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Buckling
CONTENTS
Local Buckling
Introduction
Necessity of tubular
Effective Length
Design Methods
API RP 2A - ASD
Applied stresses
Residual stresses
Allowable stresses
Interaction
Material Properties
API RP 2A - LRFD
Modulus of Elasticity
Interaction
Imperfections
Hydrostatic Pressure
Out-of roundedness
Misalignment
Hoop stresses
Straightness deviation
Interaction
Design examples
Ultimate Strength
Factors affecting ultimate strength
Tubular section
9/16/2015
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Gravity loads
Wind Loads
Wave and Current Loads
Seismic Loads
Drilling Loads
The above forces shall be applied to the
structure in a three dimensional analysis.
The member internal loads shall be
extracted from the analysis results.
9/16/2015
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Each method has its own limitations, advantages and disadvantages. Hence
depending on the availability and technical requirement, production method
shall be selected.
9/16/2015
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
BLAST FURNACE
PIG IRON
PIG IRON
STEEL MAKING
PROCESS
INGOT, BILLETS
INGOT
HEAT
TREATMENT
SLABS
SLABS
ROLLING
01 August 13
10
11
01 August 13
12
01 August 13
13
14
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
15
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
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Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
17
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
18
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
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Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
20
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
21
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
22
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Dmax Dmin
=
%
D
Dmean
9/16/2015
23
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
24
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
25
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
26
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
27
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Pcr =
2 EI
( KL )
In which K is called Effective length factor and is 1.0 for pin-pin end
conditions of the column. For other cases, it is shown in the table above.
9/16/2015
28
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Local
9/16/2015
29
Global
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Cross section
Boundary condition at the ends
Load distribution
Stress strain characteristics of the material
9/16/2015
30
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
h
Pp = Fy b
2
Fy
h
P= b
2 2
Fy h 2h
bh 2
M = b = Fy
6
2 2 3
15th April 2009
31
h h
bh 2
M p = Fy b 2 = Fy
2 4
4
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Fy 1 D 2
P=
2 2 4
4D
3
D3
M = Fy
32
1 D2
Pp = Fy
2 4
15th April 2009
D2 4D
D3
M p = Pa = Fy
= Fy
8 3
6
32
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
a = tds
15th April 2009
33
D
ds = rd =
d
2
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
MP = 4
0
D
AFy cos
2
D D
M P = 4 Fy t d cos
2
2
0
2
M P = Fy D 2t cos d
0
Pp = Fy dt
15th April 2009
M P =Fy D 2t
34
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
M = FY Z
ELASTIC MOMENT
OF INERTIA
I=
I=
D
(
64
D
(
64
I=
35
( D + 4t 4dt )
2
D
(
64
Z=
( D 2t ) 4 )
) = 64 ( D
( D 2 + 4dt ) 2 )
( D 4 + 16 D 2t 2 8 D 3t ) ) =
D t)
(
8
3
D/2
D 2t
4
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
D 3t
8
S=
Fy
D3
8 = 1.70
D3
Fy
32
bh 2
Fy
4 = 1.5
S=
bh 2
Fy
6
Rectangular section
S=
Fy D 2t
Fy
36
D t
2
= 1.27
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
37
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
PL
MC =
4
PL3
=
48 EI
Plastic
PC =
18 Oct 2011
38
4M p
L
L
=
2
Dr. S. Nallayarasu Department of Ocean
Engineering Indian Institute of
Technology Madras
L
=
2
Central displacement
We = PC
Wi = 2M p
PC L = 2M p
2
PC =
Collapse Load
18 Oct 2011
39
4M p
L
PL
MC =
8
PL3
=
192 EI
Plastic
PC =
8M p
L
L
=
2
18 Oct 2011
40
L
=
2
Central displacement
We = PC
Wi = M p + 2M p + M p
PC L = 4M p
2
PC =
Collapse Load
18 Oct 2011
41
8M p
L
Dr. S. Nallayarasu Department of Ocean
Engineering Indian Institute of
Technology Madras
Capacity Demand
Capacity of the structure shall be evaluated for each individual element as
well as the overall system such that the functional requirements are
satisfied throughout the life of the structure.
Similarly, the load effects or demand shall be evaluated such that the
maximum effects occurring during its functional life.
