1.01
1.01
Channel
I
(dBm)
64.90
59.98
56.37
56.18
60.36
57.14
RI max
(km)
4.20
2.38
1.57
1.54
2.49
1.72
Digital EW Receivers
397
398
11.3.3
Direct RF Sampling
The trend in EW digital receivers is to push the ADC as far towards the
antenna as possible, and to eliminate the downconversion stage, as shown in
Figure 11.5. The receiver is made up of three sections: the RF front end,
which amplifies and bandpass filters the antenna signal before it is sampled;
the ADC; and the digital signal processing. That is, the ADC is used directly
on the RF signal after appropriate preconditioning by means of amplification
and filtering.
ADC technology has improved to the point where direct sampling and
digital signal processing in the microwave spectrum is possible. Although the
development of ADCs have made considerable advancements in the last 10
years, more wideband solutions are required using electro-optics (extremely
wideband) and superconductivity (high sensitivity). Bandpass sampling does
not use any tuner or mixers to downconvert the antenna signals but instead
takes advantage of digital aliasing to down convert a Nyquist band. The advantage here is that the gain fluctuations and noise sources due to the analog
mixers and local oscillators that are used in a conventional receiver are eliminated. Other advantages include a simplified hardware approach (fewer components) that allows the integration of the receiver onto a multi-chip module
or single chip monolithic microwave integrated circuit. Also, the LPI signal
399
sampling is a technique that can be used for direct RF sampling at much higher
frequencies than track and hold based sampling. The basic requirements for high RF pulse
sampling are narrow pulse width and low pulse amplitude jitter, in addition to the low
time jitter required in any direct RF sampling scheme [13].
400
jitter and clock speed requirements on the ADC can be relaxed. A high degree of reconfigurability in tuning range and bandwidth is achieved by using
a tunable (or selectable) antialiasing filter before the first stage of sampling
and by using a tunable sample clock in the first stage of sampling. Extension
of this receiver architecture to an analog-to-information receiver is described
in [14]. Motivated by recent developments in compressed sensing the receiver
performs frequency modulated pulsed sampling at sub-Nyquist rates to compress a broadband RF environment into an analog interpolation filter and
samples the signal at the information rate rather than using the Shannon
bandwidth criteria. The receiver uses structured nonuniform sampling to implement a direct analog-to-information receiver that is eective at recovering
signals that have a sparse frequency domain representation [14].
11.4
LPI signals attempt to make the detection and demodulation process impossible. The EW intercept receiver requires a large processing gain to detect the
LPI emission, and extract the parameters of the signal. This is followed by
the task of classification. Classification requires sorting the signal into groups
having similar parameters (clustering). Parameters such as carrier frequency,
bandwidth, modulation period, modulation bandwidth, and time of arrival
are a few of the parameters that distinguish one signal from another. Correlation with existing signals in a database (identification) can then aid in
signal tracking and response management.
To identify the emitter parameters, Fourier analysis techniques using the
FFT have been used as the basic tool. From this basic tool, more complex signal processing techniques have evolved, such as the short-time Fourier
transform, in order to track the signal parameters over time. More sophisticated techniques have also been developed, called time-frequency and bifrequency distributions in order to identify the exotic modulation schemes used
by the LPI radar [15]. These techniques include the Wigner distribution,
Choi-Williams distribution, quadrature mirror filtering, and cyclostationary
processing. The use of these techniques to extract the parameters from some
of the well-known LPI modulations is the subject of the remaining chapters.
11.5
EW Receiver Challenges
The steady increase in sophistication of radar systems has resulted in an electromagnetic environment where very few pulses can now be expected. In
addition, pulse-to-pulse PRI agility and frequency agility now make it extremely dicult to identify a specific emitter, especially when only a few
pulses are intercepted (e.g., from a track-while-scan or LPI radar). LPI CW
401
402
such that the received power at the EW receiver is kept constant (or is decreasing). EW receivers that prioritize incoming threats based on a change of
the received signal amplitude will be vulnerable to the power-managed LPI
seekers. These power-managed emitters must also be detected and processed
correctly. Advanced missiles will also use dual mode seekers (e.g., an antiradiation missile seeker combined with an active millimeter wave LPI seeker)
that must also be identified and countered.
Finally, the EW receiver must be able to disseminate all onboard detections in real time sometimes referred to as real time out of the cockpit (RTOC).
RTOC data is critical in a network-centric architecture in order to provide
multiplatform targeting and geolocation. Also the ability to accept real time
data in the cockpit (RTIC), and utilize the oboard (multispectral) sensor
data, is an important capability in order for the platform to precisely target
its weapons or electronic attack. In this way the intercept receiver can be
a major player in a multiplatform time dierence of arrival (TDOA)-based
geolocation network with, for example, Rivet Joint. The data fusion also
exploits any oboard and multispectral signals intelligence (SIGINT) data
received.
Specific emitter identification (SEI) attempts to fingerprint the emitters
that are intercepted. SEI can also be used for improved tracking and deinterleaving. A number of algorithms have been investigated for doing SEI,
but their details remain classified. More importantly, however, is the fact
that future SEI systems must be standardized for interoperability between
platforms and organizations (especially since the dividing line between RWR
and ELINT is fast going away). That is, the success in SEI will ultimately
lie in the infrastructure (dissemination of databases, correlation of absolutes,
organized collection of targets), and not so much in the algorithms that are
used.
11.6
Concluding Remarks
The trend in intercept receivers is toward digital receivers and the concept
of digital antennas (ADC at the antenna). The future digital receiver will
incorporate optical technologies for speed and bandwidth, and will also incorporate high-temperature superconductors for sensitivity. Networking the
EW receiver within an information, sensor, and shooter grid will allow the
sharing of intercept data. The use of swarm architectures will also become
more prevalent. In the following chapters we assume that the signal is digitized in the receiver, and we mainly focus on the signal processing methods
used to extract the LPI waveform parameters to classify the signals.
403
References
[1] Schrick, G., and Wiley, R. G., Interception of LPI radar signals, IEEE
International Radar Conference, pp. 108111, 1990.
[2] Wiley, R. G., Electronic Intelligence: The Interception of Radar Signals,
Artech House Publishers, Dedham, MA, 1985.
[3] Lee, J. P. Y., Interception of LPI radar signals, Defence Research Establishment Ottawa, Technical Note 91-23, Nov. 1991.
[4] Bonabeau, E., Dorigo, M., and Theraulaz, G., Swarm Intelligence From Natural to Artificial Systems, Oxford University Press, New York, 1999.
[5] Tsui, J. B. Y., and Stephens, J. P. Sr., Digital microwave receiver technology, IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques Vol. 50, No. 3, pp.
699705, March 2002.
[6] Rodrigue, S. M., Bash, J. L., and Haenni, M. G., Next generation broadband
digital receiver technology, The 15th Annual AESS/IEEE Symposium, pp.
1320, 1415 May 2002.
[7] Gross, F. B., and Chen, K., Comparison of detectability of traditional pulsed
and spread spectrum radar waveforms in classic passive receivers, IEEE
Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 746751,
April 2005.
[8] Gross, F. B., and Connor, J., Comparison of detectability of radar compression waveforms in classic passive receivers, IEEE Trans. on Aerospace and
Electronic Systems, Voltt . 43, No. 2, pp. 789795, April, 2007.
[9] Shieh, C-S, and Lin, C-T., A vector neural network for emitter identification, IEEE Trans. on Antennas and Propagation, Vol. 50, No. 8, pp.
11201127, Aug. 2002.
[10] Pekau, H., and Haslett, J. W., A comparison of analog front end architectures for digital receivers, Proc. of the IEEE CCECE/CCGEI, Saskatoon,
May 2005.
[11] Tatu, S. O., et al., Ka-band direct digital receiver, IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 50, No. 11, pp. 24362442, Nov. 2002.
[12] Chalvatzis, T., Gagnon, E., and Wight, J. S., On the eect of clock jitter
in IF and RF direct sampling systems, 3rd International IEEE NEWCAS
Conference, pp. 6366, 1922 June 2005.
[13] Fudge, G. L., Chivers, M. A., Ravindran, S., Bland, R. E., and Pace, P.
E., A reconfigurable direct RF receiver architecture, Proc. of the IEEE
International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, May 2008.
[14] Fudge, G. L., Bland, R. E., Chivers, M. A., Ravindran, S., Haupt, J. and
Pace, P. E., A Nyquist folding analog-to-information receiver, Proc. of the
Asilomar Conf. on Signals, Computers and Signal Processing, Nov. 2008.
[15] Stephens, J. P., Advances in signal processing for electronic warfare, IEEE
Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, pp. 3138, Nov. 1996.
Chapter 12
Wigner-Ville Distribution
Analysis of LPI Radar
Waveforms
In Chapter 11, it was shown that tomorrows digital intercept receiver must
incorporate a time-frequency analysis capability in order to identify the LPI
modulation types and also extract the LPI signals parametric data. The
Wigner-Ville Distribution (WVD), introduced by Wigner in 1932 as a phase
representation in quantum statistical mechanics [1] and separately by Ville
in 1948 addressing the question of a joint distribution function [2], simultaneously gives the representation of a signal in both time and frequency
variables. The WVD has been noted as one of the more useful bilinear timefrequency analysis techniques for signal processing. In this chapter, the WVD
is presented and used to analyze the signals discussed in Part I. Extraction
of the signal parameters is also emphasized. The main objective is that by
studying the results and correlating the signal parameters that are revealed,
the user can learn to determine the presence of a particular LPI signal and
to recognize the LPI modulation characteristics under various signal-to-noise
ratios. We also show how well we can distinguish among several waveforms
that have similar time and frequency characteristics. Multiple signal analysis
is left as an exercise for the reader. By using the Wigner analysis tools, an
intercept receiver can come close to having a processing gain near the LPI
radars matched filter processing gain. The WIGNER folder on the CD provides the MATLAB tools that can be used to re-create any of the figures
presented, as well as generate new and useful results.
405
406
12.1
Wigner-Ville Distribution
The WVD has been used in many fields of engineering. These include optical
implementations of the WVD [3], medical applications [46], image analysis
[7, 8], target detection [9, 10], and the analysis of nonstationary (LPI) signals
[1114].
The WVD exhibits the highest signal energy concentration in the timefrequency plane for linearly modulated signals, but has drawbacks in the
case of nonlinear frequency modulated signals. To improve the concentration
where nonlinear modulations are present, various higher-order time frequency
representations have been investigated [15]. The WVD also contains interfering cross terms (or ghost terms) between every pair of signal components.
As illustrated in the examples that follow, the presence of the cross terms
sometimes make it dicult to determine the LPI modulation parameters.
A good review of bilinear transforms and their use in signal analysis is
given in [16]. The influence that the cross term interference has on the WVD
is analyzed in [17, 18]. The extension of the WVD to discrete time signals
has been discussed in [19, 20] and a formulation to remove the cross terms
has been reported in [21, 22]. Below, we begin with the definition of the
WVD, and then present a windowed version of the WVD, the pseudo WVD
(PWVD) which is useful in the signal processing of the digital signals within
the receiver.
12.1.1
Continuous WVD
x t+
j
d
x t
e
2
2
(12.1)
where t is the time variable, is the angular frequency variable (2f ), and the
1
2
X +
0
0 j0 t
d0
X
e
2
2
(12.2)
(12.3)
407
That is, the WVD of the spectra of a signal can be determined simply from
that of the time functions by an interchange of the frequency and time variables. This shows the symmetry between space and frequency domain definitions [23].
Equation (12.1) implies that evaluation of the WVD is a noncausal operation. As such, this expression does not lend itself to real-time evaluation.
This limitation is overcome by first applying the WVD analysis to a sampled
time series x( ), where is a discrete time index from to . The discrete
WVD is defined as
W ( , ) = 2
n=
x( + n)x ( n)ej2n
(12.4)
W ( , ) = 2
n=N+1
x( + n)x ( n)w(n)w(n)ej2n
(12.5)
(12.6)
N 1
f (n)ej2n
(12.7)
n=N+1
M +1
2
(12.8)
(12.9)
408
Figure 12.1: The computational structure for an N = 8 PWVD kernel generation [24] ( c 1989 IEEE).
Here the input signal enters the buer register from the left and shifts to the
right after each kernel generation. The right-most element is disposed after
the next shift.
The PWVD can detect the presence of LPI signals, as well as extract the
signals modulation characteristics. For an intercept receiver, it is important
that the computation be done in real time or near real time. From the
PWVD expression in (12.7), we notice that it is computationally expensive to
directly compute the PWVD. Boashash et al. [25] have presented an ecient
algorithm to compute the discrete PWVD. The algorithm is presented below.
To begin, the continuous frequency variable is sampled as
=
k
2N
(12.10)
k
2N
N1
=2
n=N+1
or
W
k
2N
f (n) exp
2N1
=2
n=0
f (n) exp
j2nk
2N
j2nk
2N
(12.11)
(12.12)
f (n),
0,
f (n) =
f (n 2N ),
0nN 1
n=N
N + 1 n 2N 1
409
(12.13)
Since the kernel is a symmetric function, the DFT of the kernel is always real.
The resulting PWVD using 2N samples is
W ( , k) = 2
2N 1
n=0
f (n) exp
jkn
N
(12.14)
12.1.2
(12.15)
0n2
f (n),
0,
n=3
(12.16)
f (n) =
4n5
f (n 6),
From (12.6) f3 (n) ( = 3), for input signal x( ) is computed as follows:
f3 (n = 0)
f3 (n = 1)
f3 (n = 2)
f3 (n = 3)
f3 (n = 4)
f3 (n = 5)
=
=
=
=
=
=
x(3) x (3) = 2 2 = 4
x(2) x (4) = 4 0 = 0
x(1) x (5) = 3 0 = 0
0
x(1) x (7) = 1 0 = 0
x(2) x (8) = 7 0 = 0
=
=
=
=
=
=
x(0) x (0) = 6 6 = 36
x(1) x (1) = 1 3 = 3
x(2) x (2) = 7 4 = 28
0
x(2) x (2) = 4 7 = 28
x(1) x (1) = 3 1 = 3
410
Figure 12.2: The kernel f (n) matrix for the real six input example.
and so, f0 = {36, 3, 28, 0, 28, 3}. Repeating the above procedure, the kernel
matrix for all values = 4 to 3, and n = 0 to 5 is as shown in Figure 12.2.
The second step after the kernel transformation is to use (12.14) to calculate the Wigner distribution. As an example of the calculation, one can pick
any and k to examine the values inside the PWVD matrix. For example,
choose = 1, k = 2, with N = 3. The PWVD is
2N1
W ( = 1, k = 2) = 2
n=0
f (n) exp j
kn
N
f (n) exp j
2n
3
231
= 2
n=0
5
= 2
n=0
f (n) exp j
2n
3
(12.17)
From the kernel matrix in Figure 12.2, the kernel function for = 1 is f1 (n) =
{1, 42, 0, 0, 0, 42}. So from (12.17), the PWVD for = 1, k = 2 (6 terms) is
W (1, 2) = 2f1 (0) exp j
20
3
22
3
21
3
23
3
411
Figure 12.3: The PWVD matrix W ( , k) for the real six input example.
24
3
25
3
12.1.3
(12.19)
Q = sin(2fc t)
(12.20)
412
Figure 12.4: The kernel matrix for the complex eight input example.
time index
= 4 to 3 is
0n3
f (n),
0,
n=4
(12.22)
f =
5n7
f (n 8),
or
(12.23)
(12.24)
413
Figure 12.5: The PWVD matrix for the complex eight input example.
Consider the case when
is
W ( = 1, k = 4) = 2
2N 1
n=0
f (n) exp j
241
= 2
n=0
f1 (n)
kn
N
4n
4
= 2
n=0
f1 (n) exp(jn)
(12.25)
W ( = 1, k = 4) = 2
n=0
Again, the PWVD matrix of the complex eight input samples is real. The
complete PWVD matrix is a symmetric 2N 2N matrix. Figure 12.5 shows
the PWVD matrix of the complex eight input samples. Note this important
feature: the PWVD is always real whether the input signal is real or complex.
Figure 12.6(a) shows a 3D mesh plot of the PWVD for the complex signal example with eight inputs. This plot shows the magnitude in both the
414
time domain and the frequency domain. Note that it directly correlates with
Figure 12.5.
The peak corresponds to the 1-kHz carrier frequency.
Figure 12.6(b) shows the corresponding PWVD contour plot. The contour
plot is a 2D time-frequency plot that is useful for characterizing the timefrequency behavior of the signal. The magnitude is represented by a dierent
gray scale, as shown in the legend bar.
To see the marginal details of the PWVD, Figure 12.7(a) shows a plot of
the PWVD obtained by rotating the mesh plot in Figure 12.6(a) to show
just the time axis with the eight samples. The time resolution is 1/fs .
Figure 12.7(b) shows the marginal details in the frequency domain, and is
obtained in the same manner as Figure 12.7(a). The carrier frequency is represented by the peak in this plot, and shows up at 900 Hz, very close to the
real value 1 kHz. The frequency resolution fs /2/# samples is also indicated.
In summary both the real signal example and the complex signal example illustrate the mechanics of the PWVD calculation. The PWVD timefrequency results, when presented in the four dierent plots, give a variety
of aspects so that the LPI signal and its modulation characteristics can be
determined.
12.1.4
Now we consider the PWVD for a two-tone input (two carrier frequencies)
with fc1 = 1 kHz and fc2 = 2 kHz. Now I = cos(2fc1 t) + cos(2fc2 t) and
Q = sin(2fc1 t) + sin(2fc2 t).
Figure 12.8(a) shows the PWVD results for the two-tone signal in a 3D
time-frequency mesh plot. In this plot the cross terms are stronger than the
signal terms, and show up with many peaks. Figure 12.8(b) is the 2D PWVD
time-frequency contour plot and shows the time dependence of the real signal
and the cross terms.
Figure 12.9(a) shows the marginal time domain plot obtained by rotating
the 3D mesh plot in Figure 12.8(a), to show only the time axis. This reveals
the cross terms as a series of positive and negative magnitude components in
the time domain. Figure 12.9(b) shows the frequency domain plot obtained
in the same manner, and reveals the two-carrier frequencies and the cross
term. Note that the shape and magnitude of the cross term is not like the
two-carrier frequency components, and can be easily identified.
415
Figure 12.6: PWVD for the eight input complex example: (a) 3D mesh plot,
and (b) time-frequency domain.
416
Figure 12.7: PWVD for the eight input complex example: (a) 2D mesh in
time domain, and (b) 2D mesh in frequency domain.
417
Figure 12.8: PWVD for the two-tone example, showing the (a) 3D timefrequency domain mesh plot, and (b) 2D time-frequency contour.
418
Figure 12.9: PWVD for the two-tone example, showing the (a) marginal time
domain plot, and (b) marginal frequency domain plot.
419
12.2
FMCW Analysis
In this section, extraction of the signal parameters for two FMCW waveform
examples (see Chapter 4) are investigated. When measuring the parameters
of the LPI modulations, in all cases the absolute value of the relative error
should be reported. That is, if a is a measurement value of a quantity whose
exact value is a, then the absolute value of the relative error r is defined by
r
a a
Error
=
a
True value
(12.26)
420
Figure 12.11: PWVD for an FMCW with F = 250 Hz, tm = 20 ms (signal only), showing the (a) marginal frequency domain plot, and (b) timefrequency plot.
421
signal. Also note that this information is not available if only the PSD is calculated in the receiver. In summary, the PWVD technique works extremely
well for FMCW waveforms. The results for the F = 500-Hz signal are
shown in Appendix E.
12.3
BPSK Analysis
In this section we apply the PWVD and use it to investigate the properties
of the BPSK signal discussed in Chapter 5. Parameters varied include the
length of the Barker code (Nc = 7 or 11), the number of carrier cycles per
Barker subcode (cpp), and the SNR (signal only, 0 dB, and 6 dB). We also
investigate how many parameters of the signal can be extracted from the
PWVD results. All signals demonstrating the concepts have an fc = 1 kHz
carrier frequency, and a sampling frequency of fs = 7 kHz. Both frequency
domain and time domain plots are shown for the BPSK signals after the
PWVD processing. The time-frequency domain results are the most useful.
The first signal, examined in Figure 12.13(a), has a carrier frequency of
1 kHz and can be clearly identified by the location of the highest or lowest
peak value. The carrier frequency can also be identified as the center of the
symmetric frequency distribution in Figure 12.13(b). Also, the relative peak
magnitude in Figure 12.13(a) is about 600, so the 3-dB bandwidth (or subcode
rate) B, is the frequency range lying at 300 on both sides, which extends from
500 Hz to 1,500 Hz. Since B = fc /cpp = 1,000 Hz, this correlates well. In
Figure 12.13(a), if we look closely within the 3-dB bandwidth, one can find
that there are 15 peaks within the bandwidth. That is, there are 14 intervals
in the range from 500 Hz to 1,500 Hz. This number is always two times the
Barker code length. In Figure 12.14, the 7-bit Barker code is examined with
an SNR = 0 dB. Figure 12.14(a) shows the frequency domain where the 15
intervals can be counted within the 3-dB bandwidth. Figure 12.14(b) shows
the corresponding time-frequency domain. In this particular case, not much
information is revealed.
Figure 12.15(a) shows the results for an 11-bit signal. In this case there
are 23 peaks within the 3-dB bandwidth (Barker code length Nc = 11).
Figure 12.15(b) shows the time-frequency results centered about the carrier
frequency of fc = 1,000 Hz.
422
Figure 12.12: PWVD for an FMCW with F = 250 Hz, tm = 20-ms timefrequency plot for (a) SNR = 0 dB and (b) SNR = 6 dB.
423
Figure 12.13: PWVD for BPSK with 7-bit Barker code, cpp = 1, signal only,
showing the (a) marginal frequency domain plot and (b) time-frequency plot.
424
Figure 12.14: PWVD for BPSK with 7-bit Barker code, cpp = 1, SNR =
0 dB, showing the (a) marginal frequency domain plot and (b) time-frequency
plot.
425
Figure 12.15: PWVD for BPSK with 11-bit Barker code, cpp = 1 (signal
only), showing the (a) marginal frequency domain plot and (b) time-frequency
plot.
426
12.4
In this section we begin with two CW signals that are phase coded with
a Frank code (see Chapter 5), and examine them using the PWVD. Both
signals are sampled in the receiver by an ADC with a sampling frequency
fs = 7,000 Hz. The first signal examined has a carrier frequency of fc =
1,000 Hz, 16 phase codes Nc = 16, (M = 4), and a cpp = 1 or one cycle
per subcode. That is, each subcode has a length of tb = 1 ms, resulting in a
phase-coded signal with a code period of
T = Nc tb =
Nc cpp
Nc
=
= 16 ms
B
fc
(12.27)
Using cpp = 1 results in the maximum bandwidth that can be achieved with
any particular carrier frequency.
Identifying the signal parameters within the PWVD image is considered
again. Figure 12.16(a) shows the PWVD frequency plot and Figure 12.16(b)
shows the PWVD time-frequency image. Note that the carrier frequency
can be identified by the largest peak value. Also note the presence of the
harmonics that appear as modulation spikes every n/T Hz (or 62.5n Hz).
The Frank code shows up as a series of unique evenly spaced parallel lines.
The bandwidth B can also be identified in the image. When measuring
the Frank code B within the PWVD image, it is necessary to skip one of the
lines due to the presence of the cross terms. The slope of each line has a
magnitude of
S=
Bfc
fc2
B
=
=
= 62,500 Hz s1
T
Nc cpp
Nc cpp2
(12.28)
The code period T is measured through the major cross term, and is also
illustrated. This measurement stresses the fact that the PWVD integration
period must be at least larger than the signals code period, in order to
provide an accurate estimate (# samples/fs > T ).
Figure 12.17(a) shows the PWVD time-frequency image for SNR = 0 dB.
Although the addition of noise is clearly present in the output, the phase
code parameters can be easily determined. In Figure 12.17(b) the SNR = 6
dB and it becomes a bit more dicult. Preprocessing the image with a
lowpass filter can help reduce the presence of the high frequency noise that
hinders the extraction of the important signal parameters. A second Frank
signal example with M = 8 (Nc = 64) is given in Appendix F. The PWVD
results for the P1, P2, P3, and P4 polyphase codes are similar and given in
Appendix G.
427
Figure 12.16: PWVD for Frank code with B = 1,000 Hz, T = 16 ms, signal
only, showing the (a) marginal frequency domain plot, and (b) time-frequency
plot.
428
Figure 12.17: PWVD for Frank code with B = 1,000 Hz, T = 16 ms, timefrequency plot for (a) SNR = 0 dB, and (b) SNR = 6 dB.
12.5
429
In this section an analysis of the polytime codes (see Chapter 5) using the
PWVD is presented. The structure of the polytime codes (T1 through T4)
within the PWVD are significantly dierent, even though they were derived
from both step frequency and linear FM waveforms (as are the Frank code
and P1P4).
The first signal examined is the T1 code with fc = 1,000 Hz and T = 16
ms. The number of stepped frequency segments used is k = 4 (zero beat
at the leading segment), and the number of phase states n = 2, T1(2).
The sampling frequency of the ADC is fs = 7,000 Hz. Each segment is
4 ms in duration, resulting in the overall code period of 16 ms. The frequency step between adjacent segments is 1/4 ms = 250 Hz with a total frequency excursion of 1,000 Hz. Figure 12.18(a) shows the PWVD frequency
domain. Compared to the Frank and P1 through P4 codes, the T1(2) energy
is more evenly distributed within the (approximately) same bandwidth. Also
note that the harmonics are not uniformly spaced, due to the time modulation of the binary phase change. Figure 12.18(b) shows the time-frequency
distribution of the T1(2) code. The signal shows up as a set of vertical roof
tops stacked next to each other, separated by T /2. Note that the carrier is
easily identified, as well as the measurement of the bandwidth B and code
period T (about the cross term).
To understand the bandwidth characteristics shown in Figure 12.18, the
phase shift for the T1(2) is shown in Figure 12.19. Here the smallest phase
change shown is 4 samples long (0.571 ms). This results in a bandwidth
excursion of B = 1,750 Hz, which can be identified in Figure 12.18(b). Figure
12.20(a) shows the signal for an SNR = 0 dB. The signal can still be identified
as a T1(2) and the parameters can still be extracted. In Figure 12.20(b) with
an SNR = 6 dB, no signal identification can be made and no parameters
can be extracted. The T2(2), T3(2), and T4(2) code examples are examined
in Appendix H.
430
Figure 12.18: PWVD for polytime code T1(2) with B = 1,750 Hz, T =
16 ms, signal only showing the (a) marginal frequency domain plot, and
(b) time-frequency plot.
431
Figure 12.19: T1(2) phase shift showing a minimum subcode width of four
samples (0.571 ms), resulting in a bandwidth excursion of B = 1,750 Hz.
12.6
The main objective of the previous sections was to examine the PWVD for
each of the important LPI phase modulations discussed in Part I. The intercept receiver running the PWVD must also be able to distinguish between
these phase modulations, in addition to extracting the signal parameters (as
described above).
To illustrate the similarities and dierences, the phase modulations are
compared together in Figure 12.21. The Frank code, P1, P3, and P4 have the
same slope sign but, although similar, have dierent time-frequency characteristics that can be used to identify the particular phase modulation. The
P2 has a dierent slope. The distinguishing features, of course, depend on
the sampling period of the ADC, and any receiver nonlinearities that might
be present.
The T1(2) (as well as T2T4) are unique, since they contain time-frequency
components with both slope signs. Figures 12.2212.25 show the PWVD
time-frequency results, and the corresponding phase states for the T1 through
T4, for comparison. Examination of these results shows that it is easy to distinguish between the polytime codes, and also to distinguish them from the
Frank, P1, through P4, codes.
432
Figure 12.20: PWVD for T1(2) code with B = 1,750 Hz, T = 16 ms, timefrequency plot for (a) SNR = 0 dB, and (b) SNR = 6 dB.
433
Figure 12.21: PWVD for (a) Frank code, (b) P1, (c) P2, (d) P3, and (e) P4
codes.
434
Figure 12.22: PWVD for (a) T1(2) code, and (b) phase code showing minimum subcode with 18 samples (2.57 ms).
435
Figure 12.23: PWVD for (a) T2(2) code, and (b) phase code showing minimum subcode with 36 samples (5.14 ms).
436
Figure 12.24: PWVD for (a) T3(2) code, and (b) phase code showing minimum subcode with six samples (0.86 ms).
437
Figure 12.25: PWVD for (a) T4(2) code, and (b) phase code showing minimum subcode with seven samples (1 ms).
438
12.7
In this section we examine the PWVD results for an FSK Costas signal and
a hybrid PSK/FSK signal. The PWVD is used first to investigate the timefrequency characteristics of a Costas sequence {3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1} kHz. The
signal was generated with the costas.m program within the LPIT, using a
frequency duration of tp = 0.005s and a sampling frequency of fs = 15,057
Hz. This resulted in single frequency-hopping sequence consisting of 520 samples. The PWVD marginal frequency domain is shown in Figure 12.26(a).
Note that the frequencies in the sequence are clearly present, as well as the
cross terms. The PWVD time-frequency image is shown in Figure 12.26. The
arrows indicate the positions of the Costas frequencies. Note that the time
axis is reversed. That is, the frequency order begins at the right side of the
figure. The cross terms present tend to make the identification of the frequencies intricate, especially when the cross terms lie about one of the frequencies
in the code. In Figure 12.27(a, b), the time-frequency image is displayed for
both 0 dB and 6 dB, respectively. As expected, the identification becomes
more dicult.
With the FSK (Costas)/PSK signal, each frequency selected is phase
shifted with a 5-bit Barker code with cpp = 5 (five cycles per phase code).
The results are shown in Figure 12.28(a, b) for the signal only, and SNR = 0
dB, respectively. Note that although the cross terms are again significant, the
frequencies in the Costas code can be identified. For the FSK/PSK target
signal described, the PWVD does not give good results, and no parameters
can be determined.
12.8
Summary
The PWVD theory was presented in this chapter and several examples were
used to demonstrate generating an ecient kernel function and the subsequent
calculation of the PWVD time-frequency results. Whether the signals are real
or complex, the kernel and PWVD matrix are always real and symmetric.
This is an important feature for the Wigner distribution and a good reason
why the PWVD can be used for accurate signal analysis (in spite of the cross
terms present).
Apart from the parameters listed in the table, other signal characteristics
can be measured or estimated. For example, for the FMCW signal, knowing
F and tm , the range resolution R and the unambiguous range Ru may be
estimated. For the FSK Costas code, the identification of the signal is dicult
due to the ghost terms present. This is also the case for the FSK/PSK (binary
phase code) signal. For the FSK/PSK (target) signal reported, the PWVD
was not able to identify any meaningful signal parameters. This should not
be a surprise, considering the PACF, PAF results shown in Chapter 6.
439
Figure 12.26: PWVD for Costas code sequence {3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1} kHz, showing
the (a) marginal frequency domain, and (b) time-frequency image.
440
Figure 12.27: PWVD time-frequency image for Costas code sequence {3, 2,
6, 4, 5, 1} kHz, showing (a) SNR = 0 dB, and (b) SNR = 6 dB.
441
Figure 12.28: The PWVD for the FSK/PSK signal, showing the (a) signal
only, and (b) SNR = 0 dB.
442
The presentation of the PWVD results to a trained operator will allow the
signal parameters to be extracted, and can enable good classification results
in moderate amounts of noise. A modern intercept receiver/analyzer would
implement a set of parallel processors; each designed to recognize, within a
particular frequency band, a particular class of waveforms that might occupy
that band. The outputs would consist of pulse descriptor words containing
estimates of the signal parameters. How well the PWVD processing performs
this task, as a function of its bandwidth (relative to the actual signal bandwidth) and the SNR in that bandwidth, is of primary concern and must be
investigated. Autonomous classification and parameter extraction within an
intercept receiver is a significantly harder problem, and is addressed further
in Chapters 17 and 18.
References
[1] Wigner, E. P., On the quantum correction for thermodynamic equilibrium,
Physics Review, Vol. 40, pp. 749759, 1932.
[2] Ville, J., Theorie et applications de la notion de signal analytique, Cables
et Transmission, Vol 2A, pp. 6174, 1948.
[3] Li, Y., Eichmann G., and Conner, M., Optical Wigner distribution and
ambiguity function for complex signals and images, Optics Communication,
Vol. 67, No. 3, pp. 177179, July 1988.
[4] Clayton, R. H., and Murray, A., Comparison of techniques for time-frequency
analysis of the ECG during human ventricular fibrillation, IEE Proc. on Science and Measurement Technology, Vol. 145, No. 6, pp. 301306, Nov. 1998.
[5] Darvish, N., and Kitney, R. I., Time-frequency and time-scale methods in the
detection and classification of non-stationarities in human physiological data,
Record of the 28th Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers,
Vol. 2, pp. 10851158, Oct. 31Nov. 2, 1994.
[6] Millet-Roig, J., et al., Time-frequency analysis of a single ECG: to discriminate between ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation, Computers
in Cardiology, pp. 711714, 1999.
[7] Cristobal, G., Bescos J., and Santamaria, J., Image analysis through the
Wigner distribution, Applied Optics, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 262271, Jan.
1989.
[8] Gonzalo, C., et al., Space-variant filtering through the Wigner distribution
function, Applied Optics, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 730735, Feb. 1989.
[9] Haykin, S., and Bhattacharya, T., Wigner-Ville distribution: an important
functional block for radar target detection in clutter, Record of the 28th
Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers, Vol. 1, pp. 6872,
Oct. 31Nov. 2, 1994.
[10] Kumar, P. K., and Prabhu, K. M. M., Simulation studies of moving targetdetection: a new approach with the Wigner-Ville distribution, IEE Proc. on
Radar, Sonar and Navigation, Vol. 144, No. 5, pp. 259265, Oct. 1997.
443
[11] Milne, P.R., and Pace, P. E., Wigner distribution detection and analysis of
FMCW and P-4 polyphase LPI waveforms, IEEE International Conference
on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, Vol. 4, pp. 39443947, 2002.
[12] Taboada, F., et al., Intercept receiver signal processing techniques to detect low probability of intercept radar signals, Proc.of the Fifth Nordic Signal Processing Symposium, Hurtigruta Tromso-Trondheim, Norway, 47 Oct.
2002.
[13] Barbarossa, S., Parameter estimation of undersampled signals by WignerVille analysis, IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and
Signal Processing, ICASSP-91, Vol. 5, pp. 32533256, April 14-17, 1991.
[14] Gau, J-Y, Analysis of low probability of intercept (LPI) radar signals using
the Wigner Distribution, Naval Postgraduate School Masters Thesis, Sept.
