Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
1.3
The objectives of site investigation have been defined by the various Codes of
Practice (BS CP 2001:1950, 1957; BS 5930:1981). They can be summarized as
providing data for the following.
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i. Site selection.
The construction of certain major projects, such as earth dams, is dependent on
the availability of a suitable site. Clearly, if the plan is to build on the cheapest,
most readily available land, geotechnical problems due to the high permeability
of the sub-soil, or to slope instability may make the final cost of the construction
prohibitive. Since the safety of lives and property are at stake, it is important to
consider the geotechnical merits or demerits of various sites before the site is
chosen for a project of such magnitude.
ii. Foundation and earthworks design.
Generally, factors such as the availability of land at the right price, in a good
location from the point of view of the eventual user, and with the planning
consent for its proposed use are of over-riding importance. For medium-sized
engineering works, such as motorways and multistorey structures, the
geotechnical problems must be solved once the site is available, in order to allow
a safe and economical design to be prepared.
iii. Temporary works design.
The actual process of construction may often impose greater stress on the
ground than the final structure. While excavating for foundations, steep side
slopes may be used, and the in-flow of groundwater may cause severe problems
and even collapse. These temporary difficulties, which may in extreme
circumstances prevent the completion of a construction project, will not usually
affect the design of the finished works. They must, however, be the object of
serious investigation.
iv. The effects of the proposed project on its environment.
The construction of an excavation may cause structural distress to neighbouring
structures for a variety of reasons such as loss of ground, and lowering of the
groundwater table. This will result in prompt legal action. On a wider scale, the
extraction of water from the ground for drinking may cause pollution of the aquifer
in coastal regions due to saline intrusion, and the construction of a major earth
dam and lake may not only destroy agricultural land and game, but may
introduce new diseases into large populations. These effects must be the subject
of investigation.
v. Investigation of existing construction.
The observation and recording of the conditions leading to failure of soils or
structures are of primary importance to the advance of soil mechanics, but the
investigation of existing works can also be particularly valuable for obtaining data
for use in proposed works on similar soil conditions. The rate of settlement, the
necessity for special types of structural solution, and the bulk strength of the subsoil may all be obtained with more certainty from back-analysis of the records of
existing works than from small scale laboratory tests.
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vi. The design of remedial works.
If structures are seen to have failed, or to be about to fail, then remedial
measures must be designed. Site investigation methods must be used to obtain
parameters for design.
vii. Safety checks.
Major civil engineering works, such as earth dams, have been constructed over a
sufficiently long period for the precise construction method and the present
stability of early examples to be in doubt. Site investigations are used to provide
data to allow their continued use.
1.5
Site Investigations
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The site investigation works sequence can also be presented in flow chart shown
in Fig. 1.
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1.6
1.6.1 Introduction
Many different techniques are available for site investigation. The method
employed will depend on many factors such as depth required, area to be
covered, ease of access, etc. On large jobs preliminary borings are used to
furnish overall subsoil surveys followed by final borings so soil or rock profiles
may be determined at the most useful orientations. In general, exploration
contracts should be open ended so that intermediate borings may be added in
areas that prove to be critical.
1.6.2 Soil Drilling
A wide variety of equipment is available for performing borings and obtaining soil
samples. The method used to advance the boring should be compatible with the
soil and groundwater conditions to assure that soil samples of suitable quality are
obtained. Particular care should be exercised to properly remove all slough or
loose soil from the boring before sampling. Below the groundwater level, drilling
fluids are often needed to stabilize the sidewalls and bottom of the boring in soft
clays or cohesionless soils . Without stabilization, the bottom of the boring may
heave or the sidewalls may contract, either disturbing the soil prior to sampling or
preventing the sampler from reaching the bottom of the boring. In most
geotechnical explorations, borings are usually advanced with solid stem
continuous flight, hollow-stem augers, or rotary wash boring methods. These
methods are often augmented by in-situ testing .Assuming access and utility
clearances have been obtained and a survey base line has been established in
the field, field explorations are begun based on the information gained during the
previous steps. Many methods of field exploration exist; some of the more
common are described below.
1.6.3 Test Pits and Trenches
These are the simplest methods of inspecting subsurface soils. They consist of
excavations performed by hand, backhoe, or dozer. Hand excavations are often
performed with posthole diggers or hand augers. They offer the advantages of
speed and ready access for sampling. They are severely hampered by limitations
of depth and by the fact they cannot be used in soft or loose soils or below the
water table.