9/16/2015
42
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
43
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
44
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
45
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
46
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
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Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
48
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
49
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Z = R Q
Z = R Q
Z2 = R2 R2
Z
=
Z
( ) = Probablity of failure
9/16/2015
50
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
51
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
52
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Resistance Factor ()
Axial Tension
0.95
Axial Compression
0.85
Bending
0.95
Shear
0.95
Hoop Buckling
0.80
Connections
9/16/2015
0.9 - 0.95
53
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Rn > Qn
The load and resistance factors for each type of load is applied depending on the
combination of loads.
The above expression is evaluated for both structure component and system so
that a probability of failure is obtained with respect to the selected load and
resistance factors.
9/16/2015
54
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Load combinations and the associated load factors required as per API RP 2A LRFD
Factored gravity loads
1.3D1 + 1.3D2 + 1.5L1 + 1.5L2
Wind, wave and current loads
1.1D1 + 1.1D2 + 1.1L1 + 1.35(We + 1.25Dn)
0.9D1 + 0.9D2 + 0.8L1 + 1.35(We + 1.25Dn)
1.3D1 + 1.3D2 + 1.5L1 + 1.5L2 + 1.2(Wo + 1.25Dn)
Earthquake
1.1D1 + 1.1D2 + 1.1L1 + 0.9E
0.9D1 + 0.9D2 + 0.8L1 + 0.9E
9/16/2015
55
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Applied
stresses
P + L
fa =
A
Interaction
Fb = 2 Fy
fa fb
+
1.0
Fa Fb
Bending
0.66 stress
Interaction
fa =
1P + 2 L
A
wL
Allowable Axial Fc = c Fy
2
stress
1 0.6
Allowable
Fb = b Fy
fb =
Allowable Axial Fa = 1 Fy
stress
Allowable
Bending
stress
Applied
stresses
56
fb =
3wL2
2
c = 0.85
b = 0.95
fc
f
+ b 1.0
c Fy b Fy
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
57
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
58
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
P
A
M xY
f bx =
I xx
fa =
Axial Stress
Bending Stresses
Shear Stress
fs =
V
0.5 A
Hoop Stress
fh =
Ph D
2t
A=
and
D 2 ( D 2t )
4
f by =
I xx = I yy =
M yY
I yy
D 4 ( D 2t )
64
Where P, V, Mx, My and Ph (= h) are the axial load, shear, in-plane and out-of
plane moments and hydrostatic pressure respectively. Y is the half diameter.
9/16/2015
59
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
60
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
for KL / r < Cc
Fa =
3
3( KL / r ) ( KL / r )
5/ 3+
8C c
8Cc3
12 2 E
Fa =
23( KL / r ) 2
where
2 E
Cc =
F
y
2
9/16/2015
for KL / r Cc
Allowable Axial
Stress (Tension)
The allowable tensile stress, Fa
for cylindrical members
subjected to axial tensile loads
should be determined from
Fa = 0.6 Fy
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
The elastic local buckling stress, Fxe for columns subjected to axial loads
when D/t ratio greater than 60 and less than 300 should be determined
from:
Fxe = 2CE t/D
Where
C = Critical elastic buckling coefficient to be taken as 0.3 (instead of 0.6) to
account for imperfections as per API Spec 2B.
D = outside diameter
t = wall thickness
62
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
63
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
200
300
2000
64
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
20000
65
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
66
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
D 10,340
t
Fy
Fb = 0.75Fy
for
Fy D
Fb = 0.84 1.74
Fy
Et
Fy D
Fy
Fb = 0.72 0.58
Et
10,340 D 20,680
for
<
Fy
t
Fy
20,680 D
for
< 300
Fy
t
Fs = 0.4 Fy
9/16/2015
67
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
68
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
69
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
fa/Fa 0.15
f a Cm f + f
+
1.0
Fa
f
1 a F
F b
e
2
bx
2
by
f
+
F
a
fa
+
0 .6 F y
9/16/2015
Fb
1 .0
70
bx
by
1.0
General case
f bx2 + f by2
f +f
2
fa
+
Fa
C f
m bx
1 f a
Fex '
Cm fby
+
1 f a
Fey '
1.0
Fb
2
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
F =
'
e
E
2
( KL / r )
71
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Superstructure
Legs
Jacket Braces
Jacket Legs
9/16/2015
72
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
M eq = cm M B
Values of the reduction factor Cm
referred to in the above table as
follows (with terms as defined by
AISC)
a. 0.85
M1
b. 0.6 0.4 M , but not less
2
than 0.4, nor more than 0.85
c. 1-0.4 f a , or 0.85 whichever is less
Fe
9/16/2015
73
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
74
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
The elastic hoop buckling stress determination is based on a linear stressstrain relationship from
Fhe = 2 Ch E t/D
Where
The critical hoop buckling coefficient Ch includes the effect of initial
geometric imperfections within API Specification 2B tolerance limits.