2002.
[15] Katkovnik, V., and Stankovic, L., Instantaneous frequency estimation using
the Wigner distribution with varying and data-driven window length, IEEE
Trans. on Signal Processing, Vol. 46, No. 9, pp. 23152325, Sept. 1998.
[16] Chen, V. C., and Ling, H., Time-Frequency Transforms for Radar Imaging
and Signal Analysis, Artech House, Inc., Norwood, MA, 2002.
[17] Stankovic, L., and Stankovic, S., On the Wigner distribution of discrete time
noisy signals with application to the study of quantization eects, IEEE
Trans. on Signal Processing, Vol. 42, No. 7, pp. 18631867, July 1994.
[18] Stankovic, L., Algorithm for the Wigner distribution of noisy signals realisation, IEE Electronics Letters, Vol. 34, No. 7, pp. 622623, April 1998.
[19] ONeill, J. C., Flandrin, P., and Williams, W. J., On the existence of discrete
Wigner distributions, IEEE Signal Processing Letters, Vol. 6, No. 12, pp.
304306, Dec. 1999.
[20] Claasen, T. A. C. M., and Mecklenbrauker, W. F. G., The Wigner
distributiona tool for time-frequency signal analysis, Part II: Discrete-time
signals, Phillips Journal of Research, Vol. 35, No. 4/5, pp. 276300, 1980.
[21] Kadambe, S., and Adali, T., Application of cross term deleted Wigner representation (CDWR) for sonar target detection/classification, Record of the
32nd Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems & Computers, Vol. 1, pp.
822826, Nov. 14, 1998.
[22] Kadambe, S., and Orr, R., Comparative study of the cross term deleted
Wigner and cross biorthogonal representations, Record of the 31st Asilomar
Conference on Signals, Systems & Computers, Vol. 2, pp. 14841488, Nov.
25, 1997.
[23] Claasen, T. A. C. M., and Mecklenbrauker, W. F. G., The Wigner
distribution a tool for time-frequency signal analysis, Part I: Continuoustime signals, Phillips Journal of Research, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 217250,
1980.
[24] Sun, M., et al., A Wigner spectral analyzer for nonstationary signals, IEEE
Trans. on Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. 38, No. 5, pp. 961966,
Oct. 1989.
444
Problems
1. (a) Using the LPIT, generate the default FMCW waveform and the
default P4 waveform. Load both signals into MATLAB, and truncate
such that they both have the same size (be sure to at least include one
to two code periods of each signal). (b) Add the two signals together
and save as a new signal (e.g., fmcw p4.mat). (c) Using the PWVD, analyze each signal and extract the waveform parameters that are evident.
(d) Repeat (b) and (c) for SNR = 0 dB.
2. Using the PWVD, compute the Wigner-Ville distribution for the random noise radar waveform, random noise plus FMCW waveform, random noise FMCW plus sine, and random binary phase modulation discussed in Chapter 7. For each waveform, which modulation parameters
cant be extracted from the Wigner-Ville distribution?
3. Using the PWVD, compute the Wigner-Ville distribution of the (a)
polyphase signal that uses one of the orthogonal sequences given in
Table 10.12, (b) polyphase signal that uses one of the Doppler tolerant
orthogonal sequences in Table 10.14, and (c) frequency hopping signal
that uses one of the orthogonal frequency sequences given in Table 10.16.
4. To help identify the capability of the PWVD as a tool for identifying the
LPI modulation, extracting the modulation parameters, and to aid in
deciding on what signal processing algorithm performs best, construct
a table to show the PWVD measurement results for the LPI signals
contained in the Test Signals folder. For each parameter of interest,
show the actual value, the measured value, and the absolute value of
the relative error [see (12.26)]. Although the cross term interference
makes things particularly dicult, the measured results should tend
to coincide well with the actual values. The relative error depends on
how closely the PWVD results are examined. With noise added, the
measurement ability degrades slowly as the reader can document and
verify.
5. Generate the two orthogonal polyphase codes using ortho40.m and ortho40CE.m and the discrete frequency coding waveforms using dfc32.m
with the same signal parameters illustrated in Chapter 10. Use the
PWVD tools to examine the waveforms and determine if any coding
structure can be extracted from the time-frequency images or their marginal distributions.
Chapter 13
Choi-Williams Distribution
Analysis of LPI Radar
Waveforms
The pseudo Wigner-Ville distribution (PWVD) is useful for identifying the
LPI waveform modulation parameters due to the time-frequency characteristics that are calculated. The PWVD time-frequency images however, contain
large cross terms, which can sometimes make identification of the modulation, and extraction of the modulation parameters dicult especially in
low SNR situations. This chapter examines the Choi-Williams distribution
(CWD), which uses an exponential kernel in the generalized class of bilinear
time-frequency distributions to minimize the cross term components that are
so prevalent in the PWVD. The CWD is used to examine the LPI modulations for comparison to the results in the PWVD chapter. By using the
CWD analysis tools, the intercept receiver can increase its processing gain
approaching that of the LPI emitter. The absence of strong cross terms in
the time-frequency plane allows the modulation type to be more readily determined and also makes the extraction of the modulation parameters easier.
The CHOI folder on the CD provides the MATLAB tools that can be used
to re-create any of the figures presented, as well as generate new and useful
results.
445
446
13.1
Mathematical Development
1
2
(13.1)
x
2
2
(13.2)
and x() is the time signal, and x () is its complex conjugate. This represents a generalized class of a bilinear transformation that satisfies the marginals and has good resolution in both time and frequency spaces. The
Wigner-Ville time-frequency distribution, discussed in Chapter 12, is based
on (13.1) where the kernel function (, ) = 1. For multicomponent signals,
the cross terms that are present in the Wigner-Ville distribution were demonstrated to be quite large. The cross terms cause interference that can obscure
physically relevant components of the LPI signals modulation.
Choi and Williams [1] realized that by choosing the kernel in (13.1) carefully, the calculation can minimize the cross terms and still retain the desirable properties of the self-terms. The Choi-Williams distribution (CWD)
uses an exponential weighting kernel in order to reduce the cross term components of the distribution. The kernel function that gives the Choi-Williams
distribution is
2 2
(13.3)
(, ) = e /
where ( > 0) is a scaling factor. By substituting this kernel into (13.1)
the continuous CWD of the input signal x(t) is given as [1]
CWDx (t, ) =
ej
where
G(, )A(, )d d
4 2
2
G(, ) = e(t)
/(4 2 )
(13.4)
(13.5)
and t is the time variable, is the angular frequency variable (2f ), and is a
positive-valued scaling factor. The bracketed term in (13.4) is the estimation
of the time-indexed autocorrelation. Just as for the WVD, the CWD can be
defined from the Fourier transform X() of x(t) by
CWDX (t, ) =
1
2
ejt
X +
2
()
42 /
e
4 2
dd
(13.6)
447
CWDx ( , ) = 2
ej2
( )2 /(4 2 )
1
4n2 /
x( + )x ( )
(13.7)
WN ( )ej2
2
2
4
WM ()
4 2
x( + + )x ( + )
(13.8)
where WN ( ) is a symmetrical window which has nonzero values for the range
of N/2 N/2, and WM () is a rectangular window which has a value
of 1 for the range of M/2 M/2. The parameter N , is the length
of the window WN ( ). The length N along with the shape of the window
determines the frequency resolution of the distribution. The parameter M ,
which is the length of the window WM (), determines the range from which
the time indexed autocorrelation is estimated.
The CWDx in (13.8) can also be expressed as
L
S( , n)ej2n
CWDx ( , ) = 2
(13.9)
n=L
S( , n) = W (n)
=M/2
(2 )2
1
e 4n2 / x( + n)x ( n)
4n2 /
(13.10)
448
When the above kernel function in (13.10) is compared to the one given
for the Wigner-Ville distribution
f (n) = x( + n)x ( n)w(n)w(n)
(13.11)
the reader will notice that the CWD contains parameters similar to the
Wigner-Ville distribution, but includes an exponential term and introduces a
new summation. The reader will also notice that the CWD kernel function is
a series of Gaussian distributions. Barry points out that these distributions
are aligned diagonally and that the mean and variance of each distribution is
1 and 2n2 /, respectively [2].
As with the Wigner-Ville distribution, the discrete CWD can be modified
to fit the standard DFT by setting = k/2N . Substituting this result into
(13.9) and (13.10) above, and adding the window limits, we obtain [3]
k
,
2n
2N1
S ( , n)ej2kn/N
(13.12)
S( , n),
0nN 1
0,
n=N
S ( , n) =
S( , n 2N ), N + 1 n 2N 1
(13.13)
CWDx
13.2
=2
n=0
13.2.1
449
FMCW Analysis
13.2.2
BPSK Analysis
In this section we apply the CWD and use it to investigate the properties of
the BPSK CW signal. The parameters varied include the length of the Barker
code (number of subcodes Nc = 7 or 11) and the SNR (signal only, 0 dB,
6 dB). All signals have a fc = 1,000 Hz carrier frequency and a sampling
frequency of fs = 7,000 Hz. Both frequency domain and time domain plots
are shown for the BPSK signals after the CWD processing.
With the first signal examined shown in Figure 13.3(a), in the absence
of the cross terms, the carrier frequency of 1,000 Hz is suppressed with the
CWD. It can, however, be identified as the center of the 3-dB bandwidth.
The carrier frequency can also be identified in Figure 13.3(b) as the center of
the symmetric frequency distribution. In this case, there are 7 peaks within
the 3-dB bandwidth which correspond to the 7 subcodes in the Barker code.
Note also, that the Barker subcodes cannot be identified within the WVD.
In Figure 13.4, the 7-bit Barker code is examined with an SNR = 0 dB.
Figure 13.4(a) shows the frequency domain where the 7-bit code is still visible about the carrier frequency. With the time-frequency plot shown in
Figure 13.4(b), the subcodes about the carrier frequency are still clearly visible as well as the bandwidth. These results also indicate that the CWD also
appears to suppress the noise better than the WVD.
Figure 13.5(a) shows the marginal frequency domain for an Nc = 11-bit
Barker code BPSK signal only. All 11 peaks can be identified within the 3-dB
bandwidth. In Figure 13.5(b), the bandwidth and the carrier frequency can
still be identified.
450
451
Figure 13.2: CWD for an FMCW with a F = 250 Hz, tm = 20 ms timefrequency plot for (a) SNR = 0 dB and (b) SNR = 6 dB.
452
Figure 13.3: CWD for BPSK with 7-bit Barker code, cpp = 1, signal only,
showing (a) the marginal frequency domain plot and (b) the time-frequency
plot.
453
Figure 13.4: CWD for BPSK with 7-bit Barker code, cpp = 1, SNR = 0 dB,
showing (a) the marginal frequency domain plot and (b) the time-frequency
plot.
454
Figure 13.5: CWD for BPSK with 11-bit Barker code, cpp = 1, signal only,
showing (a) the marginal frequency domain plot and (b) the time-frequency
plot.
13.2.3
455
In this section, we examine two CW polyphase Frank code signals with the
CWD. Both signals are sampled in the receiver by an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) with a sampling frequency of fc = 1,000 Hz. The CW signal
is generated with Nc = 16 phase codes (M = 4), with a cpp = 1 or one cycle
per subcode. Each subcode has a length of tb = 1 ms, resulting in a Frank
code signal with a code period of
T = Nc tb =
Nc cpp
Nc
=
B
fc
(13.14)
or 16 ms. Figure 13.6(a) shows the CWD marginal frequency results. The
carrier frequency can be identified by the largest peak value. The harmonic
spikes appear every n/T Hz (or 62.5n Hz). Figure 13.6(b) shows the CWD
time-frequency image. Unlike the WVD, the Frank code shows the exact
number of code periods intercepted. The bandwidth B can also be identified
in the image. When measuring the Frank code bandwidth B within the WVD
image, it was necessary to skip one of the modulation lines due to the presence
of cross terms. With the CWD there are no cross terms and the bandwidth
can be measured directly. The slope of each line has a magnitude of
S=
f2
T
= 2 c 2 = 62,500 Hz s1
B
Nc cpp
(13.15)
13.2.4
The structures of the polytime codes (T1 through T4) within the CWD are
significantly dierent than the polyphase codes such as the Frank code. For
the T1 code examined, fc = 1,000 Hz and T = 16 ms. The number of
frequency segments used is k = 4 and the number of phase states is n = 2.
This signal is referred to as T1(2). The sampling frequency of the ADC is
fs = 7,000 Hz. With a code period of 16 ms and 4 frequency segments, each
segment must be 4 ms in duration. The frequency step between adjacent
segments is 1/4 ms = 250 Hz with a total frequency excursion of 1,000 Hz.
Figure 13.8(a) shows the CWD marginal frequency domain. Note that the
456
Figure 13.6: CWD for Frank code with B = 1,000 Hz, T = 16 ms, signal only,
showing (a) the marginal frequency domain plot and (b) the time-frequency
plot.
Figure 13.7: CWD for Frank code with B = 1,000 Hz, T = 16 ms,
time-frequency plot for (a) SNR = 0 dB and (b) SNR = 6 dB.
457
458
harmonics are uniformly spaced due to the time modulation of the binary
phase change. Figure 13.8(b) shows the time-frequency distribution of the
T1(2) code. The signal shows up as a set of vertical triangles stacked next to
each other. They are separated by the code period T . Figure 13.9(a) shows
the signal for an SNR = 0 dB. The signal can still be identified as a T1(2) and
the parameters can still be extracted. In Figure 13.9(b), with an SNR = 6
dB, no signal identification can be made and no parameters can be extracted.
13.2.5
In this section, we examine the CWD results for the FSK Costas signal and
a hybrid FSK/PSK signal. The CWD is used first to investigate the timefrequency characteristics of the Costas frequency hopping sequence
{3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1} kHz. The signal was generated with the LPIT using a frequency duration of tp = 0.005 seconds and a sampling frequency of fs =
15,057 Hz. The CWD marginal frequency domain is shown in Figure 13.10(a).
Note that the frequencies in the sequence are present and there are no cross
terms, as were present in the WVD. The CWD time-frequency image is shown
in Figure 13.10(b). The positions of the six Costas frequencies are shown
clearly.
In Figure 13.11, the time-frequency image is displayed for both the 0-dB
and 6-dB SNR signals, respectively. As expected, the identification becomes
more dicult with increasing noise levels but the presence of the signals can
still be identified. With the FSK (Costas)/PSK signal, each frequency is
overlayed with a 5-bit narrowband Barker phase code with cpp = 5 (five
cycles per phase code). The results are shown in Figure 13.12(a, b) for the
signal only, and SNR = 0 dB, respectively. The frequencies in the Costas
code can be identified along with the phase code overlay. For the FSK/PSK
target signal described, the CWD generates excellent results and gives a clear
picture without cross terms.
13.3
Summary
The CWD theory was presented in this chapter. Several examples were used
to demonstrate generating an ecient kernel function and the subsequent
calculation of the CWD time-frequency results. The CWD was compared
to the WVD and the usefulness of the CWD to reduce the cross terms was
demonstrated for key LPI signals. The MATLAB folder CHOI contains the
file choi.m, which can be used to generate the results in this chapter or any
other LPI waveform results.
459
Figure 13.8: CWD for polytime code T1(2) with B = 1,750 Hz, T = 16 ms,
signal only, showing (a) the marginal frequency domain plot and (b) the
time-frequency plot.
460
Figure 13.9: CWD for T1(2) code with B = 1,750 Hz, T = 16 ms, timefrequency plot for (a) SNR = 0 dB and (b) SNR = 6 dB.
461
Figure 13.10: CWD for Costas code sequence {3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1} kHz, showing
(a) the marginal frequency domain and (b) the time-frequency image.
462
Figure 13.11: CWD for time-frequency image for Costas code sequence
{3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1} kHz, showing (a) SNR = 0 dB and (b) SNR = 6 dB.
463
Figure 13.12: CWD for the FSK/PSK signal, showing (a) signal only and (b)
SNR = 0 dB.
464
References
[1] Choi, H.I. and Williams W. J., Improved Time-Frequency Representation
of Multicomponent Signals Using Exponential Kernels, IEEE Trans. on
Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, Vol. 37, No. 6, pp. 862871, June
1989.
[2] D. T. Barry, Fast calculation of the Choi-Williams time-frequency
distribution, IEEE Trans. on Signal Processing, Vol. 40, No. 2 pp. 450455,
Feb. 1992.
[3] Cardoso, J.C., Fish, P. J., and Ruano M. C., Parallel Implementation of
a Choi-Williams TFD for Doppler Signal Analysis, Proceedings of the 20th
Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and
Biology Society, Vol. 20, No. 3, 1998.
[4] Harkins, J., El-Ghazawi, T., El-Araby, E., and Huang, M., Performance
of sorting algorithms on the SRC 6 reconfigurable computer, Proceedings
of the IEEE International Conference on Field-Programmable Technology,
pp. 295 - 296, 1114 Dec. 2005.
[5] Upperman, G. J., Upperman, T. L. O., Fouts, D. J., and Pace, P. E.,
Ecient time-frequency and bi-frequency signal processing on a reconfigurable computer, Proceedings of the IEEE Asilomar Conference on Signals,
Systems & Computers, 2629 Oct. 2008.
Problems
1. Using the Choi-Williams distribution, (a) generate the time-frequency
results for the random noise radar waveform, the random noise plus
FMCW, random noise FMCW plus sine, and random binary phase modulations discussed in Chapter 7. For each waveform, which modulation
parameters can be extracted from the Choi-Williams distribution?
2. Using the Choi-Williams distribution, calculate the time-frequency distribution of the (a) polyphase signal that uses one of the orthogonal sequences given in Table 10.12 (ortho40.m), (b) the polyphase signal that
uses one of the Doppler-tolerant orthogonal sequences in Table 10.14
(ortho40CE.m), and (c) the frequency hopping signal that uses one of
the orthogonal frequency sequences given in Table 10.16 (dfc32.m).
465
Chapter 14
468
14.1
Time-Frequency Wavelet
Decomposition
14.1.1
Basis Functions
Linear transforms of a continuous time signal f (t) have the following form
ak =
f (t)k (t)dt
(14.1)
where (t) is the basis set, t is the time index, and k is the function index.
The Fourier transform, for example, has a basis set consisting of sines and
cosines of frequency 2k that oscillate forever. The basis functions are said
to be orthogonal if
(t)(t k) = E(k) =
E
0
if k = 0
otherwise
(14.2)
where E stands for the energy of(t) [1]. If (t) is normalized by dividing
by the square root of the energy E, then the basis functions are said to be
orthonormal defined by [2]
(t)(t k)dt = (k) =
1 if k = 0
0 otherwise
(14.3)
If the basis functions are orthonormal, there is no redundancy in the representation of the signal f (t). If the signal is sampled at or above the Nyquist
rate, all of the signals information is retained. In this case, the time variable
t in (14.1) and (14.3) can be considered to be discrete t = nT where T is the
sampling period and the integral should be replaced with summations.
1 Wigner transforms are called bilinear because the input waveform appears twice in the
development of the transform. Better resolution occurs in the time-frequency plane than
with linear techniques; however, the computational burden is greatly increased and the
cross terms can be bothersome for some applications.
14.1.2
469
(14.4)
14.1.3
470
tb
a
(14.5)
where a is a positive real number and b is a real number. For large a, the basis
function becomes a stretched version of the prototype wavelet (low frequency
function). For small a, the basis function becomes a contracted wavelet
(short high-frequency function). This basis function concept is shown in
Figure 14.2(a).
The WT is defined as
1
XW (a, b) =
a
tb
a
x(t)dt
(14.6)
The WT divides the time-frequency plane into tiles as shown in Figure 14.2(b).
Here, the area of each tile represents (approximately) the energy within the
function (rectangular regions of the frequency plane). Note that not all of
the signals energy can be located in a single tile because it is impossible to
concentrate the functions energy simultaneously in frequency and time. The
WT can be interpreted as constant-Q filtering with a pair of subband filters
(a lowpass filter and a highpass filter), followed by a sampling at the respective Nyquist frequencies corresponding to the bandwidth of the particular
subband of interest.
471
472
14.1.4
Wavelet Filters
Finite impulse response (FIR) filters are the popular choice for the wavelet
filter. To meet the requirements for a wavelet filter, the coecients must
ensure an orthogonal decomposition of the input signal, such that the energy
at the input will equal the energy at the output from each filter pair [10]. The
filter pairs are designed to divide the input signal energy into two orthogonal
components based on the frequency. The filter should also pass as much
energy within its tile with a flat passband, and reject as much energy outside
the tile as possible.
Haar Filter
A classic example of a wavelet filter is the Haar basis function, which is not
continuous but is of interest because of its simplicity. The Haar basis function
is
0
otherwise
and is shown in Figure 14.3. The Haar basis function can serve as a wavelet
lowpass FIR filter and has two coecients, both with values of 1/2. The
Haar filter meets the wavelet requirements with the orthonormality being
easily verified since, at a given scale, the translations are nonoverlapping [3].
Because of the scale change by 2, the basis functions are orthonormal across
scale. Unfortunately, the Haar function is discontinuous. Although the filter
meets the wavelet requirements and perfectly tiles the input energy in time,
it does not tile well in frequency, and is not appropriate for signal processing.
Consequently, a continuous set of basis functions (or filters) is needed that
473
sin(k)
k
k=0
k=0
(14.8)
Since the passband ranges from /2 < < /2 or 0.25 < f < 0.25, the
nulls of the sinc function will be at 2T for a sampling period of T [12]. To
obtain the filter coecients, the sinc function is sampled at the normalized
sampling period of T = 1 for a situation similar to that shown in Figure 14.4.
One way to sample the function would be to let the main tap sample occur
at the center of the main lobe. However, two main taps are needed, and their
sum needs to be as large as possible. This occurs for the sinc function if both
main tap samples are equally spaced about the center of the main lobe [10].
The sum of the square of
the coecients must be unity also, which is achieved
by scaling the sinc by 1/ 2, giving
1
h(n) = sinc
2
where n is an integer.
n + 0.5
2
(14.9)
474
This filter meets the criteria of wavelet filters. The only problem is
that there is an infinite number of coecients. A small amount of nonorthogonality will occur when this filter is truncated. Some cross correlation
will also take place between both highpass and lowpass filters. If the ends of
the filter are simply truncated (a rectangular window in the time domain),
some ripples in the passband of the frequency response will appear (Gibbs
phenomena).
One solution is to use a nonrectangular window, and one whose Fourier
transform has a narrower main lobe and smaller side lobes than the sinc
function. The Hamming window is one that is commonly used. Multiplying
the coecients from (14.9) by this window, and using the results in an FIR
filter, the frequency response needed is generated. Energy will be lost at the
filter transitions, which is primarily the result of the loss of orthogonality
from truncating the filter [11].
For detection, instead of losing the energy at those frequencies, a better
trade-o would be a small amount of cross correlation between the filters,
so that some energy appears in more than one tile. To achieve this type of
prototype filter, the impulse response can be modified to have a passband
that is slightly greater than /2. Thus, the lowpass and highpass filters
are squeezed together slightly. This can be achieved by compressing the
sinc envelope of (14.9) slightly. At the same time, it is desirable to rescale
the coecients slightly, so the sum of the squares equals one. With these
modifications, a modified sinc filter results as [9, 10]
h(n) =
S
sinc
2
n + 0.5
C
w(n)
(14.10)
14.2
Discrete Two-Channel
Quadrature Mirror Filter Bank
475
Figure 14.5: Two-channel quadrature mirror filter bank [5] ( c IEEE 2000).
476
Figure 14.7: Wavelet filter bank tree filtering the lowpass component (wavelet
tiling) [9, 12].
reasonable replica of the input x[n]. Moreover, they are also designed to
provide good frequency selectivity, to ensure that the sum of the power of the
subband signals is reasonably close to the input signal power.
14.3
477
Figure 14.8: Time-frequency diagram for the lowpass wavelet filter bank tree
[9] ( c IEEE 1999).
Figure 14.9: Wavelet filter bank tree filtering the highpass component.
14.4
The last section demonstrated that by cascading filters and filtering the lowpass component of the previous output, a tiling with finer frequency resolution
at lower frequencies was achieved. Now consider the cascading filter diagram
in Figure 14.9 where, instead of filtering the lowpass output of each stage, the
highpass filter (G filter) output is filtered. Again, the input sequence is split
at each stage into high-frequency and low-frequency orthogonal sequences.
The tiling diagram is shown in Figure 14.10.
Notice that the second and third layers seem to be flipped in Figure 14.9.
The figure is drawn so that the output sequence at the top of the drawing
contains the highest frequency components of the input sequence. To understand why they are flipped, consider the aliased frequency spectrum of
478
Figure 14.10: Time-frequency diagram for the highpass wavelet filter bank
tree.
the filters, shown in Figure 14.11. The output from the G filter in the first
layer contains the higher frequency components of the original sequence, but
shifted, so that it is actually the dc component of the output of G. The result
is that the output of G is frequency reversed, much like the lower sideband of
a single sideband communication system. A similar structure farther down
the cascade will unflip the signal.
It is possible to create another tiling scheme by combining the wavelet
filter bank and wavelet tiling, as demonstrated in Figure 14.12. In order to
keep the higher frequency outputs of each branch above the lower frequency
outputs, the construction rule for this figure is to count the number of G
filters up to the branch. If the number is even, the next G filter will output
the high frequencies. If odd, the next H filter will output the high frequencies.
14.5
479
480
Figure 14.12: Combining the wavelet filter bank and wavelet tiling. (Downsampling by 2 is included in each filter box.)
481
Figure 14.13: Quadrature mirror filter bank tree [10] ( c IEEE 1996).
Figure 14.14: Quadrature mirror filter bank tree receiver [10] ( c IEEE 1996).
482
tion and target detection [14], and also as a means for identifying signal modulations [15]. The architecture discussed above has been used to investigate
the detection of LPI signals in [1619], and is used below to investigate the
parameters of the signals in Part I. We start with two example calculations,
to become familiar with the QMFB processing and its output waveforms.
14.6
Example Calculations
In this section two example calculations are shown for a complex input. A
complex single-tone example is shown first, followed by a two-tone signal.
These examples serve to demonstrate the dierent QMFB output layers, and
show the trade-o in time-frequency resolution as a function of the layer
number being examined. The lower the layer number, the smaller (better)
the resolution in time, and consequently the larger (poorer) the resolution in
frequency. As the layer number gets larger, the resolution in time gets larger,
and the resolution in frequency gets smaller.
14.6.1
where NF is the number of tiles displayed in frequency. For example, for layer
2 in Figure 14.15, f = 7,000/2(3) = 1,166.67 Hz. The resolution in time is
483
Figure 14.15: Time-frequency layers for the 1-kHz single-tone signal, showing
(a) layer 2, (b) layer 3, and (c) layer 4.
484
Figure 14.16: Time-frequency layers for the 1-kHz single-tone signal, showing
(a) layer 5, and (b) layer 6.
485
determined by how many samples are integrated within the QMFB. For layer
l < L,
Np
Np
=
(14.12)
t =
Ll
fs (2
1)
fs NT
14.6.2
The second example consists of a signal with two frequencies fc1 = 1 kHz
and fc2 = 2 kHz, with a sampling frequency fs = 7 kHz. In this example, a
contour plot is used. Although the gray scale plot illustrated above quantifies
the energy within each tile, the contour plot is useful for other types of information (such as time-domain characteristics), as illustrated in the results
below. The number of signal samples collected, the time resolution t, and
frequency resolution f for each layer within the QMFB are the same as for
the single-tone example above. Figure 14.17 shows the contour plot for layers
2 through 4. Figure 14.18 shows the contour plot for layers 5 and 6. As before, layers 1 and 7 are not displayed, since they have only a single row vector
of data. This example illustrates the important concepts that are evident
using a contour image. First, for lower layers such as layer 2 and layer 3, the
time domain characteristics of the signals can be clearly identified. In layer 2,
the complex phase interaction in time, of the two signals within a single filter,
can also be identified. The high-frequency resolution layers [such as layer 6
shown in Figure 14.18(b)] reveal the frequencies contained in the input signal
with a good amount of accuracy (f = 55 Hz).
486
Figure 14.17: Time-frequency layers for the two-tone signal (1 kHz, 2 kHz),
showing (a) layer 2, (b) layer 3, and (c) layer 4.
487
Figure 14.18: Time-frequency layers for the two-tone signal (1 kHz, 2 kHz),
showing (a) layer 5, and (b) layer 6.
14.7
FMCW Analysis
488
489
14.8
BPSK Analysis
In this section, the QMFB is used to investigate the properties of the binary
phase shift keying signal discussed in Chapter 5, and also investigated in
Chapter 9 with the PVWD. The signal parameters that were changed include
the length of the Barker code (7 or 11), and the SNR (signal only, SNR = 0
dB, SNR = 6 dB).
In the first example, fc = 1 kHz, fs = 7 kHz, and cpp = 1, and a
7-bit Barker code is used. The total number of layers is L = 11 (Np =
2,048), and the layers investigated for this signal are l = 3 and l = 6. Figure
14.21(a) shows the l = 3 layer (f = 500 Hz, t = 1.15 ms), and the 25
BPSK code periods captured. The number of subcodes within a code period
T cannot, however, be distinguished with this particular QMFB layer and
scaling. A closer look however is illustrated in Figure 14.21(b). In this figure
(f = 500 Hz, t = 286 s), a concentration of energy can be located near
the beginning of each code period (along the carrier frequency fc = 1 kHz).
This is due to the three contiguous subcodes, all with the same phase. The
490
491
Figure 14.21: QMFB layer 3 contour plot for BPSK with 7-bit Barker code,
cpp = 1 (signal only), showing (a) the complete captured signal, and (b) a
close-up view showing the code period T = 7 ms.
492
Figure 14.22: QMFB layer 6 for BPSK with 7-bit Barker code with cpp = 1,
showing the (a) contour image (signal only), and (b) contour image with
SNR = 0 dB.
493
Figure 14.23: QMFB contour images for BPSK with 7-bit Barker code, cpp =
5 (signal only), showing (a) layer 2, and (b) layer 6.
494
Figure 14.24: QMFB layer 6 contour image for BPSK cpp = 5 signal, with
SNR = 0 dB.
14.9
In this section we examine the polyphase codes with the QMFB, beginning
with the Frank code. In Chapter 5 we saw that the Frank code is derived from
a linear FM waveform. The phase modulation is applied both to the I and Q
signals, which are 90 degrees out of phase. In this and the following sections,
it is shown that the QMFB can be used to not only identify a particular type
of phase modulation, but also to extract the important parameters of the
signal.
The Frank phase code signal is generated with Nc = 64 (M = 8). The
phase codes for M = 8 are shown in Figure 14.25. This is demonstrated
in the QMFB l = 2 layer shown in Figure 14.26. The number of layers in
this example is L = 12 (Np = 4,096). For this layer f = 1,166.67 Hz,
and t = 571.99 s (small dierence). In Figure 14.26(a), the additional
48 subcodes within a code period results in a longer duration signal. The
five code periods have a total length of 320 ms. Figure 14.26(b) shows a
close-up of the frequency characteristics within a code period. The linear
frequency modulation characteristics are viewed in the QMFB l = 5 layer
in Figure 14.27(a, b). Here, the bandwidth can be clearly identified, as well
as the code period T = 64 ms. Note the wraparound characteristic within
the bandwidth, similar to the 16-subcode example above. Correlation of the
495
14.10
In this section the T1(2) polytime code is analyzed using the QMFB.
Figure 14.30 shows the QMFB contour images for the polytime T1(2) code
with a resulting B = 1,750 Hz, T = 16 ms (signal only). The QMFB for
this signal has l = 10 layers. Figure 14.30(a) shows the layer 2 output, and
Figure 14.30(b) shows a close-up of layer 2, showing the frequency changes
due to binary phase code that varies as a function of time. Figure 14.31(a)
shows the fourth layer QMFB contour images for the polytime T1(2) code.
Figure 14.31(b) shows a close-up of layer 4, showing the resulting linear fre-
496
Figure 14.26: QMFB contour images for M = 8 Frank code with B = 1,000
Hz, T = 64 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 2 output, and (b) close-up of
layer 2, showing detailed frequency changes due to phase codes.
497
Figure 14.27: QMFB contour images for M = 8 Frank code with B = 1,000
Hz, T = 64 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 5 output, and (b) close-up of
layer 5, showing resulting linear frequency modulation.
498
Figure 14.29: QMFB layer 6 contour image for Frank Nc = 64 signal with
SNR = 0 dB.
499
14.11
In this section, five code periods of a Costas frequency hopping signal are
examined. The Costas code within each period is 4, 7, 1, 6, 5, 2, and 3 kHz.
In Figure 14.32(a), the QMFB layer 4 shows that the frequencies can easily
be identified. The close-up in Figure 14.32(b) reveals that no modulation is
present on the frequency. Figure 14.33 shows layer 6 with a finer frequency
resolution. Note the spread in time, demonstrating the trade-o in resolution
from one layer to the next.
14.12
14.13
500
Figure 14.30: QMFB contour images for polytime T1(2) code with resulting
B = 1,750 Hz, T = 16 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 2 output, and
(b) close-up layer 2, showing detailed frequency changes due to phase codes.
501
Figure 14.31: QMFB contour images for polytime T1(2) code with resulting
B = 1,750 Hz, T = 16 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 4 output, and
(b) close-up of layer 4 showing resulting linear frequency modulation.
502
Figure 14.32: QMFB contour images for layer 4 for FSK code using Costas
sequence, showing (a) layer 4 output, and (b) close-up of layer 4 showing
frequency resolution.
503
Figure 14.33: QMFB contour images for layer 6 for FSK code using Costas
sequence, showing (a) layer 6 output, and (b) close-up of layer 6 showing
frequency resolution.
504
Figure 14.34: QMFB contour images for layer 4 for FSK/PSK code using
Costas sequence plus 5-bit Barker code cpp = 5 (signal only), showing
(a) layer 4 output, and (b) close-up of layer 4 showing Barker phase modulation.
505
Figure 14.35: QMFB contour images for layer 6 for FSK/PSK code using
Costas sequence plus 5-bit Barker code cpp = 5 (signal only), showing (a)
layer 6 output, and (b) close-up layer 6 showing Barker phase modulation.
506
Figure 14.36: QMFB contour image for the random noise waveform showing
the extraction of the bandwidth and carrier frequency from l = 6.
14.14
Summary
The QMFB theory was presented in this chapter and several examples were
used to demonstrate the time-frequency results. To extract the unknown
signal parameters, several layers must be examined to determine those that
provide the best information. The phase changes can be identified from the
lower layers, while the frequency information is best obtained from the higher
layers.