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1.6.4 Boreholes
Borings are probably the most common method of exploration. They can
be advanced using a number of methods, as described below. Upon completion,
all borings should be backfilled and in many cases this will require grouting.
Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress (V') with depth.
1
Determine the depth (D) = D1. where q . Where q is estimation
10
of net stress on the foundation.
0.05 .
Determine the depth (D) = D2, where
v '
The smaller of the two depths is the approximate minimum depth of boring required; unless bedrock is encountered.
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# While there are no set rules for boring depth and spacing is shown in Tables
1.2 and 1.3 give a guide to these requirements respectively.
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1.2
1.3
i.
The hand auger provides a light, portable method of sampling soft to stiff soils
near the ground surface. At least six types of auger are readily available:
posthole or Iwan auger;
small helical auger (wood auger);
dutch auger;
gravel auger;
barrel auger; and
spiral auger.
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Hand augers are used by one or two men, who press down on the cross-bar as
they rotate it thus advancing the hole. Once the auger is full, or has collected
sufficient material, it is brought back to the surface and the soil removed.
Although the method is cheap because of the simplicity of the equipment, it does
suffer from several disadvantages.
The most commonly used auger for site investigation is the Iwan auger. This is
normally used at diameters of between 100 and 200 mm. Small helical augers
are quite effective in stiff clays, but become difficult to use once the water table is
reached.
Barrel augers are now rarely seen, but were formerly used with the light
percussion rig when progress through clays was made using a shell. They
allowed the base of the borehole to be very effectively cleaned before sampling
took place. Because they are heavy they require a tripod for raising and lowering
them in the borehole. When lowered to the bottom of the hole they were turned
by hand.
In stiff or very stiff clays, hand-auger progress will be very slow, and the depth of
boring may have to be limited to about 5 m. When such clays contain gravel,
cobbles or boulders it will not normally be possible to advance the hole at all. In
uncemented sands or gravels, it will not be possible to advance the hole below
the water table, since casing cannot be used and the hole will collapse either on
top of the auger (which makes it difficult to recover the auger from the hole) or
when the auger is being removed. Only samples of very limited size can be
obtained from the hole. In addition, it will not be possible to carry out standard
penetration tests without a frame to lift the trip hammer and weight, so that no
idea of the relative density of granular deposits can be obtained.
Despite these difficulties, where access for machinery is impossible the hand
auger may give valuable information.
ii.
Auger Borings
Rotating an auger while simultaneously advancing it into the ground; the auger is
advanced to the desired depth and then withdrawn. Samples of cuttings can be
removed from the auger; however, the depth of the sample can only be
approximated. These samples are disturbed and should be used only for material
identification.
This method is used to establish soil strata and water table elevations, or to
advance to the desired stratum before Standard Penetration Testing (SPT) or
undisturbed sampling is performed. However, it cannot be used effectively in soft
or loose soils below the water table without casing or drilling mud to hold the hole
open. See ASTM D 1452 (AASHTO T 203).
iii.
Mechanical Auger
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A large variety of size and type are available. Basic types are:
(a) Plate Auger.
Used in strata which will stand unsupported. It is necessary to pull out every foot
to examine cuttings. Depth limited by length of kelly bar (generally 6 m).
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SPT and undisturbed samples are obtained through the hollow drill stem, which
acts like a casing to hold the hole open.
This is frequently a slow process, and due to the very great torque required to
drive the auger may be uneconomic. This method is largely experimental at the
moment.
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(d) Bucket or Grab Auger.
This type of auger drills a large diameter hole, with or without casing. A large
plant is involved, and it is infrequently used in investigation work.
iv.
Wash Borings
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down by turning, as boring proceeds,
but it may be necessary to drive it.
Samples can be obtained and in situ
tests made through the casing from
time to time. In this method of boring,
unless continuous samples are
taken, which defeats the main object
of the technique, speed, the only
evidence of the strata being
penetrated is the very fine soil
particles being carried to the surface
by the flow of water. Wash borings
are normally made using casing
between 50 mm and 150 mm
diameter, above this size, the pump
unit required is generally too large.
