What is TEFL and TESL?

There are differences and similarities between EFL and ESL teaching contexts.
A teacher must know the differences to be able to plan effectively.
The following information will show you the differences and similarities of TEFL and
TESL.

Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL)

Teaching English to students who have immigrated to an English-speaking
country. You will also find the abbreviation ESL (English as a Second
Language). This programme is offered to immigrants and students that come
from other countries to learn English. ESL programmes have been around for
many decades in English-speaking countries.
Below you will find fundamental points about TESL from a student's
perspective:
1. Students communicate in a new language on a regular basis in everyday
life.
2. Role models for the new language are all around (teacher, friends, TV,
radio).
3. Immediate goals for students involve learning 'survival' English to meet
their basic needs. This means teaching your students to adapt quickly to the
new changes and challenges, eg how to buy groceries, how to order at a
restaurant, how to ask for directions and more.
4. Long-term goals involve communicating fully in the second language.

TESL teachers goals may include:

1. Helping students meet immediate needs through introduction of 'survival'
English. Here teachers will not focus on basic grammar but on helping
students survive those first weeks.
2. Helping students learn to communicate through understanding of basic
language structure. This means that the second step would be to introduce
grammar topics and structures.
3. Helping students understand and adjust to their new culture. Our students
face what is called 'culture shock'. It is the psychological process of adapting
to a new place. They have to change the food they eat, their families and

friends. We must help our students adapt as quickly as possible to avoid any
mental blocks.
4. Helping students continue their ongoing learning in other subject areas.
ESL students travel to English-speaking countries to learn the language and
to further their academic knowledge. Many enrol in schools and universities to
complete their higher education goals.

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL)

Teaching English to students in a country where English is not readily spoken
(eg China, Mexico, Vietnam). There are many more countries where English
is not spoken as a native language.
Below you will find fundamental points about TEFL from a student's
perspective:
1. Use of the new language is largely restricted to the classroom. Even though
the internet and international cable TV companies are available in many
countries around the world, the only real source or place to learn the language
is in the classroom. Countries that have a high number of international tourists
(eg Vietnam, China, Mexico, Greece, Costa Rica or Panama) still have many
people that are not able to speak English.
2. Role models for the new language are almost exclusively the teachers.
Although, as mentioned before, IT, mass media and tourists are also now role
models, they are not always available to all students.
3. Immediate goals for students may be to meet the requirements of a course.
Since there is no immediate need for the language outside of the classroom,
students are not motivated to learn it.
4. Long-term goals for language learning may not yet be realised by the
students. Young learners do not understand why they need to learn this new
language. Sometimes you will find lack of tolerance by the student towards
this new language. Students often complain of being obligated to learn it.

TEFL teachers goals may include:

1. Helping students learn basic English language structures and vocabulary.
In an EFL context we have to begin the process by actually teaching the basic
structures, such as the colours, numbers, basic messages and classroom
survival language. Classroom survival is teaching students basic greetings
and instructions (eg How do you say ____ (this) in English? / Please repeat
the question / I don't understand).

2. Helping students communicate basic messages. After we teach basic

structures and vocabulary, we can move on to basic communicative
competences.
3. Building confidence in students. Their lack of confidence turns into
frustration or lack of motivation.
4. Encouraging students interest in language study beyond the classroom.
This particular topic is one that you will have to deal with as you teach in an
EFL context. Many students complain of not having time to study or having
too much work to be able to continue their studies beyond the classroom.
They assume that if they go to class, they will not need anymore 'study time'
at home. We know that if a student does not study at home or outside of the
classroom, they will simply not learn to speak the language. Encourage and
build your students' interest in the language beyond the classroom. Assign
homework activities and projects. Check on them, follow up and be patient!
5. Providing a global perspective. Tell your students about the use of the
language internationally. Bring articles related to the use of English as the
language of choice by businesses around the world.

Additional comments related to TEFL vs. TESL

You must also take into consideration your students' ages and the importance
the second or foreign language has in their community.
Tourism, in many countries, provides students with a great job opportunity.
There are other countries, however, where English is not important for the
community. Making students and parents understand the importance of the
language for future opportunities is not always an easy task in those countries
where English is not readily used.
Another aspect that must be taken into consideration is the limitation of
activities to be done after class. In an EFL setting the only contact that
students will have with the language outside of the classroom is a workbook.
In this particular case, try to be creative with the assignments. These
difficulties will not be present in English-speaking countries. In countries
where English is spoken, there will be plenty of interest and immediate need
for the second language.
Understanding the difference between ESL and EFL will provide you with
information on the needs of the students and the contexts in which you will
teach.
All academic institutions that offer language courses must have a programme
that adheres to international standards. They must also provide you with the
necessary material and information to be able to help your students reach