Contrary to the Wigner-Ville distribution, and Choi-Williams distribution, the QMFB performs remarkably well for the FSK Costas code and
FSK/PSK (binary phase code) signal. Not only were the frequency hops
identified, but the frequency duration could also be indentified, as well as
the binary phase modulation if present. For the FSK/PSK target signal reported, the QMFB was not able to identify any meaningful signal parameters
for the same reason that the PWVD could not. The use of the QMFB was
also demonstrated to work remarkably well with the random noise modulations. The main drawback is the fact that even if the most useful results are
from, for example, layer 7, all of the other layers prior to layer 7 must still be
computed.
The presentation of the QMFB results to a trained operator will allow the
signal parameters to be extracted, and can enable good classification results
507
Figure 14.37: QMFB contour image for the random noise plus FMCW waveform showing the extraction of the noise bandwidth, FMCW modulation, and
carrier frequency.
Figure 14.38: QMFB contour image layer 7 for the random binary phase
modulation showing the extraction of the bandwidth, and carrier frequency.
508
Figure 14.39: QMFB contour image layer 2 for random binary phase modulation showing the direct correlation of the phase modulation used to create
one code period.
509
when the information from several layers is combined. The use of the QMFB
in noisy environments, however, gives problems in parameter identification,
and further image processing is necessary.
References
[1] Burrus, C. S., Gopinath R. A., and Guo, H., Introduction to Wavelets and
Wavelet Transforms, A Primer, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1998.
[2] Chui, C. K., Wavelets: A Mathematical Tool for Signal Analysis, First Edition, SIAM, Philadelphi, PA, 1997.
[3] Vetterli, M., and Herley, C., Wavelets and filter banks: Theory and design,
IEEE Trans. on Signal Processing, Vol. 40, No. 9, pp. 22072232, Sept.
1992.
[4] Mitra, S., Digital Signal Processing, A Computer-Based Approach, Second
Edition, McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA, 2001.
[5] Al-Namiy, F., and Nigam, M. J., On the design of 2-band FIR QMF filter
banks using WLS techniques, Proc. of the Fourth IEEE International Conference on High Performance Computing in the Asia-Pacific Region, Vol. 2,
pp. 772776, May 2000.
[6] Goh, C. K., and Lim, Y. C., A WLS algorithm for the design of low-delay
quadrature mirror filter banks, Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Vol. 1, pp. 615618, May 2000.
[7] Zahhad, A., and M. A. Sabah, Design of selective M-channel perfect reconstruction FIR filter banks, IEE Electronics Letters, Vol. 35, No. 15, pp.
12231225, 1999.
[8] Zhang, Z., and L. Jiao, A simple method for designing pseudo QMF banks,
Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Communication Technology, Vol. 2, pp. 15381541, Aug. 2000.
[9] Farrell, T., and Prescott, G., A Method for Finding Orthogonal Wavelet
Filters with Good Energy Tiling Characteristics, IEEE Trans. on Signal
Processing, Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 220223, Jan. 1999.
[10] Farrell, T., and Prescott, G., A Nine-Tile Algorithm for LPI Signal Detection Using QMF Filter Bank Trees, Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on
Military Communications MILCOM 96, Vol. 3, pp. 974978, 1996.
[11] Proakis, J., and Manolakis, D., Digital Signal Processing. Principles, Algorithms, and Applications, Third Edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,
NJ, 1996.
[12] Herley, C., et. al., Tilings of the time-frequency plane: Construction of
arbitrary orthogonal bases and fast tiling algorithms, IEEE Transactions on
Signal Processing, Vol. 41, No. 12, pp. 33413359, Dec. 1993.
[13] Shang, Y., Longzhuang, L., and Ho, K. C., Optimization design of filter
banks for wavelet denoising, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference
on Signal Processing, Vol. 1, pp. 306310, Aug. 2000.
510
Problems
1. (a) Using the LPIT, generate the FMCW waveform (signal only, SNR =
0 dB, and SNR = 6 dB) with a carrier frequency of 2 kHz, tm =
5 ms, and F = 500 Hz. (b) Process the signals with the QMFB
algorithm. (c) For each useful layer, diagram your estimates of all the
signal parameters for signal only, SNR = 0 dB and SNR = 6 dB.
2. (a) Using the LPIT, generate a P4 waveform (signal only, SNR =
0 dB, and SNR = 6 dB) with a carrier frequency of 2 kHz, Nc = 128,
tb = 1 ms, and fs = 7,000 Hz. (b) Process the signals with the QMFB
algorithm. (c) For each useful layer, diagram your estimates of all the
signal parameters for signal only, SNR = 0 dB, and SNR = 6 dB.
3. (a) Using the LPIT, generate the default FMCW waveform and the
default P4 waveform. Load both signals into MATLAB, and truncate
such that they both have the same size (be sure to at least include 1 to 2
code periods of each signal). (b) Add the two signals together and save
as a new signal (e.g., fmcw p4.mat). (c) Using the QMFB processing,
analyze the signal and extract the waveform parameters for each signal
that is evident. (d) Repeat (b) and (c) for SNR = 0 dB. (e) Repeat (b)
and (c) for SNR = 6 dB.
511
4. Using the QMFB tools, (a) add a tic and tock command to the program
and then (b) examine the random noise, random noise plus FMCW,
random noise FMCW plus sine, and random binary phase modulations
discussed in Chapter 7. Be sure to record the amount of time it takes
to compute the results.
5. The MATLAB program tsinc su.m, allows you to change the number of
filter coecients used in the wavelet pairs. Use the program to change
the number of filter coecients from 512 to 128. Work the problem
above with this new filter configuration and note the amount of time
needed.
6. (a) For the 512 filter coecients, calculate the group delay of the filter.
(b) Since the number of filter coecients is the same for all wavelet pairs,
the group delay of each layer is also the same. If the ADC sampling
rate is fs = 7,000 Hz calculate how many layers can be computed if the
results must be calculated in real time (time to gather the input signal
record equals the time to process the signal record).
7. To help identify the capability of the quadrature mirror filter bank
analysis as a tool for identifying the LPI modulation, extracting the
modulation parameters, and to aid in deciding on what signal processing algorithm performs best, construct a table to show the quadrature
mirror filter bank measurement results for the LPI signals contained in
the test signals folder. For each parameter of interest, show the actual
value, the measured value, and the absolute value of the relative error
[see (12.26)]. Be sure to include the layer that is used for identifying
the dierent parameter values being measured.
Chapter 15
Cyclostationary Spectral
Analysis for Detection of
LPI Radar Parameters
The Wigner-Ville distribution (Chapter 12), the Choi-Williams distribution
(Chapter 13) and the quadrature mirror filter bank processing (Chapter 14)
together give time-frequency results that allow the LPI parameters to be determined with good accuracy. This chapter presents an additional bifrequency
spectral analysis technique, known as cyclostationary processing, that oers
some additional capability in the detection and classification of LPI modulations. Instead of examining the LPI signals in the time-frequency domain,
cyclostationary processing transforms the signal into the frequency-cycle frequency domain. Two ecient methods for computing the cyclostationary
spectrum are presented: the time-smoothing FFT accumulation method, and
the direct frequency-smoothing method. The cyclostationary signal processing is then used to extract the parameters from the LPI radar waveforms
discussed in Part I. The folder titled CYCLO contains the signal processing
MATLAB files that allow the user to re-create any of the results presented,
as well as new results of interest.
15.1
Introduction
514
15.1.1
Cyclic Autocorrelation
(15.2)
If f (x) and g(x) are the same function, the integral above is called the autocorrelation function and cross correlation if they dier. The autocorrelation
function is a quadratic transformation of the signal, and may be interpreted
as a measure of the predictability of the signal at time t + based on knowledge of the signal at time t. When considering a time series of length T , the
515
lim
Rx ( )=
p
Q p
Q j2t
x t+
dt
x t
e
2
2
T /2
T /2
(15.4)
and can be interpreted as the Fourier coecient of any additive sine wave
component with frequency that might be contained in the delay product
(quadratic transformation) of x(t). The nonzero correlation (second-order
periodicity) characteristic of a time series x(t) exists in the time domain, if
the cyclic autocorrelation function is not identically zero. That is, the signal
x(t) is said to be cyclostationary if Rx ( ) does not equal zero at some time
delay (any real number) and cycle frequency = 0.
15.1.2
Recall that the power spectral density is defined as the Fourier transform of
the autocorrelation function
8
Rx ( )ej2f d
(15.5)
Sx (f ) =
In the same manner, the spectral correlation density (SCD), or cyclic spectral
density, is obtained from the Fourier transform of the cyclic autocorrelation
function (15.4) as [12]
8
p
Q p
Q
1
XT f +
Rx ( )ei2f d = lim
XT f
(15.6)
Sx (f )=
T T
2
2
XT (f )=
T /2
x(u)ej2f u du
(15.7)
T /2
which is the Fourier transform of the time domain signal x(u). The additional
variable (cycle frequency) leads to a two-dimensional representation Sx (f );
namely, the bifrequency plane (f , ) [12]. Measurement of (15.4) and (15.6)
in signal analysis constitutes what is referred to as cyclic spectral analysis.
Good insight is gained if we examine a second-order cyclostationary process
and compare the time-domain implementation and the frequency-domain implementation. In Figure 15.1 it is shown that the time-domain implementa-
516
15.2
Estimates of the cyclic spectral density or SCD can be obtained via time or
frequency-smoothing techniques. Since the signals being analyzed are defined
over a finite time interval t, the cyclic spectral density is only an estimate.
An estimate of the SCD can be obtained by the time-smoothed cyclic periodogram given by
8 t+(t/2)
1
SxTW (u, f )du
(15.8)
Sx (f ) SxT (t, f )t =
W
t t(t/2)
517
Figure 15.3: Frequency-domain representation of (a) x(t) [X()], (b) modulation of x(t) by /2 [U ()], and (c) modulation of x(t) by /2 [S()].
518
p
1
Q p
Q
XTW u, f +
XTW u, f
TW
2
2
(15.9)
with t being the total observation time of the signal, TW is the short-time
FFT window length, and
XTW (t, f ) =
t+(TW /2)
x(u)ej2f u du
(15.10)
t(TW /2)
is the sliding short-time Fourier transform. Figure 15.4 shows the SCD estimation graphically for a signal x(t). Here the frequency components are
evaluated over a small time window TW (sliding FFT time length), along
the entire observation time interval t. The spectral components generated
by each short-time Fourier transform have a resolution, f = 1/TW . In
Figure 15.4, L is the overlap (sliding) factor between each short-time FFT.
In order to avoid aliasing and cycle leakage on the estimates, the value of L
is defined as L TW /4 [13].
Figure 15.5 shows the spectral components of each short-time FFT being multiplied according to (15.9), providing the same resolution capability
f = 1/TW , for the cyclic spectrum estimates [4, 14]. Note that the dummy
variable t has been replaced by the specific time instances t1 . . . tp . Within
each window (TW ), two frequency components centered about some f0 and
separated by some 0 are multiplied together, and the resulting sequence of
products is then integrated over the total time (t), as shown in (15.8).
519
Figure 15.5: Sequence of frequency products for each short-time Fourier transform.
The estimation Sx (f ) SxT (t, f )t can be made as reliable and accuW
rate as desired for any given t and f , and for all f by making t suciently
large, provided that (15.4) exists within the interval t and that a substantial
amount of smoothing is carried out over t. This leads to the Grenanders
uncertainty condition tf
1 [14]. This uncertainty condition means that
the observation time (t) must greatly exceed the time window (TW ) that
is used to compute the spectral components. A data taper window is also
used to minimize the eects of cycle and spectral leakage (estimation noise),
introduced by frequency component side lobes [14]. The spectral components
obtained from the short-time FFT have a resolution of
f =
1
TW
(15.11)
The cycle frequency resolution of the estimate is related to the total observation time by
1
(15.12)
=
t
The estimation of some (f0 , 0 ) represents a very small area on the bifrequency plane, as shown in Figure 15.6, and, since one needs a significant
number of estimates to represent the cyclic spectrum adequately, it follows
that obtaining estimates becomes very computationally demanding, and ecient algorithms are required [15].
520
15.3
15.3.1
521
Figure 15.7: Block diagram of the FAM (adapted from [3, 11]).
from (15.8) and (15.9), in discrete terms, yields
(n, k)
SX
NI
]
N 1 }
p
1 3 1
Q p
Q
=
XN I n, k +
XN I n, k
N n=0 N
2
2
where
XN I (n, k) =
I
N
1
3
w(n)x(n)e(j2kn)/N
(15.13)
(15.14)
n=0
is the discrete Fourier transform of x(n), w(n) is the data taper window (e.g.,
Hamming window), and the discrete equivalents of f and are k and ,
respectively. A block diagram of the FFT accumulation method is shown in
Figure 15.7.
The algorithm consists of three basic stages: computation of the complex
demodulates (divided into data tapering, sliding N point Fourier transform,
and baseband frequency translation sections), computation of the product
sequences, and smoothing of the product sequences. Table 15.1 shows the
relationship between the variables in (15.8), (15.9), and (15.13). The parameter N represents the total number of discrete samples within the observation
time, and N represents the number of points within the discrete short-time
(sliding) FFT. In the FAM algorithm, spectral components of a sequence,
x(n), are computed using (15.14). Two components are multiplied (15.13) to
provide a sample of a cyclic spectrum estimate representing the finite channel
pair region on the bifrequency plane, as shown in Figure 15.8. There are N 2
522
Continuous Time
SX
(t, f )t
TW
t
t
f
M = (f /) ( 1
TW
Discrete Time
SX
(n, k)N
I
N
NI
N
n
k
M = (N/N I ) ( 1
channel pair regions in the bifrequency plane. Note the 16 small channel pair
regions corresponding to a value of M = 4 in Figure 15.8.
A sequence of samples for any particular area may be obtained by multiplying the same two components of a series of consecutive short-time sliding
FFTs along the entire length of the input sequence. After the channelization
performed by an N -point FFT sliding over the data with an overlap of L
samples, the outputs of the FFTs are shifted in frequency in order to obtain
the complex demodulate sequences (see Figure 15.7) [4]. Instead of computing an average of the product of sequences between the complex demodulates,
as in (15.8), they are Fourier-transformed with a P -point (second) FFT. The
computational eciency of the algorithm is improved by a factor of L, since
only N/L samples are processed for each point estimate. With fs the sampling frequency, the cycle frequency resolution of the decimated algorithm is
defined as res = fs /N (compare to = 1/t), the frequency resolution
is kres = fs /N (compare to f = 1/TW ), and the Grenanders Uncertainty
1 (compare to tf
1).
Condition is M = N/N
Figure 15.9 reveals that the estimates toward the top and the bottom
(shaded areas) of the channel pair region do not satisfy the Uncertainty Condition. In order to minimize the variability of these point estimates, we can
retain only those cyclic spectrum components that are within = kres /2
from the center of the channel pair region [15]. A solution to resolve the
entire area of the channel pair region without leaving gaps is to apply a data
taper window on the frequency axis (such as a Hamming window), to obtain
better coverage.
15.3.2
523
Figure 15.8: Channel pair regions within the bifrequency plane (Adapted
from [3, 15]).
524
(n, k)k =
SX
N
N 1
p
1 3
Q p
Q
XN n, k +
XN n, k
N n=0
2
2
where
XN (n, k) =
N1
3
w(n)x(n)e(j2kn)/N
(15.15)
(15.16)
n=0
525
approach, but may become more computationally demanding. This is especially true in the last block in which the complex demodulate product sequences are summed. Considerations on the parallel processing of both time
and frequency algorithms are discussed in [11]. Finally, we note that combinations of both time-smoothing and frequency-smoothing methods may also
be advantageous for certain applications.
15.4
Test Signals
526
527
528
For these results, the frequency resolution k = 128 Hz, the Grenanders
uncertainty value M = 2, and the cycle frequency = 64 Hz. Also, N , N ,
and P are the same as for the single-tone signal.
The frequency-smoothing SCD results for the two-tone signal are shown in
Figure 15.14.
Figure 15.14(a) shows the bifrequency plane, and
Figure 15.14(b) details a close-up of the frequency-smoothing estimation characteristics, including the cross terms. As for the single-tone results, k = 128
Hz and N = 128. Note that in Figure 15.14(b), the = 2fci cycle frequency
positions do not lie at the signal centroids.
15.5
BPSK Analysis
In this section, two Nc = 7-bit binary phase shift (BPSK) signals are used
to present the method of measuring and determining the BPSK signal parameters in the bifrequency plane. Both a wideband modulation (cycles per
subcode period cpp = 1) and a narrowband modulation (cpp = 5) are used to
illustrate the technique. The ability to extract the BPSK parameters under
various SNR conditions is also quantified. For these results, the frequency
resolution k = X and the Grenanders uncertainty value M = 2 (cycle
frequency = X Hz).
Figure 15.15 shows the narrowband BPSK signal. In Figure 15.15(a), the
complete SCD bifrequency plane is shown. Note that the cycle frequency
extends from fs to fs and the frequency extends from fs /2 to fs /2 (see
also Figure 15.6). The BPSK modulation shows up in the four quadrants
centered on = 2fc = 2 kHz. A closer look at the boxed section in Figure
15.15(a) is shown in Figure 15.15(b). The most important parameters of the
BPSK signal can be identified clearly. These are the bandwidth B = 1/tb ,
the code rate Rc = 1/tb Nc , the subcode period tb , and the number of bits
N used in the Barker code. The bandwidth can be measured in both the
frequency dimension and the cycle frequency dimension. The measurement
in the cycle frequency dimension is the width from the centroid (C) to the
edge of the pattern, where the SCD peaks on the bifrequency plane start to
fall o in amplitude. The spots to exclude in the calculation have a lower
intensity. This is especially noticeable in the k dimension. The bandwidth
is measured as B = 1 kHz, giving a subcode period of 1 ms. The code rate
Rc is measured in the cycle frequency domain, and is the width between any
two spots within the BPSK modulation pattern. Here, Rc = 142.8 Hz. The
number of Barker bits is then Nc = B/Rc =7 bits.
At first, the sensitivity of the extracted parameter values to the measurement of the bandwidth might seem critical. This is not true, however, since
the number of bits N for a BPSK signal can only take on a select set of values.
For example, if the next set of spots was included in the calculation, and the
bandwidth was measured to be B = 1,142.8, then N 8, which we know is
529
Figure 15.13: Time-smoothing SCD for a two-tone signal (fc1 = 1 kHz, fc2 =
2 kHz), showing (a) the bifrequency plane, and (b) a close-up of the timesmoothing estimation characteristics.
530
531
not correct. Therefore, too many spots were included in the measurement.
Figure 15.16 shows a contour plot that illustrates the BPSK pattern and
measurement technique when the SNR = 0 dB. The white Gaussian noise
added to the signal is distributed over a bandwidth equal to fs /2. The complete bifrequency plane is shown in Figure 15.16(a), and the boxed region is
examined closer in Figure 15.16(b). Note that the noise is suppressed significantly. This is due to the noise being uncorrelated. The centroid (C) is
identified, and the bandwidth is measured out to the row of spots just before the crosshatch ends. The bandwidth in the frequency k dimension is
also shown. The bandwidth is measured as shown, and extends between the
highest and lowest corners of the crosshatch region. Note that since the noise
has enhanced the details of the crosshatch, the measurement is easier to take
in the k dimension. The code rate is also easily measured between adjacent
spots as shown in Figure 15.17.
The next signal examined is the narrowband 7-bit BPSK (cpp = 5). Since
the carrier frequency is fc = 1 kHz, the subcode period tb = 5 ms, resulting
in a bandwidth of B = 200 Hz. The frequency-smoothing SCD is shown in
Figure 15.18. Figure 15.19 illustrates the extraction of the narrowband BPSK
signal parameters when noise is present. The bandwidth B is measured in
the same manner as is the code rate Rc . This important example shows
that significant amounts of noise in the bifrequency plane can still give good
results.
15.6
FMCW Analysis
532
533
534
535
Figure 15.18: Frequency-smoothing SCD patterns for an Nc = 7-bit narrowband BPSK signal with fc = 1 kHz and cpp = 5, showing the bifrequency
plane illustrating the method of parameter measurements.
tm = 20 ms.
Figure 15.21 illustrates the extraction of the FMCW parameters when
noise is present. In Figure 15.21(a) the SNR = 0 dB. Note that the pattern
is still recognizable as being unique to the FMCW waveform. The noise
present actually aids in identifying the centroid of the modulation. The
modulation bandwidth F is measured in the same manner as shown in
Figure 15.20 also with good fidelity. The measurement of Rc is also easily
made. In Figure 15.21(b) the SNR = 6 dB. With this level of noise, a significant degradation in the contour image results, and makes the modulation
bandwidth dicult to measure in the cycle frequency dimension. However,
the F measurement can still be easily made, with only a slight bit of error. Here F = 240 Hz. The Rc value, however, can still be made with a
good degree of accuracy. The extraction of the FMCW parameters from a
wideband signal F = 500 is given in Appendix N.
15.7
In this section we look at the bifrequency plane results for the polyphase
codes, and demonstrate the bifrequency extraction techniques. We begin
with the Frank code example. The analysis of the wideband Frank signal
536
Figure 15.19: Frequency-smoothing SCD patterns for an Nc = 7-bit narrowband BPSK signal with fc = 1 kHz and cpp = 5, showing (a) the bifrequency
plane with SNR = 0 dB, and (b) SNR = 6 dB.
537
538
539
Figure 15.22: Time-smoothing SCD insect patterns for the Frank code with
Nc = 64, fc = 1 kHz, and cpp = 1, with (a) the complete bifrequency
plane, and (b) a closer examination of one of the four modulation patterns
illustrating the bandwidth measurements.
540
can be obtained, even from bifrequency planes with small SNR with Nc =
B/Rc = 64. Appendix O examines the Frank code with a shorter code period. The cyclostationary results for the P1, P2, P3, and P4 codes are given in
Appendix P.
15.8
In this section the frequency-smoothing SCD is used to examine the polytime codes. We begin with the T1(2) code. The T1(2) code has an fc = 1
kHz, and has a time-modulated binary phase shift (of various widths). Figure 15.24(a) shows the bifrequency plane and the four modulation patterns.
Figure 15.24(b) shows one of the four unique patterns, and illustrates how
the bandwidth of the signal can be measured. Recall that the bandwidth
B is measuring the largest excursion in frequency, due to the shortest time
phase code. For the case shown in Figure 15.24(b), B = 1,750 Hz, which
agrees with the results as measured by the time-frequency tools earlier. Note
that this value is not the modulation bandwidth F of the linear FM signal
used to derive the polytime phase modulation. Figure 15.25 shows a closer
examination of the bifrequency plane, and the measurement of Rc = 1/T =
62.5 Hz. This gives the estimate for the code period as T = 16 ms. Note
also that an SCD spot exists at ( = 2fc , k = 0). The results for the T2(2),
T3(2), and T4(2) codes are given in Appendix Q.
15.9
In this section the time-smoothing SCD is used to determine what SCD properties a Costas frequency hopping signal takes on. The time-smoothing SCD
was created using = 16 and N = 2,048. The Costas sequence in this
example is S = {4, 7, 1, 6, 5, 2, 3} and is used since this sequence is discussed
in Chapter 6. The sampling frequency of the ADC is 15 kHz, and each Costas
frequency is generated with 20 cycles per frequency. That is, the time spent
at each frequency is not a constant. Figure 15.26(a) shows the complete bifrequency results. One of the four quadrants is shown in Figure 15.26(b). The
frequencies within the sequence fci show up at 2fci and are outlined along
the k = 0 axis. Also note the presence of the cross terms k = |fci fcj |/2.
Although the SCD analysis does not let us determine the time sequence of
information, we can, however, see that frequencies = 6 kHz and = 5 kHz
are fired next to each other, as is the case for frequencies = 2 kHz and
= 3 kHz, but we cannot determine the order.
541
Figure 15.23: Close examination of the time-smoothing SCD for the Frank
code with Nc = 64, fc = 1 kHz, and cpp = 1, with (a) modulation cycles and
(b) the measurement of Rc .
542
543
15.10
544
Figure 15.26: Time smoothing SCD patterns for the Costas sequence S =
{4, 7, 1, 6, 5, 2, 3} showing (a) the complete bifrequency plane, and (b) a closer
examination of one of the four modulation patterns illustrating the frequency
cross terms (k).
545
Figure 15.27: Time smoothing SCD for the random noise waveform showing
the carrier frequency and the bandwidth measurements.
frequency oset as a function of the FMCW modulation bandwidth is left as
an exercise for the reader. Other signal characteristics, such as the signal
bandwidth of 300 MHz, can be measured along the cycle frequency axis, as
expected. The bandwidth can also be measured along the frequency axis as
well. This sweep bandwidth shows nicely in the QMFB results.
15.11
Summary
546
Figure 15.28: Time smoothing SCD for the random noise plus FMCW waveform showing the bandwidth measurement and the carrier frequency oset
that appears in the bifrequency domain.
Table 15.2: Summary of Time Smoothing SCD for the Random Noise Plus
FMCW Waveform Showing the Bandwidth Measurement and the Carrier
Frequency Oset That Appears in the Bifrequency Domain
F (MHz)
500
300
200
100
1
Oset (MHz)
250
200
100
50
0
547
white Gaussian noise is not correlated and is suppressed in this spectral correlation technique.
The cyclostationary processing, however, does not perform well with the
FSK Costas code and FSK/PSK (binary phase code) signal. This is mainly
due to a lack of temporal information needed, in order to identify the code
sequence in time. The presentation of the cyclostationary results to a trained
operator will allow the signal parameters to be extracted, and can enable
good classification results for the signals that are appropriate. The use of the
cyclostationary processing in noisy environments is particularly good.
References
[1] Spooner, C. M., and Gardner, W. A., Robust feature detection of signal
interception, IEEE Trans. on Communications, Vol. 42, No. 5, pp. 2165
2173, May 1994.
[2] Gardner, W. A., Signal interception: A unifying theoretical framework for
feature detection, IEEE Trans. on Communications, Vol. 36, No. 8, pp.
897906, Aug. 1988.
[3] Gardner, W. A., and Spooner, C. M., Signal interception: Performance
advantages of cyclic feature detectors, IEEE Trans. on Communications,
Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 149159, Jan. 1992.
[4] Tom, C., Cyclostationary spectral analysis of typical SATCOM signals using
the FFT accumulation method, Defence Research Establishment Report No.
1280, Ottawa, Canada, Dec. 1995.
[5] Xin, J., and Sano, A., Linear prediction approach to direction estimation of
cyclostationary signals in multipath environment, IEEE Trans. on Signal
Processing, Vol. 49, No. 4, pp. 710720, April 2001.
[6] Yu, S-J., and Ueng, F-B., Implementation of cyclostationary signal-based
adaptive arrays, Elsevier Signal Processing, Vol. 80, pp. 22492254, 2000.
[7] Lee, J-H., and Lee, Y-T., A novel direction-finding method for cyclostationary signals, Elsevier Signal Processing, Vol. 81 pp. 13171323, 2001.
[8] Gini, F., Montanari, M., and Verrazzani, L., Estimation of chirp radar
signals in compound-Gaussian clutter: A cyclostationary approach, IEEE
Trans. on Signal Processing, Vol. 48, No. 4 pp. 10291039, April 2000.
[9] Skinner, B. J., Ingels, F. M., and Donohoe, J. P., The eect of radar signal
construction on detectability, Proc. of the 26th Southeastern Symposium on
System Theory, pp. 147150, March 1994.
[10] Gillman, A. M., Non-cooperative detection of LPI/LPD signals via cyclic
spectral analysis, Air Force Institute of Technology, Masters thesis, March
1999.
[11] Gardner, W. A., Statistical Spectral Analysis: A Nonprobabilistic Theory,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Clis, NJ, 1987.
548
[12] Gardner, W. A., Exploitation of spectral redundancy in cyclostationary signals, IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, pp. 1436, April 1991.
[13] Lima, A. F., Jr., Analysis of low probability of intercept radar signals using
cyclostationary processing, Naval Postgraduate School Masters thesis, Sept.
2002.
[14] Roberts, R. S., Brown, W. A., and Loomis, H. H., Jr., A review of digital
spectral correlation analysis: Theory and implementation, Cyclostationarity
in Communications and Signal Processing, IEEE Press, 1994.
[15] Roberts, R. S., Brown, W. A., and Loomis, H. H., Jr., Computationally efficient algorithms for cyclic spectral analysis, IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, pp. 3849, April 1991.
[16] Brown, W. A., III, and Loomis H. H., Jr., Digital implementations of spectral
correlation analyzers, IEEE Trans. on Signal Processing, Vol. 41, No. 2,
pp. 703720, Feb. 1993.
Problems
1. (a) Using the LPIT, generate the FMCW waveform (signal only, SNR =
0 dB, and SNR = 6 dB) with a carrier frequency of 2 kHz,
tm = 5 ms, and F = 500 Hz. (b) Process the signals with both
the time-smoothing and frequency-smoothing algorithm. (c) For each
useful algorithm, diagram your estimates of all the signal parameters
for signal only, SNR = 0 dB, and SNR = 6 dB.
2. (a) Using the LPIT, generate a P4 waveform (signal only,
SNR = 0 dB, and SNR = 6 dB) with a carrier frequency of 2 kHz,
Nc = 128, tb = 1 ms, and fs = 7,000 Hz. (b) Process the signals with
both the time-smoothing and frequency-smoothing algorithm. (c) For
each useful algorithm, diagram your estimates of all the signal parameters for signal only, SNR = 0 dB, and SNR = 6 dB.
3. (a) Using the LPIT, generate the default FMCW waveform and the
default P4 waveform. Load both signals into MATLAB, and truncate
such that they both have the same size (be sure to at least include 1
to 2 code periods of each signal). (b) Add the two signals together
and save as a new signal (e.g., fmcw p4.mat). (c) For each signal,
use the cyclostationary processing to analyze and extract the waveform
parameters that are evident. (d) Repeat (b) and (c) for SNR = 0 dB.
(e) Repeat (b) and (c) for SNR = 6 dB.
549
Chapter 16
Antiradiation Missiles
A Wild Weasel provides a Warsaw Pact SAM operator the maximum
opportunity to give his life for his country Relic quote of the Wild Weasel
16.1
Suppression of enemy air defense (SEAD) is defined by the U.S. Department of Defense as that activity that neutralizes, destroys or temporarily
degrades surface-based enemy air defenses by destructive and/or disruptive
means [1]. SEAD includes the use of air-to-ground missiles against an enemys integrated air defense system (IADS). An IADS is an integration of airand ground-based sensors and the communication that links them together
551
552
with the weapons and command and control. SEAD capabilities fall within
the traditional discipline of electronic warfare (EW), which includes electronic
attack (EA), electronic protection (EP), and electronic warfare support (ES).
SEAD is also an interdisciplinary construct that integrates EW as an activity
of information operations with the use of EA capabilities such as antiradiation
missiles (ARMs) against the enemys IADS in an eort to obtain information
superiority. In suppression, the ARMs are fired and home in on the enemys
surface-based radar systems that are used to target their surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) against any incoming strike aircraft. In modern network-enabled
warfare, there is a dedicated aircraft assigned that specializes in the hard-kill
of enemy guidance radars by deploying ARMs [2]. The ARM relies on passive detection of the radiation emitted from the radar. The ARM mission or
sortie is an aircraft strike capability against radar directed/radar controlled
missile and gun system sitesthe greatest threat to eective air operations.
ARMs can also be fired preemptively in order to prevent the SAM radar from
coming up. The use of ARMs contributes to information superiority by preventing and reducing the enemys use of the electromagnetic spectrum while
protecting our own spectrum vulnerabilities. That is, SEAD actions increase
an air forces ability to conduct air operations by reducing their vulnerability
to air defense missiles and guns.
Below, the U.S. Armys description of the various forms of SEAD are given
highlighting their potential use in suppression of an enemys IADS [3].
Campaign SEAD: SEAD operations that are preplanned, theaterwide
eorts conducted concurrently over an extended period against air defense systems normally located well behind enemy lines.
Complementary SEAD: Those operations that involve continuously seeking enemy air defense system targets to destroy them.
Localized SEAD: Those operations that support tactical air operations,
Army aviation operations, reconnaissance, and the establishment of corridors for ingress and egress routing for air force and army assets.
Joint SEAD: Broad term that includes all suppression of enemy air defense activities provided by one component of the joint force in support
of another.
Nonlethal SEAD: Aims to neutralize or degrade enemy IADS rather
than destroy them. While nonlethal SEAD is most commonly associated with the electronic jamming of IADS sensors and command, control
and communications (C3) links, this is not the only form of nonlethal
SEAD. Other forms of nonlethal SEAD include the use of specialized
tactics to exploit known air defense system limitations and the use of
stealth technology, or false targets, to deceive enemy air defenses. Note
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that: the threat of destruction alone may degrade an air defense systems eectiveness by forcing its operators to employ defensive measures
that would result in suboptimal system performance.
Lethal SEAD: Measures taken to physically destroy one or more components of an IADS. Most hard-kill SEAD options involve specialized
weapons such as ARMs, precision guided munitions (PGMs), and stando weapons (SOWs); the successful use of which will damage the enemys
IADS and possibly inflict casualties among their crews. Lethal SEAD
can suppress enemy air defenses for a potentially longer period than
can nonlethal measures. However, the success of lethal SEAD missions
depends on adequate EW support to provide both accurate targeting
and protection of the SEAD platform.
Preemptive SEAD: This concept diers from lethal-SEAD practices
by preemptively disrupting enemy air defenses before they can engage
friendly aircraft. This is typically done by firing an ARM in the air
in the direction of a SAM that is suspected to exist but which has not
turned on its radar in the aim of preventing the SAM radar from coming
up. Although an eective and necessary tactic, it is not ecient.
16.1.1
Since the introduction of radar in World War II (WWII), radar was used
by both sides to alert ground-based air defenses and fighters of an impending raid. The SEAD role originated in WWII when the German Luftwae
bombed elements of the British CHAIN HOME early warning radar net during the Battle of Britain. This first SEAD attempt heralded a series of
Allied SEAD developments made in response to the very eective German
radar-based air defenses encountered during the Allied bombing oensive of
Germany [4].
One of the first SEAD measures employed by the Allies was to drop cha,
consisting of small strips of metal foil, from lead bombers or pathfinder aircraft to disrupt the German radar picture by creating thousands of false
targets. If the location of the radars were discovered, they could be attacked,
generally by bombing from a large formation. The British developed a radar
homing device (dubbed Abdullah) that would locate the enemy radar. The
aircraft that were equipped with the Abdullah were not armed and flew only
with escort fighters. In addition, Ferret aircraft were used to detect the operating frequencies of German radars and radios so they could be jammed by
EA equipment or physically attacked by the Ferret or other aircraft. Similar
SEAD measures were used in the Pacific theater during WWII and again
during the Korean conflict [4].
