Dr. Nirav Vyas Power Series PDF

Power Series
N. B. Vyas
Department of Mathematics,
Atmiya Institute of Tech. and Science,
Rajkot (Guj.)
N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot
Convergence of a Sequence
A sequence {zn } is said to be converge to z0
{as n approaches inf inity} if, for each > 0 there
exists a positive integer N such that
|z z0 | < ,
whenever
nN
|z z0 | < ,
whenever
nN
Symbolically we write lim zn = z0

n
|z z0 | < ,
whenever
nN

n
A sequence which is not convergent is defined to be

divergent.
|z z0 | < ,
whenever
nN

n

divergent.
If lim zn = z0 we have
n
|z z0 | < ,
whenever
nN

n

divergent.
n
(i) |zn | |z0 | as n
|z z0 | < ,
whenever
nN

n

divergent.
n
(i) |zn | |z0 | as n

(ii) the sequence {zn } is bounded
|z z0 | < ,
whenever
nN

n

divergent.
n
(i) |zn | |z0 | as n

If zn = xn + iyn and z0 = x0 + iy0 then
|z z0 | < ,
whenever
nN

n

divergent.
n
(i) |zn | |z0 | as n

If zn = xn + iyn and z0 = x0 + iy0 then
lim zn = z0 lim xn = x0 and lim yn = y0
n
The limit of convergent sequence is unique.
lim zn = z and lim wn = w then
n
1
lim (zn wn ) = z + w
n
1
n
2
lim czn = cz
n
1
n
2
lim czn = cz
n
3
lim zn wn = zw
n
1
n
2
lim czn = cz
n
3
lim zn wn = zw
zn
z
lim
=
(w 6= 0)
n wn
w
n
n
1
n
2
lim czn = cz
n
3
lim zn wn = zw
zn
z
lim
=
(w 6= 0)
n wn
w
n
Given a sequence {an }. Consider a sequence {nk } of positive

integers such that n1 < n2 < n3 < . . . then the sequence
{ank } is called a subsequence of {an }.
n
1
n
2
lim czn = cz
n
3
lim zn wn = zw
zn
z
lim
=
(w 6= 0)
n wn
w
n

If {ank } converges then its limit is called Sub-sequential
limit
n
1
n
2
lim czn = cz
n
3
lim zn wn = zw
zn
z
lim
=
(w 6= 0)
n wn
w
n

If {ank } converges then its limit is called Sub-sequential
limit
A sequence {an } of complex numbers converges to p if and
only if every subsequence converges to p.
Taylors Series
If f (z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at z0 then for
all z inside C
Taylors Series
all z inside C
(z z0 )2 00
(z z0 )n n
f (z) = f (z0 )+(zz0 )f 0 (z0 )+
f (z0 )+. . .+
f (z0 )
2!
n!
Taylors Series
all z inside C
(z z0 )2 00
(z z0 )n n
f (z) = f (z0 )+(zz0 )f 0 (z0 )+
f (z0 )+. . .+
f (z0 )
2!
n!
Case 1: Putting z = z0 + h in above equation, we get
Taylors Series
all z inside C
(z z0 )2 00
(z z0 )n n
f (z) = f (z0 )+(zz0 )f 0 (z0 )+
f (z0 )+. . .+
f (z0 )
2!
n!
f (z0 + h) = f (z0 ) + hf 0 (z0 ) +
h2 00
hn
f (z0 ) + . . . + f n (z0 )
2!
n!
Taylors Series
all z inside C
(z z0 )2 00
(z z0 )n n
f (z) = f (z0 )+(zz0 )f 0 (z0 )+
f (z0 )+. . .+
f (z0 )
2!
n!
f (z0 + h) = f (z0 ) + hf 0 (z0 ) +
h2 00
hn
f (z0 ) + . . . + f n (z0 )
2!
n!
Case 2: If z0 = 0 then, we get
Taylors Series
all z inside C
(z z0 )2 00
(z z0 )n n
f (z) = f (z0 )+(zz0 )f 0 (z0 )+
f (z0 )+. . .+
f (z0 )
2!
n!
f (z0 + h) = f (z0 ) + hf 0 (z0 ) +
h2 00
hn
f (z0 ) + . . . + f n (z0 )
2!
n!

f (z) = f (0) + zf 0 (0) +
z 2 00
zn
f (0) + . . . + f n (0)
2!
n!
Taylors Series
all z inside C
(z z0 )2 00
(z z0 )n n
f (z) = f (z0 )+(zz0 )f 0 (z0 )+
f (z0 )+. . .+
f (z0 )
2!
n!
f (z0 + h) = f (z0 ) + hf 0 (z0 ) +
h2 00
hn
f (z0 ) + . . . + f n (z0 )
2!
n!

z 2 00
zn
f (0) + . . . + f n (0)
2!
n!
This series is called Maclaurins Series.
f (z) = f (0) + zf 0 (0) +
Laurent Series
If f (z) is analytic in the ring shaped region R bounded by
two concentric circles c1 & c2 of radii r1 & r2 (r1 > r2 ) and
with centre at z0 , then for all z in R.
Laurent Series
b1
b2
f (z) = a0 +a1 (z z0 )+a2 (z z0 )2 +. . .+
+. . .
+
(z z0 ) (z z0 )2
Laurent Series
b1
b2
f (z) = a0 +a1 (z z0 )+a2 (z z0 )2 +. . .+
+. . .
+
(z z0 ) (z z0 )2
1
where an =
2i
f ()d
, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
( z0 )n+1
Laurent Series
b1
b2
f (z) = a0 +a1 (z z0 )+a2 (z z0 )2 +. . .+
+. . .
+
(z z0 ) (z z0 )2
Z
1
f ()d
where an =
, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2i ( z0 )n+1
being any circle lying between c1 & c2 having z0 as its
centre, for all values of n.
Laurent Series
b1
b2
f (z) = a0 +a1 (z z0 )+a2 (z z0 )2 +. . .+
+. . .
+
(z z0 ) (z z0 )2
Z
1
f ()d
where an =
, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2i ( z0 )n+1
X
X
bn
n
f (z) =
an (z z0 ) +
(z z0 )n
n=0
n=1
Laurent Series
b1
b2
f (z) = a0 +a1 (z z0 )+a2 (z z0 )2 +. . .+
+. . .
+
(z z0 ) (z z0 )2
Z
1
f ()d
where an =
, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2i ( z0 )n+1
X
X
bn
n
f (z) =
an (z z0 ) +
(z z0 )n
n=0
n=1
Note
If f (z) is analytic at z = z0 then we can expand f (z) by