their goal. Whether you are teaching English in the USA, UK, Australia, China,
Mexico or Colombia, the school must provide you with a programme that will
be easy to follow. Publishers make different books for EFL or ESL contexts.
Visit the major publishers such as Longman, Cambridge, Oxford and
Macmillan or their local representatives. See how the books are formatted for
both purposes. Some schools in EFL countries such as Mexico, Greece,
China and Peru call their English programmes 'ESL programmes'. They do
this as a marketing strategy, to try to make parents feel that their kids are
learning English the same way kids do in English-speaking countries.
There are other common acronyms and abbreviations used:
ESL - English as a Second Language
EFL - English as a Foreign Language
ESOL - English to Speakers of Other Languages
ELT - English Language Teaching
TESOL - Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
As you can see there are similarities and differences in EFL and ESL. Take
these things into consideration when teaching students and preparing your
lessons.
"It is the supreme art of the teacher to awaken joy in creative expression and
knowledge" Albert Einstein

Describing learners
An English teacher needs to know and understand as much as possible about the
learner. Students are different and learn differently. They also have different needs,
abilities, competences, goals and expectations when learning a new language. We can
expect adults to have an immediate need for the language, and the opposite for young
learners who do not understand the global perspective.
It is true that young learners have a facility to learn a language but that does not make
the process as fast as many people generally believe. Young learners have less
obstacles and preconceived ideas about a language but that does not make it easier for
them to learn. Teens, on the other hand, seem to be faster learners and are able to
master skills faster than some adults and very young learners. This ability has to deal
with better cognitive abilities that teens have, and the ability to understand and
process abstract ideas and approaches.
Children learn differently from adolescents and adults because they tend to understand
the general idea and not the meaning of individual words. This technique is used by
children when learning their mother tongue as well, since they are going through a

similar process and do not have complete command of it yet. Children tend to learn
from everything around them and not from one specific message. They find grammar
rules difficult to understand because they may not understand abstract concepts. They
focus on the use of the language and are not concerned about making mistakes or
feeling embarrassed about it. They are also enthusiastic and energetic when they like
something and are eager to participate in any activity that the teacher brings to class.
Adolescents are known as problematic students but that may not be the case at all.
Once teens are interested and passionate about a particular topic, you will not have
any difficulties teaching them. Teens are in search of identity and in need of selfesteem.
That usually brings discipline issues to deal with in the classroom but once you have
engaged those students into a learning objective, the results are going to be rewarding
for you as a teacher. Teens are also extremely vulnerable to negative comments and
are in need of approval from their peers constantly. Our job is to engage students with
topics that are relevant to them and lessons that are exciting and dynamic. Teens need
to be encouraged to participate and respond in class with their own ideas and
thoughts. Previous knowledge of the language will also make it easier to teach teens.
You will find yourself teaching teens that have been learning the language for quite
some time and may be at an intermediate level. This will make your teaching
experience a lot less difficult.
People tend to think that teaching adults are usually the easiest age group to teach and
in some cases it may be true. We can engage adults with abstract ideas. We can draw
from their previous knowledge and life experiences. Adults tend to be less
problematic and more disciplined in learning a language. They usually have a clear
idea and understanding of why they are learning the language and how to take
advantage of it. Adults are able to sustain their level of motivation for a longer period
of time because they know that learning a language is not going to be an overnight
experience. They can, however, be critical of your teaching methods and activities.
They are quick to criticise your lessons and are usually under-confident about their
language learning process. Older students tend to feel insecure in class and feel
diminished when coming from managerial positions.
As teachers we need to recognise the different needs that our students have in the
classroom and the effects that our teaching methods and planning will have on their
learning process. We should strive to lower all of our students' fears in learning a
language and prepare engaging lesson plans that will keep our students happy and
motivated to continue their language learning process.

Principles of adult learning

The four criteria of adult learning
Professor Malcolm Knowles of Boston University identified four criteria that impact
the learning process of adults.

Self-concept of the learner

Children conceive of themselves as dependent persons, but as they grow toward
adulthood they experience a need for others to see them as being capable of selfdirection. This change from a self-concept of dependency to one of autonomy is what
we call psychological maturity or adulthood. Because of this self-concept, adults tend
to resent being put into situations that violate their feeling of maturity, such as being
talked down to, being judged, being treated with a lack of respect or otherwise being
treated like children.
When adults are faced with learning a new language, their mature self-concept is
often in conflict with the fact that they have reverted, of necessity, to childlike
language patterns. This makes it even more essential that language instructors treat
these individuals as adults. When adults find that they are capable of self-direction in
learning, they often experience a remarkable increase in motivation to learn and to
continue the learning process on their own initiative.
This discovery points out a major difference between the assumption of child
learning, pedagogy, and adult learning. This difference exists in the relationship
between teacher and learner and in the learners concept of self with regard to the
capacity for self-direction.
Catchphrase: Adults dont like to be treated like children