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16.1.2
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16.1.3
Vietnam
The greatest SEAD advances were made during the Vietnam War in 1965
when the eectiveness of the North Vietnamese IADS caused significant
losses. The initial U.S. response of launching conventional air strikes against
the SAM sites resulted in heavy friendly losses [8]. The Soviet SA-2 SAMs
killed at least 83 aircraft and forced the USAF to increase its SEAD capability by building the F-100 Super Sabre Wild Weasel (an evolution of the
Ferret aircraft) in 90 days pairing experienced fighter pilots with electronic
warfare ocers from the Strategic Air Command. The F-100 was followed by
the F-105G Wild Weasel and the F-4G Wild Weasel [9].
The Wild Weasels were free-roving hunters that baited SAM sites at point
blank range. The Wild Weasel mission was developed by the U.S. Air Force
in 1965, during the Vietnam War era. Its primary concept was the use of
two-seat aircraft, to counter hostile radar-controlled surface-to-air weapons.
They were able to detect and locate the SAM radars and attack them with
bombs, napalm or rockets. However, attacking air defense systems with shortrange weapons proved to be very hazardous. In 1966, the Weasels received a
stand-o attack capability in the form of the AGM-45 Shrike ARM.
With early ARM technology, when the enemy air defenses shut o their
emitters, the already launched ARM could only fly about without guidance
for a short time until it ran out of fuel and crashed. Shutting down a radar
to evade detection protected the radar from destruction but it did not do
much good for the radar operator. Although suppression was achieved the
most preferred solution in most cases is the destruction of enemy air defense
(DEAD) and the destruction of their command and control in order to reduce
the number of SAM shooters. For DEAD, a precise knowledge of the enemy
location is required.
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16.1.4
Post Vietnam
SEAD developments continued after the Vietnam War, notably during the
Israeli Operation Peace for Galilee during which remotely piloted vehicles
(RPVs) were used to detect, locate and decoy the Syrian IADSs [8]. The
USAF also established the Wild Weasel School. Developments also continued
during Operation Desert Storm, with the coalition not losing a single strike
aircraft to a radar threat while an armed Wild Weasel was on station [9].
Army AH-64 Apache helicopters were also used in the lethal-SEAD role and
EC-130H Compass Call aircraft were used to jam air defense communications.
The F-4G units were disbanded after 1996 and the USAF retired the last
of its EF-111 radar and communications jamming aircraft in May 1999. This
left a critical hole in USAF capabilities. The USAF then replaced its F-4G
Wild Weasel fleet with the combination of the F-16CJ Falcon and HARM targeting system (HTS) using multirole squadrons to partially fill the gap. The
EF-111s mission was transferred to the United States Navys EA-6B which
requires one pilot and three electronic warfare ocers (EWOs). The U.S. General Accounting Oce (GAO) believed the success of air operations during
Operation Desert Storm depended heavily on SEAD aircraft [10]. Moreover,
the GAO predicted SEAD would continue to be important to air operations,
even those involving stealth aircraft, and criticized the U.S. Department of
Defense (DoD) for reducing its traditional SEAD capability. In 2001 the DoD
released the Joint Airborne Electronic Attack (AEA) Analysis of Alternative
(AOA) that examined the options available for replacing the aging EA-6B
including the F-22, the F/A-18, and the Joint Strike Fighter [11]. The decision was to eventually replace the EA-6B by the carrier-based EA-18G (or
Growler)a multirole two-seat aircraft for jamming (AN/ALQ-99), SEAD
and preemptive SEAD.
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Combat Sorties
2,498,283
591,693
219,407
68,150
(Coalition) 30,000
21,111
268,000
20,733
Combat Losses
19,030
1,253
1,437
33
3
2
0
1
Attrition Rate
0.76%
0.2%
0.65%
0.04%
0.01%
0.009%
0.0%
0.004%
Today the Army has the primary responsibility for suppressing groundbased enemy air defense weapons to the limits of observed fire. The USAF
has responsibility from beyond the limits of observed fire out to the range
limits of the Army weapons systems; the Army has secondary responsibility.
Even if the USAF can target or observe, the Army may still have to attack the
target. Beyond the range limits of Army weapons, the USAF is responsible.
Although the U.S. DOD is pursuing a new approach to SEAD, the United
States continues to recognize the important requirement for SEAD [1113].
It should also be noted that ARMs are not only used for suppression
of air defense SAM networks. Other targets include airborne early warning
systems, shipboard radar systems, battlefield surveillance systems and any
other radiating RF sensor that can be intercepted. Although some military
experts question the need for ARMs, countries continue to develop and build
ARMs, including countries new to developing ARMs such as Germany, Taiwan, China, and Brazil. This is in response to the double-digit SAM radars
such as the SA-10, SA-11, SA-12, SA-15 and SA-17 that can be integrated
into a formidable IADS [14].
To address future SEAD/ARM requirements, three measures of eectiveness have been proposed: combat attrition, eort expended, and eciency
[1]. The combat attrition measures how many aircraft have been shot down
in recent conflicts. Table 16.1 shows that the loss of U.S. combat aircraft has
steadily declined both in absolute terms and relative to the number of combat sorties flown. This identifies that SEAD is an important contributor to
aircraft survivability. The amount of eort that is expended to protect U.S.
aircraft can be used to assess SEAD capabilities. As shown in Table 16.2,
2030% percent of all combat sorties in recent conflicts were devoted to SEAD.
That is, SEAD continues to be a growing mission area of concern. While
suppressing enemy air defenses through EW or intimidation can eectively
protect U.S. aircraft, destroying enemy air defenses is generally preferred to
suppressing them because of the enduring eect that destruction has on the
enemys air defense. Table 16.3 shows that the USAF has had mixed results
558
Combat Sorties
219,407
68,150
2,451
21,111
268,000
SEAD Sorties
11,389
4,326
785
4,538
67,000
%
5.2
6.3
32.0
21.5
25.0
Estimated Results
35 of 120 fixed SAM batteries destroyed
52 of 70 air defense targets destroyed
3 of 25 SA-6 batteries destroyed, 10 of 41 SAM radars destroyed
33 of 35 air defense targets damaged, but many rebuilt and improved
in recent conflicts destroying enemy air defense targets. In cases like Iraq,
DEAD eorts have been somewhat successful. In Kosovo however, the SAM
threat to NATOs aircrew proved far more pronounced and harrowing than
originally depicted [14, 15]. Even though only two aircraft were shot down
(one of them a stealth F-117 by an SA-3), SEAD eorts were comparatively
less successful.
16.1.5
The SAM always has the first shot and they start the fight knowing where
the target is. That is, the target is always attacked from ambush. Even if a
reactive ARM times out, it is, at best a revenge weapon [9]. Consequently,
ARM shooters are always looking for a way to stimulate the threat and force
it to reveal its position. The best way to do this is to stimulate the threat
with jamming or decoys such as the miniature air-launched decoy (MALD)
as shown in Figure 16.3. The second best way is to stimulate the threat with
the SEAD aircraft. The not so good option is to let the strike aircraft
stimulate the threat.
The MALD is an expendable air launched vehicle that serves as a decoy
for fighter aircraft and bombers mimicking their radar signatures and flight
characteristics to distract the attention of enemy air defense systems. The
MALD is a turbojet-powered decoy, configured as a swing-wing missile that
can be launched from an F-16 or B-52 bomber. After launching, MALD flies
a preprogrammed flight path into hostile air space to stimulate enemy air
defenses, presenting itself to enemy radar as a real aircraft. Once radars and
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16.2
The ARM seeker competes with the warhead for valuable finance, weight and
volume and presents a significant trade-o to the ARM designer. After all,
in the endgame, its the warhead that counts [16]. However, if the seeker
does not guide correctly to the target, more serious fratricide problems can
occur. Protected by a wideband RF transparent radome, ARM seekers use
passive RF homing with an antenna and microwave receiver. The antenna
and receiver are tuned to the frequency of the threat radar to acquire and
provide location data that can be processed to derive guidance commands.
The guidance commands are passed to the missiles autopilot that filters
the signals to produce guidance and control commands that are sent to the
control surfaces. Stability and control of the flight path are then provided by
the control surfaces. An ARM may have a mid-course as well as a terminal
phase of the flight.
16.2.1
Antenna Design
The ARM must detect and track the radar radiation over a very broad bandwidth. It must also have a wide beamwidth in order to detect the emitters
at large angles o boresight. Spiral antennas are frequency independent antennas that can be used to obtain dual-polarized, rotationally symmetric,
multiple-mode patterns over a very broad frequency range [17]. Frequency
independent antennas are antennas whose geometries are specified by angles
and their radiation pattern, impedance and polarization remain virtually unchanged over a large bandwidth. These features make antennas such as the
logarithmic and conical spirals a good choice for the ARM seeker. They can
560
1 d
= cot
d
(16.2)
where is the angle between a tangent to the curve at any point and a line
to the origin at that point. Since is constant for a given logarithmic spiral,
an alternative name is equiangular spiral [22].
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561
(16.3)
d
d
W2
1/2
+1
(16.4)
L = (1 0 ) 1 +
1
a2
(16.5)
where 0 and 1 represent the inner and outer radii of the spiral shown in
Figure 16.4.
The design of a planar logarithmic (equiangular) spiral antenna can be
accomplished using
(16.6)
1 = 0 ea
562
(16.7)
The other half of the antenna has edges that make the structure symmetric
(opposite configuration) [21]. Rotating one spiral arm by one-half turn brings
it into congruence with the other arm. This assures the antenna can receive
signals of either right-hand polarization or left-hand polarization. A two-arm
spiral has 0 = 0, .
The generating equations for the congruent spiral are
3 = 0 ea()
(16.8)
4 = 0 ea()
(16.9)
and
The structure is shown in Figure 16.5 and is self-complementary containing
a good degree of pattern symmetry with = /2.
The frequency of the spiral antenna at the upper end of the operating
band fu is determined by the feed structure [21]. For a = 0.221, the minimum
radius 0 /4 at fu . A nearly equivalent criterion is that the circumference
in the feed region Cu = 20 = c/fu . The circumference of a circle just
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563
Figure 16.6: Archimedean spiral antenna with left hand circular polarization
(radiation out of the page) [21] ( c John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1997).
enclosing the spiral can be used to set the low frequency limit fl as Cl =
2 = c/fl . The low frequency limit set by the overall radius is approximately
a quarter wavelength at fl . For example, consider a spiral with one and one
half turns with a = 0.221. Here the maximum radius R = ( = 3) = 8.030
which is c/4fl . At the feed point R = (0 ) = 0 = c/4fu . The bandwidth is
then fu /fl = 8 which indicates an 8:1 bandwidth (a typical value).
To maintain a large bandwidth, the antenna must also be fed by an electrically and geometrically balanced line. This feed is often referred to as an
infinite balun and has an impedance of Z 120 [21]. The radiation pattern
of the self-complementary planar equiangular spiral antenna is bidirectional
with two wide beams broadside to the plane of the spiral. The filed pattern
is approximately cos when the z-axis is normal to the plane of the spiral.
The half-power beamwidth is thus approximately 90o and the polarization is
near circular over wide angles. Spiral antenna gain values range between 2
and 4 dB. The frequency limit is typically 500 MHz to 18 GHz.
In the Archimedean spiral antenna, named after the third-century B.C.
Greek mathematician Archimedes, the radial distance is linearly proportional to the polar angle in the generating equation (rather than exponentially related). It flares more slowly as shown in Figure 16.6. The generating
564
(16.10)
= 0 ( )
(16.11)
and
The successive turnings of the spiral have a constant separation distance
(equal to 20 if is measured in radians). The arms are fed 180o out-ofphase at F1 and F2 giving the antenna circular polarized radiation which is
frequency independent. The radiated fields created by the currents are orthogonal, equal in magnitude and 90o out of phase. A unidirectional beam
can be created by backing the spiral with a metallic cavity behind the spiral. The pattern of the cavity-backed Archimedean spiral can be modeled
empirically by [21]
(16.12)
F () = cos5.8 (0.53)
and has a half power beamwidth of 74o . Figure 16.7 shows a schematic
cutaway drawing of the British alarm ARM and shows the use of four planar
Archimedean spirals to cover the quadrants of interest.
Conical equiangular spirals are also often used in ARM seekers since they
generate a unidirectional pattern. Figure 16.8 shows the schematic of a conical
equiangular spiral. The edges of one conical spiral surface are defined as
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565
Figure 16.8: The conical equiangular spiral antenna [21] ( c John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. 1997).
= e(a sin h )
(16.13)
of which the planar spiral is a special case with h = 90o . Larger values of
h in 0 h /2 represent less tightly wound spirals [22]. The generating
equations for the conical equiangular spiral are
1 = e(a sin h )
(a sin h )()
2 = e
(16.14)
(16.15)
(16.16)
The advantage to the conical spiral is that it provides a unidirectional radiation (single lobe) toward the apex of the cone with the maximum along
the axis. It also preserves the circular polarization and relatively constant
impedances over the large bandwidths required [22]. Typical patterns for
h 15o and 70o have half-power beamwidths of 80o . For the band design, the apex diameter determines the upper frequency d = c/4fu . The lower
frequency of the antenna is determined by the base diameter B = 3c/(8fl )
[21]. As an example of a conical spiral, the Russian Kh-31 ARM uses an array
of seven conical elements as shown in Figure 16.9.
566
Figure 16.9: Photo of the Kh-31 seeker that uses a series of seven conical
spiral elements.
Several patents have been issued that address the shortcomings of spiral
antenna designs for ARM seekers. Methods to counteract the threat of the
radar shutting down and to also improve the boresight error of the antenna
system and also reduce the radome error slope are reported in [23, 24]. Here
the antenna system includes a parabolic reflector dish having a dielectric
substrate and a conductive material coating on the substrate in order to
provide a narrowbeam high-gain radiation pattern. The parabolic dish also
has a conductive material coating on the reflector substrate defining the spiral
antenna for a low-gain, wideband radiation pattern. To address coupling
between the antenna and the missile body in the VHF band, a broadband
polarization diverse monopulse spiral antenna with a body cancelled current
array and radial arm-coupled log periodic loop antenna is described in [25].
To provide a novel nonobvious solution to the problem of fitting a number of
spiral antennas having dierent configuration senses into the space of a single
spiral, the spirals can be symmetrically arranged about a point at the center
of a circle. Each spiral antenna is deformed to occupy substantially all of the
area within a sector of the circle [26].
16.2.2
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567
that are used to intercept and direction find the RF emission from the radar.
Many designs include both a high-band and low-band antenna to improve the
direction finding accuracy (smaller beamwidth). The frequency synthesizer is
used to scan the instantaneous bandwidth through the operating bandwidth
in order to search for the target radiation. The intercepted emissions are
down-converted, and filtered with a passband filter.
Logarithmic amplification is used in the RX and applied to the passband
filter output. Logarithmic amplifiers are used widely in antiradiation seekers and can be classified into two primary families, the logarithmic IR/RF
amplifiers and the detector logarithmic video amplifiers (DLVA) [28]. The
logarithmic IF/RF amplifier obtains the logarithmic transfer function at the
IF (or RF) frequencies, while the DLVA obtains the logarithmic transfer function in the video frequency domain. Advantages of the logarithmic IF amplifiers over the DLVA include an easily obtainable CW response (important in
ARMs attacking LPI emitters), excellent pulse recovery time, fast rise time
and wide instantaneous dynamic range. The DLVA, however, generally has
a smaller logarithmic error over the temperature range and frequencies of interest. The DLVA has superior dual-channel tracking characteristics and is
usually the choice for ARM monopulse direction finding. This is because it
is easier to produce matched nonlinear circuits at video frequencies than at
IF/RF frequencies [28].
The amplifier output is lowpass-filtered and the monopulse azimuth (AZ)
and elevation (EL) error signals are digitized. Also digitized are the RF
frequency, the pulse time of arrival (TOA), the pulse width (PW), and the
amplitude of the pulse. The signal processing then gates these error signals
and uses pulse discriminant logic, deinterleaving, and a PRF correlator in order to sort the various radar signals being intercepted including their angular
location. A Kalman filter is then used to derive the command acceleration
from the seeker line of sight rate on the selected target signal. The autopilot
then filters these commanded accelerations, which are then applied perpendicular to the airframe velocity vector to guide the missile to the target.
16.2.3
Dual-Mode Design
There are two major problems that aect ARM performance. The first consideration is that air defense radars, when anticipating an ARM attack, usually
operate in a blink mode turning on just long enough to obtain tactical information then shutting down to avoid attracting ARMs. The second problem
is that if the radar stays active allowing the ARM to be launched against
it, some attacks will fail because some of the radar energy bounces o the
ground creating a false (multipath) target [29]. If the multipath is not too
severe, the problem can be addressed using leading-edge track. To address
more significant multipath situations and also counter the blink mode the
concept of the dual-mode ARM seeker has been explored.
568
Antiradiation Missiles
569
Dual-mode ARM seekers can increase the capability of the missile when
the RF radiation source shuts down. A unique dual-mode guidance scheme
devised by the U.S. Army researchers was key to developing a more eective
ARM with a minimal increase in cost and weight. The dual-mode seeker
would retain the traditional passive mode RF homing capability but would
also have either an imaging infrared or active millimeter wave (MMW) radar
mode. These latter modes do not require radar emissions from the target
and can deal with blink tactics. They can also give higher accuracy when
used in the final stage of the attack. The addition of a second guidance
mode involves additional hardware increasing the manufacturing costs of the
missile. Note that the design and production of ARMs represent a balance
between the technology that is incorporated into the missile and the ability
of the manufacturer to sell the weapon system.
The solution proposed by the U.S. Army is based on an active MMW
seeker, but adds to that seeker antiradiation homing antennas and down
conversion elements as shown in Figure 16.11. The antiradiation homing antennas intercept signals emitted by enemy air defense radar but instead of
passing these signals to a dedicated receiver and guidance system, the antennas pass them to the conversion elements. The task of these conversion
elements is to convert the intercepted signals to the IF that is also used by the
active MMW processing. This IF could then be handled by the signal processor that already exists as part of the MMW seeker. Use of the same processor
to handle both passive and active-mode radar signals greatly reduces the cost
penalties of providing the second guidance mode.
At least three or four passive detector channels should be used. The associated antennas would be mounted on the exterior of the missile at regular
intervals around the circumference of the fuselage. With proper phase relationships between detector channels the azimuth and elevation direction finding (DF) information can be provided. The antennas should have a broad
beamwidth so phase comparison monopulse techniques can be used rather
than the alternative amplitude comparison DF technique. The angle of arrival of the enemy radar signal would be determined by comparing the phase
of the emission signals from the individual antennas.
During the initial and mid-course portions of flight the dual-mode missile would use its passive-radar mode to home in on the emissions from the
hostile radar. During the terminal phase of the attack, it would switch to
the active MMW mode, acquire the hostile radar and conduct an accurate
attack that does not depend on the target remaining active. The distance
from the target at which the missile switches modes is a function of its speed
and maneuverability and is typically 24 km.
Another example of a dual-mode ARM seeker is Alliant Techsystems
advanced antiradiation guided missile (AARGM) shown in Figure 16.12. Developed under the Navys Quick Bolt program, the passive conformal array
antenna provides high accuracy wideband DF capability [30]. Autonomous
570
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571
16.2.4
Signal Processing
To learn and recognize the dierent threat radar emissions being intercepted,
traditional if-then-else constructs have been traditionally applied when the
radar parameters being sorted (e.g., pulse width and time of arrival) are
known. If a new radar emission is intercepted, the deinterleaving process
for example may have problems. Artificial neural networks have also been
applied with some success due to their ability to learn [31]. To understand
this, consider that the threat radar signal features can be quantified. Signal
angles of arrival (AZ, EL) and SNR are examples of extrinsic features having
to do with where the emitter is located. Carrier frequency, pulse width, pulse
repetition pattern and sophisticated RF modulation are intrinsic features
having to do with what particular radar is active. These features can be
used eciently in a neural network application. An adaptive network sensor
processor was designed and implemented in an ARM software application in
[31]. They demonstrate that noisy binary inputs could be characterized with
respect to noise amplitude and shape by a recall procedure that was tuned
to enhance the analog output feature shapes. They also demonstrate that
analog input shapes could be stored and recalled and that unstored states
could be discriminated against without an output nonlinearity.
572
16.2.5
Antiradiation Missiles
573
Figure 16.13: F-4G Wild Weasel carrying an AGM-88 HARM, AGM-65 Maverick, ALQ-119 electronic attack pod, AGM-78 Standard ARM, and an AGM45 Shrike ARM.
radar signals as well as detect and characterize the LPI signals.
Detection of LPI signals can be accomplished using a number of dierent
receiver architectures. The signal processing functions can be quite intensive
if all of the received data (pulsed waveforms and LPI waveforms) is digitized
at the IF band and analyzed using signal processing. Figure 16.14 shows an
example of an LPI signal, a pulsed emitter signal and the presense of thermal
noise within the ARM seeker.
A solution to the problem of overloading the signal processor when LPI
signals are present along with pulsed waveforms can be addressed with an
LPI signal discriminator. A block diagram of the discriminator is shown in
Figure 16.15. The LPI signal discriminator is operatively coupled to the down
converter and produces a trigger signal that is used when the incoming signal
is above a predetermined threshold, to thereby transfer the digitized signal
to a special digital signal processor for analyzing the incoming LPI signal.
The architecture suppresses the high-peak power, short duration signals and
triggers a data buer for gating the digitized LPI data to the digital signal
processor [32]. The LPI signal discriminator in an analog processor uses a
cascade of IF amplifiers with a pad between the amplifiers to distribute the
signal power evenly throughout the chain and soft-limit the strong pulsed
signals that are received. The amplified signal is detected by a large dynamic
574
Figure 16.14: LPI and pulsed signal amplitudes within an ARM seeker as a
function of time (from [32]).
range, successive detector log video amplifier. The logarithmic video output
is further compressed using a follow-on video logarithmic amplifier before the
signal is time-integrated by one or more integrators. A threshold comparator
receives the output from the integrators to provide a trigger pulse output
when the input crosses a predetermined threshold value set by the signal
processor [32].
The LPI emitter can also be detected with a sucient amount of integration of the intercepted energy. For each direction of arrival, an optimal
detector is able to integrate the energy of the emitted signal of which the
parameters are unknown. Using a multichannel detector, the dierent channels can be tuned onto dierent durations and passbands for the noncoherent
integration. The output of each channel depends on the time of arrival and
the starting spectrum frequency. Searching for the emitter in time and frequency is most conveniently done in the time-frequency domain which is easily
calculated as shown in the previous chapters.
A multichannel detection algorithm recently suggested for time-frequency
domain LPI detection is given as [33]
(p, q) =
t3
0 +B
0 +T f3
t=t0 f =f0
|G(t, f )|2
(16.17)
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Figure 16.16: (a) Time domain and frequency domain model of the thermal
noise and LPI emitter signal and (b) two examples of a noncoherent integration sliding window for detection of the LPI signal (adapted from [34]).
576
Antiradiation Missiles
16.3
577
There are 10 metrics that may be used to determine the capability of an ARM
missile. These are presented below from [36].
Maximum Range: Measure of how distant a radar can be successfully
engaged by an aircraft at a given altitude.
Speed: Measure of how quickly the missile can reach its target. Slow
missiles provide the radar operator time to react and shut down.
Frequency coverage: Measure of how many dierent types of radar can
be identified, tracked, and engaged by the missile. Low band coverage
is important since it allows engagement of Early Warning (EW) and
Ground Control Intercept radar. High band coverage is also important
since it allows engagement of SAM fire control radar and illuminators.
Pulse density, CW limitations: Measure of seekers ability to identify
specific radar in a high pulse density threat environment. The seeker
must be capable of de-interleaving pulse trains from many radars in
order to select a specific target. This also includes the ability to identify
the LPI emitters that are present.
Electronic protection capability: Measure of weapons ability to resist
seduction by dummy emitters and decoys. This also includes the ability
of the ARM to withstand a directed energy attack on the seeker.
Lethality: Determined by accuracy and warhead eectiveness, a measure of what kill probability can be achieved. If the ARM has poor
lethality, more rounds must be fired on average per killed radar.
Deliverable Payload: Measure of the delivering aircrafts payload of
ARMs.
Flexibility: Measure of how many dierent modes exist for the weapon.
The more delivery modes, the more dicult it is for the opponent to
devise defensive measures.
Cost: Measure of how many weapons can be delivered per dollar expended.
Integration with the launch aircraft: Measure of how weapons can exploit the launch aircrafts onboard RWRs, radar homing and warning
system, or emitter locating system.
As pointed out in [36], the decision to select a particular type of ARM is not
trivial and the ultimate system level metric of usefulness is that of how many
hostile radars can you take down for what dollar investment in ARMs, ARM
support costs, and aircraft integration is required.
578
16.4
The former Soviet Union and the current Russian Federated States have been
developing ARMs since the 1960s. Unlike the United States, the Soviet Union
did not develop aircraft specialized for SEAD missions. That is, they didnt
treat SEAD as independent air operations [37]. The Soviets development
of its ARMs was driven by doctrine of a massive frontal air assault on the
most common threat at the time, Western Europe. Since this assault would
have numerous aircraft, these ARMs did not have to be sophisticated and no
dedicated SEAD aircraft were fielded.
SEAD missions were flown to support air-ops on a tactical level (by nonspecialists). They relied on signals intelligence (SIGINT) and other recon
assets and preferred preplanned strikes on known enemy IADS rather than
targets of opportunity [37]. With the theater of war in western Europe, the
western SAM threats (late 1950s, early 1960s) consisted of the U.S. Nike
Ajax, Nike Hercules, U.K. Thunderbird, and the Bloodhound systems. With
the Ilyushin Il-28 Beagle (nuclear weapon platform) having a cruising speed
of only 500 mph, no low-level penetration was attempted. Following this,
the Yakovlev Yak-28 (Brewer) supersonic (1960) and Sukhoi Su-7 (Fitter-A)
supersonic (1960) also provided no solution to the SAM problem. Instead,
the Soviet Union relied on mass nuclear weapons employment. Not until 1963
did work begin on the first tactical ARM. Table 16.4 lists the ARM weapons
developed along with their NATO name and year the ARM entered service.
Table 16.4: Russian ARM Development
Missile
AA-10
AS-4
AS-5
AS-6
AS-9
AS-11
AS-12
AS-16
AS-17
16.4.1
NATO code
Alamo
Kitchen
Kelt
Kingfish
Kyle
Kilter
Kegler
Kickback
Krypton
Russian name
R-27P
Kh-22MP
KSR-2P
Kh-26MP
Kh-28, Kh-28E
Kh-58
Kh-25MP, Kh-25MPU
Kh-15P
Kh-31P
Entered Service
1989
1974
1962
1969
1973
1977
1981
1988
1991
AA-10 Alamo
The AA-10 Alamo is an air-to-air missile fitted with a passive seeker that
homes in on the emissions from a threat fighters radar. It was fielded in 1989
Antiradiation Missiles
579
16.4.2
AS-4 Kitchen
The Kh-22MP with NATO code name AS-4b Kitchen was built by Raduga is
launched from the Tu-22M Backfire B, Tu-20 Bear G, and Tu-22 Blinder
B aircraft. The missile entered service in 1974 and is shown in Figure 16.19
1 Vympel oers two versions of the missile: the standard R-27P with a maximum range
of 72km and the R-27EP version with a bigger rocket motor which gives a maximum range
of 110km.
580
16.4.3
AS-5 Kelt
The KSR-2P with NATO code name AS-5 Kelt was built by OKB MiG and
could be launched from the Tu-16 Badger C mod, Badger G and had a
maximum range of 220 km and a maximum speed of Mach 1.2. The Kelt
shown in Figure 16.20 entered service in 1962, but was phased out by the late
Antiradiation Missiles
581
Figure 16.20: An AS-5 Kelt air to surface missile loaded on the wing pylon of
an Egyptian Air Force Tu-16 Badger aircraft [42] ( c 2007 Janes Information
Group).
1980s [42]. The operational ceiling of the missile was 9.1 km. About 25 Kelts
were used by the Egyptian Air Force in 1973 against Israeli forces, and five
are reported to have been successful. It is believed that 12 of these missiles
were anti-radar versions of the AS-5.
16.4.4
AS-6 Kingfish
The KSR-5P with NATO code name AS-6 Kingfish was built by Raduga and
was launched from the Tu-16 Badger G mod. It had a maximum range of
400 km with maximum speed of Mach 3.0 [43]. The AS-6 missile as shown
in Figure 16.21 entered service in 1969, with a second version in 1973 for
carriage on the Tu-95 Bear, and a third version in 1976 for carriage on the
Tu-95M. There were reported to be around 100 missiles in service in Russia
in 1990, but modified missiles were oered for export as air targets and it
is believed that all AS-6s had been removed from operational service by the
end of 1994. Some AS-6 missiles were retained by Ukraine, but by 2002 it is
believed that these missiles had been destroyed. The missile is launched from
an altitude of 0.511 km after which it climbs to an altitude of 20 km for
cruise flight. The missile starts its terminal dive 60 km from the target. The
most recent version, the KSR-5NM also included the ability to loiter which
added more flexibility to attack SAMs that shut down once the missile was
in the air.
582
16.4.5
AS-9 Kyle
Along with the Yak-28N supersonic bomber, the Kh-28 missile with NATO
designation AS-9 Kyle, and the radar target and acquisition system, the K28P was their sole attempt to build a dedicated SEAD weapon system complex. The P comes from Russian word protivradiolokatsyonny meaning antiradar. At the same time the aircraft also became an EW jamming platform,
the Yak-28PP Brewer-E. The jammer was taken from the Tupolev Tu-16PP
and split among three of the Yak-28PP. Their most eective suppression was
when each with a dierent jammer component, operated in one formation on
each side of the ingress, egress corridor [37].
The development of the Kh-28 ARM with NATO code name AS-9 Kyle
(built by MKB Raduga) began in January 1963 and was based on the Kh22 and KSR-5 missile technology. It entered service in 1973 and is shown in
Figure 16.22 being loaded onto an Su-22M3. The Kh-28 seeker had a conically
scanning antenna. Its range was 110 km with a speed of 800 m/s with launch
altitude of 20011,000m. From low altitude the launch range is reduced to
45 km. For guidance the missile originally used the APR-28 passive radar
seeker developed by NPO Avtomatika. The seeker was later carried on the
Su-24 Fencer-A (tactical bomber) and the Su-17M Fitter-C (tactical fighterbomber). It was tuned to the frequencies of the Nike Hercules shown in Figure
16.23, the Thunderbird, and the Bloodhound which is shown in Figure 16.24.
Later the Kh-28M missile received a new passive radar guidance PRG-28M
seeker that could be used also against the radars of the HAWK SAM system.
After cancellation of the K-28P complex in 1967, NATO adopted a new
Antiradiation Missiles
583
584
16.4.6
AS-11 Kilter
The Kh-58 with NATO code name AS-11 Kilter uses a new seeker to engage
surveillance pulse-radar systems such as the AN/TPS-43 and the AN/TPS44 used for ground controlled fighter intercept and the AN/MPQ-53 radar
of the Patriot. Aircraft platforms include the Su-24M Fencer-D, MiG-25BM
and Su-17M4. The missile shown in Figure 16.25, has a range of 120 km from
a height of 10,000m and 160 km when fired at 15,000m. The missile entered
service in 1977 and had a speed of 900 m/s. An upgrade to the missile (Kh58U) extended the range to 250 km [45]. The missile also has an improved
seeker allowing lock-on after launch mode. The MiG-25BM Foxbat-F or Su24M with an upgraded Kh-58U missile under the wings is the closest thing
the Russians have to a dedicated SEAD aircraft. They are concentrated at
the 98th Reconnaissance Wing on the Kola Peninsula [37]. The passive radar
seeker of the Kh-58 itself can target various surveillance radars in addition to
the Nike-Hercules, HAWK, I-HAWK, and Patriot SAM systems. The missile
performs a pop-up maneuver in the terminal phase to hit the target at a
2030 degree angle which improves the eectiveness of the warhead. The
kill probability of the antiradiation version is claimed to be 80% within a
20m radius of the target radar. The Kh-58U was designed primarily for the
MiG-25BM SEAD aircraft. It has extended range, improved aerodynamic
characteristics and a guidance system allowing lock-on after launch mode,
and a new rocket engine. The Kh-58E is an export version of the Kh-58U
without the lock-on after launch feature. The missile can be launched at
speeds of Mach 0.47 to 1.5 from altitudes of 0.122 km, but from low altitude
the launch range of the Kh-58 is reduced to 36 km, and that of the Kh-58U to
80 km. The Kh-58 was exported to Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany,
and Poland [46].
Antiradiation Missiles
585
16.4.7
Kh-27
16.4.8
AS-12 Kegler
The Kh-25MP and improved Kh-25MPU with NATO code name AS-12 Kegler
(built by Zvezda) are dedicated antiradiation variants of the Kh-25 (AS-10)
air-to-surface missile. The missile was given a new NATO code name because
of its specific defense suppression role. The Kh-25MP eectively replaced the
Kh-28 (AS-9 Kyle) in Russian service. The missile entered service in 1981
[47]. The missile shown in Figure 16.26 had two interchangeable seeker heads
with antennas tuned to the radar frequencies of the HAWK and Nike Hercules SAM systems respectively [48]. Targeting was done with the Vyoga ES
586
Antiradiation Missiles
587
16.4.9
AS-16 Kickback
Little was known about the existence of this antiradar missile until the visit
in 1988 by the U.S. Secretary of Defense to Kubinka airbase to see the Tu-160
Blackjack bomber. NATO has given this missile shown in Figure 16.27 the
designator AS-16 Kickback and it has the Russian designator Kh-15. AS-16
is reported to be able to cruise at altitudes between 30m and 22 km. There
is also a report that states that the missile can have a ballistic trajectory,
reaching a maximum altitude of 40 km [49].
The missile has a range of 150 km when released from medium altitude
(30,000 ft) against a large ship target, and about 100 km when released from
low level. The AS-16 has a minimum range of 40 km. The missile can be
released at altitudes between 300m and 22 km. Maximum speed is Mach 5.0.
After launch from a speed of 1,000 to 2,100 km/h and an altitude of 0.3 to
22 km, the missile climbs to a height of about 40 km. After having acquired
its target, the missile dives, reaching a speed of Mach 5 [49].
