Chapter 2.

Life Cycle Analysis

(LCA)

1. Introduction
LCA is an analysis to trace the flows of energy,
raw materials,, and waste streams that were
required to create, use and dispose of the product.
It is a systematic tool for assessing the
environmental impacts associated with a product
or service system.
central ccharacteristic
ce s co
of lifee cyc
cyclee assessment
ssess e iss
A ce
the holistic focus on products or processes and
their functions, considering upstream and
downstream activities.
2

A typical VCM manufacturing process (Gate-to-Gate)

EDC recycle

NaOH solution

Vent light ends

Chlorine
Direct
chlorination reactor

Neutralization

Aqueous stream

EDC
purification

EDC
pyrolysis

VCM
purification

VCM product

Heavy ends

HCl recycle

Ethylene

Flue gas vent

Crude EDC

Oxychlorination
reactor

Decanter

Condenser

Air

H2O
Recycle

Global VCM process (Cradle-to-Gate)

Cradle-to-Grave

LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT - LCA

RAW MATERIALS

2
M

M
W

EXTRACTION

E
ENERGY
CO NVERSION

M
W

MATERIAL
PURIFICATION

E
1

MANUFACTURING
PROCESS
M

USE
M

RECYCLE
M

DISPOSAL OR
RECYCLING

I - Integrated Pollution Control (IPC)

2 - LCA
M - Materials; E - Energy; W - Wastes and emissions

2
E

ISO14000 LCA standards

Goal and scope definition (ISO-14040, 14041)
Define the goal and intended use of the LCA, and
scopes the
th assessmentt concerning
i system
t
boundaries, function and flow, required data
quality, technology and assessment parameters.
Life Cycle Inventory analysis, LCI (ISO-14041)
Collect data on inputs (resources and intermediate
products)
d t ) andd outputs
t t (emissions,
( i i
wastes)
t ) for
f all
ll
the processes in the product system.

ISO14000 elements (continued)

Life Cycle Impact Assessment, LCIA (ISO-14042)
Translate inventory data on inputs and outputs into
i di t about
indicators
b t the
th product
d t systems
t potential
t ti l
impacts on the environment, on human health, and
on the availability of natural resources.
Interpretation (ISO-14043)
The results of the LCI and LCIA are interpreted
according
di to
t the
th goall off the
th study
t d andd where
h
sensitivity and uncertainty analysis are performed to
qualify the results and the conclusions. Not all
LCA's include this step.
8

ISO14000: A LCA framework

Goal & scope
definition

Inventory &
analysis

Interpretation

Applications:
Product development
& improvement
Strategic planning
Public policy making
Marketing
Marketing
Others

Impact
assessment
9

2. Standard procedures for a LCA

10

a. Goal and scope

The system function and functional unit: the
economic or social good provided by the goods or
services
i
iin question.
ti
((e.g. electrical
l t i l cars))
Impact categories: which environmental concerns
are included and which are excluded. (e.g. global
warming, smog formation)
The system boundary: which processes are
included and which ones are excluded. (e.g.
municipal waste disposal)
The audience: whether it will be a public and peer
reviewed document. (e.g. published paper or report)
11

Global VCM process (Cradle-to-Gate)

12

b. Life-cycle inventories & analysis

A life-cycle audit is conducted on each
stages of product or each unit within the
defined boundaries to obtain a life-cycle
inventory of wastes, emissions, energy
consumption, water consumption and costs
for the product.

13

FOREGROUND SYSTEM:
Set of processes whose selection or mode of operation
is affected directly by decisions based on the study
study.
BACKGROUND SYSTEM:
All other processes which interact directly with the
foreground system, usually by supplying material or energy to
the foreground or receiving material energy from itit. A
sufficient (but not necessary) condition for a process or group
of processes to be in the background is that the exchange
with the foreground takes place through a homogeneous
market.
14

FOREGROUND AND BACKGROUND (SUB-) SYSTEMS

Background
sub-system

Materials

Indirect
GHG emissions

Energy (and energy carriers)

Foreground
sub-system
b
t

Direct
GHG emissions

Product or service

15

Global VCM process (Cradle-to-Gate)

16

Key issues in LCI

How to select a functional unit
Used to connect social benefits (goods and services) to
environmental impacts

How to allocate emissions and resources to

multiple products
How to consider recycling at the end of product
lif
life
How to quantify the land use and water use
Specific data vs. average data
17

c. Life-cycle impact assessment

Impact Assessment aggregates inventory data to
indicators for each impact category.
A typical
yp
list of impact
p indicators includes:

Global Climate Change

Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
Smog formation
Acidification
Eutrophication
Human Toxicity
Ecotoxicity
Natural Resource depletion (habitat, water, fossil fuels,
minerals, biological resources)
Land use and biodiversity
18

IMPACT CATEGORIES
RESOURCES:
Abiotic Depletion Potential
Energy Depletion Potential
EMISSIONS:
Global:

Global Warming Potential

Ozone Depletion Potential

Regional/local:

Acidification Potential
Photochemical Oxidant
Smog formation potential
Human Toxicity
Aquatic/Terrestrial Ecotoxicity
Nutrification Potential
19