means of Taylors series at a point z0
Note
If f (z) is analytic at z = z0 then we can expand f (z) by

means of Taylors series at a point z0
Laurent series given an expansion of f (z) at a point z0 even
if f (z) is not analytic there.
Singular Points
A point at which a function f (z) ceases to be analytic is

called a singular point of f (z)
Singular Points

If the function f (z) is analytic at every point in the
neighbourhood of a point z0 except at z0 is called isolated
singular point or isolated singularity.
Singular Points

1
1
Eg. 1 f (z) = f 0 (z) = 2 , it follows that f (z) is analytic at
z
z
every point except at z = 0 , hence z = 0 is an isolated
singularity.
Singular Points

1
1
Eg. 1 f (z) = f 0 (z) = 2 , it follows that f (z) is analytic at
z
z
every point except at z = 0 , hence z = 0 is an isolated
singularity.
1
Eg. 2 f (z) = 3 2
has three isolated singularities at
z (z + 1)
z = 0, i, i
Singular Points
If z = z0 is a isolated singular point, then f (z) can be
expanded in a Laurents series in the form.
Singular Points
X
X
bn
n
f (z) =
an (z z0 ) +
(z z0 )n
n=0
n=1
Singular Points
X
X
bn
n
f (z) =
an (z z0 ) +
(z z0 )n
n=0
n=1
In (1)
an (z z0 )n is called the regular part and
n=0
bn
is called the principal part of f (z) in the
(z z0 )n
n=1
neighbourhood of z0 .
(1)
Singular Points
X
X
bn
n
f (z) =
an (z z0 ) +
(z z0 )n
n=0
n=1
In (1)
(1)
n=0
bn
(z z0 )n
n=1
If the principal part of f (z) contains infinite numbers of
terms then z = z0 is called an isolated essential singularity of
f (z).
Singular Points
X
X
bn
n
f (z) =
an (z z0 ) +
(z z0 )n
n=0
n=1
In (1)
(1)
n=0
bn
(z z0 )n
n=1
If the principal part of f (z) contains infinite numbers of
terms then z = z0 is called an isolated essential singularity of
f (z).
Singular Points
If in equation(1) , the principal part has all the coefficient
bn+1 , bn+2 , . . . as zero after a particular term bn then the
Laurents series of f (z) reduces to
Singular Points
f (z) =
X
n=0
an (z z0 )n +
b1
b2
bn
+
+ ... +
2
(z z0 ) (z z0 )
(z z0 )n
Singular Points
f (z) =
X
n=0
an (z z0 )n +
b1
b2
bn
+
+ ... +
2
(z z0 ) (z z0 )
(z z0 )n
i.e. (Regular part) + (Principal part is a polynomial of finite

1
number of terms in
z z0
Singular Points
f (z) =
X
n=0
an (z z0 )n +
b1
b2
bn
+
+ ... +
2
(z z0 ) (z z0 )
(z z0 )n

1
number of terms in
z z0
The the singularity in this case at z = z0 is called a pole of
order n.
Singular Points
f (z) =
X
n=0
an (z z0 )n +
b1
b2
bn
+
+ ... +
2
(z z0 ) (z z0 )
(z z0 )n

1
number of terms in
z z0
The the singularity in this case at z = z0 is called a pole of
order n.
If the order of the pole is one, the pole is called simple pole.

Dr. Nirav Vyas Power Series PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dr. Nirav Vyas Power Series PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power Series

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

Symbolically we write lim zn = z0

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

Symbolically we write lim zn = z0

A sequence which is not convergent is defined to be

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

Symbolically we write lim zn = z0

A sequence which is not convergent is defined to be

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

Symbolically we write lim zn = z0

A sequence which is not convergent is defined to be

(i) |zn | |z0 | as n

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

Symbolically we write lim zn = z0

A sequence which is not convergent is defined to be

(i) |zn | |z0 | as n

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

Symbolically we write lim zn = z0

A sequence which is not convergent is defined to be

(i) |zn | |z0 | as n

Symbolically we write lim zn = z0

A sequence which is not convergent is defined to be

(i) |zn | |z0 | as n

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

Given a sequence {an }. Consider a sequence {nk } of positive

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

Given a sequence {an }. Consider a sequence {nk } of positive

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

Given a sequence {an }. Consider a sequence {nk } of positive

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

Case 2: If z0 = 0 then, we get

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

Case 2: If z0 = 0 then, we get

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

Case 2: If z0 = 0 then, we get

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

If f (z) is analytic at z = z0 then we can expand f (z) by

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

If f (z) is analytic at z = z0 then we can expand f (z) by

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

A point at which a function f (z) ceases to be analytic is

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

A point at which a function f (z) ceases to be analytic is

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot

A point at which a function f (z) ceases to be analytic is

N.B.V yas Department of M athematics, AIT S Rajkot