16.4.10
AS-17 Krypton
The Kh-31P with NATO name AS-17 Krypton entered service in 1991 and is
shown in Figure 16.28. The development program began in the late 1970s, as
a follow-on to the Kh-25MP (AS-12 Kegler). Guidance for the Kh-31P is by
passive radar homing, with an inertial system to enable homing to continue
even if the target radar is switched o. Three interchangeable seeker head
options are available for the Kh-31P, each one tailored to a specific range of
radar frequencies (Avtomatika L-111, L-112, and L-113) [50]. These seekers
were tailored for use against the Nike Hercules/Improved Hawk and Patriot
SAM systems plus the maritime SPY-1 Aegis phase array radar system.
588
Antiradiation Missiles
589
16.5
United States
16.5.1
Shrike
After the time of the Korean conflict, the development of radar-guided surfaceto-air missiles (SAMs) added a new and lethal threat to U.S. aircraft. To
combat these new threats, the U.S. Navy started development of an ARM in
1958, with the designation ASM-N-10. This missile program would become
the AGM-45A Shrike, named for the predatory songbird Butcher Bird. The
Shrike was based on the airframe of the AIM-7 Sparrow and had a top speed
of Mach 2. The Shrike first saw combat in Vietnam in 1966 [4, 8].
590
Antiradiation Missiles
591
16.5.2
Standard ARM
The limited range and warhead of the AGM-45 led to the development of
a larger AGM-78 standard ARM as shown in Figure 16.30 [54]. The development of AGM-78 combined the standard missile airframe (designed for
shipboard use) with the Shrike seeker. The standard missile was a radarguided surface-to-air missile used for ship defense by the Navy. The standard
ARM had top speed of Mach 2.5, with a maximum range at an altitude of 56
km. Due to its size, only two standard ARMs could be carried on an EA-6.
The Navy then decided to integrate an improved broadband gimbaled seeker
that allowed the aircrew to avoid flying directly at the target in order to fire
the missile. The standard ARM was also able to remember the elevation and
azimuth to the target if the emitter shut down. This did not guarantee the
emitter would be destroyed since a small amount of drift in the navigation
system would result in a miss. Although the AGM-78 was an improvement
over the Shrike, its large size limited it to being carried on large aircraft. In
addition, the standard missile airframe was complicated and costly to operate
and maintain.
16.5.3
HARM
The U.S. Navy began development of the AGM-88 high speed antiradar missile (HARM) shown in Figure 16.31 which was light weight allowing it to be
carried on U.S. fighters [55]. The top speed is described as over Mach 3. The
maximum range at altitude is 65 miles. The HARM has only one seeker,
which uses a broadband antenna to engage the emitters. The features of the
HARM are shown in the cutaway view in Figure 16.32 [54]. The HDAM
(HARM destruction of enemy air defense attack module) missile variant was
developed partly to address the LPI emitter. It successfully engaged a simulated radar system that was radiating at a low power level. The new HDAM
variant adds inertial navigation system/global positioning system (INS/GPS)
592
Figure 16.32: Cutaway drawing showing the HARM features (from [54]).
capability to the existing HARM.
16.5.4
AARGM
Antiradiation Missiles
593
16.5.5
The aordable reactive strike missile (ARES) is a derivative of the AGM88E advanced antiradiation guided missile (AARGM) under development for
the U.S. Navy and was expected to enter its inventory after 2008 [57]. ARES
would have a range greater than 50 nm and a speed of around Mach 3.0, making it the only supersonic, tactical, GPS-guided strike weapon available.
The ARES concept features the same control section going into AARGM and
presents an attractive option for those nations that cannot aord to upgrade
their HARMs to the AARGM configuration. Additional options include a
semiactive laser seeker for human-in-the-loop control. In missions like pinpoint strikes in an urban setting this could allow parts of buildings to be
targeted without bringing down the entire structure and injuring civilians
and friendly troops. As with the AARGM, the new control section on ARES
will enable pilots to program exclusion zones in which the missile will not
strike. Aircraft operating the HARM or the AARGM, like the EA-6B, EA18, F-16, F/A-18, and Tornado, will not require software upgrades to carry
ARES. The new missile retains the HARMs rocket motor, airframe and warhead, but adds the new control section and an all-digital passive seeker and
millimeter-wave active terminal seeker to the missiles front. This allows it to
accurately engage fixed-site and mobile air-defense radars that are emitting
or have shut down to avoid detection.
16.5.6
Sidearm
The United States has also developed ARMs for more defensive roles by
taking advantage of obsolete AIM-9Cs to develop the AGM-122 Sidearm
(Sidewinder ARM) as shown in Figure 16.33. The AIM-9C seeker was adapted
to be a broadband passive radar seeker. It also has a gravity bias function
added to its autopilot in order to facilitate loft launching from low-altitude,
low-speed platforms. The AGM-122A was developed for use on Marine he-
594
Figure 16.33: Sidearm ARM being loaded onto an aircraft (from [58]).
licopters (Bell AH-1W SuperCobra) to suppress air defense threats. The
AGM-122 was used as a defensive weapon, rather than in an oensive role
and entered service in 1989 [58]. AGM-122A is noted as having a 10.2 kg
high explosive and fragmentation warhead that is triggered by active laser
and impact fusing. Range is given as being approximately 8 km and functionally, the weapon alerts the pilot of its host aircraft to lock-on via direction
of lock-on symbology on his head-up display and an audio tone in his headphones [59]. The AGM-122 has a 10-mile range. Once the stock of AIM-9Cs
was depleted, the Navy considered building new AGM-122s, but the program
never happened. While Sidearm is less capable than modern antiradiation
missiles (like AGM-88 HARM), it is still a cost-eective alternative against
low-tech threats [60].
16.5.7
The U.S. Navy has developed the rolling airframe missile (RAM) for ship
self defense against incoming antiship cruise missiles (ASCMs). The RAM,
designated the RIM-116, was a joint venture between the United States and
Germany to develop a low-cost self defense system. The RIM-116 shown in
Figure 16.34 uses the 5 inch rocket motor and warhead technology from the
AIM-9 Sidewinder. The missile is capable of maneuvers up to 20g in any direction. The RIM-116 seeker is a dual-mode, passive radio frequency/infrared
seeker. Initial guidance is provided by the passive RF seeker on the ASCMs
RF emissions. If the ASCMs IR radiation is acquired, RAM transitions
to IR guidance. Originally, the missile was cued by the ships ES suite or
radar [61].
More recently, the RAM has replaced the 20 mm Gatling gun of the
Phalanx system. This new marriage of RAM and the Phalanx system is
Antiradiation Missiles
595
Figure 16.34: Rolling airframe missile launch [61] ( c 2007 Janes Information
Group).
called the SeaRAM and combines RAMs superior accuracy, extended range,
and high maneuverability with the Phalanx high resolution radar systems.
SeaRAM shown in Figure 16.35, is essentially a Phalanx Block 1B but with
the gun replaced by the 11-cell launcher and is intended to extend ship selfprotection to ranges of 4 km and can enable prosecution of low Doppler
targets. In addition to providing an on-mount J-band (12 to 18 GHz), digital
MTI search radar and pulse Doppler monopulse tracker radar, there is also
the electro-optical sensor used in the latest Phalanx systems for surface target
detection.
16.5.8
Army UAVs
The U.S. Army is exploring potential requirements for an antiradiation missile for carriage by its larger unmanned air vehicles (e.g., AAI RQ-7B Shadow
200 UAV) to counter hostile UAV systems [62]. The concept calls for the antiradiation missile to target a hostile UAV systems ground control station by
following its command datalink. The option is one of a number of new weapon
concepts being studied by the service as it prepares for the introduction of its
new General Atomics Sky Warrior and Northrop Grumman RQ-8B Fire Scout
UAVs. The development of an anti-UAV capability anticipates that UAV systems will continue to be an important operational target. Strategies such as
targeting unmanned aircraft to take away the intelligence, surveillance and
596
Figure 16.35:
Group).
16.6
France
The French introduced the Armat (Anti-Radar Matra) in 1984 which was an
evolved variant of the antiradiation version of the French-British BAe-Matra
AS-37 Martel missile. By using the AS-37 airframe and replacing the seeker
and associated electronics with new and improved versions with added electronic protection, the missile shown in Figure 16.36 was given the capability
to overcome decoys and jamming techniques including long radar switch-o
periods. The microprocessor based seeker homes on to a programmed emitter
and uses inertial midcourse guidance. Several interchangeable homing heads
are used to cover the wide spectrum of target radar frequencies including Lband (5002,000 MHz), S-band (24 GHz), C-band (48 GHz) and X-band
(812 GHz) [63]. The missile can be launched from high or low levels and
will home onto the radar or jamming transmissions of the pre-selected target
radar. After lock-on of the missile seeker, the location, radar parameters and
launch success zones are displayed to the aircrew who can then select the
best launch time. With its high launch weight, heavyweight warhead and
long range, the Armat is primarily an oensive strategic ARM designed to
Antiradiation Missiles
597
16.7
United Kingdom
In the early 1980s, the British conducted a study to replace their aging AS37s. The British decided on the Alarm for several reasons. The United
States developed HARMs for specially equipped aircraft, such as the F-4G
Wild Weasel and the EA-6. Both of these aircraft are equipped with sophisticated and complex emitter locating systems. Since the British have a smaller
number of aircraft than the U.S., they did not want to limit the role of any
aircraft by specially equipping them. With the smaller numbers, the British
required that all of their fighters be able to conduct any mission. The British
also did not wish to incur the cost and in-service support overheads of deploying and maintaining these sophisticated and complex systems. Additionally,
the British thought that adopting the Weasel operational model would expose
SEAD aircraft to attack more frequently, thus incurring high loss rates. The
Alarm can be carried on all British fighters, such as the Harrier and Tornado,
which carry up to nine Alarms. Figure 16.37 shows the launch of an Alarm
from a Tornado [63].
The Alarm has a range of 28 miles and has five launch modes: direct,
dual, loiter, universal, and area suppression. A unique feature to the Alarm
is it parachute system for loitering over the target area. In the dual and
loiter modes, the missile climbs to a high altitude above the target area and
598
Figure 16.37: Alarm missile firing from an RAF Tornado (from [63]).
searches for the enemy emitter. If one is detected, the missile dives on the
target. If not, it deploys a parachute and listens for the enemy emitter to
come up. Once the radiation is detected, the missile jettisons the chute and
dives on to the emitter. The parachute system allows the ALARM to loiter
for several minutes. With ALARM-equipped aircraft in the area, enemy SAM
sites would not know when it was safe to turn on their radars, thus suppressing
their ability to deter attacking aircraft.
Figure 16.38 shows the modes used by the Alarm. The Alarms seeker is
similar to that of the HARM with a microprocessor controlled passive homing
receiver, designed to locate and identify the characteristic Pulse Repetition
Frequencies (PRF) of programmed threat emitters [63]. The Alarm has a
wideband RF antenna/receiver and a conventional quartet of cavity backed
spiral antennas, forming a fixed two axis interferometer with lower mid-band
to hi-band coverage. Like the HARM, the Alarm has logic to select the highest
value alternate target, should the primary target go o the air.
16.8
Taiwan
Antiradiation Missiles
599
Figure 16.39: Tien Chien 11A being carried by an indigenous defense fighter.
According to the Chung-Shan Institute of Science and Technology (CSIST),
any Ching Kuo can carry the new ARM, as it requires no modifications to
the launch aircraft. The ROCAF does not intend to field a dedicated Wild
Weasel defense suppression force armed with the Tien Chien IIA. Instead,
the capability will be introduced across the front-line fleet. Up to four Tien
Chien IIAs can be carried by one aircraft on individual pylonswithout losing
the existing hardpoints for two Tien Chien IIs plus two wingtip-mounted Tien
Chien Is. Tien Chien IIA can be carried on any aircraft equipped to carry
the Tien Chien II as shown in Figure 16.39.
600
16.9
Germany
Germany, a longtime user of the HARM, is developing the ARMIGER (antiradiation missile with intelligent guidance and extended range). The Germans
have been participating in the development of the international HARM upgrade program, the AGM-88D. The improvements consist of software and
hardware upgrades including replacing the original mechanical gyros with a
state-of-the-art GPS/IMU. The addition of GPS to the HARM would correct
the long-standing problem of ARMs of what to guide on if the emitter shuts
down. GPS allows you to fly to a certain point when the target is not emitting
at all. However, the U.S. Navy decided not to proceed with the project. The
Germans decided to proceed with the ARMIGER program as a replacement
for the HARM. Due to concerns over whether it is wise to develop a single
purpose weapon, the German Luftwae has decided to proceed slowly with
the ARMIGER [65].
The ARMIGER is roughly the same weight as the HARM. The ARMIGER
will have a GPS/IMU, as would the AGM-88D, to overcome the ARM
problem when the emitter shuts down. In addition to the GPS/IMU, the
ARMIGER will have a new technology passive radar/high-resolution imaging infrared dual-mode seeker (called ARAS). This dual-mode seeker will also
combat the problem of an emitter shutting down while the missile is in flight.
Typically, the ARMIGER would be launched using the passive radar and
switch over to the infrared for terminal tracking if the targeted emitter shuts
down. In addition to the seeker, the ARMIGER will have improved range
over the HARM. The GPS will bridge the gap between the time when the
passive radar seeker loses track of the radar emitter and the point when the
enemy radar is detected by infrared. Combined GPS information collected
by multiple aircraft can be used to find the position of enemy radar with the
information then passed to the ARM prior to its launch from the aircraft [65].
Antiradiation Missiles
16.10
Israel
16.10.1
Harpy
601
Figure 16.41: Harpy antiradar UAV being launched from a truck canister [66]
( c 2007 Janes Information Group).
tonomously, without interference and overlapping the other drones [66].
The Harpy mission is planned and programmed in the ground control center, as an independent mission, or planned in accordance with other manned
or unmanned systems. Prior to launch, individual weapons are programmed
and tested, to verify their operational readiness. After the rocket-assisted
launch, the drone flies autonomously in route to its patrol area, predefined
by a set of navigational waypoints. Due to its low speed and economical fuel
602
consumption, the drone can sustain a mission of several hours over the target
area. Its radar seeker head constantly searches for hostile radars. Once an
enemy radar is acquired, Harpy compares the signal to the library of hostile
emitters, and prioritizes the threat. If the target is verified, the drone enters
an attack mode and a near vertical dive homing in on the signal. The attack
sequence is shown in Figure 16.42. The drone is set to detonate its warhead
Figure 16.42: Harpy UAV attack sequence against an emitter [66] ( c 2007
Janes Information Group).
just above the target, to generate the highest damage to the antenna, and surrounding facilities. If the radar is turned o before Harpy strikes, the drone
can abort the attack and continue loitering. If no radar was spotted during
the mission, the drone is programmed to self-destruct over a designated area.
Follow-on systems are calling for a combination of seeker and killer drones
that will enable visual identification and attack of targets even after they turn
o their emitters.
Current Harpy canisters are installed on trucks, and can be carried by C130 transport aircraft. Each truck carries 18 weapon launchers. Each battery
of Harpy is composed of three trucks, capable of deploying up to 54 drones
for simultaneous, coordinated attack. The battery also has a ground control
station and logistical support element. The system can also be deployed
from the decks of assault landing ships, in support of marine or amphibious
operations. Harpy is currently operational with the Turkish, Korean, Chinese
and Indian Armies, in addition to the Israel Air Force. In December 2004
China was reported to be interested in an upgrade of its systems to a more
advanced version.
Antiradiation Missiles
603
16.10.2
STAR-1
604
16.11
China
Antiradiation Missiles
605
Figure 16.44: Outline drawing and launch system for the Chinese HQ-15
missile.
Figure 16.45: Photograph of the passive radar seeker assembly for the Chinese
HQ-15 missile.
606
triangle with a central fourth unit acting as command and control. The four
ES receiver vehicles associated with each battery can track up to 50 targets.
The complete FT-2000 system includes a wideband passive radar detecting
station, the specially developed ARM vertically launched missile and a fourround launcher platform. A first test launch was reported in September 1997.
The passive seeker has a memory, for use if the target radar is switched o,
and a home-on-jam capability. The missile has a maximum speed of 1.2 km/s.
Targets can be intercepted at altitudes between 3 and 20 km. The proximity
fuse is activated 5 km from the target with a range of 35m.
The second version, known as FT-2000A in its export version, was reported to have a passive radar seeker covering the 26-GHz (S and C-band)
range, that has its frequency selected on the ground before launch. This missile has a maximum range of 60 km, and can be used as part of the HQ-2
system but requires separate launchers and fire-control units. This system is
still in the developmental stages but is expected to be a static weapon system
[69]. The FT-2000B version has been designed for use as an upgrade to the
HQ-12 missile system, with the maximum range increased to 120 km and with
a new 118-GHz passive radar seeker. The system has been oered for export
with the potential first customer Pakistan. During discussions between China
and Pakistan in February 2004, the oer was made by China to supply the
FT-2000/FT-2000A to counter the Indian threat to Pakistan of the Indian
Agni missile systems. Batteries have been reported around Beijing and in
Fujian province.
16.12
Anti-ARM Techniques
The earliest form used to defeat the ARM (and still the most common
method) is radar position flexibility. In most cases the radar position being attacked is provided by an electronic intelligence (ELINT) system prior
to aircraft takeo. The ability of the radar to set up, tear down, and move
to a new location within a few minutes can help to hide the radar position.
The latest generation of SAMs have put a much higher premium on system
mobility. That is, the ability to leave in a hurry is closely linked to survival
in modern warfare. Most land-based surveillance, ballistic missile detection
and weapon-related radars currently in development claim to have relatively
high mobility, including some of the very powerful long range systems such as
Marconis latest version of Martello, the S 753, and the Israeli Arrow Green
Pine antiballistic missile radar.
Rapid relocation however, has its limits. If a surveillance radar is attacked
by an ARM fired from below the radar horizon, or by an aircraft approaching
low over the horizon, the radar has approximately 20 seconds to move to a
safe location. Consequently, manufacturers are looking to increase mobility,
with multifunction radars using planar-array antennas, mounted on a truck
Antiradiation Missiles
607
(including all of the electronics), and with a microwave link to relay target
data back to command and control. They will also use highly sophisticated
land navigation systems to provide an accurate position reference. This is
important if their target data is to be tied into an overall battlefield awareness.
Radar methods include twinkle (or blink) transmission. In this technique,
the o time is much greater than the on time. This makes it dicult for the
ARM to keep track of the emitters signal (and location). In this method
of protecting a pulse radar from an ARM missile attempting to home in
on interrogating pulses emitted, a number of decoys at dierent locations are
deployed in the vicinity of the pulse radar. Each one of the decoys are adapted,
when activated, to emit pulses of a given amplitude and duration; activating,
when each one of the interrogating pulses is generated in the pulse radar. A
selected decoy is chosen to lead the remaining decoys for a period of time
determined by range and range rate measurements of a pulse Doppler missile
warning sensor. The decoy selected is changed to lead the remaining decoys
at a time determined from the range and range rate measurements of a pulse
Doppler missile warning sensor thereby defining a blink rate associated with
the decoys, to form a covering pulse overlapping the then emitted one of the
interrogating pulses, and adaptively changing the blink rate. Two examples
of radar using this transmission control technique for anti-ARM include the
AN/APY-1 Cosmic Shield and the AN/MPQ-53 Patriot [70].
Another technique often used is called the snap-and-shoot method. In this
technique, a fire control radar is assigned to intercept and track targets. The
remaining fire control radar systems receive the target flight path parameters.
When the tracked targets enter the fire range, the unit snaps open and makes
the response. Other methods that may be used include using other types
of radiation to detect and track the targets. This may include using visual
television with infrared measurements of the targets range. Examples of this
include the Swedish GLV200 and the Swiss Air Guard. Also, the use of very
high frequency (VHF) band or ultra high frequency (UHF) bands can be used
to avoid the ARM attack [70]. The reason for this is that the diameter of the
ARM body is limited with the aperture of the ARM antenna greater than the
wavelength. For example, with a diameter of 40 cm, it is dicult to target
radar with frequencies below 1 GHz.
16.12.1
Decoys
608
Antiradiation Missiles
609
Figure 16.47: FLAPS antenna technology showing (a) a thin planar surface
consisting of an array of radiating and phase shifting elements, (b) a conventional reflector, and (c) the schematic of an elemental dipole scatterer used
in the FLAPS antenna technology (from [72]).
tify the attacking ARM (RCS = 0.1 m2 ), which triggers a shutdown of the
sensors and cues the crew manning the site to leave. Studies also indicate
that by using changeable sample ratios within the radar receiver, a higher
probability of ARM detection can result [74].
ARM detection radars with multiple antennas using VHF have also been
reported [75]. The use of VHF enhances the ARM RCS significantly increasing the probability of detection. Extended coherent integration and dedicated
signal processing can also be used. At the same time, the ARM messages are
sent to a series of decoys. The signal radiated by the decoys guide the ARM
(speed 2 to 4 Mach) to a preset safety area. If the ARM fails to continue
the attack, a cancellation of the alarm is made and protected radar triggered
to restart. The anti-ARM warning radars frequency band selection (UHF,
VHF) is to give an antistealth capability, ground clutter and weather suppression and to also control the deployment of the decoys. It must be highly
mobile to operate in the sometimes rough terrain and also have good target
identification capability. The PRF of the warning radar should be as large as
possible with a compressed pulse width as small as possible to decrease the
energy in the range-Doppler detection cell.
With high-speed ARM detection (>1.5 Mach), the separation of the missile from the launch aircraft can be detected with the warning radar using
pulse-Doppler waveforms and frequency agility [73]. For slow ARM targets
such as UAV ARMs and cruise ARMs, an accurate radial velocity and unambiguous range of the target must also be reported.
To avoid turning the radar o early and deploying the decoys, two transmitters T1 and T2 can be used that are placed far away from the protected
610
16.12.2
Gazetchik
The Iraqi newspaper Al-Qabas Daily, in July 2000, reported that Iraq had
acquired from Russia a jamming device that was capable of neutralizing U.S.
ARMs during the enforcement of the no-fly zones, making the missiles miss
their targets. The first two systems were reported to be a gift to Baghdad
by the Russian ultra-nationalist leader Vladimir Zhirinovsky. The Gazetchik
anti-ARM system built by the All-Russian Radio Engineering Research Insti-
Antiradiation Missiles
611
16.12.3
612
References
[1] Bolkcom, B., Military suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD): Assessing
future needs, CRS Report for Congress, RS21141, Sept. 23, 2004.
[2] Farroth, A., and Krishnamurthy, V., Optimal threshold policies for hardkill of enemy radars with high-speed anti-radiation missiles (HARMs), Proc.
of the International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing,
14-19 May, 2006.
[3] Department of the Army, Field Manual 101-5: Sta organization and operations, May 1997.
[4] Davis, L., Wild Weasel: The SAM Suppression StoryVietnam, Squadron
Signal Publications, July 1993.
Antiradiation Missiles
613
614
[24] Salmond, W. E., Common aperture dual mode seeker antenna, U.S. Patent
4,348,677, Sept. 7, 1982.
[25] Corzine, R. G., Bolstad, B. E., and Johantgen, J. S., Broadband polarization
diversity monopulse antenna, U.S. Patent 5,021,796, June 4, 1991.
[26] Bohlman, W. A., and Schuchardt, J. M., Dual polarized ambidextrous multiple deformed aperture spiral antennas, U.S. Patent 5,227,807, July 13,
1993.
[27] Neri, F., Introduction to Electronic Defense Systems, 2nd ed., Artech House,
2001.
[28] Hughes, R. S., RF detector logarithmic video amplifier, Microwave Journal,
vol. 32, no. 8, pp. 137148, Aug. 1989.
[29] Janes Information Group, Two-for-one guidance could steer future antiradar missiles, Janes Missiles and Rockets, Jan. 2005.
[30] Klass, P. J., New anti-radar missile uses dual-mode seeker, Aviation Week
and Space Technology, pp.60 Oct., 26 1998.
[31] Penz, P. A., Katz, A., Gately M. T., Collins, D. R., and Anderson J. A.,
Analog capabilities of the BSB model as applied to the anti-radiation homing
missile problem, IEEE Conference, pp. II-7 II-11.
[32] Lee, J. P. Y., Circuit for LPI signal detection and suppression of conventional
pulsed signals, U.S. Patent 6,388,604, issued May 14, 2002.
[33] Shirman, Y. D., Orlenko, V. M., and Seleznev, S. V., Passive detection of
the stealth signals, Proc. of the European Radar Conf., Amsterdam, pp.
321324, 2004.
[34] Shirman, Y. D., Orlenko, V. M., and Seleznev, S. V., Present state and ways
of passive anti-LPI radar implementation, Proc. of the International Radar
Symposium, pp. 14, 24-26 May, 2006.
[35] Jie, S., Xiao-ming, T. and You, H., Multi-channel digital LPI signal detector, Proc. of the International Conf. on Radar, pp. 14, Oct. 2006.
[36] Kopp, C. Texas Instruments (Raytheon) AGM-88 HARM, Air Power International, Vol. 4, No. 1, Dec. 1998.
[37] Fiszer, M. and Gruzczynski, J., Crimson SEAD, The Journal of Electronic
Defense, pp. 44 56, Oct. 2001.
[38] Barrie, D., Silent Hunter, Aviation Week and Space Technology, pp. 36,
July 26, 2004.
[39] http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sf/missile/row/aa-10.htm
[40] http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/russia/bomber/as-4.htm
[41] Janes Strategic Weapon Systems, Kh-22 (AS-4 Kitchen/Burya), Sept.
2007.
[42] Janes Strategic Weapon Systems, KSR-2P (AS-5 Kelt), Sept. 2007.
[43] Janes Strategic Weapon Systems, KSR-5P (AS-6 Kingfish), Sept. 2007.
[44] Janes Air Launched Weapons Kh-28 (AS-9 Kyle), May, 2006.
Antiradiation Missiles
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616
[70] Neng-Jing, L., Radar ECCM new area: anti-stealth and anti-ARM, IEEE
Trans. on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 31. No. 3, pp. 11201127,
July 1995.
[71] Fan, W., RuiLong, H. and Xiang, S., Anti-ARM technique: distributed
general purpose decoy series (DGPD) pp. 306309, 2001.
[72] http://www.maliburesearch.com/technology.htm.
[73] Fan, W., RuiLong, H., and Xiang, S., Anti-ARM technique: Feature analysis
of ARM warning radar Proc. of the International Conference on Radar, pp.
293296, Bejing, China 2001.
[74] Wang, S., and Zhang, Y., Detecting of anti-radiation missile by applying
changeeable-sample ratios technology in the AEW, Proc. of the International Conference on Radar, pp. 289292 , 2001.
[75] Streetly, M., Gazetchik Anti-Anti-Radiation Missile (ARM) system, Janes
Radar and Electronic Warfare Systems, Jan. 2004.
[76] Streetly, M. AN/TLQ-32 ARM-D anti-radiation missile decoy, Janes Radar
and Electronic Warfare Systems, Jan. 2004.
Problems
1. An ARM seeker (fixed) antenna is being considered for use in the AGM88 (missile body diameter of 0.25 m, length of 4 m). It uses four cavitybacked spiral antennas arranged in a phase comparison monopulse configuration (protected by a radome) as shown in Figure 16.51. Assuming
that the antennas are on a flat disc and the spirals are nearly touching,
(a) what is the equation for the external radius of each spiral in terms
of the disc diameter? One of the properties of the spiral antenna is that
the longest useable wavelength L = 4r. (b) Estimate the frequency
coverage of the AGM-88 HARM missile if the bandwidth coverage is
10:1. (c) If the gain of each antenna is 3 dB (az = el = 80o ) over the
10:1 frequency band, what is total gain of the ARM antenna?
2. For the ARM seeker above, now assume a pulsed emitter with a carrier
frequency fc = 9 GHz whose transmitted peak power is Pt = 1 MW.
Its one-way main lobe antenna gain is Gt = 25 dB with a general side
lobe level of 30 dB with respect to the main lobe, giving a side lobe
gain Gt = 5 dB. The ARM missile is aimed at the radar with the
gain of the array as calculated above. Assume the range to the radar is
25 km. Also assume that the receiver front-end uses a superheterodyne configuration with a bandwidth BIR = 250 MHz with a linear
detector to feed a bank of 250 video filters each with a bandwidth of 1
MHz. For this wideband receiver, a reasonable value of noise figure is
N F = 20 dB. (a) Determine the expression for the single-pulse signalto-noise ratio at the ARM receiver. (b) Do you think the seeker will
Antiradiation Missiles
617
Chapter 17
Autonomous Classification
of LPI Radar Modulations
In this chapter, autonomous (no human operator intervention) feature extraction and classification algorithms that can be used for identifying LPI radar
modulations using time-frequency (T-F) detection images are presented. The
multilayer perceptron network and the radial basis function network are presented to identify the type of LPI modulation present in the intercepted
signal. These nonlinear classification networks use an input feature vector
that is generated from the T-F images (preprocessing). In the first feature
extraction algorithm, the modulation energy is cropped from the T-F image
using the marginal frequency distribution to determine the cropping region.
An adaptive binarization algorithm is then used to build the feature vector
in order to preserve the high-resolution detail that emphasizes the dierences
between modulation classes without overwhelming the classification networks.
Initial classification results show that the cropping region is sensitive to highfrequency noise contained in the marginal frequency distribution. In a second
feature extraction algorithm, lowpass filtering of the T-F image is used prior
to calculation of the marginal frequency distribution. Wiener filtering of the
marginal frequency distribution is also added to improve the stability of the
cropping region. The use of principal components analysis to construct the
feature vector is investigated. An extended database is developed and the
classification results for simulated LPI radar modulations are shown as a
function of both SNR variations and variations in the modulation parameters
(most dicult, but realistic case).
619
620
17.1
621
17.2
The LPI emitter has established itself as the premier tactical and strategic
radar in the military spectrum. In addition to surveillance and navigation,
the LPI emitter also operates in the time-critical domain for applications such
as fire control and missile guidance. In the EW battle, the noncooperative
intercept receiver is a significant element in the detection and classification of
the LPI radar in a complex environment of multiple emitters and high noise
interference. The LPI radar modulations force the intercept receiver to increase its processing gain by implementing T-F signal processing algorithms.
With these detection techniques a human operator can examine the resulting T-F image on a human-computer interface (HCI) and identify the type
of signal modulation present (classification) as well as quantify (or extract)
the modulation parameters. The development of a corresponding jammer
response, when required, is almost always a time critical event.
17.2.1
622
Computer Task
No assistance
Suggests alternatives
Selects way to do task
Selects and executes
Executes unless vetoed
Executes immediately
Executes immediately
Executes immediately
Human Task
Does all
Chooses
Schedules response
Must approve
Has limited veto time
Informed upon execution
Informed if asked
Ignored by computer
task, the operator will tend to adapt to the normal operation mode and not
pay close attention to the system (operator drop out). When an emergency
condition occurs, the operators response will be degraded and they will tend
to make more mistakes. For example, the operator might unexpectedly have
to manage a proper EW response to the intercepted emitter.
17.2.2
The need for human analysis of the T-F results limits these techniques to
ELINT receivers where the emitter information derived is not time-critical.
High-level automation of the classification decision, parameter extraction and
response management are however justified in highly time-critical situations
in which there is insucient time for a human operator to respond and take
appropriate action [17]. This is the case for ES receivers and RWRs. Human
beings are often still needed to be the fail-safe in an otherwise automated
system.
The Sheridan level shown in Table 17.1 is a system of eight levels to
indicate the amount of automation that is incorporated in the response, its
level of autonomy and whether the response execution authority is assigned to
the system or to the operator [18]. The Sheridan levels or levels of authority
(LoA) vary from level 1: Computer oers no assistance, human does all to
level 8: Computer selects method, executes task and ignores human. In
levels 1 to 4 the operator has authority over function execution; in levels 6
to 8 authority has moved to the system. In level 5 the authority is shared
between the system and the operator.
Figure 17.1 shows an example where the intercept receiver calculates the
T-F results from an intercepted LPI signal and must then administer a jamming waveform response. The figure shows the EW response management
detailing the interaction between automation, autonomy and authority for
623
17.2.3
Figure 17.2 shows the steps that can be used to autonomously classify the
LPI radar signal modulations. The LPI radar signal is intercepted with a
digital receiver that digitizes the intercepted signal. The signal is processed
by both T-F and B-F detection techniques. After the T-F, B-F detection
processing, the resulting image planes are used by the autonomous decision
making process to identify the modulation type. The autonomous decision
making consists of a feature extraction algorithm that is used to derive the
feature vector from the T-F, B-F image plane. A nonlinear classification
624
17.3
625
17.3.1
1 y>0
0 y0
(17.1)
626
1
1 + ey
(17.2)
y=W X
or
(17.3)
y = [W0 , W1 , , Wn ]
1n
1
X1
X2
..
.
Xn
n1
(17.4)
(17.5)
(17.6)
W1
W0
X1
W2
W2
(17.7)
627
628
629
17.3.2
630
node in layer i + 1.
In an MLP network the inputs propagate through the network in a forward
direction, on a layer by layer basis. Training algorithms include gradient
search, backpropagation and temporal dierence. The measure of how well
the network performs on the actual problem, once training is complete, is
called generalization. It is usually tested by evaluating the performance of
the network on new data that is outside the training set. Parameters that
can aect the generalization are: (a) the number of data samples and how
well they represent the problem at hand, (b) the complicity of the underlying
problem, and (c) the network size. In general, a large number of weights
adversely aects generalization and the time required to learn the solution.
It is also worth noting that the feature vector derived from the T-F and B-F
images has a significant impact on both (a) and (b).
An MLP with I input nodes, and H hidden layers can be described in
general as [22]
H
yk ( ) = fs
wkh fs
h=1
whi xi ( )
(17.8)
i=1
(17.9)
(17.10)
631
where g is the Tikhonovs regularization parameter 0 < g < 1 [23]. The term
MSE is a performance measure and is the mean sum of squares of the network
errors. The performance measure depends on both the network design and
the training data. The term MSW is the mean sum of squares of the network
weights and biases and is sometimes referred to as the complexity penalty.
From (17.10), the regularization parameter g influences directly the trade-o
between the complexity penalty and the performance measure. The optimum
values to minimize R are found and the process is carried out for all the
training examples on an epoch-by-epoch basis. Note that if g = 1, the network
design is unconstrained with the solution depending only on the input-output
training examples.
For most applications, a three-layer network with H = 2 hidden layers
should sucient. Note that when more hidden layers are included, the convergence of the weight values becomes more dicult and significantly more
time is required to complete the global training. Further, there is a much
larger chance that an overgeneralization will be provided which degrades the
ability of the network to identify correctly the modulation type present. The
number of output neurons reflects the number of modulation types that are
expected. For example, if 12 modulation types were expected in the theater
of operations, then the output layer should have 12 neurons each of which
corresponds to a modulation type. The output neurons can be hard limiting (0 or 1) or can be sigmoidal which gives more of a modulation type
probability. The input feature vector is extracted from the T-F or B-F detection processing image. The feature vector dimension D 1 is determined
by feature extraction signal processing.