The technique is generally used as a
fast and consequently cheap method
of
supplementing
information
obtained from a series of dry sample
borings. It is particularly useful for
obtaining samples or carrying out in
situ tests at some depth in know
strata, e.g. in a clay layer, below a
sand stratum. Disturbance of the ground by the water jet may in some cases
extend two feet or more below the casing, and care should be taken in sampling
and testing to ensure that this is not carried out in the disturbed area. The use of
wash boring without adequate dry sample boring control should be avoided.
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1.7
SAMPLING
There are 2 types of soil samples, there are disturbed and undisturbed.
1.7.1 Disturbed Sampling
Disturbed samples are generally obtained to determine the soil type, gradation,
classification, consistency, density, presence of contaminants, stratification, etc.
The methods for obtaining disturbed samples vary from hand excavating of
materials with picks and shovels to using truck mounted augers and other rotary
drilling techniques.
These samples are considered .disturbed. since the
sampling process modifies their natural structure.
1.7.2 Undisturbed Sampling
Undisturbed samples are used to determine the in place strength,
compressibility (settlement), natural moisture content, unit weight, permeability,
discontinuities, fractures and fissures of subsurface formations. Even though
such samples are designated as .undisturbed, in reality they are disturbed to
varying degrees. The degree of disturbance depends on the type of subsurface
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materials, type and condition of the sampling equipment used, the skill of the
drillers, and the storage and transportation methods used.
1.7.3 Common Types of Samplers
The cuttings or washings from exploratory drill holes are inadequate to furnish a
satisfactory conception of the engineering characteristics of the soils
encountered, or even of the thicknesses and depths of the various strata. On the
contrary, such evidence more often than not is grossly misleading and has been
responsible for many foundation failures.
Proper identification of the subsurface materials requires that samples be
recovered containing all the constituents of the materials in their proper
proportions. Moreover, evaluation of the appropriate engineering properties, such
as the strength, compressibility, or permeability, may require the performance of
laboratory tests on fairly intact or even virtually undisturbed samples.
The expenditure of time and money increases rapidly as the requirements
become more stringent with respect to the degree of disturbance that can be
tolerated and with increasing diameter of sample. Therefore, on small projects or
in the initial exploratory stages of large or complex projects, it is usually
preferable to obtain relatively inexpensive, fairly intact samples from the
exploratory drill holes.
On the basis of the information obtained from these samples, the necessity for
more elaborate sampling procedures can be judged.
Types of Soil Sampler
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i.
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Figure 3-7: Split-Barrel Samplers: (a) Lengths of 457 mm (18 in) and 610
mm (24 in); (b) Inside diameters from 38.1 mm (1.5 in) to 89 mm (3.5 in).
As shown in Figure 3-8a, when the shoe and the sleeve of this type of
sampler are unscrewed from the split barrel, the two halves of the barrel
may be separated and the sample may be extracted easily.
The soil sample is removed from the split-barrel sampler it is either placed
and sealed in a glass jar, sealed in a plastic bag, or sealed in a brass liner
(Figure 3-8b).
Separate containers should be used if the sample contains different soil
types.
Alternatively, liners may be placed inside the sampler with the same inside
diameter as the cutting shoe (Figure 3-9a).
This allows samples to remain intact during transport to the laboratory.
In both cases, samples obtained with split barrels are disturbed and
therefore are only suitable for soil identification and general classification
tests.
Figure 3-8: Split Barrel Sampler: (a) Open sampler with soil sample and cutting
shoe; (b) Sample jar, split-spoon, shelby tube, and storage box for transport of
jar samples.
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ii.
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iii.
Piston Sampler
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iv.
Figure 3-15: Pitcher Sampler. (a) Sampler Being Lowered into Drill Hole; (b)
Sampler During Sampling of Soft Soils, (c) Sampler During Sampling of Stiff or
Dense Soils. (Courtesy of Mobile Drilling, Inc.)
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v.
Denison Sampler
Is similar to a pitcher
sampler except that the
projection of the sampler
tube ahead of the outer
rotating barrel is manually
adjusted
before
commencement of sampling
operations,
rather
than
spring-controlled
during
sampler penetration.