RESOURCE DEPLETION
Abiotic Depletion Potential: extraction of non
nonrenewable raw materials such as ores.
Energy Depletion Potential: extraction of nonrenewable energy carriers; can be included in
Abiotic Depletion Potential.
Issues: weighting to reflect scarcity value?
20

10

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS
Global Warming Potential: contribution to
atmospheric absorption of infra-red radiation
leading to increase in mean global
temperature.
Ozone Depletion Potential: contribution to
depletion of stratospheric ozone, leading to
increase in ultraviolet radiation reaching
earths surface.
21

REGIONAL & LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL

IMPACTS: I - PHYSICO-CHEMICAL

Acidification Potential: contribution to

acid deposition onto soil and into water.
Smog Formation Potential: contribution
to formation of tropospheric (i.e. ground
level) ozone.
22

11

REGIONAL & LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL

IMPACTS: II - BIOLOGICAL
Human Toxicity: contribution to human health
problems through exposure to toxic substances
via air, water or soil (especially through the food
chain).
Aquatic/Terrestrial Ecotoxicity: contribution to
health problems in flora and fauna caused by
p
to toxic substances.
exposure
Eutrophication Potential: contribution to
reduction of oxygen concentration in water (or
soil) through providing nutrients which increase
production of biomass.
23

LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT - LCIA

Inventory

Classification

CO 2

Global warming

GWP

CFCs

Ozone layer
depletion

ODP

Photochemical
oxidant formation

POCP

Acidification

AP

HCFCs
CH 4
HC

Characterisation

Valuation

Ranking of
environmental
impacts (weighting
factors)

NOx
SO 2
HCl

24

12

d. Interpretation
Use normalization, scoring and other
methods to clarifyy data for decision makers
Review data quality (e.g. uncertainty,
confidence level)
Make recommendations

25

3. Applications of LCA
a. Green product and process design,
development and improvement

Identify green pathways for a new product

Identify hotspot in the life cycle chain of
an existing
i ti product
d t or process

26

13

Environment
Renewability

Raw material acquisition

Sustainability
Pollution
prevention

Material manufacture

Product manufacture

Green
Engineering

Product use

Health impact

Clean
production
Industrial
Ecology

Eco-toxicity

Product disposal

Degradability

Environment

27

Clean technologies for cloth cleaning

Franklin Associates Ltd., (1993)

28

14

LCA observations
For washing machine manufacturer
Problem: major energy and water consumption in
the stage of product use.
Solutions: Make machines which use less energy
and water.

29

LCA observations
For cloth manufacturer
Problem: Major energy consumption in the stage
of product use (warm washing and drying).
Solutions: Manufacture cold water washable and
fast dryable cloth.
For detergent producer
Problem:

Major impact on the environment from

the direct discharge of the spent detergent.
Solutions:

Cold water usable, biodegradable easily30

15

b. Product comparisons
Life-cycle inventories and life-cycle
assessments have been used to compare
products that serve similar functions, although
great controversies still exist on the use of lifecycle inventories and life-cycle assessment for
product comparison.
Examples:
Paper vs. plastic bags
Wood/bamboo chopsticks vs. plastic spoons
Plastic cups vs. paper cups
31

Key issues in LCIA for product comparison

Equivalency of products for comparison
Electric cars vs. gasoline combustion engine cars
Paper vs. plastic bags
Cloth diapers vs. disposable diapers

Renewable versus non-renewable source

Paper bags vs. plastic bags

Biodegradable versus non-biodegradable

product at the end of their lives.
Paper bags vs. plastic bags
32

16

Table 3. A life cycle ranking of milk and juice packaging alternatives (Spitzley et al.,
1997).
Performance
(33.3%)

P2 Options

Energy
use
(16.7%)

Solid
waste
(16.7%)

Cost
(33.3%)

Overal
l
Score*

Flexible pouch

2.1

0.14

1.1

6.2

2.8

Gable top carton

10

1.1

1.8

5.0

4.1

Class bottle
(Refillable)
(Single use)

4.9
8.8

1.1
10.0

1.2
10.0

10.0
7.5

4.7
9.0

HDPE bottle
(Refillable)
(Single use)

2.9
9.7

0.05
0.55

0.7
3.4

3.8
1.2

2.0
3.2

Polycarbonate

3.3

0.04

1.0

5.0

2.6

*Overall score = 1/3*(1/2*Energy use + 1/2*solids waste) +1/3*cost + 1/3*performance

33

Example 1: A life cycle cost (LCC) comparison between

galvanized carbon steel and stainless steel was conducted
on the highway bridge by including the capital cost and
operating cost incurring over the whole life-cycle of the
bridge (Leslie, 1999). As shown in Table 2, the initial
costt for
f carbon
b steel
t l bridge
b id is
i cheaper
h
th the
than
th stainless
t i l
steel bridge. However, over the whole life cycle the
stainless steel bridge appears to be having lower cost.
Based on assumptions:
Cost of capital = 9.0%; Inflation rate = 3.5%; Real
interest rate = 5.3%
Expected life cycle duration = 80 years
Downtime per maintenance event = 120 days; Value of
lost production = $5000/day
34