The supervised training of the feed-forward MLP network uses the gradient of the performance function to determine how to adjust the weights.
The gradient is determined using a technique called backpropagation [24].
The backpropagation algorithm is a generalization of the least mean square
algorithm used for linear networks, where the performance index is the mean
square error. Basically, a training sequence is passed through the multilayer
network, the error between the target output and the actual output is computed, and the error is then propagated back through the hidden layers from
the output to the input in order to update weights and biases in all layers.
Dierent modifications of training algorithms may improve the convergence
speed of the network. One of these modifications is the variable learning
rate. With the standard steepest descent algorithm, the learning rate is held
constant throughout the training. The performance of the algorithm is very
sensitive to the proper setting of the learning rate. When a variable learning
rate is used and the learning rate is allowed to change during the training
process, the performance of the steepest descent algorithm is improved [24].
632
17.3.3
633
||xi xj || =
(xik xjk )
(17.12)
k=1
where xik and xjk are the kth elements of the input vectors xi and xj respectively [23]. Correspondingly, the similarity between the inputs represented by
xik and xjk is defined as the reciprocal of the Euclidean distance ||xi xj ||.
The output of the RBF can be expressed as
J
ypn = Wn0 +
j=1
(17.13)
where ypn is the output of the nth modulation node in response to the pth
input pattern, (||xp cn ||) is the output of the hidden node n in response
to the pth input vector xp and the vectors cn , n = 1, . . . , N are referred to as
the centers of the radially symmetric basis functions . The weighting matrix
Wnj represents the synaptic weights from the jth radial basis function to the
nth modulation output node and Wn0 is the bias or threshold assigned to the
nth modulation output node.
One symmetrical choice for the radial basis function is the Gaussian
function
2
(xj cnj )
(17.14)
(||xp cn ||) = exp
2
2nj
j=1
where nj are the elements of a covariance matrix (or spread), which is taken
here to be diagonal.
The set of hidden units consist of a set of functions which constitute an
arbitrary basis for the feature vector patterns to be classified when expanded
into hidden unit space. These are referred to as radial basis functions. The
expansion of input vectors into a hidden unit space of relatively high dimension (many radial basis functions) will result in a greater likelihood of the
classification problem becoming linearly separable. One approach for an efficient RBF network design is by iteratively creating the RBF one neuron
at a time. Neurons are added to the network until either the sum-squared
error falls beneath an error goal or a maximum number of neurons has been
reached [23]. The two parameters used to optimize the RBF to obtain a better probability of correct classification are the goal and spread . The spread
constant should be larger than the distance between adjacent input vectors,
so as to get a good generalization, but smaller than the distance across the
whole input space. The training is accomplished in two stages. The basis
functions are determined by unsupervised techniques using the input data
while the second layer weights are found by a fast linear supervised method.
Hence the training is fast and ecient.
634
17.4
In Figure 17.2, the LPI signal is detected with three T-F signal processing
methods. Each T-F image contains features that identify the modulation type
(and its parameters). Methods to autonomously extract these features from
the T-F distribution have recently received much attention (see for example
[27, 28]). Two ecient feature extraction methods that build a feature vector
from a T-F image are described below.
17.4.1
635
CWDx ( , )
(17.15)
or summing the time values for each frequency in the T-F image and then storing the sums in an array. Each marginal frequency distribution is a unique
representation of the T-F image it was generated from. The marginal frequency distribution is normalized by dividing the sums by the largest sum
in the array. The normalized marginal frequency distribution of the T1(2)
modulation is shown in Figure 17.14.
The normalized distribution is used to extract a threshold that is used
later to isolate and crop the modulation energy within the T-F image. The
threshold is determined by generating a histogram of 100 bins of the normalized marginal frequency distribution and then taking the value from the
histogram bin which generates the best probability of correct classification
(Pcc) results. An example of the T1(2) histogram is shown in Figure 17.15.
Once the threshold is determined (n = 9) the convolution of the averaging kernel with the normalized marginal frequency distribution is used to
636
Figure 17.13: Choi-Williams T-F image for the T1(2) modulation showing
(a) presence of the no-signal region and (b) no-signal region removed.
Figure 17.14: Normalized marginal frequency distribution of the T1(2) modulation shown in Figure 17.13.
637
638
Figure 17.16: Autonomous cropping with (a) original resized image and
(b) cropped image.
then identified. For example, if the cdf threshold is chosen experimentally
to be C = 0.8, this means that only 20% of the brightest pixels above the
threshold are retained. With this intensity bin, a corresponding normalized
intensity threshold, T = n/N , is calculated. This adaptive threshold is then
used to convert the intensity image into a binary image. That is,
I (t, ) =
1 (black) I (t, ) T
0 (white) I (t, ) < T
(17.17)
17.4.2
For testing the MFAB feature extraction, five modulation types are used. The
modulation types include BPSK, FMCW, Frank, P4, and T1. To classify the
signal modulations, a multilayer perceptron is used with two hidden layers
and an output layer. The signals used in the training of the classification
639
640
FMCW
Frank
P4
T1
Variable
cpp
Nc
fc (kHz)
F (Hz)
tm (ms)
fc (kHz)
cpp
Nc
fc (kHz)
cpp
Nc
fc (kHz)
n
k
fc (kHz)
TestSNR
values
1, 4, 7
7, 11
1, 2
250, 500
20, 50
1, 2
1, 4, 7
16
1, 2
1, 4, 7
16
1, 2
2, 6
4
1, 2
TestMod
values
2, 3, 5, 6
7, 11
1, 2
350, 450
35, 45
1, 2
2, 3, 5, 6
16
1, 2
2, 3, 5, 6
16
1, 2
3, 4, 5
4
1, 2
Description
Cycles per subcode
No. of subcodes
Carrier frequency
Mod. bandwidth
Mod. period
Carrier frequency
Cycles per subcode
No. of subcodes
Carrier frequency
Cycles per subcode
No. of subcodes
Carrier frequency
No. of phase states
No. of code segments
Carrier frequency
The MLP used to generate the results was executed for a total of 5,000
epochs, with an error goal of 1 106 . Thirty-five neurons were used in both
the first and second hidden layers (S1 = S2 = 35) for the Choi-Williams
results and the Wigner-Ville distribution results. For the QMFB, due to the
dierent size of the layers, S1 = 20 neurons were used in the first hidden layer
and S2 = 35 neurons were used in the second hidden layer. The output layer
for all MLP configurations contained 5 neurons which matches the number of
modulations that were expected.
Optimum classification for the Choi-Williams distribution occurred when
bin 16 was used as shown in Figure 17.18 (testing with modulation variation)
and Figure 17.19 (testing with noise variation). No classification results were
obtained using thresholds from histogram bins greater than 72 because the
feature extraction algorithm could not isolate the modulation. Table 17.3
shows the classification results in the form of a confusion matrix for the ChoiWilliams distribution. The diagonal terms represent the Pcc percentage. The
o-diagonal terms are the percentages for the modulation being misclassified.
Classifying signals with variations in their modulation (TestMod) is a more
dicult case than classifying signals with only variations in noise (TestSNR).
This fact is present in all of the classification results.
Figures 17.20 and 17.21 are the optimization tables for the Wigner-Ville
distribution. Optimum classification occurs when bin 31 (n = 31) is used.
No classification results were obtained using thresholds from histogram bins
641
642
BPSK
0.93
0.00
0.01
0.05
0.01
BPSK
0.96
0.00
0.01
0.03
0.00
FMCW
0.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
FMCW
0.00
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Frank
0.08
0.01
0.53
0.35
0.04
Frank
0.22
0.00
0.74
0.01
0.03
P4
0.35
0.00
0.05
0.60
0.00
P4
0.11
0.00
0.02
0.85
0.01
T1
0.08
0.00
0.07
0.02
0.83
T1
0.12
0.00
0.03
0.05
0.81
greater than 66 because the feature extraction algorithm could not isolate the
modulation. Table 17.4 shows the classification results for the Wigner-Ville
distribution when bin 31 is used.
Figures 17.22 and 17.23 are the optimization tables for the QMFB detection technique. Optimum classification occurs when bin 9 (n = 9) is used.
No classification results were obtained using thresholds from histogram bins
greater than 18 because the feature extraction algorithm could not isolate
the modulation. Table 17.5 shows the classification results for the QMFB
distribution when bin 9 is used.
17.4.3
To produce optimum results with the RBF it is necessary to pick an accurate threshold using the histogram derived from the marginal frequency
distribution in order to accurately find the start and stop frequencies of the
modulation energy similar to what was done for the MLP. The optimum classification occurs when bin 16 (n = 16) is used. Table 17.6 shows the classification using the RBF and the Choi-Williams for n = 16. For the Wigner-Ville
distribution, the optimum classification occurs when bin 58 (n = 58) is used.
Table 17.7 shows the classification using the RBF and the Wigner-Ville distribution for n = 16. For the quadrature mirror filtering, the optimum classification occurs when bin 14 (n = 14) is used. Table 17.8 shows the classification
using the RBF and the Wigner-Ville distribution for n = 16.
643
644
BPSK
0.96
0.00
0.02
0.02
0.01
BPSK
0.95
0.00
0.02
0.01
0.02
FMCW
0.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
FMCW
0.00
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Frank
0.08
0.00
0.58
0.33
0.00
Frank
0.19
0.00
0.76
0.03
0.03
P4
0.12
0.00
0.22
0.65
0.01
P4
0.06
0.00
0.01
0.91
0.02
T1
0.20
0.00
0.27
0.04
0.49
T1
0.10
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.86
645
BPSK
0.82
0.14
0.01
0.03
0.00
BPSK
0.95
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.00
FMCW
0.40
0.48
0.01
0.11
0.0
FMCW
0.03
0.94
0.02
0.02
0.00
Frank
0.48
0.21
0.13
0.18
0.01
Frank
0.08
0.03
0.81
0.03
0.05
P4
0.35
0.21
0.14
0.30
0.00
P4
0.11
0.01
0.01
0.86
0.01
T1
0.23
0.00
0.05
0.02
0.70
T1
0.09
0.01
0.03
0.04
0.85
646
BPSK
1.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
BPSK
0.95
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.03
FMCW
0.00
1.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
FMCW
0.00
1.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Frank
0.0
0.00
0.50
0.38
0.13
Frank
0.07
0.00
0.87
0.03
0.03
P4
0.00
0.00
0.14
0.88
0.03
P4
0.07
0.00
0.00
0.90
0.03
T1
0.17
0.00
0.05
0.00
0.83
T1
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.10
0.90
BPSK
0.75
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.25
BPSK
0.83
0.03
0.00
0.02
0.13
FMCW
0.00
1.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
FMCW
0.00
1.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Frank
0.00
0.13
0.50
0.25
0.13
Frank
0.07
0.00
0.70
0.07
0.17
P4
0.00
0.00
0.38
0.50
0.13
P4
0.03
0.00
0.10
0.83
0.03
T1
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.00
T1
0.00
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.95
647
17.4.4
BPSK
0.81
0.19
0.00
0.00
0.00
BPSK
0.97
0.03
0.00
0.02
0.00
FMCW
0.25
0.50
0.00
0.25
0.00
FMCW
0.00
1.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Frank
0.75
0.13
0.13
0.00
0.00
Frank
0.10
0.17
0.73
0.00
0.00
P4
0.63
0.25
0.00
0.13
0.00
P4
0.10
0.07
0.00
0.83
0.00
T1
0.67
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.80
T1
0.20
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.80
648
application to an operational environment. Its training phase is fast and ecient. Because it trains faster than the MLP, in an operational environment
a user would not have to wait long before receiving classification results for
an LPI signal. This feature of the RBF is important and should be investigated in an attempt to improve the RBFs results so that it can be applied
operationally. In the next section, several signal processing changes are made
in order to improve the classification results.
17.5
17.5.1
The detect and delete no-signal region is followed by a low pass filter (LPF)
applied to the T-F image. This insures that the low frequency LPI modulation
energy is preserved and the high frequency noise is removed. The filtering
can easily be performed in the frequency domain. Frequency domain filtering
using the 2-D Fourier transform is fast and ecient. Let f (k1 , k2 ) for k1 =
0, 1, 2, . . . , M 1 and k2 = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N 1 denote the M N T-F image.
The 2-D discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of f denoted by F (u, v) is [33]
F (u, v) =
M1 N 1
k1 =0 k2 =0
(17.18)
649
(17.20)
650
651
1 if D(u, v) D0
0 if D(u, v) D0
(17.21)
(u,v)/2 2
(17.22)
These steps are illustrated in Figure 17.27. Figure 17.27(a) shows the desired
frequency response with D0 = 0.3 (where |D0 | [0, 1]) or 1 = 2 = 0.3,
Figure 17.27(b) shows the Gaussian window with = N D0 /8 = 33.825.
The dimension of both the frequency response matrix and Gaussian window is
M = 1,024, N = 902. Figure 17.27(c) shows the resultant Gaussian lowpass
filter and Figure 17.27(d) shows the Gaussian lowpass filter as an image.
Several values of 1 , 2 can be tested during the simulation process to find
an optimum value for each distribution. For each trial the digital cuto
frequencies should be set to 1 = 2 . After obtaining the lowpass filter,
the frequency domain filtering can be implemented by multiplying F (u, v) by
H(u, v). This operation is followed by shifting the frequency components back
and taking the inverse FFT of the filtered image. The last step is obtaining
the real part of the inverse FFT.
17.5.2
After the LPF is used to eliminate the high frequency noise, the marginal
frequency distribution of the T-F image is calculated. The marginal frequency
distribution gives the instantaneous energy of the signal as a function of
frequency. The steps for determining the modulation frequency band from
the T-F plane are shown in Figure 17.28. The operations are applied to the
MFD of the T-F plane. The MFD gives the instantaneous energy of the
signal as a function of frequency. This is obtained by integrating the time
values for each frequency in the T-F image resulting in an M 1 vector A.
652
Figure 17.28: Modified method for determining the cropping region [32].
653
Figure 17.29: Frank code signal with Nc = 36 (a) MFD and (b) MFD after
thresholding [32].
As an example, the marginal frequency distribution of a Frank coded signal
with fs = 7 kHz, fc = 1,495 Hz, Nc = 36, and cpp = 1 (B = 1, 495 Hz)
with an SNR = 0 dB is shown in Figure 17.29(a). The higher energy interval
corresponds to the frequency band of interest and contains the modulation
energy. The goal is to isolate and crop the LPI modulation as accurately
as possible. This is done by computing the threshold from the histogram as
before. As the noise level changes however, the cropping window set by the
threshold may change as a function of noise (from one SNR to another). In
order to minimize this eect, a smoothing operation is applied on A [32].
The smoothing of the marginal frequency distribution can be applied in
a number of dierent ways. One of the most ecient methods is to apply
a linear adaptive filter to attenuate the noise followed by a moving average
filter to smooth the edges and local peaks. The smoothing operation is then
followed by a normalization.
An adaptive filter is a filter that changes behavior based on the statistical
characteristics of the input signal within the filter. A Wiener filter is a good
choice. The Wiener filter is applied to A using the local neighborhood of size
m-by-1 to estimate the local image mean and standard deviation. The filter
estimates the local mean and variance around each vector element. The local
mean is estimated as [34]
1
A(n)
(17.23)
=
m n
654
1
A2 (n) 2
m n
(17.24)
max( 2 2 , 0)
(A(n) )
2
(17.25)
where v is the noise variance estimated using the average of all the local
estimated variances. When the variance is large, the filter performs little
smoothing and when the variance is small, it performs more smoothing. For
PWVD and CWD images a local neighborhood of = 10 is used and for
the QMFB images = 4 is used. Figure 17.29(b) shows the output of the
adaptive filter for the input MFD of the Frank signal with Nc = 36. Note the
considerable noise attenuation.
Although the adaptive noise attenuation gives promising results, the
threshold determination may be aected by the local noise peaks that could
not be reduced by the adaptive filter. To avoid this problem a moving average
filter is applied to the output of the adaptive Wiener filter. As a generalization of the average filter, an averaging over N + M + 1 neighboring points
can be considered. The moving average filter is represented by the following
dierence equation [35]
y(n) =
1
N +M +1
k=N
x(n k)
(17.26)
where x(n) is the input and y(n) is the output. The corresponding impulse
response is a rectangular pulse.
For PWVD and CWD images a window length of N + M + 1 = 10 is used
and for QMFB images N + M + 1 = 4 is used. The moving average filter
avg is then normalized as
output, A
An =
avg
A
avg )
max(A
(17.27)
655
656
Figure 17.31: (a) LPF output, (b) cropped region, and (c) contour plot of
the cropped region showing the Frank modulation.
range of values for each detection technique and each network. The bin number that provides the best Pcc is selected. Once the threshold is determined,
the values of An below the threshold are set to zero. Then the beginning and
ending frequencies of the frequency band of interest are determined as shown
in Figure 17.30(c). Using the lowest and highest frequency values from the
frequency band of interest the modulation energy can now be cropped from
the image.
After the determination of the modulation band of interest the energy is
autonomously cropped from the LPF output containing the noise filtered image. The cropping was illustrated in Figure 17.31. Figure 17.31(a) shows the
LPF output that is obtained previously, Figure 17.31(b) shows the cropped
region and Figure 17.31(c) shows the contour plot where the signal energy
can easily be seen. Once the LPF output is cropped, the new image is resized
to 50 400 pixels for the PWVD and CWD images. The QMFB images are
resized to 30 120 pixels. Resizing is done in order to obtain as much similarity as possible between the same modulation types. Following the resizing
operation the columns of the resized image are formed with the feature vector
of size 50 400 = 20, 000 for PWVD and CWD images, and of size 30 120 =
3,600 for the QMFB images.
17.5.3
Principal components analysis (PCA) is mathematically defined as an orthogonal linear transformation that transforms the data to a new coordinate
system such that the greatest variance by any projection of the data comes to
657
lie on the first coordinate (called the first principal component), the second
greatest variance on the second coordinate, and so on [36]. In other words,
PCA is a rotation of the existing axes to new positions in the space defined
by the original variables, where there is no correlation between the new variables defined by the rotation. PCA is theoretically the optimum transform
for a given data set in least square terms. That is, the method projects the
high-dimensional data vectors onto a lower dimensional space by using a projection which best represents the data in a mean square sense. Using PCA
the given data vector is represented as a linear combination of the eigenvectors obtained from the data covariance matrix. As a result, lower dimensional
data vectors may be obtained by projecting the high-dimensional data vectors
onto a number of dominant eigenvectors [37].
PCA can be used for dimensionality reduction of the feature vector by
retaining those characteristics of the cropped modulation that contribute
most to its variance, by keeping lower-order principal components and ignoring higher-order ones. This assumes of course, that the low-order components contain the most important features of the LPI modulation within the
cropped (and resized) T-F data. To facilitate the PCA, we form a training
matrix X as shown in Figure 17.32 where N is the length of the feature vector and P is the number of training signals, which is 50 for our results. It is
important to note that the mean has been subtracted from the data set.
The PCA maps the ensemble of P N-dimensional vectors
X = x1 , x2 , , xp onto an ensemble of P D-dimensional vectors Y =
(17.28)
where A has orthogonal column vectors, i = 1, 2, , P and H is the Hermitian operation. The matrix A is selected as the P D matrix containing the
D eigenvectors associated with the larger eigenvalues of the data covariance
matrix XH X. With this choice of transformation matrix A, the transformed
data vectors Y have uncorrelated components.
The matrix X is obtained first to form the training data set. The feature
extraction algorithm is applied to the images in the Training folder for
each detection technique. The cropped images are resized and a column
vector is formed to represent the signal modulation. These column vectors
are stacked together to form the training data set matrix. The mean of the
training matrix is calculated column wise and the mean is subtracted from
the training data set matrix giving the matrix X. This operation is illustrated
in Figure 17.32 where P is the number of training signals which is 50 for this
example, and N is the length of the feature vectors. For PWVD and CWD
X is of dimension 20,000 50 (50 training signals) and for the QMFB X is
of dimension 3,60050.
658
(U)H U
VH = V(
)VH
(17.30)
659
VH V = U
(17.31)
(17.32)
660
17.5.4
661
Figure 17.34: Folder structure for TestSNR, TestMod, and Training (10-dB
TestSNR only) [32].
Table 17.9: Costas Frequency Hopping Modulation Parameters for TestSNR
(fs = 7,000 Hz)
Signal
modulation
Costas
Frequency
sequence (Hz)
{3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1} 200
{2, 4, 8, 5, 10, 9, 7, 3, 6, 1} 150
Frequency
duration tp (ms)
5
3
662
Frequency
sequence (Hz)
{3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1} 150
{5, 4, 6, 2, 3, 1} 300
Barker subcode
period tb (ms)
1 (Nc = 5)
0.3 (Nc = 13)
Carrier
frequency
fc (Hz)
1,495
2,195
Modulation
bandwidth
F (Hz)
250
800
Modulation
period
tm (ms)
15
15
point out that this is a more dicult (and realistic) situation. The TestMod
signals model the interception of a waveform with a modulation that is not
within the training set. The signals in TestMod are also tested as a function
of the SNR. The Costas frequency hopping modulation parameters and the
Costas frequency hopping plus Barker PSK modulation parameters used for
TestMod are shown in Tables 17.15 and 17.16, respectively. The FMCW signals used for testing the performance of the signal processing as a function of
the SNR are as shown in Table 17.17. The polyphase signals (Frank, P1P4)
used for testing the performance as a function of the SNR are as shown in
Table 17.18. The polytime signals are shown in Tables 17.19 and 17.20.
Optimizing the Feature Extraction and Classification Network
Using the initial nonlinear network parameters two feature extraction
parameters, LPF cuto frequency and histogram bin, must be optimized.
Using the optimum values derived, the PCA network parameters are then
optimized. The Pcc results shown are with the final optimum values. The
optimization is performed using the test signals with SNR = 10 dB. The
optimum parameter selection is based on the highest average Pcc.
For each detection technique, the MLP network configuration starts with
a default set of values for the epochs, the number of neurons in the first and
second hidden layers S1 , S2 , the eigenvalue selection threshold constant T h
and eigenvector selection variations i . Once the initial values are set, an
optimization is performed to determine optimum values for the LPF digital
frequencies 1 = 2 and histogram bin number. After these two values are
Carrier
frequency fc (Hz)
1,495
............
...................
2,195
P1
............
P2
............
P3
............
P4
............
1,495
...................
2,195
1,495
...................
2,195
1,495
...................
2,195
1,495
...................
2,195
Code
length Nc
9
25
36
..........
16
25
9
25
36
..........
16
16
16
36
..........
16
36
9
9
36
..........
16
25
9
25
36
..........
16
16
Cycles per
subcode cpp
5
2
1
.............
6
3
5
2
1
.............
4
5
3
1
.............
5
3
4
5
1
.............
6
3
5
2
1
.............
4
5
663
664
T2
Carrier
frequency
fc (Hz)
1,495
...........
2,195
1,495
............
...........
2,194
Code
period
T (ms)
30
30
.......
30
30
30
30
30
.......
30
30
30
No. phase
states
n
2
3
...........
2
2
4
4
8
...........
4
4
6
No. code
segments
k
5
4
..........
3
4
3
3
4
..........
3
4
3
T4
Carrier
frequency
fc (Hz)
1,495
...........
2,195
1,495
............
...........
2,194
Modulation
period
tm (ms)
25
30
.............
25
30
35
25
30
30
.............
30
30
Modulation
bandwidth
F (Hz)
300
900
.............
400
1000
800
400
550
850
.............
600
900
No. phase
states
n
4
9
...........
2
7
6
2
3
7
...........
5
9
Frequency
sequence (Hz)
{5, 4, 6, 2, 3, 1} 400
Frequency
duration tp (ms)
5
Frequency
sequence (Hz)
{3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1} 200
{5, 4, 6, 2, 3, 1} 250
Barker subcode
period tb (ms)
0.4 (Nc = 11)
0.7 (Nc = 7)
Carrier
frequency
fc (Hz)
1,495
2,195
Modulation
bandwidth
F (Hz)
500
400
Modulation
period
tm (ms)
20
20
Carrier
frequency fc (Hz)
1, 495
...................
2, 195
P1
............
1,495
...................
2,195
P2
............
1,495
...................
2,195
1,495
...................
2,195
P3
............
P4
............
1,495
...................
2,195
Code
length Nc
9
..........
16
16
9
..........
16
25
16
..........
16
25
..........
16
16
9
..........
16
25
Cycles per
subcode cpp
4
.............
4
5
4
.............
6
3
2
.............
4
2
.............
4
5
4
.............
6
3
665
666
Carrier
frequency
fc (Hz)
1,495
...........
2,195
1,495
...........
2, 194
Code
period
T (ms)
30
30
.......
30
30
30
.......
30
No. phase
states
n
4
6
...........
3
6
4
...........
8
No. code
segments
k
4
3
..........
3
4
5
..........
3
Carrier
frequency
fc (Hz)
1,495
...........
2,195
1,495
...........
2,194
Modulation
period
tm (ms)
30
35
.............
30
35
.............
25
35
Modulation
bandwidth
F (Hz)
500
700
.............
600
700
.............
450
750
No. phase
states
n
5
8
...........
3
6
...........
4
8
667
1 = 2
0.1
0.1
0.4
Bin
45
15
18
S1 = S2
80
80
60
T h
0.001
0.001
0.005
i
1
0
0
epochs
5,000
6,000
5,000
1 = 2
0.2
0.5
0.6
Bin
55
55
4
2000
3500
25
goal
0.9
0.9
0.8
T h
0.001
0.001
0.001
i
0
0
0
17.5.5
The classification results are presented for comparison of the three T-F detection techniques including the Choi-Williams distribution (CWD), the pseudo
Wigner-Ville distribution (PWVD) and the quadrature mirror filter bank
approach (QMFB). The MLP classification results for the Costas frequency
hopping code are shown in Figure 17.35 and the results for the Costas plus
Barker PSK are shown in Figure 17.36. The MLP classification results for the
FMCW are shown in Figure 17.37. The MLP results for the Frank, P1P4,
T1T4 are shown in Figures 17.3817.46.
All the detection techniques show similar results on the TestSNR case.
Most of the modulations are classified with more than 80% classification rate
for SNR > 0 dB. There is a considerable stability in classification of signals
with SNR > 0 dB. This stability indicates that the autonomous modulation
668
Figure 17.35: Costas code classification results using the MLP for (a) TestSNR and (b) TestMod.
Figure 17.36: Costas frequency hopping plus PSK classification results using
the MLP for (a) TestSNR and (b) TestMod.
669
Figure 17.37: FMCW classification results using the MLP for (a) TestSNR
and (b) TestMod.
Figure 17.38: Frank classification results using the MLP for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
670
Figure 17.39: P1 classification results using the MLP for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
Figure 17.40: P2 classification results using the MLP for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
671
Figure 17.41: P3 classification results using the MLP for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
Figure 17.42: P4 classification results using the MLP for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
672
Figure 17.43: T1 classification results using the MLP for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
Figure 17.44: T2 classification results using the MLP for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
673
Figure 17.45: T3 classification results using the MLP for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
Figure 17.46: T4 classification results using the MLP for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
674
energy isolation and cropping becomes more sensitive to noise variations below 0 dB. The Pcc of Frank, FSK/PSK, FMCW, T1, T2, and T4 modulations
with PWVD and CWD techniques exhibit 100% for most of the SNR levels
above 0 dB.
Concerning the TestMod case, the best results are obtained in the classification of FMCW, Costas, FSK/PSK, P2, and T2 modulations while the
worst results are obtained in the classification of polyphase codes. Note that
most of the results for Frank, P1, P3, and P4 modulations are below Pcc =
0.4. Classification of Costas, FSK/PSK, FMCW, P2, P4, T1, T2, T3, and
T4 modulations with PWVD and CWD techniques exhibit similar results.
Overall, the classification results with the PWVD technique outperform the
other detection techniques. Overall the QMFB technique performs worse
than the other techniques but it does well in the classification of T2 and T4
modulations for SNR > 5 dB. Recall that the QMFB images have a very
low resolution compared to the PWVD and CWD images, which becomes a
disadvantage for modulation discrimination.
One interesting result is observed on Costas modulation classification.
While the Pcc for TestMod is 100% with all detection techniques, the Pcc
for TestSNR is not. This is an unexpected result. It is expected that the
TestSNR results would outperform the TestMod results since the signals used
in TestSNR have the same parameters as the training signals. In this sense
the TestSNR results can be used as a measure of reliability. This shows
that, although the Costas results seem very good for TestMod case, they
may not be reliable. Further, it is shown that the classification of Costas
code is best performed with CWD detection technique for SNR > 4 dB.
Note also that it is not necessarily true that the TestMod results perform
better if the TestSNR results perform well. The Pcc for TestMod depends
on the modulation discriminative power of the feature extraction algorithm
implemented.
17.5.6
The RBF classification results for the Costas frequency hopping signals are
shown in Figure 17.47. The RBF classification results for the Costas plus
PSK frequency hopping signals are shown in Figure 17.48. The results for
the FMCW signals are shown in Figure 17.49. The results for the Frank
polyphase signals are shown in Figure 17.50. The RBF classification results
for the P1P4 polyphase signals are shown in Figures 17.5117.54. The results
for the T1 and T2 polytime signals are shown in Figures 17.5517.58.
For the TestSNR classification, the Frank, FMCW, P2, T1, T2, T3 and T4
modulations are classified with greater than Pcc = 80% probability of correct
classification for SNR > 2 dB. The autonomous modulation energy isolation
and cropping becomes more sensitive to noise variations below SNR = 2 dB.
675
Figure 17.47: Costas classification results using the RBF for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
The FMCW modulation is classified with 100% for SNR > 4 dB, and the
P2 modulation is classified with 100% for SNR > 4 dB with all detection
techniques.
Concerning the TestMod case, the best results are obtained in the classification of FMCW, Costas, P1, P2 and T2 modulations while the worst
results are obtained in the classification of P4, T1 and T3 modulations. The
FMCW modulation is classified 100% with PWVD detection technique for
SNR > 10 dB and 100% with CWD detection technique for SNR > 1 dB .
The T4 modulation is classified 100% with PWVD detection for SNR > 2 dB
and the P2 modulation is classified 100% with CWD detection for SNR > 3
dB. Overall, the classification results with the PWVD technique outperform
the other detection techniques. The QMFB technique performs worse than
the other two detection techniques. It outperforms however, the other techniques in the classification of the P1 modulation with a Pcc above 66%.
MLP and RBF Comparision
Both the MLP and RBF networks are examples of nonlinear layered feedforward networks. The important trait that is illustrated in the figures shown
is that the RBF classification Pcc results are not as stationary as those for
the MLP. This is due in part to the fact that the RBF has a single hidden
676
Figure 17.48: Costas plus PSK classification results using the RBF for
(a) TestSNR and (b) TestMod.
Figure 17.49: FMCW classification results using the RBF for (a) TestSNR
and (b) TestMod.
677
Figure 17.50: Frank classification results using the RBF for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
Figure 17.51: P1 classification results using the RBF for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
678
Figure 17.52: P2 classification results using the RBF for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
Figure 17.53: P3 classification results using the RBF for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
679
Figure 17.54: P4 classification results using the RBF for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
Figure 17.55: T1 classification results using the RBF for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
680
Figure 17.56: T2 classification results using the RBF for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
Figure 17.57: T3 classification results using the RBF for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
681
Figure 17.58: T4 classification results using the RBF for (a) TestSNR and
(b) TestMod.
layer, whereas the MLP has two hidden layers. Also, the computation nodes
of the MLP within a hidden or output layer share a common neuronal model
whereas the computation nodes in the hidden layer of the RBF network have
a significantly dierent purpose from those in the output layer of the network.
The argument of the activation function of each hidden unit in the RBF network computes the Euclidean norm (distance) between the input vector and
the center of that unit. For the MLP the activation function of each hidden unit computes the inner product of the input vector and the synaptic
weight vector of that unit. Finally, the MLP constructs a global approximation to the nonlinear input-output mapping of the LPI modulations while the
RBF network uses exponentially decaying localized nonlinearities (Gaussian
functions) to construct local approximations to the nonlinear input-output
mappings. For the approximation of a nonlinear input-output mapping, the
MLP requires a smaller number of parameters than the RBF network for the
same degree of accuracy [23].
682
17.6
Summary
Autonomous (no human operator intervention) feature extraction and classification algorithms that can be used for identification of LPI radar modulations
using time-frequency (T-F) images are presented. The first approach uses a
histogram processing of the marginal frequency distribution to identify the
modulation within the T-F image. After the modulation is cropped from the
image, an adaptive binarization process is used to develop a feature vector
for classification of the modulation contained in the signal. Classification
techniques evaluated include the multilayer perceptron and the radial basis
function neural networks. To evaluate the performance of the feature extraction processing, the classification results for five LPI modulations were
investigated. The algorithms were trained using an SNR = 10 dB. To evaluate the classification performance of the algorithms, a database containing
the LPI signals with varying SNR was used (TestSNR database). A second
database containing the same modulations but with varied parameters (TestMod database) was also used. The percent of correctly classified modulations
for this considerably more dicult (but more realistic) database set of signals,
were much lower than the TestSNR signals.
Due to the poor stability of the cropping region and the large size of the
feature vector, a modified feature extraction method was also presented. The
modified approach included the addition of a filtering process (to reduce the
presence of high frequency noise) and the use of principal components analysis
(to reduce the dimensionality). Results showed good improvement and the
performance of the modified feature extraction technique was evaluated as a
function of SNR. Both the TestSNR and TestMod results were shown. By
eliminating the need for a human operator to examine the T-F results, realtime signal analysis is possible, which can allow a faster response management
to the intercepted threat signals.
References
[1] Azzouz, E., and Nandi, A. K., Automatic Modulation Recognition of Communication Signals, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996.
[2] Nandi, A. K., and Azzouz, E., Algorithms for automatic modulation recognition of communication signals, IEEE Trans. on Communications, Vol. 46,
No. 4, pp. 431436, April 1998.
[3] Azzouz, E., and Nandi, A. K., Automatic identification of digital modulation
types, Signal Processing, Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 5569, 1995.
[4] Louis, C., and Sehier, P. Automatic modulation recognition with a hierarchical neural network, Record of the IEEE Military Communications Conference, MILCOM 94, Vol. 3, pp. 713717, October 1994.