The basic components of the
sampler (Figure 3-16) are :
an outer rotating core
barrel with a bit,
an inner stationary
sample barrel with a
cutting shoe,
inner and outer barrel
heads,
an inner barrel liner,
and
Figure 3-16: Denison Double-Tube
an optional basketCore Barrel Soil Sampler
type core retainer.
(Courtesy of Sprague & Henwood,
The coring bit may either be
Inc.)
a carbide insert bit or a
hardened steel saw tooth bit.
The shoe of the inner barrel has a sharp cutting edge.
The cutting edge may be made to lead the bit by 12 mm (0.5 in) to 75 mm
(3 in) through the use of coring bits of different lengths.
The longest lead is used in soft and loose soils because the shoe can
easily penetrate these materials.
The minimum lead is used in hard materials or soils containing gravel.
Used primarily in stiff to hard cohesive soils and in sands, which are not
easily sampled with thin-wall samplers owing to the large jacking force
required for penetration.
The sampler is also suitable for sampling soft clays and silts.
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vi.
Block sampling
Block sampling has traditionally involved the careful hand excavation of soil
around the sample position, and the trimming of a regular-shaped block. This
block is then sealed with layers of muslin, wax and clingfilm, before being
encased in a rigid container, and cut from the ground. The process is illustrated
in Fig. 6.5. A similar process can be carried out in shafts and large-diameter
auger holes.
Trial pits are normally only dug to shallow depths, and shafts and large-diameter
auger holes tend to be expensive. Therefore block samples have not traditionally
been available for testing from deep deposits of clay. In the past decade,
however, there has been an increasing use of rotary coring methods to obtain
such samples. When carried out carefully, without displacing the soil, rotary
coring is capable of producing very good quality samples. When the blocks are
cut by hand then obviously the pit will be air-filled, but when carried out in a
borehole it will typically be full of drilling mud.
During the sampling process there is stress relief. At one stage or another the
block of soil will normally experience zero total stress. This will lead to a large
reduction in the pore pressures in the block. The soil forming the block will
attempt to suck in water from its surroundings, during sampling, either from the
soil to which it is attached, or from any fluid in the pit or borehole. This will result
in a reduction in the effective stress in the block.
In addition, where block sampling occurs in air, negative pore pressures may
lead to cavitations in any silt or sand layers which are in the sample. Cavitation in
silt and sand layers releases water to be imbibed by the surrounding clay, and
the effect will be a reduction in the average effective stress of the block.
Block sampling is an excellent method of ensuring that the soil remains
unaffected by shear distortions during sampling, but samples obtained in this way
may not (as a result of swelling) have effective stresses that are the same as
those in the ground. Therefore the strength and compressibility of the soil may be
changed. This should be allowed for either by using appropriate reconsolidation
procedures, or by normalizing strength and stiffness, where appropriate, with
effective stress.
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Table 7 : Types of sampler generally used in Malaysia
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1.8
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(These tests are from disturbed samples such as split spoon samplers (SPT),
bulk samples, etc.).
2. Chemical & Electro-chemical Tests: BS 1377 Part 3: 1990
Organic matter content,
Mass loss on ignition,
Sulphate content of soil and ground water,
Carbonate content,
Chloride content,
Total dissolved solids,
pH value,
3. Compaction-related (tests from bulk samples) Tests: BS 1377: Part
3.1 Dry density - moisture relationship (2.5 kg/4.5 kg hammer)
- Soil with some coarse gravels
- vibrating method
3.2 Moisture condition value (MCV)
3.3 CBR tests
4. Compressibility, Permeability and Durability Tests: BS 1377: Part 5
4.1 1-D consolidation test
4.2 Swelling and collapse tests
4.3 Permeability by constant head
4.4 Dispersibility
5. Consolidation & Permeability Tests in Hydraulic Cells & with pore pressure
measurements: BS 1377: Part 6
5.1 Consolidation Properties using hydraulic cell
5.2 Permeability in hydraulic consolidation cell
5.3 Isotropic consolidated properties using triaxial cell
5.4 Permeability in a triaxial cell
6. Shear Strength Tests (Total Stress) BS 1377: Part 7
6.1 Lab vane shear
6.2 Direct shear box (small)
6.3 Direct shear box (large)
6.4 Residual strength
6.5 Undrained shear strength (UU)
6.6 Undrained shear strength (multi loading)
7. Shear Strength Tests (Effective Stress) BS 1377: Part 8
7.1 CIU with pore pressure measurement
7.2 CD with pore pressure measurement
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1.9
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corresponding soil response in an attempt to evaluate material characteristics,
such as strength and/or stiffness. Figure 5-1 depicts these various devices and
simplified procedures in graphical form. Details on these tests will be given in the
subsequent sections.