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
Ch
=
=
=
=
=
0.44 t/D
0.44 t/D + 0.21 (D/t)2 / M4
0.736/(M-0.636)
0.755/(M-0.559)
0.8
for
for
for
for
for
M1.6 D/t
0.825 D/t M<1.6 D/t
3.5 M<0.825 D/t
1.5 M<3.5
M < 1.5
L
M = (2 D / t )
D
75
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Comparison of test data with design equation for ring buckling and
inelastic local buckling of steel cylinders under hydrostatic pressure
(Extracted from API RP 2A Figure C3.2.5-3)
9/16/2015
76
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Comparison of test data with elastic design equations for local buckling of
steel cylinders under hydrostatic pressure for M > 0.825 D/t
(Extracted from API RP 2A Figure C3.2.5-1)
9/16/2015
77
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Comparison of test data with elastic design equations for local buckling
of steel cylinders under hydrostatic pressure (M < 0.825D/t)
(Extracted from API RP 2A Figure C3.2.5-2)
9/16/2015
78
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
9/16/2015
79
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Fhc = Fhe
Inelastic Buckling
Fhc =
131Fy
1.15 + ( Fy / Fhe )
Fhc = Fy
9/16/2015
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
f + fb (0.5 f h )
( SFx )
A= a
Fy
A + B + 2 A B 1.0
2
B =
Fhc
(SFh )
Fy = Yield Strength
f h = absolute value of hoop compression stress SFh = safety factor for hoop compression
Factor of Safety against Hydrostatic collapse with other loads
Load case
Axial
Tension
(SFx)
Bending
Axial
Comp.
Hoop Comp.
(SFh)
Operating
1.67
Fy/Fb
1.67 to 2.00
2.00
Storm
1.25
Fy/1.33Fb
1.25 to 1.50
1.50
9/16/2015
81
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
f a + (0.5 f h )
fb
( SFx ) + ( SFh ) 1.0
Fy
Fxc
fh
1.0
SFh
Fhc
f x 0.5 f ha f h
1.0
for f ha > 0.5 f x
+
Faa 0.5 Fha Fha
where
SFx = safety of factor for axial compression
Fxe
,
Faa =
SFb = safety of factor for bending
SFx
F
Fha = he ,
SFh
9/16/2015
fx = fa+fb+(0.5 fh)
fx should reflect the maximum compressive stress combination
82
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
tLD 2
Ic =
Fhe
8E
Where
Ic = required moment of inertia
for ring composite section
L = ring spacing
D = diameter of pipe
t = thickness of pipe
Fhe = Elastic buckling stress
9/16/2015
83
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
84
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
beff = 1.1 Dt
Neutral axis
yna =
(b
eff
t + twh + bt f )
Moment of inertia
I xx =
9/16/2015
85
beff t 3
12
2
th 3
+
+ th ( 0.5h + t f yna )
12
bt f 3
2
+
+ bt f ( yna 0.5t f )
12
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
D := 762 mm
Wall thickness
t := 15.88 mm
Yield Strength
Fy := 345 MPa
Weight density
:= 78.5
kN
3
m
5
Modulus of elasticity
E := 2.0 10 MPa
Unbraced length
Ls := 15 m
Ky := 0.9
Axial Load
P := 1200 kN
My := 800 kN m
Mz := 600 kN m
9/16/2015
86
Kz := 0.9
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Sectiona area
As :=
Iy :=
Zy :=
Ry :=
Iz := Iy
2
2
D ( D 2 t)
As = 3.7 10 mm
4
4
D ( D 2 t)
Iy = 2.6 10 mm
64
2 Iy
Iy
Zz := Zy
KLRz :=
Ry = 263.9 mm
As
KLRy :=
Zy = 6.8 10 mm