Utilising the learners experience

In the process of living, adults accumulate vast quantities of experience of different
kinds. It is safe to say, 'we are our experience'. Our experience is what we have done,
ie the sum total of our lifes impressions and our interaction with other persons and
the world. In the andragogical approach to education, the experience of adults is
considered a rich resource for learning. Andragogy abounds with 'experiential', twoway, multi-directional techniques, such as group discussion, skill practice sessions,
simulations, role playing and team building. In this way, the experience of all
participants can be used as a resource for learning. When individuals function as
teachers and learners at the same time, using their experience to facilitate the learning
process, the second major difference between andragogy and pedagogy becomes
clear.
Catchphrase: Adults like to share their own stories

Readiness to learn
It is widely known that educational development occurs best through a sequencing of
learning activities into developmental tasks so that the learner is presented with
opportunities for learning certain skills or topics when he or she is 'ready' to assimilate
them but not before. In this traditional, pedagogical approach, it is assumed that the

teacher must take the total responsibility for designing the curriculum for the learners.
While this may be true if the learner has no idea of what they need to learn next, it has
been shown that adults are capable of diagnosing their own needs for learning and
designing learning activities around specifics of their situations. The facilitator of
andragogical learning acts as a resource person to help the learners form interest
groups and diagnose their learning needs. In forming these groups, the instructor may
provide some structure by suggesting the kinds of competencies needed to perform
various roles or functions or the teacher may suggest several areas of interest into
which learners may wish to group themselves to begin the diagnostic process.
An example of this applied to the ESL classroom is the use of peer groups in writing.
Students may form groups to aid each other in revision or editing or a group of
students who share the same weakness, such as formation of thesis statements, may
band together to work on recognising focus statements. An additional example is
found in a listening/speaking situation in which students watch a videotape of threeminute speeches, which they have presented. In watching the video, they try, with the
help of the instructor, to pinpoint major grammatical mistakes. Then they work on
grammar exercises specific to their grammatical weaknesses with a group of students
sharing the same mistakes.
Catchphrase: Adults like to work in groups

Time perspective and orientation to learning

We are used to thinking of education in terms of 'preparation for the future' rather than
'doing in the present'. When we were children, we were involved in the educational
process of storing up information to be used at some far-off day, following graduation.
Our teachers presented us with information neatly packaged into subjects that we
could unwrap as needed on our journey through life, and graduation seemed to be a
sort of 'rite of passage' from the learning world into the 'doing world'. In andragogical
philosophy, there is a strong push to close the gap between learning and doing. While
adults are interested in planning and learning for the future, they seem to be more
interested in learning for immediate application. Hence, learning in andragogical
education is 'problem centred' rather than 'subject centred'.
Catchphrase: Adults like to have immediate application

In conclusion
The full meaning of andragogy, or self-directed learning, can be made clear by
comparing it to its opposite, pedagogy, which is teacher-directed learning. The word
pedagogy is derived from the Greek words paid (meaning 'child') and agogus
(meaning 'leader'). When we contrast the definitions of andragogy and pedagogy, this
does not mean that children should be taught pedagogically and adults should be
taught andragogically. Rather, the two terms simply differentiate between two sets of
assumptions about learners. The teacher who makes one set of assumptions will teach

pedagogically whether he or she is teaching children or adults, whereas the teacher

who makes the other set of assumptions will teach andragogically whether the
learners are children or adults, according to Knowles. In fact, many of the innovations
in schooling, such as open classrooms, non-graded schools, learning laboratories,
community schools and non-traditional study are based upon andragogical
assumptions about children and youth as learners.
Perhaps what makes the difference between pedagogical and andragogical education
is not so much the difference in the assumptions underlying practice as in the attitude
of the learners. If self-directed learners recognise that there are occasions in which
they will need to be taught, they will enter those taught-learning situations in a
searching, probing frame of mind and will exploit them as resources for learning
without losing self-directedness.
Note: The information shared in this article will also be mentioned in the Speaking
skills section. We will discuss each criteria again and relate them to the process of
developing speaking skills and how we must take them into consideration as you take
your students through that process.
By Connie L. Shoemaker - 'Interactive Techniques in an EFL classroom'