683
[5] Lin, Y-C., and Kuo, C-C. J., Modulation classification using wavelet transform, Proc. of the SPIE, Vol. 2303, pp. 260271, Wavelet Applications in
Signal and Image Processing II, Andrew F. Laine, Michael A. Unser; Eds.,
Oct. 1994.
[6] Reichert, J., Automatic classification of communication signals using higher
order statistics, Proc. of the IEEE International Conference on Acoustics,
Speech and Signal Processing, Vol. 5, pp. 221224, 2326 Mar. 1992.
[7] Schreyogg, C., Kittel, K., Kressel, U., and Reichert, J., Robust classification
of modulation types using spectral features applied to HMM, Record of the
IEEE Military Communications Conference, MILCOM 97, Vol. 3, pp. 1377
1381, Nov. 1997.
[8] Breakenridge, C. Nonstationary signal classification using time-frequency
optimization, Proc. of the 10th IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Circuits and Systems, ICECS, pp. 132135, 1417 Dec. 2003,
[9] Roberts, G., Zoubir, A. M., and Boashash, B., Time-frequency classification using a multiple hypothesis test: an application to the classification of
humpback whale signals, Proc. of the IEEE International Conference on
Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, Vol. 1, pp. 563566, 1997.
[10] Breakenridge, C., and Mesbah, M., Minimum classification error using timefrequency analysis, Proc. of the 3rd IEEE International Symposium on Signal Processing and Information Technology, ISSPIT, pp. 717720, 1417 Dec.
2003.
[11] Wang, T. Deng, J., and He, B., Classification of motor imagery EEG patterns and their topographic representation, Proc. of the International Conference on Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, IEMBS 04, pp.
43594362, 15 Sept. 2004.
[12] Gache, N., Chevret, P., and Zimpfer, V., Target classification near complex
interfaces using time-frequency filters, Proceedings of the IEEE International
Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing, Vol. 4, pp. 2433
2436, 1215 May 1998.
[13] Kim, K.-T., Choi, I.-S., and Kim, H.-T., Ecient radar target classification
using adaptive joint time-frequency processing, IEEE Trans. on Antennas
and Propagation, Vol. 48, No. 12, pp. 17891801, Dec. 2000.
[14] Chilukuri, M. V., Dash, P. K., and Basu, K. P., Time-frequency based pattern recognition technique for detection and classification of power quality
disturbances, Proc. of the IEEE Region 10 Conference, Vol. 3, pp. 260
263, 2124 Nov. 2004.
[15] Gillespie, B. W., and Atlas, L. E., Optimizing time-frequency kernels for
classification, IEEE Trans. on Signal Processing, Vol. 49, No. 3, pp. 485
496, March 2001.
[16] Shelton, C. P., Human Interface/Human Error, em Dependable Embedded
Systems, Carnegie Mellon University pp. 18849b Spring 1999.
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[17] De vries, M. F. L., Koeners, G. J. M., Roefs, F. D., Van ginkel, H. T. A.,
and Theunissen, E., Operator Support for Time-Critical Situations: Design
and Evaluation, Proc. of the IEEE/AIAA 25th Digital Avionics Systems
Conference, Delft Univ. of Tech., Netherlands, pp. 114, Oct. 2006.
[18] Sheridan, T. B., Humans and Automation: System Design and Research Issues, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002.
[19] Upperman, G. J., Upperman, T. L., Fouts, D. J., and Pace, P. E., Ecient
time-frequency and bi-frequency signal processing on a reconfigurable computer, IEEE Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers, Nov.
2008.
[20] Lippmann, R. P., An introduction to computing with neural nets, IEEE
ASSP Magazine, pp. 422, April 1987.
[21] Hush, D. R., and Horne, B. G., Progress in supervised neural networks,
IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, pp. 839, Jan. 1993.
[22] Wong, M. L. D., and Nandi, A. K., Automatic digital modulation recognition
using artificial neural network and genetic algorithm, Signal Processing, Vol.
84, No. 2, pp. 351365, February 2004.
[23] Haykin, S., Neural NetworksA Comprehensive Foundation, Second Ed., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1999.
[24] Theodoridis, S., and Koutroumbas, K., Pattern Recognition, Third Ed., San
Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2006.
[25] Broomhead, D. S., and Low, D., Multi-variate functional interpolation and
adaptive networks, Complex Systems, Vol. 2, pp. 321355, 1990.
[26] Husain, H., Khalid, M., and Yusof, R., Nonlinear function approximation
using radial basis function neural networks, Student Conference on Research
and Development, pp. 326329, July 2002.
[27] Atlas, L., Owsley, L., McLaughlin, J., and Bernard, G., Automatic featurefinding for time-frequency distributions, Proceedings of the IEEE-SP International Symposium on Time-Frequency and Time-Scale Analysis, pp. 333
336, 1821 June 1996.
[28] Zilberman, E. R., and Pace, P. E., Autonomous time-frequency morphological feature extraction algorithm for LPI radar modulation classification,
Proc. of the IEEE International Conf. on Image Processing, 2006.
[29] Cohen, L., Time-frequency distributionsA review, Proc. of the IEEE, Vol.
77, No. 7, p. 941981, 1989.
[30] Zilberman, E. R., and Pace, P. E., Autonomous cropping and feature
extraction using time-frequency marginal distributions for LPI radar classification, Proc. of the IASTED International Conf. on Signal and Image
Processing, Aug., 2006.
[31] Van De Ville, D.,Van de Walle, R., Philips, W., and Lemahieu, I., Image
resampling between orthogonal and hexagonal lattices, Proc. International
Conf. on Image Processing, Vol. 3, pp. III-389III-392, 2428 June 2002.
685
Problems
1. Setting Up the Database:
a. Begin by reading the Readme.doc file in the LPI Class folder on the
CD.
b. Using the LPIT, generate with a sampling frequency of fs = 7,000 Hz,
and SNR = 10 dB, a BPSK signal, a polyphase Barker signal, a P1
signal, a P2 signal, a P3 signal, a P4 signal, a Frank code signal, a
FMCW signal, T1(2) and a T3(2) signal. Make sure you record the
parameters for each of your signals.
c. Go to the Input Folder. The Input Folder should have four subfolders.
They are the Signals, TestSNR, TestMod and Training folders. Copy
the 10 signals into the Training folder and the Signals Folder.
d. Copy the 10 signals into the TestSNR folder.
e. For each signal generated in b., generate the same signal but with
SNR = 10, 9, . . . , 0, . . . , 8, 9 dB. Copy these signals into the
TestSNR folder.
f. For each signal generated in b., generate the signal with dierent modulation parameters and SNR = 10, 9, . . . , 0, . . . , 10 dB. Be sure to
record the modulation parameters for each signal. Copy these signals
into the input TestMod folder.
686
Chapter 18
Autonomous Extraction of
Modulation Parameters
In the previous chapter, autonomous classification techniques were investigated to identify the LPI modulations present on the intercepted signal. In
this chapter, postclassification signal processing techniques are used to autonomously extract the modulation parameters. Algorithms to autonomously
extract the parameters from the time-frequency plane are presented and include extracting the polyphase modulation parameters from the QMFB and
Wigner-Ville distribution. Autonomous extraction of parameters from the
bifrequency plane (cyclostationary signal processing) is also presented.
18.1
Emitter Clustering
688
Figure 18.1: Block diagram of autonomous classification and parameter extraction processing for a noncooperative intercept receiver.
and classification including the parameter extraction process. That is, the images can provide details about the modulation parameters that are unavailable
using power spectral density techniques. The need for human interpretation
of the T-F and B-F results to determine the parameter values however limits
the extraction process to nonreal-time electronic intelligence receivers.
The autonomous parameter extraction of the LPI emitter modulations can
eliminate the need for a human operator and enable near real-time coherent
handling of the threat emitters being intercepted. Parameter extraction followed by correlating the modulation parameters of the intercepted waveform
with a database of previously detected emitter parameters or clustering can
then aid in signal tracking and coherent EA response management.
18.2
689
per subcode cpp, code length Nc , and code period T . Results show that the
method results in a small relative error in the extracted parameters for signalto-noise ratios as low as 6 dB. The Wigner-Ville distributionRadon transform approach is particularly useful for this time-frequency signal processing
task since the majority of polyphase modulations are developed by approximating a linear frequency modulation waveform.
We evaluate the sensitivity of the algorithm using the five polyphase
modulations Frank, P1, P2, P3, and P4 for signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs)
of 0 dB and 6 dB. To illustrate the algorithm, a Frank code is used with
Nc = 36 subcodes, a carrier frequency of fc = 1,495 Hz and an analog-todigital converter (ADC) sampling frequency of fs = 7 kHz with SNR = 0
dB. The number of carrier frequency cycles within a subcode is cpp = 1, giving a transmitted bandwidth B = fc /cpp = 1,495 Hz and a code period of
T = 24.1 ms.
18.2.1
(18.1)
Using this definition of a line, the Radon transform of a 2-D image f (x, y)
can be defined as
8 +
f ( cos s sin , sin + s cos ) ds
(18.2)
R(, ) =
where the s-axis lies along the perpendicular to as shown in Figure 18.3.
Here s can be calculated as
s = y cos x sin
(18.3)
Note and s can be calculated from x, y, and using (18.1) and (18.3)
[2].
In this work the projection of the images are computed as line integrals
from multiple sources along parallel paths in a given direction. The beams
are spaced 1 pixel unit apart. Figure 18.4 shows the Gray-scale image from
690
691
692
max( 2 2 , 0)
(A(n) )
2
(18.4)
693
Figure 18.6: (a) Filtered projection vector and (b) threshold projection vector
after filtering.
T =
]
}
d
1
fs cos (s )
(18.5)
(18.6)
where f is the frequency resolution of the PWVD image. Note that (18.5)
is not applied to P2 coded signals since the modulation has an opposite T-F
slope. For P2 code modulation, the following relationship applies:
]
}
d
1
(18.7)
T =
fs cos (s )
694
18.2.2
695
The relative error is plotted in Figure 18.8 for the carrier frequency fc , code
period T , bandwidth B and number of subcodes Nc for each signal number
under test. The carrier frequency error is very small for 0 dB but for 6 dB
higher errors occur for small values of Nc . If the frequency resolution of the
PWVD is increased (integration of more samples from the ADC), the error
in estimating fc is expected to decrease and can be easily investigated with
the software contained with the textbook. The error in the estimation of Nc
is related to algorithm results for T and B since Nc = T B. The overall errors
are reasonably small for 0 dB. For SNR = 6 dB the largest errors occur
for Nc = 9, 16. That is, the simulation shows the important result that for
smaller values of SNR, the error in the extracted parameters are smaller for
larger values of Nc . That is, due to the larger processing gain obtained by the
intercept receiver (larger numbers of subcodes), a better estimation of the B
(18.6) and T (18.7) can be obtained. Note that another important advantage
to this approach is that the extraction algorithm is not aected by the cross
terms present within the PWVD images. The reason is that integration of the
cross term projections is very small compared to the modulation projections
obtained.
18.3
In this section the polyphase modulation parameters are extracted using the
middle quadrature mirror filter bank (QMFB) time-frequency layer. The
parameters to be extracted are carrier frequency (fc ), the code period (T ),
number of subcodes within a code period (Nc ), the signal bandwidth (B) and
the number of carrier cycles within a subcode (cpp). Polyphase modulations
include the Frank, P1, P2, P3, and P4 codes.
18.3.1
This algorithm depends on the quadrature mirror filter bank (QMFB) technique to examine and analyze polyphase signals. The QMFB generates timefrequency layers and the number of layers depends on the signal length. The
initial layers oer high time resolution with the final layers oering higher frequency resolution. The middle layer, however, provides the best compromise
of both time and frequency, which makes it suitable to extract the parameters
696
Figure 18.8: Relative error results for polyphase parameter extraction using
Wigner-Ville distribution.
697
as
698
18.3.2
699
18.4
This section demonstrates an algorithm to autonomously extract the modulation parameters of a triangular FMCW signal using the spectral correlation density function. The signal processing uses the DFSM bifrequency
plane where the presence of the FMCW modulation has been identified. The
parameter extraction process determines the modulation period tm , modulation bandwidth F and the carrier frequency fc . Extraction for low SNR
bifrequency images gives reasonable results due to the denoising capability of
the spectral correlation processing since noise is not correlated.
The DFSM algorithm first computes the spectral components of the signal
and then executes the spectral correlation operations directly on the spectral
components. One important consideration in obtaining accurate results with
the FMCW extraction algorithm is to insure that the DFSM frequency resolution, cycle frequency resolution selected, is small enough to measure the
parameters accurately (for example, the code rate Rc ).
As an example, an FMCW waveform with F = 500 Hz, tm = 30 ms,
fc = 1 kHz and SNR = 0 dB is processed through the DFSM algorithm.
The frequency resolution was set to 16 Hz and the value of the Grenanders
uncertainty condition is selected as M = 2 (N = 1,024). Due to the quadrant
symmetry of the bifrequency plane, the FMCW modulation shows up at four
distinct locations as shown in Figure 18.10. Each of these four positions
contains a geometrical shape representative of the modulation from which all
the parameters can be extracted.
Two of the modulation parameters of interest are shown on the one selected quadrant of the bifrequency plane shown in Figure 18.11. Both the
modulation bandwidth and carrier frequency are easily recognized from this
result. To extract the modulation period we closely examine the details re-
700
Figure 18.10: Direct frequency-smoothing method for cyclostationary extraction of FMCW parameters with F = 500 Hz, tm = 30 ms and fc = 1 kHz
using a frequency resolution of 16 Hz and M = 2.
vealed in any one of the four quadrants. What we can measure easily is the
modulation code rate Rc as shown in Figure 18.12. The modulation period
for a triangular FMCW waveform is related to the code rate as
tm =
1
2Rc
(18.9)
where the factor of 2 in the denominator accounts for the triangular waveform
extending for 2tm .
18.4.1
701
Figure 18.11: Bifrequency plane showing the measurement of FMCW modulation parameters F = 500 Hz (frequency), and fc = 1 kHz (cycle frequency).
702
fc =
1 2
2
(18.11)
N
3
S(i, j)
(18.12)
j=1
and
xi=(1:N )
pdfi =
xj=(1:N )
(18.13)
and the vertical scan similarly the j-index values. This energy distribution
enables the location of the signal on the bifrequency plane to be determined.
The algorithm scans from the lower index values to the higher index values to
look for the signal power above the threshold of 6 dB. The first index with
a level above 6 dB gives i1 and j1 . Starting from the higher index values
and going toward the lower index values gives i2 and j2 resulting in
F = fi2 ,j2 fi1 ,j1
(18.14)
703
Figure 18.14: Contour plot of DFSM matrix S showing the region of support
being cropped for parameter extraction.
and
i1 ,j2 i2 ,j1
(18.15)
2
The same algorithm is used to extract the parameters from a noisy signal.
The scan method described above however, will smear the signals pdf so the
procedure for determining the index values must be modified to avoid possible
errors (due to the high energy levels in the skirts of the pdf). An adaptive
noise filter is also used here.
fc =
18.4.2
704
Figure 18.15: Scan geometry for DFSM matrix S to determine the correct
index values i and j.
the signal. The signals are analyzed using cyclo gui.m. The signals with no
noise and with 0 dB noise are analyzed with 16 Hz of frequency resolution but
the signals with 6 dB noise are analyzed with 32 Hz of frequency resolution.
The high resolution selected for the 6 dB signals is due to the computational
diculties when using a personal computer. Hence the results for 6 dB signals do not have a modulation period solution because the solutions are not
reliable for the 32 Hz of resolution that is used. As discussed in Chapter 15,
the resolution of the cycle frequency and frequency should be smaller than
the largest parameter being measured or extracted.
F
F
F
F
1
1
1
1
7
7
7
7
250
250
500
500
20
30
20
30
s.mat
s.mat
s.mat
s.mat
(fc
(fc
(fc
(fc
=1
=1
=1
=1
kHz,
kHz,
kHz,
kHz,
fs
fs
fs
fs
=7
=7
=7
=7
kHz,
kHz,
kHz,
kHz,
F
F
F
F
= 250
= 250
= 500
= 500
Hz,
Hz,
Hz,
Hz,
tm
tm
tm
tm
= 20
= 30
= 20
= 30
ms,
ms,
ms,
ms,
signal
signal
signal
signal
only)
only)
only)
only)
F
F
F
F
1
1
1
1
7
7
7
7
250
250
500
500
20
30
20
30
0.mat
0.mat
0.mat
0.mat
(fc
(fc
(fc
(fc
=1
=1
=1
=1
kHz,
kHz,
kHz,
kHz,
fs
fs
fs
fs
=7
=7
=7
=7
kHz,
kHz,
kHz,
kHz,
F
F
F
F
= 250
= 250
= 500
= 500
Hz,
Hz,
Hz,
Hz,
tm
tm
tm
tm
= 20
= 30
= 20
= 30
ms,
ms,
ms,
ms,
SNR
SNR
SNR
SNR
=
=
=
=
0
0
0
0
F
F
F
F
1
1
1
1
7
7
7
7
250
250
500
500
20
30
20
30
-6.mat
-6.mat
-6.mat
-6.mat
ms,
ms,
ms,
ms,
SNR
SNR
SNR
SNR
=
=
=
=
6
6
6
6
(fc
(fc
(fc
(fc
=1
=1
=1
=1
kHz,
kHz,
kHz,
kHz,
fs
fs
fs
fs
=7
=7
=7
=7
kHz,
kHz,
kHz,
kHz,
F
F
F
F
= 250
= 250
= 500
= 500
Hz,
Hz,
Hz,
Hz,
tm
tm
tm
tm
= 20
= 30
= 20
= 30
dB)
dB)
dB)
dB)
dB)
dB)
dB)
dB)
18.5
705
Concluding Remarks
In this chapter, we have shown that we can extract the parameters for the
signal only measurements very accurately as shown in Figure 18.16. The
parameters extracted from the noisy signals are also fairly accurate, but the
algorithm for the noisy signals can be improved to get better performance.
The threshold set for the noisy measurements were set to a fixed intuitive
level, which is somewhat subjective. One may think of adding an adaptive
threshold that changes according to the noise level in the signal. Here we took
advantage of the cyclostationary analysis to get rid of the noise. Note that
the cyclostationary analysis has an inherited noise reducing process within its
spectral correlation algorithm. Once the signal is classified correctly, the exact
parameters of the intercepted signal can be determined.
References
[1] Hejazi, M.R., Shevlyakov, G., and Ho, Y-S., Modified discrete radon
transforms and their application to rotation-invariant image analysis,
IEEE 8th Workshop on Multimedia Signal Processing, pp. 429434,
Oct. 2006.
[2] Minsheng, W., Chan, A.K., and Chui, C.K., Linear frequency modulated signal detection using Radon-ambiguity transform, IEEE Trans.
on Signal Processing, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 571586, March 1998.
[3] Gulum, T. O., Pace, P. E. and Cristi, R. Extraction of Polyphase
Radar Modulation Parameters Using a Wigner-Ville DistributionRadon
Transform, IEEE International Conf. on Acoustics, Speech and Signal
Processing, Las Vegas, NV, March 2008.
[4] Gulum, T. O., Autonomous Non-linear Classification of LPI Radar
Signal Modulations, Naval Postgraduate School Masters Thesis, Sept.
2007.
Problems
1. (QMFB) The files in the Part II folder Extract\POLY FROM QMFB
perform the quadrature mirror filtering but have been modified to implement the extraction routines in Section 18.3. (a) Generate a Frank code
signal with fc = 1 kHz, fs = 7 kHz, M = 16 and cpp = 2 for SNRs between 10 dB and 10 dB (in steps of 1 dB). (b) Run poly from qmfb.m
to extract the parameters for the Frank code. Be sure to follow the instructions on the command line that are displayed. (c) Plot the relative
error as a function of the SNR for each of the extracted parameters. (d)
Repeat (a)(c) for the P4 code and compare your results.
706
707
Appendix A
Low Probability of
Intercept Toolbox
A.1
710
SNRs other than 0 dB can also be generated when supplying the requested
parameters. For each file, the complex signal is saved in a .mat file, with
the I and Q variables in two separate column vectors. The number of code
periods generated by the LPIT is five (four for FMCW) although that can
easily be changed.
The 14 signal types available from the LPIT, and the corresponding chapter where they are discussed are shown below:1
1. FMCW (Chapter 4);
2. BPSK (Chapter 5);
3. Polyphase Barker codes (Chapter 5);
4. Polyphase Frank code (Chapter 5);
5. Polyphase code P1 (Chapter 5);
6. Polyphase code P2 (Chapter 5);
7. Polyphase code P3 (Chapter 5);
8. Polyphase code P4 (Chapter 5);
9. Polytime signals (Chapter 5).
10. Costas frequency hopping code (Chapter 6);
11. FSK/PSK (Costas) (Chapter 6);
12. FSK/PSK (Target) (Chapter 6);
13. Noise waveforms (Chapter 7);
14. Test signals (Chapters 9, 10, and 11);
A.2
For all signals, the name is automatically assigned to the .mat file, and reflects
the signal parameters that were supplied by the user. The naming convention is the same for each signal, but varies slighty due to dierent parameters
required for dierent types of signals. The first character in the file name
1 Taboada, F. L., Detection and classification of low probability of intercept radar
signals using parallel filter arrays and higher order statistics, Naval Postgraduate School,
Masters Thesis, Sept. 2002.
711
Appendix B
1 The MATLAB code to calculate the ambiguity function is described in Mozeson, E.,
and Levanon, N., MATLAB code for plotting ambiguity functions, IEEE Trans. on
Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 38, No. 3, 10641068, 2002.
713
714
Appendix C
C.1
Primes
715
716
C.2
717
(C.1)
325 1(mod 3)
(C.2)
11 2(mod 3)
(C.3)
n 2(mod 3)
(C.4)
Since
and
C.3
Primitive Roots
We have examined the concept of the reduced residue system modulo p where
p is a prime number. In this section, we present an integer g such that
g, g 2 , . . . , g (p) constitutes a reduced residue system modulo p. The integer
g is called a primitive root. Primitive roots are fundamental to how Costas
frequency sequences can be formed. An algorithm for deriving these types of
sequences is presented, along with an example illustrating the method.
A few properties of reduced residue systems must now be given. The first
is that if h is the smallest positive integer such that
ah 1(mod m)
(C.5)
718
Definition 6
If p is prime, then there exist {{p}} = {p 1}, primitive roots
modulo p.
This number can be determined by first eliminating those elements in the
reduced residue set that are not relatively prime to p 1, and then counting
the remaining entries. Note also that the order of a in (C.5) must be a divisor
of (p) = p 1.
Example 4 Consider the case for which p = 11, a prime number. The
number of frequencies in the Costas array will be N = p 1 = 10. The
complete residue set is
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
There are p 1 = 10 elements in the reduced residue set modulus 11
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
and there are {p 1} = {10} = 4 primitive roots. The questions we have
now are what are the primitive roots and what are the corresponding Costas
sequences?
To determine the primitive roots by which we can derive the Costas sequences, we start with g = 1 (the first element in the reduced residue set).
For g = 1 we have
{11 , 12 , 13 , . . . , 1{11} } = {1}
and we say the order of 1 is 1. Consequently, 1 is not a primitive root. For 2,
{21 , 22 , 23 , . . . , 2{11} }
or
{2, 4, 8, 5, 10, 9, 7, 3, 6, 1}
and the order of 2 is 10, indicating that g = 2 is a primitive root. For 3 we
have,
{3, 9, 5, 4, 1}
and the order of 3 is 5. That is, 3 is not a primitive root. Continuing on for
the rest of the integers within the reduced residue system for 4 we have,
{4, 5, 9, 3, 1}
and the order of 4 is 5 (not a primitive root). For 5 we have,
{5, 3, 4, 9, 1}
719
Appendix D
LPIsimNet
LPIsimNet is a collection of MATLAB files that let the user easily evaluate
the information network metrics and the SNR advantages of general netted
LPI radar topologies that were discussed in Chapter 10 including the presence
of an electronic attack or jammer. The objective of this tutorial is to have the
student work several examples to become familiar with the program set. The
program set is organized as shown in Figure D.1. The ScenarioEditor.m file
lets the student open a Graphical User Interface (GUI) and create a new Scenario File or modify an existing one. A Result File is generated after the
student confirms the Scenario File and executes the simulation calculation
with the assistance of Calculator.m. The SimulationViewer.m is used to
review the Result File by examining the results grid. The Painter.m file
supports the drawing of the two GUI figures.
D.1
721
722
D.1.1
Start MATLAB and change the Current Directory to the folder where the
LPIsimNet program resides. Run ScenarioEditor.m to open up the GUI
battlespace grid. You should see the grid as shown in Figure D.2. The
right side of the GUI is designed for displaying a schematic of the network
topology. Click the Refresh Figure to load the default network topology.
The default network consists of NT = 3 nodes: NR1 (node-1); NR2 (node2); and NR3 (node-3) which are capable both in information processing and
synchronized, coherent target detection. Note the links between these nodes
are bidirectional. Click on the Legend and see the legend as shown in
Figure D.3. The legend describes the symbols on the grid and can be brought
up at any time.
D.1.2
Go back to the ScenarioEditor. In the top left corner is the Top Level
Properties Panel containing several generic simulation properties that must
be set including the number of nodes, total time index(s) for including platform and target movement, decision tempo, deployment tempo, and the fighting tempo. The boundary of the X axis, and the boundary of the Y axis must
also be set to model the battlespace landscape. For this tutorial, modify these
properties according to the values shown in Table D.1.
Appendix D: LPIsimNet
723
724
Values
3
1
200
400
300
0, 100
0, 100
Description
Total number of nodes in network
Number of time steps in simulation
C2 decision tempo
Tempo of deployment in OODA
Tempo of fighting in OODA
Left, right battlespace boundary
Upper, lower battlespace boundary
The panel below the Top Level Properties Panel is the Node Properties
Panel.
The node properties panel contains the following scenario
information:
Current node index;
Type;
Name;
Initial position;
Velocity;
Availability of links to each node;
Capability value K of information or jammer;
Information rate ;
Minimum information rate, min
;
ERP of radar or jammer;
Eective antenna area Ae ;
Noise power.
The node properties for the Blue Force E2-C in the default simulation are
shown in Figure D.4.
Appendix D: LPIsimNet
725
726
Node 1
N
Node 2
N
Node 3
Y
D.2
Node2
Blue Force
F-16
20, 70
0, 0
101
0.75
200
100
0
0
0
Node3
Blue Force
AC-130
60, 70
0, 0
110
0.25
300
50
0
0
0
At the bottom of the Node Properties Panel, try switching between the
properties of the dierent nodes. Note the Node Index that indicates the
current node. Set the properties of node 1 to the following values shown in
Figure D.4. The Availability of Links to Each Node represents the link
condition to each node. For example, for node 1, 001 represents the link
configuration as shown in Table D.2. After setting node 1 availability, set
node 2 and node 3 to the values shown in Table D.3.
After setting all node properties needed, click Refresh Figure to see the
layout and the overall connection of this scenario. The topology should look
like that shown in Figure D.5.
Click Save Scenario and save the scenario file as Sce-3C.mat. Configure the MATLAB command line analysis to be visible along with the ScenarioEditor. Click Run Simulation to activate the calculation of the simulation results file. The MATLAB command line shows the tracking message
of the four phases in the calculation. Wait until a Save As dialog appears
and save the simulation results as Sim-3C.mat. Now, we have successfully
finished creating a scenario file (Sce-3C.mat) and generated the simulation
results file (Sim-3C.mat).
Appendix D: LPIsimNet
727
728
D.3
Appendix D: LPIsimNet
729
730
R
Figure D.8: Reference connectivity measure CM
for number of sensor network
nodes NT = 3 to 20.
Appendix D: LPIsimNet
731
Table D.4: LPI Radar Network: Scenario Setup for Three Nodes
Properties
Type
Node1
Blue Force
Node2
Blue Force
Name
Initial position
Velocity
Link configuration
Cap. of info. or jamming
Info. rate
Min. info. rate
ERP (W)
E. antenna area (m2 )
Noise power (W)
E-2C
40,40
0,0
0010
1.0
200
100
0
0
0
F-16
20,70
0,0
1010
0.75
200
100
0
0
0
D.4
Node3
Blue
Force
AC-130
60,70
0,0
1100
0.25
300
50
0
0
0
Node4
Hostile
Jammer
Su-34
80,40
-10,0
1000
0.3
0
0
0
0
0
Go back to the ScenarioEditor.m (if you have closed it, re-launch it) and
load the scenario file Sim-3C.mat. In the Top Level Properties Panel,
change the number of nodes to 4, and the total time index(s) to 3. That
is, the scenario can evolve over time and the platforms within the scenario
can have movement. Each platform can also have a dierent velocity (by
including larger movements over a time index) in any general direction. Click
Refresh Figure and see a fourth node, (NR4 ) node 4, that was added into
the network. Go to the Node Properties Panel and set the properties as in
Table D.4. Note the jammer is identified as being onboard an Su-34 Flanker
fighter-bomber 2-seat strike aircraft. After refreshing, the figure should look
like Figure D.11.
Save this scenario as Sce-3C+J.mat and run the simulation calculation
and save the result file as Sim-3C+J.mat. Go to SimulationViewer and
load Sim-3C+J.mat. Your figure should look like Figure D.11. Note the
two links to E-2C survive even with the Su-34 jammer. All the simulation results in Information Network Analysis are identical to those of the previous
simulation. Click the double right arrows in the lower right section to switch
the time index to 2. Note that the Su-34 jammer moves closer to E-2C and
the link from AC-130 to E-2C is now not available (the arrow is missing). At
this index the sensor information changes. The number of links suppressed in
now one as shown in the Information Network Analysis panel. Click Detail and review the detailed data in the MATLAB command line as shown
in Figure D.12.
732
Figure D.12: Command line analysis of sensor network with link suppression.
Appendix D: LPIsimNet
733
Table D.5: LPI Radar Network: Scenario Setup for the Three Nodes
Properties
Type
Name
Initial position
Velocity
Link configuration
Cap. of info. or jamming
Info. rate
Min. info. rate
ERP (W)
E. antenna area (m2 )
Noise power (W)
Node1
Blue Force
Force
Radar1
15,40
0,0
0000
0
0
0
1000
0.0815
7.5 1013
Node2
Blue Force
Force
Radar2
15,15
0,0
0000
0
0
0
100
0.0815
1.0 1012
Node3
Hostile
Jammer
Su-34
30,25
0,0
1100
0
0
0
10
0
0
Node4
Radar
Target
Target
15,25
0,0
0000
0
0
0
0
0
0
Now click the double right arrows to increment the time index to 3. Note
that now two links are not available due to the new closer position of the
jammer. The Trend buttons provide the ability to review the trend of the
results as a function of time.
D.5
734
Figure D.13: Topology of simulation: two emitters, one target, one jammer.
Appendix D: LPIsimNet
735
736
Appendix D: LPIsimNet
737
738
Figure D.20: S/N+J contour chart: sensor network with jammer and without
network synchronization.
Figure D.21: Command line analysis of netted radar systems with jammer
and without network synchronization (S/N+J = 70 dB at target).
Appendix D: LPIsimNet
739
Figure D.22: S/N+J contour chart: netted radar systems with jammer and
with network synchronization.
Figure D.23: Command line analysis of sensor network with jammer and
without network synchronization (S/N+J = 64 dB at target).
Appendix E
741
742
Figure E.1: PWVD for FMCW with F = 500 Hz, tm = 30 ms (signal only),
showing the (a) marginal frequency domain, and (b) time-frequency plot.
743
Figure E.2: PWVD for FMCW with F = 500 Hz, tm = 30 ms, timefrequency plot for (a) SN R = 0 dB, and (b) SN R = 6 dB.
Appendix F
745
746
Figure F.1: PWVD for Frank code with B = 1,000 Hz, T = 64 ms (signal
only), with (a) frequency domain, and (b) time-frequency contour.
747
Figure F.2: PWVD for Frank code with B = 1,000 Hz, T = 64 ms, timefrequency contour, for (a) SN R = 0 dB, and (b) SN R = 6 dB.
Appendix G
P1 Code Analysis
In this section, the PWVD is used to extract the parameters from a P1 phasecoded CW signal. The intercepted signal shown in the following example has
a carrier frequency of fc = 1,000 Hz, a cpp = 1 (B = 1,000 Hz), 64 phase
codes (Nc = 64), and is sampled by the ADC at a rate of fs = 7,000 Hz.
The marginal frequency domain result is shown in Figure G.1(a). Here
the harmonics are not as evident, without zooming in on the signal in the
frequency domain. Figure G.1(b) demonstrates the P1 modulation in the
time-frequency domain, and reveals that a longer code period makes it easier
to identify the major crossterm in order to make the signal measurements.
Notice that the slopes of each line are negative. It is interesting to note that
if the crossterms were deleted, the parameter measurements might not be
easier to extract. Figure G.2(a) shows the SN R = 0 dB results. Extraction
is still possible, but in Figure G.2(b) with SN R = 6 dB, this capability
again disappears quickly.
G.2
P2 Code Analysis
750
Figure G.1: PWVD for P1 code with B = 1,000 Hz, T = 64 ms (signal only),
showing the (a) marginal frequency domain, and (b) time-frequency plot.
751
Figure G.2: PWVD for P1 code with B = 1,000 Hz, T = 64 ms, timefrequency plot, for (a) SN R = 0 dB, and (b) SN R = 6 dB.
752
G.3
P3 Code Analysis
G.4
P4 Code Analysis
The P4 code signal is very similar to the P3 code signal in the way it shows
up in the PWVD. The P4 signal examined in this section has fc = 1,000 Hz,
a cpp = 1, and a code length of 64 (Nc = 64). Note that the equations for
the parameter measurements given for the Frank code also apply for the P4
code (as well as for the P1, P2, and P3).
Figure G.7(a) shows characteristics of the P4 code in the frequency domain
and Figure G.7(b) shows the corresponding time-frequency domain. Extraction of the signal parameters within these figures can be compared to Figure
G.5(a) and (b).
Figure G.8(a) shows the signal with SN R = 0 dB, and Figure G.8(b)
shows the signal with SN R = 6 dB. Detection of the signal parameters
here can be compared with Figure G.6(a) and (b).
753
Figure G.3: PWVD for P2 code with B = 1,000 Hz, T = 64 ms (signal only),
showing the (a) marginal frequency domain, and (b) time-frequency domain.
754
Figure G.4: PWVD for P2 code with B = 1,000 Hz, T = 64 ms, timefrequency plot, for (a) SN R = 0 dB, and (b) SN R = 6 dB.
755
Figure G.5: PWVD for P3 code with B = 1,000 Hz, T = 64 ms (signal only),
showing the (a) marginal frequency domain, and (b) time-frequency plot.