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Table below shows common field tests practice in Malaysia.
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gravel deposits nor soft clays. The fact that the test provides both a sample and
a number is useful, yet problematic, as one cannot do two things well at the
same time.
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The general expression for all types of vanes including standard rectangular
(Chandler, 1988), both ends tapered (Geonor in Norway), bottom taper only
(Nilcon in Sweden), as well as rhomboidal shaped vanes for any end angles is
given by:
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Fig.5-10 : Selection of
Vane Shear Blades
Vane Results
A representative set of shear strength profiles in San Francisco Bay Mud derived
from vane shear tests for the MUNI Metro Station Project are shown in Figure 512a. Peak strengths increase from suv = 20 kPa to 60 kPa with depth. The
derived profile of sensitivity (ratio of peak to remolded strengths) is presented in
Figure 5-12b and indicates 3 < St < 4.
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Procedures for the Flat Plate Dilatometer Test
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1.9.4 FLAT PLATE DILATOMETER RESULTS
The two DMT readings (po and p1) are utilized to provide three indices that can
provide information on the stratigraphy, soil types, and the evaluation of soil
parameters:
Figure 5-16. Example DMT Sounding in Piedmont residual soils (CL to ML) in
Charlotte, NC.
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E
; where E soil modulus of
1
p
; where u0 pore water pressure at test
p0 u 0
p0 u0 5.3 0.15
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The soil type is sandy soil with soil 1.95 9.81 19.1kN / m 3
121lb / ft 3
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1.9.5
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Figure 5-19 shows a representative curve of pressure versus volume from
a PMT in Utah. The recompression, pseudo-elastic, and plastic regions are
indicated, as are the corresponding interpreted values
of parameters.
Figure 5-19. Menard-type Pressure meter Results for Utah DOT Project.
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Most electric/electronic cones require a cable that is threaded through the rods to
connect with the power supply and data acquistion system at the surface. An
analog-digital converter and pentium notebook are sufficient for collecting data
at approximate 1-sec intervals.
Depths are monitored using either a potentiometer (wire-spooled LVDT),
depth wheel that the cable passes through, or ultrasonics sensor. Systems can
be powered by voltage using either generator (AC) or battery (DC), or
alternatively run on current. New developments include: (1) the use of audio
signals to transmit digital data up the rods without a cable and (2) memocone
systems where a computer chip in the penetrometer stores the data throughout
the sounding.
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Figure 5-6.
Geometry and Measurements Taken by Cone and Piezocone
Penetrometers.
Procedures for the Cone Penetration Test
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Piezocone Results
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qt qc u 2 1 a
qt t
'v
494.5kPa
6.25
79
fs
30kPa
100%
100% 6.1%
qt t
494.5kPa
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The velocity of P-wave given by :
1
1 2 1
E
g
Where :
Need to find the value of velocity, v and the thickness of each layer, Zi
Procedures :
1. Times of first arrival; t1, t2, t3, .. at various points x1, x2, x3,
.. from point of impact
2. Plot graph of time,t vs distance x
3. Determine slopes ab, bc, cd, .
Using slopes = 1/v, find value of v
4. Determine thickness of top layer
v 2 v1
1
xc
Using thickness, Z 1
2
v 2 v1
5. Determine thickness of second layer
Using z 2
1
Ti 2 2 Z 1
2
v32 v12
v3 v1
v3 v 2
v32 v 22
6. Note that the value of xc, Ti1 and Ti2 can be estimated from
Figure 1.19(b)
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Example 2.2
The results of a refraction survey at a site are given in the following table.
Determine the P-wave velocities and the thickness of the material encountered.