Ky Ls
Ry
Kz Ls
Rz := Ry
KLRy = 51.165
KLRz = 51.165
Rz
2
12 E
Fe :=
Cm := 1
9/16/2015
87
23 KLRz
Fe = 393.4 MPa
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Ratio :=
Fb :=
D
t
0.75 Fy if Ratio
Ratio = 47.985
10340
Fy
1.74 Fy D
10340
20680
F
if
<
Ratio
0.84
y
Fy
Fy
E t
0.58 Fy D
20680
Ratio 300
0.72
Fy if
F
E
y
Fb = 240.1 MPa
9/16/2015
88
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Fxe := 2 Ceb E
t
D
Fxc :=
D
60
t
Fy if
D
D4
Cc :=
2 2E
min( Fy , Fxc)
Fa :=
2 Cc 2
if KLRz < Cc
3
5 + 3 KLRz KLRz
3
8 Cc
8 Cc 3
12 2 E
2
23 KLRz
9/16/2015
89
Cc = 107
if KLRz Cc
Fa = 166.7 MPa
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
fa :=
fby :=
fbz :=
P
As
UC :=
fa = 32.2 MPa
My
fby = 117.6 MPa
Zy
Mz
Zy
fa
Fa
if
+
fa
Fa
fby2 + fbz2
if
Fb
fa
Fa
0.15
> 0.15
UC1
UC2
fa
Fa
Cm fby2 + fbz2
fa
0.6 Fy
fa
Fb
F
e
90
fby + fbz
Fb
UC = 0.86
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Wd := 100 m
Outer Diameter
D := 2000 mm
Thickness of shell
t := 15 mm
Fy := 250 MPa
Young's Modulus
E := 2.0 10 MPa
D
= 133.333
t
Sp := 2 m
9/16/2015
:= 78.5
kN
3
w :=
10.25
kN
3
91
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
ph :=
fh :=
Ch :=
0.44
ph = 1.025 MPa
ph D
fh = 68.3 MPa
2t
Sp 2 D 0.5
M :=
D t
Geometric parameter
Buckling Coefficient
w Wd
M = 16.33
t
D
if M 1.6
D
t
D
t
t
M4
92
Ch = 0.0469
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Fhc :=
t
D
1.15 + F
he
SFh := 2.0
UC2 :=
Unity Check
9/16/2015
93
fh
Fhc
SFh
UC2 = 0.992
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
t Sp D
Irq :=
Fhe
8E
Irq = 1.055 10 mm
Since the thickness of shell is given as 16mm, the thickness of the stiffener shall not exceed 16mm
due to welding limitations.
Assume a stiffener thickness
and dimension as
ts := 15 mm
ds
ts
ds := 150 mm
= 10
Beff := 1.1 ( t D)
0.5
Beff = 190.5 mm
y :=
Iwp :=
y = 121.2 mm
ts ds + Beff t
ts ds
12
Beff t
+ ts ds ( 0.5ds y)
+ Beff t ( ds + 0.5 t y)
Ifp :=
Ip := Iwp + Ifp
12
Ip = 1.284 10 7 mm4
94
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Questions
1. Check the axial load on the jacket leg of diameter 1524mm and wall thickness
of 50mm with yield strength of 345 MPa. The bending moment acting on the leg
is 200 Tonne.m. The unsupported length is 15m. The effective length factor K
and moment reduction factors Cm shall be taken as 1.0.
2. Calculate safe axial load that can be carried by the jacket leg of diameter
1524mm and wall thickness of 50mm with yield strength of 345 MPa. The
bending moment acting on the leg is 200 Tonne.m. The unsupported length is
15m. The effective length factor K and moment reduction factors Cm shall be
taken as 1.0.
3. Design a buoyancy tank of 2.2m diameter subjected to hydrostatic pressure
at design water depth of 120m. The maximum thickness of the tank shall not
exceed 16mm and the spacing of rings shall not be less than 1m. The material
of construction is ASTM A36. The initial unsupported length shall be taken as
20m.
16 July 2007
95
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
16 July 2007
96
Dr. S. Nallayarasu
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36