756
Figure G.6: PWVD for P3 code with B = 1,000 Hz, T = 64 ms, timefrequency plot, for (a) SN R = 0 dB, and (b) SN R = 6 dB.
757
Figure G.7: PWVD for P4 code with B = 1,000 Hz, T = 64 ms (signal only),
showing the (a) marginal frequency domain, and (b) time-frequency plot.
758
Figure G.8: PWVD for P4 code with B = 1,000 Hz, T = 64 ms, timefrequency plot, for (a) SN R = 0 dB, and (b) SN R = 6 dB.
Appendix H
The T2(2) signal examined with the PWVD has the same parameters as the
T1(2) signal investigated above, except that it has a zero beat at its carrier
frequency. Figure H.1(a) shows the PWVD frequency domain for the T2(2).
The energy is not as evenly spread out as the T1(2) previously shown, and a
strong negative component at the carrier frequency is evident. Figure H.1(b)
shows the time-frequency distribution, and shows a unique pattern of Xs
centered about the carrier (due to the zero beat at the carrier frequency). The
measurement of the bandwidth B and code period T are also shown, although
this is somewhat more dicult without any post-PWVD image processing.
To understand the bandwidth characteristics shown in Figure H.1, the
phase shift for the T2(2) is shown in Figure H.2. Here, the shortest phase
change is eight samples long, or 1.143 ms. This results in a bandwidth excursion of 875 Hz, as shown. Figure H.3(a) shows the signal for an SNR = 0
dB. The signal can still be identified as a T2(2), but it is much more dicult
to do compared to the T1(2). Errors can also occur when the parameters are
extracted. In Figure H.3(b) with a SNR = 6 dB, no signal identification
can be made, and no parameters can be extracted without any post-PWVD
image processing.
759
760
Figure H.1: PWVD for polytime code T2(2) with B = 875 Hz, T = 16
ms (signal only), showing the (a) marginal frequency domain, and (b) timefrequency plot.
761
Figure H.2: T2(2) phase shift showing a minimum subcode width of eight
samples (1.143 ms), resulting in a bandwidth excursion of 875 Hz.
762
Figure H.3: PWVD for polytime code T2(2) code with B = 875 Hz, T = 16
ms, showing the time-frequency plot, for (a) SNR = 0 dB, and (b) SNR = 6
dB.
H.2
763
H.3
The T4(2) code for a F = 600 Hz and tm =16 ms is shown in Figure H.7
To understand the bandwidth characteristics shown in Figure H.7, the phase
shift for the T4(2) is shown in Figure H.8. The smallest phase change here
is again six samples resulting in a bandwidth excursion of 1,167 Hz. Figure
H.9 shows the PWVD for the T4(2) code with Figure H.9(a) showing the
SNR = 0 dB case and Figure H.9(b) showing the SNR = 6 dB case (F =
600 Hz, B = 1,167 Hz).
764
Figure H.4: PWVD for polytime code T3(2) with F = 600 Hz, B = 1,167
Hz, and tm = T = 16 ms (signal only), showing the (a) marginal frequency
domain and (b) time-frequency plot.
765
Figure H.5: T3(2) phase shift showing a minimum subcode width of six samples (0.857 ms), resulting in a bandwidth excursion of 1,167 Hz.
766
Figure H.6: PWVD for T3(2) code with F = 600 Hz, B = 1,167 Hz, and
tm = T = 16 ms, showing the time-frequency plot for (a) SNR = 0 dB, and
(b) SNR = 6 dB.
767
Figure H.7: PWVD for T4(2) code with F = 600 Hz, B = 1,167 Hz,
tm = T = 16 ms (signal only), showing the (a) marginal frequency domain,
and (b) time-frequency plot.
768
Figure H.8: T4(2) phase shift showing a minimum subcode width of six samples (0.857 ms) resulting in a bandwidth excursion of 1,167 Hz.
769
Figure H.9: PWVD for T4(2) code with F = 600 Hz, B = 1,167 Hz, and
T = 16 ms, time-frequency plot, for (a) SNR = 0 dB, and (b) SNR = 6 dB.
Appendix I
771
772
Detecting
and Classifying LPI Radar
Appendix J
773
774
Figure J.1: QMFB layer 3 for BPSK with 11-bit Barker code, cpp = 1 (signal
only), showing (a) the full contour image, and (b) a close-up view showing
frequency details of Barker code.
775
Figure J.2: QMFB contour image for BPSK with 11-bit Barker code, cpp = 1
(SN R = 0 dB), showing (a) layer 3, and (b) layer 6.
776
Figure J.3: QMFB contour images for BPSK 11-bit Barker code, cpp = 5
(signal only), showing (a) layer 2, and (b) layer 6.
Appendix K
777
778
779
Figure K.2: QMFB contour images for M = 4 (Nc = 16) Frank code with
B = 1,000 Hz, T = 16 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 2 output, and (b)
close up of layer 2, showing detailed frequency changes due to phase codes.
780
Figure K.3: QMFB contour images for M = 4 Frank code with B = 1,000
Hz, T = 16 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 4 output, and (b) close up of
layer 4, showing resulting linear frequency modulation.
Appendix L
P1 Analysis
782
L.2
P2 Analysis
L.3
P3 Analysis
The P3 phase modulation for Nc = 64 (64 phase codes) is shown for reference
in Figure L.9. The QMFB l = 2 layer for the P3 signal is shown in Figure
L.10. The contour images are shown with f = 1,166.67 Hz and t = 571.99
783
Figure L.2: QMFB contour images for Nc = 64 P1 code with B = 1,000 Hz,
T = 64 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 2 output and (b) close up of layer
2, showing detailed frequency changes due to phase codes.
784
Figure L.3: QMFB contour images for Nc = 64 P1 code with B = 1,000 Hz,
T = 64 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 5 output, and (b) close up of layer
5, showing resulting linear frequency modulation.
785
786
Figure L.6: QMFB contour images for Nc = 64 P2 code with B = 1,000 Hz,
T = 64 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 2 output, and (b) close up of layer
2, showing detailed frequency changes due to phase codes.
787
Figure L.7: QMFB contour images for Nc = 64 P2 code with B = 1,000 Hz,
T = 64 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 5 output, and (b) close up of layer
5, showing resulting linear frequency modulation.
788
L.4
P4 Analysis
789
790
Figure L.10: QMFB contour images for Nc = 64 P3 code with B = 1,000 Hz,
T = 64 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 2 output, and (b) close up of layer
2, showing detailed frequency changes due to phase codes.
791
Figure L.11: QMFB contour images for Nc = 64 P3 code with B = 1,000 Hz,
T = 64 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 5 output, and (b) close up of layer
5, showing resulting linear frequency modulation.
792
793
Figure L.14: QMFB contour images for Nc = 64 P4 code with B = 1,000 Hz,
T = 64 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 2 output, and (b) close up of layer
2, showing detailed frequency changes due to phase codes.
794
Figure L.15: QMFB contour images for Nc = 64 P4 code with B = 1,000 Hz,
T = 64 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 5 output, and (b) close up of layer
5, showing resulting linear frequency modulation.
795
Appendix M
797
798
Figure M.1: QMFB contour images for polytime T2(2) code with B = 875
Hz, T = 16 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 2 output, and (b) close-up of
layer 2, showing detailed frequency changes due to phase codes.
799
Figure M.2: QMFB contour images for polytime T2(2) code with B = 875
Hz, T = 16 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 4 output, and (b) close-up of
layer 4, showing resulting linear frequency modulation.
800
Figure M.3: QMFB contour images for polytime T3(2) code with B = 1,167
Hz, T = 16 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 2 output, and (b) close-up of
layer 2, showing detailed frequency changes due to phase codes.
801
Figure M.4: QMFB contour images for polytime T3(2) code with B = 1,167
Hz, T = 16 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 4 output, and (b) close-up of
layer 4, showing resulting linear frequency modulation.
802
Figure M.5: QMFB contour images for polytime T4(2) code with B = 1,167
Hz, T = 16 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 2 output, and (b) close-up of
layer 2, showing detailed frequency changes due to phase codes.
803
Figure M.6: QMFB contour images for polytime T4(2) code with B = 1,167
Hz, T = 16 ms (signal only), showing (a) layer 4 output, and (b) close-up of
layer 4, showing resulting linear frequency modulation.
Appendix N
Cyclostationary Processing
Results with FMCW
F = 500 Hz
The extraction of the parameters from a wideband FMCW signal F = 500
Hz using cyclostationary processing is not significantly dierent, and is shown
in Figure N.1. The modulation period for this example tm = 30 ms. Figure
N.1(a) shows the modulation pattern with centroid at 2fc = 2 kHz. Note
that the arrowhead pattern unique to the FMCW is still present, but has
a bit more structure. With this resolution, F can easily be measured;
however, Rc cannot be measured. The closer examination shown in Figure
N.1(b) reveals the unique modulation characteristic of the FMCW waveform.
The value of Rc = 16.7 Hz is now easily identified giving a tm = 30 ms.
The SNR = 0 dB case is shown in Figure N.2(a) and (b). Note that the
cyclostationary results are fairly robust in significant amounts of noise.
805
806
Figure N.1: Frequency-smoothing SCD patterns for a F = 500 Hz, tm = 30ms triangular FMCW signal with fc = 1 kHz, showing (a) complete FMCW
modulation as one part of the bifrequency plane, and (b) closer examination
showing Rc measurement.
807
Figure N.2: Frequency-smoothing SCD patterns for a F = 500 Hz, tm = 30ms triangular FMCW signal with fc = 1 kHz, showing (a) the bifrequency
plane with SNR = 0 dB, and (b) closer examination showing Rc measurement.
Appendix O
Cyclostationary Processing
Results with Frank Signal,
Nc = 16
For the signal examined, fc = 1 kHz, cpp = 1, fs = 7 kHz, and Nc = 16
phase subcodes. The frequency-smoothing SCD is generated using k = 16
Hz with N = 1,024. One of the four modulation patterns generated in the
SCD is shown in Figure O.1(a). As in previous examples, the pattern centroid
is located at = 2fc . For the Frank code this is a bit more dicult to identify,
due to the dierent slopes of phase shift within each single code period T .
Generally, it lies in the center of the cross-hatch area inside the lesser SCD
amplitude (faded) regions. That is, the cross-hatch region of interest is not
symmetrical about the centroid. Location of the centroid can be used to
determine the bandwidth on the cycle frequency axis, but there is a more
straightforward method for determining the bandwidth in the bifrequency
plane. To do this we first outline the cross-hatch region (larger amplitude
SCD) with a parallelogram (shown by dashed lines). The top and bottom
corners of the parallelogram are colocated at the same cycle frequency, and
the left and right corners are colocated at the same frequency (f = 0). This
information helps identify the parallelogram position, and the bandwidth B
can be estimated more accurately. For the Frank code, the Rc measurement
is related to the code period as Rc = 1/T = 1/Nc tb . In Figure O.1(b), a closer
examination shows that the Rc measurement is straightforward, and for this
signal Rc = 62.5 Hz. The number of subcodes within a code period is then
Nc = B/Rc = 16. Figure O.2 shows the bifrequency analysis for the Frank
code in the presence of noise. In Figure O.2(a), the Frank code modulation is
809
810
Figure O.1: Frequency-smoothing SCD patterns for the Frank code with Nc =
16, fc = 1 kHz, and cpp = 1, showing (a) one of four Frank code modulation
patterns and measurement parallelogram, and (b) closer examination with
Rc measurement.
811
Figure O.2: Frequency-smoothing SCD patterns for the Frank code with Nc =
16, fc = 1 kHz, cpp = 1, and SN R = 0 dB, showing (a) one of four Frank
code modulation patterns on the bifrequency plane with the measurement
parallelogram, and (b) closer examination illustrating the Rc measurement.
812
Appendix P
Cyclostationary Processing
Results for P1, P2, P3,
and P4
P.1
P1 Code Analysis
813
814
Figure P.1: Time-smoothing SCD insect patterns for the P1 code with Nc =
64, fc = 1 kHz, and cpp = 1, with (a) the complete bifrequency plane, and
(b) closer examination of one of the four modulation patterns illustrating the
bandwidth measurements.
815
Figure P.2: Close examination of time-smoothing SCD for the P1 code with
Nc = 64, fc = 1 kHz, and cpp = 1, with (a) modulation cycles, and (b) the
measurement of Rc .
816
P.2
P2 Code Analysis
The time-smoothing SCD results for the P2 code are illustrated in Figure
P.3(a). The P2 modulation has the expected insect shape, however, it is
pointing to the right (similar to the Frank code). Note also the distinct nulls
present in the bifrequency. The bandwidth is measured in a similar manner
to the P1 and Frank code; however, the bifrequency nulls must be used as
illustrated in Figure P.3(b). One advantage of using the bifrequency plane
for measuring Rc for the subcode period tb and number of subcodes N is the
nonspecific position in the bifrequency plane, where Rc can be measured. As
shown in Figure P.4(a) and (b), any (, k) region can be used to estimate the
value of Rc .
P.3
P3 Code Analysis
The time-smoothing SCD results for the P3 code are shown in Figure P.5.
The signal has fc = 1 kHz, Nc = 64 (64 subcodes), and cpp = 1. The insect
modulation pattern points to the right and the measurements of B and Rc ,
as well as N and cpp, are the same as the above cases.
P.4
P4 Code Analysis
The time-smoothing SCD results for the P4 code are shown in Figure P.6.
The signal has fc = 1 kHz, Nc = 64, and cpp = 1. The insect modulation
pattern points to the right and the measurements of B and Rc , as well as N
and cpp, are the same as above.
817
Figure P.3: Time-smoothing SCD insect patterns for the P2 code with Nc =
64, fc = 1 kHz, and cpp = 1, with (a) the complete bifrequency plane, and
(b) closer examination of one of the four modulation patterns illustrating the
bandwidth measurements.
818
Figure P.4: Close examination of time-smoothing SCD for the P2 code with
Nc = 64, fc = 1 kHz, and cpp = 1, with (a) modulation cycles, and (b) the
measurement of Rc .
819
Figure P.5: Time-smoothing SCD insect patterns for the P3 code with Nc =
64, fc = 1 kHz, and cpp = 1 with (a) the complete bifrequency plane, and
(b) closer examination of one of the four modulation patterns illustrating the
bandwidth measurements.
820
Figure P.6: Time-smoothing SCD insect patterns for the P4 code with Nc =
64, fc = 1 kHz, and cpp = 1 with (a) the complete bifrequency plane, and
(b) closer examination of one of the four modulation patterns illustrating the
bandwidth measurements.
Appendix Q
Cyclostationary Processing
Results for T2, T3, and T4
Polytime Codes
Q.1
Q.2
822
Figure Q.1: Frequency-smoothing SCD patterns for the polytime T2(2) code
with fc = 1 kHz, showing (a) the complete bifrequency plane, and (b) closer
examination of one of the four modulation patterns illustrating the bandwidth
measurement.
823
Q.3
824
Figure Q.3: Frequency-smoothing SCD patterns for the polytime T3(2) code
with fc = 1 kHz showing (a) the complete bifrequency plane, and (b) closer
examination of one of the four modulation patterns illustrating the bandwidth
measurement.
825
826
Figure Q.5: Frequency-smoothing SCD patterns for the polytime T4(2) code
with fc = 1 kHz, showing (a) the complete bifrequency plane, and (b) closer
examination of one of the four modulation patterns illustrating the bandwidth
measurement.
827
List of Symbols
There are not enough symbols in the English and Greek alphabets to allow the
use of each letter or symbol once. Consequently, some symbols may be used to
denote more than one variable, but their use should be clear from the context.
Symbols
a
A
A
A
A
A
A
avg
A
An
A2
An
Ae
b
b
b(n)
bsc
B
B
B
B
B
829
830
List of Symbols
E
E
ER
ERPR
ERPJ
ERPC
f1b
f2b
fb
fc
fl
fu
fu
fclk
f (t)
fd max
fbmax
fHL
fl (n),flI (n)
fm
fj
fs (y)
fcr
fs
fc1
fc2
f (k1 , k2 )
fI
f0
F (u, v)
Fi
F
F I
FI
FR
F (u)
F,
F1 , F2
831
832
List of Symbols
j
k
k
kres
K
K (t)
Kmax
KJ
l
L
L
L
L
L(n)
Lc
LIR
LP 2
LRR
LRT
Lx
L,
L1
L2
M
M
M
M
M
M
MSE
MSW
n
n
n
n
n
n
n(t)
nr
833
frequency index
Boltzmanns constant
discrete frequency index
frequency resolution
normalizing constant
capability value of node
maximum number of targets simultaneously identified
jammer capability value
quadrature mirror filter layer index
total length of spiral antenna
system losses
total number of wavelet layers
overlap sliding factor between each short time FFT
sum of the square of the coecients
circulator loss
losses between intercept receiver antenna to receiver
two way transmission path loss through ionosphere
losses between the antenna and receiver
losses between the transmitter and the antenna
transmission line loss
information flow parameter
one-way atmospheric transmission factor
two-way atmospheric transmission factor
number of pulse compressors (random binary phase modulation)
square root of number of subcodes for Frank, P1, P2
number of LPI transmitters in MIMO configuration
sampled data length
number of channel pair regions on the bifrequency plane
Grenanders uncertainty condition
mean sum of squares of network errors
mean sum of squares of network weights and biases
cyclostationary order
time index
number of reference cells in CFAR
width of data path in the accumulator
discrete index of Doppler frequency
number of continuous antenna beams in elevation stack
receiver thermal noise
number of resolution elements in scan volume
834
List of Symbols
P
Prad
Pin
P DD
P GR
Pavg
Pd
Pf a
Prerad
Pt
Ptot
PN (Z)
PCW
PRC
PRT
PT R
P GI
Q
Q( )
r
r
rb
re
rk
rl
r1
R
R
R
Rc
Rc
Rd
Rfootprint
RI
RImax
Rk
Rmax
Rcancel,dB
Ru
835
836
SX
TW
SX
NI
Sd
S1,2
SNRIo
SNRIi
SNRnet
SNRRi
SNRRo
SNR1
t
tb
td
tm
tI
tp
List of Symbols
t0
t0
T
T
Tf
Th
Th
Tint
Tp
TA
TB
TN
TN
TR
T0
TW
u(t)
v, V
i
Vt
Vt
w(t)
wST (f )
wCT (t)
wl (t)
We (f )
Wn
Wx (t, ), WX (, t)
W ()
WN , WM
x0
X
Xn
Xq
XT
XW F (, )
Xr (f )
XTW (t, f )
837
838
k
|(, )|
|N T (, )|
|T (, )|
(k)
F
I
R
i,j
f
t
tmin
k
F
F I
R
RI
v
w
List of Symbols
res
(t)
C2
d
f
min
T
OODA
r
IF
LO
a
e
s
(, )
c
i
i
i,j
k
l
r
1
route index
noncoherent integration eciency
FMCW flyback factor
cycle frequency resolution
target reflectivity profile
voltage reflection coecient
discrete time index
QMFB layer number
wavelength
information rate of source
decision tempo
deployment tempo
fighting tempo
minimum information rate
characteristic tempo
maximum operational tempo
node index
local mean
refractive index of ionosphere
Doppler frequency oset
node index
radian frequency
scan rate
intermediate radian frequency
local oscillator angular frequency
frequency boundary
scan coverage in azimuth
scan coverage in elevation
scan volume
kernel function for time-frequency distribution
phase modulation
P3, P4 phase sequence
incidence angle
Frank, P1, P2 polyphase sequence
general phase modulation function
orthogonal polyphase sequence
phase shift
FMCW phase
839
840
|(, )|
b
ej
(t)
V
1
2
2
0
0i
nj
min
s
s
sr
F S
T
d
R
tk , rl
a
e
n
s
start
stop
0
(p, q)
i
Glossary
AARGM
ACF
ADC
AEA
ALCM
AMRFC
AO
AOA
AOA
AREPS
ARES
ARM
ARMIGER
ARSR
ASCM
ATR
AWACS
AZ
B-F
BMEWS
BPF
BPSK
C2
CARA
CCD
CFAR
CMRA
COSPAR
CSIST
841
842
Continuous waveform
Choi-Williams distribution
Digital-to-analog converter
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
Direct current
Direct digital synthesizer
Discrete Fourier transform
Direct frequency-smoothing method
Digital information pheromones
Detector logarithmic video amplifiers
Department of Defense
Digital radio frequency memory
Digital signal processing
Electronic attack
Elevation
Electronic intelligence
Electronic protection
Eective radiated power
Electronic support
Electronic warfare
Electronic warfare ocer
FFT accumulation method
Field eect transistor
Fast Fourier transform
Frequency hopping
Finite impulse response
Flat parabolic surface
Forward looking infrared
Frequency modulation CW
Optimum working frequency
Field of view
Frequency shift keying
General accounting oce
Ground control station
Great deluge algorithm
Greatest-of constant false alarm rate
Global positioning system
Graphical user interface
Glossary
HARD
HARM
HCI
HDAM
HEMT
HTS
HTS
HPM
IADS
ICAP
IF
IFF
IG
IIR
IMU
INS
IR
IRI
IRST
ISAR
ISL
JCC
JORN
JSR
JSTARS
LAMPS
LAN
LANTIRN
LCM
LNA
LO
LPF
LPI
LPID
LPIT
LPRF
LUT
MALD
MALI
MATLAB
MF
843
844
Glossary
RISP
RNR
RNFR
RNFSR
RPC
RF
RPM
RPV
RX
RTIC
RTOC
RWR
SAM
SAR
SATCOM
SAW
SCD
SCR
SEAD
SEI
SFDR
SIGINT
SJR
SLR
SNR
SSBM
SSN
STAP
STC
STFT
SVD
TALS
TCR
TEL
T-F
TJS
TOA
TR
UAV
UCARS
845
846
847
Index
A
Abdullah, 553
Activation function, 630
AD1990 altimeter, 45
Adaptive binarization 637639
Agility, 325326
Alarm ARM, 564
Altimeter, 4145
AD1990, 45
AHV-2100, 45
CARA, 42
CMRA, 43
GRA-2000, 44
HG-9550, 43
PA-5429, 44
Ambiguity function, 68
Amplitude weighting, 77
AMRFC, 13
Amplifier
predetection, 28
postdetection, 28
AN/APG-77, 5657
AN/APS-147, 56
AN/APQ-181, 56-57
Analog processor, 20
Analog to digtal converter, 20
Anti-ARM, 606612
AN/TLQ-32 ARM-D decoy, 611
Cosmic Shield, 607
flaps decoy, 608609
Gazetchik, 610611
VHF/UHF, 607
Patriot, 607
position flexibility, 606
Swedish GLV200, 607
849
850
training, 631
Sheridan levels, 622-623
Autonommous parameter extraction
Wigner-Ville with Radon, 688
696
AHV-2100 altimeter, 45
B
Back lobe, 5
Bandwidth
fractional, 210
instantaneous fractional, 211
intercept receiver, 2829
modulation (FMCW), 1920
phase code, 127
radar, 26
Barker phase codes
binary, 128133
polyphase, 133139
Basis functions, 468
Beamforming
digital, 14
Beamwidth, 6
Beat frequency, 18, 103104
bifrequency, 513,523524, 699
Blind speed, 102
for OTHR, 264
Boltzmanns constant, 26
Bottleneck, 333, 341
C
Capability value, 326327
jammer, 338
CARA altimeter, 42
CHAIN HOME, 553
Channel capacity, 334
unifying principal in EW, 334335
Chinese OTH-B, 272276
Chinese remainder theorem, 267269
Choi-Williams dist.
BPSK analysis, 449, 452454
classification, 634637
comparison to WVD, 446
Costas analysis, 458, 461462
Index
demodulation, 400
FMCW analysis, 449451
hybrid analysis, 458, 463
polyphase analysis, 455457
polytime analysis, 455, 458460
Classification, see Autonomous
classification
CMRA altimeter, 43
Coherent integration, 12
Combat losses, 557
Communications, 13
Compass Call, 556
Complete residue, 716717
Compound Barker code, 128129
Compression ratio, 127
Conical scan, 13
Connectivity measure
extended, 333
generalized, 326328
reference, 328329
Continuous waveform, 16
Correlation processor, 2124
coherence, 22
for noise, 238243
Fourier transform,21
Corvus ARM, 554555
Cosmic Shield, 607
Costas codes, 191195
Critical frequency, 257
Cyclostationary processing
BPSK analysis, 528531, 532534
Costas analysis, 540, 544
cycle frequency, 514
cycle frequency resolution, 519
cyclic autocorrelation, 514515
cyclic spectral analysis, 515
demodulation, 400
direct frequency smoothing,
522525
FFT accumulation method,
520522
FMCW analysis, 531, 535537,
805807
FMCW parameter extraction,
699704
Frank analysis, 809812
Grenanders uncertainty, 519
851
noise analysis, 543, 545546
time-domain implementation, 516
polyphase analysis, 535, 537,
539541, 809820
polytime analysis, 540, 542543,
821827
spectral correlation density,
515520
D
Database, 638640
Database extended, 660666
Decision speed, 324
Decoy, 558559
Demodulation, 400
Detection,
homodyne, 1820
maximum range, 26
range, 2426
Detector
envelope approximation, 84
linear 29
square-law, 2829, 395
Dierence triangle, 191195
Digital RF memory, 396
Digital-to-analog converter, 9293
Direct digital synthesizer, 20,
generating linear FM using,
9194,
RPC using, 9899
Direct RF sampling, 398400
Distruction, 558
Doppler,
clutter spectrum, 259261
matrix correlation, 23
side lobe reduction, 23, 7578,
110113
zero, 22
Down conversion, 397398
Duty cycle, 1415
Dwell time, 1113
E
Eagle, 4849
Eective radiated power, 18
852
Electronic attack
FMCW, 115
unifying principal, 334335
joint airborne, 556
on information grid, 337338
on netted radar, 352360
Electronic protection,
unifying principal, 334335
Electronic warfare, 13
receivers, 387388
Electronic warfare ocer, 556
ELINT, 37
Emitter clustering, 687688
Entropy, 333336
Espenschied, Lloyd, 41
Extinction coecient, 25
Fan beam, 6
Field of view, 10
resolution elements, 10
FM interrupted CW (OTHR),
282287
FMCW radar
advantages of, 8182
block diagram, 1820
modulation period, 102104
out-of-band emission, 270271
range-Doppler cross coupling, 102
received signal, 100101
waveform design, 8689, 9194
waveform nonlinearities, 105106
waveform spectrum, 8991
Fourier transform, 7, 18
FFT accumulation method, 520522
FMCW range profile, 84
LPI detection, 576
Frame time, 1113
Frank code
example for PAF 7175
peak side lobe, 75
polyphase, 139, 143148
Frequency hopping
advantages, 187189
transmitted signal, 189
G
Generalization, 630
Gibbs phenomena, 474
Global information grid, 320
GOCFAR, 8485, 104
GRA-2000 altimeter, 44
Grating lobes, 14
Growler EA-18G, 556
I
Information rate, 334
Integration, 1820
coherent, 28
LPI detection, 574576
netted radar, 348349
noncoherent eciency, 29
noncoherent, 19, 20
postdetection, 8586
Intercept receiver, 4
challenges, 400402
maximum range, 28
Interrupted CW, 16
Ionospheric eects (HF), 253261
J
Jam-to-signal ratio
communication node, 337338
Index
radar node, 352353
Jamming, 556, 621
JY-17a, 5355
K
Kh-31 ARM
seeker, 565566
Klipper (bandwidth), 28
Knowledge function, 335-336
L
Landing systems, 4547
PALS, 46
TALS, 46
UCARS, 46
LANTIRN, 58
Lethality, 326
Look-through, 388389
Low noise amplifier, 84
Low probability of detection, 3
definition, 4
Low probability of intercept radar,
antenna characteristics, 514
definition, 3, 31
deramping detection of, 576
discriminator, 573574
multichannel detection, 574576
netted, 342
origin of, 29
transmitter characteristics,
1418
requirement, 4
sensitivity definition, 3031
summary of characteristics, 18
Lowpass filtering, 648651
Lookup table, 92
LPI toolbox (LPIT), 709711
LPIsimNet,
information network, 338345
radar network, 353360
tutorial, 721739
853
M
Main lobe, 5
MALD, 558559
MALI, 59
Maneuverabilty,, 323324
Markov chain, 85
Marginal frequency, 634638, 651656
Matched filter 22
Maximum usable frequency, 257
MIMO, 349352
Missile systems, 5862
MMIC, 116
Modified feature extraction, 648660
Modified sinc filter, 473474
Modulation, 16
bandwidth (FMCW), 20
period (FMCW), 20, 102104
triangular,, 8691
LPI, 3637
Moving target indication, 107108
MRSR, 55
Multifunction aperture, 13
Multilayer perceptron, 629632
generalization, 630
N
Narayanan noise radar, 215219
PAF, PACF, 219222
Netted LPI radar, 342-345
advantages, 346347
LIPsimNet analysis, 353360
MIMO, 349352
orthogonal codes, 362372
signal-to-noise ratio, 348349
signal model, 349352
use of noise in, 374, 376377
Network centric warfare
block diagram, 321
definition, 320
entropy, 333-336
global information grid, 320
information rate, 334
jam-to-signal ratio, 337338
LPIsimNet, 338345
metrics 326337
854
O
OLPI, 13, 179182
OODA, 324325, 326
Operational tempo, 324
maximum, 336337
Origin of LPI, 29
Orthogonal waveforms, 358, 361362
frequency hopping, 370375
MIMO, 350352
OTHR, 377378
polyphase codes, 362370
OTHR systems
Doppler spectrum, 259261
ionosphere, 253261
netted configurations, 377378
sky wave, 252280
sky wave waveforms, 265271
surface wave, 276, 281294
surface wave waveforms, 282288
OTHR waveforms, 249251
P
P1 code, 148151
P2 code, 152155
Index
Power
attenuation coecient, 25
average, 15
density, 2425
peak, 15
received, 25
Power management, 1618
in seeker, 17
using constant SNR, 310312
Prime number, 715
Primitive roots, 717719
Principal components analysis, 648,
656660
Probability of detection, 19
Probability of false alarm, 19
Processing gain, 19
FMCW, 20
intercept receiver, 2829
phase code, 20
random binary phase modulation,
211
PSK see polyphase code
Pulse compression, 1516, 1824
Pulse descriptor words, 396
Pulsed radar, 14
Q
Quadrature mirror filtering
BPSK analysis, 489494, 773776
complex input example, 482487
Costas analysis, 499, 502503
demodulation, 400
FMCW analysis, 487489, 771
772
Frank analysis, 777780
Harr filter, 472473
hybrid analysis, 499, 504505
noise analysis, 499, 506508
polyphase analysis, 494498, 777
780, 781795
polytime analysis, 495, 499501,
797803
polyphase parameter extraction,
695699
short-time Fourier transform, 469
tree structure, 476482
855
two channel analysis, 474476
wavelet decomposition, 468
wavelet filters, 472474
wavelet transform, 469471
Quiet radar, 30
Quiet naval radar CRM-100, 53
R
Radar
pulsed conventional, 14, 35, 42
warning receiver, 37
Radar cross section
free space backscattering, 291
low values, 306307
microwave 290
Shearmans definition, 291
Radial basis function, 624, 632633
Euclidean norm, 632
Gaussian basis, 633
Radon transform, 689692
Random binary phase, 234237
PAF, PACF, 236237
Random noise plus FMCW, 222227
PAF, PACF, 225228
Random noise FMCW plus sine, 227,
229234
PAF, PACF, 230234
Range
detection, 2426
interception, 2729
maximum detection, 26, 30, 32
maximum interception, 2728, 30
resolution, 102
RBS-15, 5860
Receiver (intercept)
challenges with, 400402
sensitivity, 2728
Receiver (radar)
bandwidth, 26
comparison, 392396
correlation, 23, 238243
matched, 22, 108110
mismatched, 24, 7578, 110113
noise factor, 26
sensitivity, 2526
856
S
Samples per subcode, 73
Scan pattern, 11-13
confusion, 13
raster scan, 11
Sea clutter, 308310
Sea state, 308
Search mode processing
FMCW, 101105
Seekers
airborne, 5861
torpedo, 6162
Sensitivity
comparison, 29
intercept receiver, 2728
Pilots, 35
radar, 2526
receiver comparison, 395396
Sensor grid, 321
Sheridan levels, 622623
Short-time Fourier transform, 469
in cyclic spectrum estimation,
518519
Side lobes, 510
ACF, PACF, PAF, 7071
definitions of peak, 7071
OTHR 265266
Side lobe ratio, 5
Taylor, 910
Sigmoid, 625626, 630
Signal-to-noise ratio,
Albersheim relation, 19
input required (radar), 26
for netted radar, 348349
output (radar), 26
Pilots required, 35
processing gain, 19
time-bandwidth, related to 19
Sinc filter, 473474
Single sideband modulator, 9294
Situational awareness, 323
Sky wave OTHR, 249251
critical frequency, 257
detection range, 271276
distance coverage 259
footprint, 274276
Doppler clutter, 259261
ionosphere eects, 253259
JORN, 261263
LPI considerations, 265271
maximum usable frequency, 257
waveform repetition frequency,
266269
SMART-L, 11
Spearfish, 61
Spiral antenna, 559566
Archimedean, 563564
equiangular, 560562
logarithmic, 559
conical, 559560
conical equiangular, 564565
STC, 82
Subcode, 20
number of, 20
period, 2022
Superconductor, 118119
Suppression
beginnings, 553
definitions, 552553
Eagle example, 331-333
enemy integrated air defense,
551553
look-through, 388389
Surface wave OTHR, 249251, 276,
278, 281
detection range, 288294
LPI considerations, 282288
SWR 503, 281283
Surveillance systems
airborne 5658
ground based, 4855
Index
Swarm, 391392
Swedish GLV200, 607
Swiss Air Guard, 607
857
V
Variant, 5253
Vietnam, 555556
T
W
TALS landing system, 46
Taper, 79, 12
Tapped delay line, 2224
Target-to-clutter ratio, 312315
Taylor distribution, 810, 12
Temperature, 26
Time-bandwidth,
FMCW, 19
Time-frequency processing
Choi-Williams distribution,
445463
Gabor distribution, 574576
quadrature mirror filtering,
467509
Wigner-Ville distribution,
405442
Time-on-target, 1113
Time smoothing, 520522
Track mode processing
FMCW, 104105
Training, 631
Transmission line, 9596
Transmit,
multiple simultaneous, 13
peak power, 14
power management, 16
Transmitter
continuous waveform, 15
solid state, 15
Twinkle transmission, 607
U
UCARS landing system, 46
Ultra-low (side lobes), 8
Uniform window, 77
Unmanned aerial vehicle, 391392,
595596
Y
YGBSM, 551
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