17

Costs

Stainless steel

Carbon steel

Material

88,646

31,420

Fabrication

Other installation

15,611,354

15,611,354

15,700,000

15,642,774

Maintenance

Replacement

76,872

Lost production

2,218,524

Material-related costs

2,295,396

15,700,000

17,938,170

Total initial costs

Total operating costs

Total life cycle costs

35

c. Strategic planning
The overall goal is to incorporate life
life-cycle
cycle
environmental thinking into corporate decisions in
environmental strategic planning, research and
development, product/process design,
manufacturing, decommissioning and
closure/restoration. Life-cycle assessments have
also been used in the corporate level to select
material suppliers, to evaluate the environmental
concerns associated with their facilities or product
lines and core businesses.
36

18

d. Public sector uses

Environmental labels (called eco-labels) have
been developed to increase the publics
public s
environmental awareness.

37

Carbon footprint and Eco-product

A. Inaba, Carbon footprint Japan (2009)

38

19

 Life cycle assessment has also been used by

governments for setting research and
development policy, stimulating markets
and setting regulations.

39

e. Uncertainties in LCA
Lack of emission data from other sources within
the lifecycle (i.e. incineration, landfills).
Uncertainty on recycling rate of used product.
Uncertainty on the allocation of emissions for a
single product when multiple products are
produced in the same process
process.
Gasoline from the oil refinery

40

20

Uncertainties on product comparison

Equivalency of products for comparison
Paper vs. plastic bags

Renewable versus non-renewable source

Paper bags vs. plastic bags

Biodegradable versus non-biodegradable product

at the end of their lives.
Paper bags vs. plastic bags

41

Summary
LCA integrates environmental impacts over the
y
from cradle to grave
g
and has
entire life cycle,
applications in product design, strategic
environmental planning, and public
policymaking.
LCA is a useful tool in green product design,
p
and improvement
p
and in the
development
development of clean technologies by
identifying the environmental impact hotspots
associated with a product or a material.
42

21

Recommended reading materials

Baumann H. and A.-M. Tillman, The Hitch-hikers Guide to
LCA, Studentlitteratur, Lund, 2004.
Sample applications of LCA for product, process, corporate and
governmentt policy
li development
d l
t
http://www.lcacenter.org/library/library.html
Cooper, J.S. Specifying Functional Units and Reference Flows
for Comparable Alternatives, International Journal of Life Cycle
Assessment, 8, 337-349 (2003).
Jimnez-Gonzlez, C., S. Kim, M.R. Overcash (2000)
Methodology
gy for Developing
p g Gate-to-Gate Life Cycle
y Inventoryy
Information, International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment,
5(3) 153-159
Heijungs, R., R. Kleijn (2001) Numerical approaches towards
life cycle interpretation: five examples, International Journal of
Life Cycle Assessment, 6(3).
43

LCA Resources

44

22

LCI databases

Swiss National LCI Database EcoInvent

http://www.ecoinvent.ch/
United States Database Project
http://www.nrel.gov/lci/
Canadian Raw Materials Database
http://crmd.uwaterloo.ca/
The European Unions European Reference Life Cycle Data System ELCD
http://lca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/lcainfohub/datasetCategories.vm
LCA-National Project in Japan
http://lcacenter.org/InLCA-LCM03/Narita-abstract.pdf
Australian LCA Network
http://simapro.rmit.edu.au/lca/datadownloads.html and
http://auslcanet rmit edu au/datapage html
http://auslcanet.rmit.edu.au/datapage.html
LCA Food Database- Denmark
http://www.lcafood.dk/lcamodel.htm
Swedish National LCA database http://publicdb.imi.chalmers.se/CommDB/
Korea National LCI Database
http://www.kncpc.re.kr/eng/topics/Lci.asp

45

LCIA Impact assessment tools

USES-LCA 2.0
http://www.ru.nl/environmentalscience/research/life_cy
cle/multimedia_toxic/
IMPACT 2002+
http://www.sph.umich.edu/riskcenter/jolliet/impact200
2+.htm
Eco-indicator 1999
http://www.pre.nl/eco-indicator99/ecoi di t 99 i t d ti ht
indicator_99_introduction.htm
TRACI
http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/std/sab/traci/
ReCiPe:
46
http://www.lcia-recipe.net/

23

Comprehensive LCA software

SimaPro LCA software
http://www.pre.nl/simapro/
GaBi LCA software
http://www.gabi-software.com/
TEAM LCA software
https://www.ecobilan.com/
Economic Input-Output
Input Output LCA assessment:
http://www.eiolca.net/
Other LCA software: Umberto, LCAiT, KCL-ECO
47

Specialty LCA software

GREET (Transportation and fuel cycle)
htt //
http://www.transportation.anl.gov/modeling
t
t ti
l
/ d li
_simulation/GREET/index.html
GHGenius (Transportation, energy)
http://www.ghgenius.ca/
BEES (Green Building Material Selection)
http://www.bfrl.nist.gov/oae/software/bees/
RETScreen (Energy system analysis)
http://www.retscreen.net/ang/home.php
48

24