Table Example 2.2
Distance from the
source of disturbance (m)
2.5
5
7.5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
50
Slope 0a =
1
time
23 10 3
.or
v1 dis tan ce
5.25
v
Slope ab =
5.25
228m / sec(toplayer )
23 10 3
1 13.5 10 3
11
; v2
814.8m / sec( middlelaye r )
v2
11
13.5 10 3
1 3.5 10 3
; v3 4214m / sec(thirdlayer )
Slope bc =
v3
14.75
Thickness of layer 1 :
With xc = 10.5 (Figure Example 2.2)
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Z1
1 814.8 228
10.5 3.94m
2 814.8 228
Thickness of layer 2 :
With Ti2 = 65 x 10-3 sec (Figure Example 2.2)
2
2
23.94 4214 228
4214814.8
1
Z 2 65 10 3
4214228
2
42142 814.82
1
= 0.065 0.0345830.47 12.66m
2
Therefore rock layer lies at a depth of Z1 + Z2 = 3.94 + 12.66 =16.60 m
measured from ground surface
3.94m
V2 V1 2 814.8 228
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X V V2
Z 2 0.85Z1 2 3
2 V3 V2
2 4214 814.8
200-1,000
500-2,000
1,000-2,500
650-3,300
1,650-6,600
3,300-8,200
250-750
800-2,450
2,500-5,000
1,500-5,000
4,000-6,000
5,000-10,000
8,200-16,400
4,900-16,400
13,100-19,700
16,400-32,800
vs
L
t
Gs
v
vs2
Gs
g
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The most common procedure for measuring the electrical resistivity of a soil
profile makes use of four electrodes driven into the ground and spaced equally
along a straight line. The procedure is generally referred to as the Wenner
method (Figure 2.37a). The two outside electrodes are used to send an electrical
current I (usually a dc current with nonpolarizing potential electrodes) into the
ground. The current is typically in the range of 50-100 milliamperes. The voltage
drop, V, is measured between the two inside electrodes. If the soil profile is
homogeneous, its electrical resistivity is :
In most cases, the soil profile may consist of various layers with different rest
tivities, and equation above will yield the apparent resistivity. To obtain the actual
resistivity of various layers and their thicknesses, one may use an empirical
method that involves conducting tests at various electrode spacings (i.e., d is
changed). The sum of the apparent resistivities, Sp, is plotted against the
spacing d, as shown in Figure 2.37b. The plot thus obtained has relatively
straight segments, the slopes of which give the resistivity of individual layers. The
thicknesses of various layers can be estimated as shown in Figure 2.37b.
The resistivity survey is particularly useful in locating gravel deposits within a
fine-grained soil.
Figure 2.37 Electrical resistivity survey: (a) Wenner method; (b) empirical method
for determining resistivity and thickness of each layer
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1.
General information
The essential information which needs to be recorded on the log is as follows:
a.
Borehole number:
This should be unique to the site and kept as simple as possible without
extraneous ciphers.
b.
Location:
Site, including project name, town country or state name where
necessary
(ii)
Grid Reference which should always be stated to at least 1 Om
accuracy. Appropriate local co-ordinate systems should be applied
(iii)
Elevation relative to C.O. for the ground level at the borehole site to an
accuracy of 0.05m.
(iv)
Orientation of the borehole given as an angle to the horizontal (-ve
upwards, +ve downwards) and azimuth (0 to 360 clockwise relative
to Grid North).
(i)
c.
Drilling technique:
The following should be stated
(i)
The method of penetration and flush system
(ii)
The make of machine with the model number
(iii)
The type of core barrel and bit
d.
Contract details:
The following should be noted (with the agreement of the client)
(i)
Name of site investigation contractor
(ii)
Name of client or authority
(iii)
Job reference number
(iv)
Name and profession of logger
e.
Miscellaneous:
There should be an opportunity for relevant miscellaneous information to be
included in the log.
2.
Drilling progress
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b.
Casing:
It is essential that the progress of installation of the casing be recorded relative to
the depth of the borehole; the diameter of the casing need not be recorded
except where relevant to interpretation of the data.
c.
Flush returns:
The character and proportion of the circulation medium returning to the surface
should be recorded.
d.
Standing water level:
This should be recorded before and possibly after each drilling shift.
3.
Descriptive geology
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Tutorial 1
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QUIZ NO.1
Given a site that is proposed for the development of a housing area
that consist of two major types of soil :
Part A : hilly area that most soil are residual granite that
contain mostly of granular type of soil.
Part B : valley part that mostly covered by marin clay
Suggest a list of procedures that would be practical to implement the
soil investigation in both parts.
(20 marks)
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