A brief history of methodologies

Introduction
Teachers around the world are following the communicative approach to teaching
languages but it has not always been that way. Teachers are in a transition phase of
going from the grammar-translation method to the communicative approach as there
is a greater need for communication among people around the world.
Teaching languages has been influenced by linguistics and psychology throughout
history. Approaches to teaching English have evolved into what we have today. This
process has been evolutionary and many great scholars have proposed wonderful
ideas which were new and ideal at that time but now have fallen wayside. In this
article we will learn about some of the methods proposed through time and you will
learn some of the fundamental points that can be used in the classroom today.
Since the end of the 18th century, the definitive solution to successful EFL/ESL
instruction has been discovered many times. There is always another tried-and-tested
methodology from yet another expert theorist who may or may not have had firsthand experience learning a second language. Before the late nineteenth century,
second-language instruction mirrored the so-called 'classical' method of teaching
Latin and Greek; lessons were based on mental exercisesrepetition drills and outof-context vocabulary drills as well as lots of reading and translations of ancient texts.
Brown notes that languages were not being taught primarily to learn oral/aural
communication, but to learn for the sake of being scholarly or for reading

proficiency." Theories of second-language acquisition didnt start to pop up until the

instructional objective became oral competence. We will now cover some of the most
widely used methods in history and finish with the communicative approach which is
the method of choice today.

A brief history of methodologies

Grammar-translation
From the turn of the nineteenth century until the late 1940s, the grammar-translation
method was the method of choice. Despite its antiquity, or because of it, the grammartranslation method is still alive but disappearing in language classrooms throughout
Europe, Asia, and even in the Americas. It is easy to teach; it requires no more than
the ability to memorise lists of isolated vocabulary words; and it aims low in terms of
oral communication and aural comprehensionno one teaching or learning a target
language is required to speak, pronounce, or even understand the spoken language.
Because the target language is taught in the students native language, it is possible for
students to have studied it for years without having been required to participate in the
most elementary conversation. Indeed, the only real challenge confronting students
and teachers in the grammar-translation classroom is a test.
A typical one-hour class might begin with ten minutes of synchronised verb
reviewing. This might be followed by the instructors explanation of a particular
grammatical feature of the target language. The instructor might then assign students a
series of fill-in-the-blank exercises or sentence constructions that demonstrate the
grammar point. Other features of the grammar-translation class include translations of
literary passages from the target language into the native language, identifying
antonyms and synonyms, drilling vocabulary words, memorising vocabulary lists,
creating sentences with the new vocabulary words, and writing compositions in the
target language. Except for the repetition drills, most of the above work is written.
One might wonder why this obviously antiquated method is still used. Aside from
being easy for both teacher and student, some claim it is the most effective way to
introduce literature in the target language. That is, in learning how to read in the target
language, students are exposed to a variety of grammatical structures, thousands of
vocabulary words in context, and they learn to translate across linguistic borders. It
does not teach oral communicative skills, but that is not necessarily the scope of a
language class.
Most ESL instructors have witnessed the results of the grammar-translation method in
students who have studied English as a foreign language in their native countries.
They are often able to read and write Englishsometimes better than native speakers
but they have had no experience listening to or speaking the language. In fact, ESL
teachers face the challenge of helping students overcome deviations in students
pronunciation. Furthermore, grammar-translation students are accustomed to doing
fill-in-the-blank exercises, learning grammar rules before applying them, memorising
lists of vocabulary words, and creating artificial sentences to prove their mastery of

the vocabulary and grammar. When they are exposed to more creative methods of
language instruction, they often find it difficult to perform.
Fundamental points:
- Classes taught in L1 (native language)
- Vocabulary lists
- In-depth grammar explanations
- Reading of difficult texts for translation
- Little or no emphasis on pronunciation
- Grammar rules for constructing sentences

A brief history of methodologies

The direct method
Second-language theorists maintain that the first real method of language teaching
was the direct method, which was developed as a reaction against the monotony and
ineffectiveness of grammar-translation classes. The direct method was developed by
Charles Berlitz, a nineteenth-century linguist whose schools of language learning are
famous throughout the world. He tried to imitate the naturalistic approach. Berlitz
wanted to immerse students in the target language. He believed that one could learn a
second language by imitating the way children learn their first language; that is,
directly and without explanations of grammatical points and using only the target
language. Therefore, grammar was taught inductively. The objectives were speaking
and listening comprehension, not translation; for this reason, vocabulary was
introduced in context and through demonstrations and pictures; and an emphasis was
placed on correct usage and pronunciation. Students learned to write by taking
dictation in the target language.
A typical direct method class has few students. Students might first take turns reading
aloud, preferably a dialogue or anecdotal passage. To test for understanding, the
teacher would then ask questions in the target language and students would have to
respond appropriately in the target language. Following the question-response session,
the instructor might dictate the passage to the students three times. Students would
then read the dictation back to the class.
The direct method was popular in Europe and the United States, especially during the
first quarter of the twentieth century. Nevertheless, its very intensity and necessarily
small class sizes made the method impossible for public schools. In addition, it was
considered a weak method because it was not supported by heavy-duty theories and it
depended too much on teachers ability to teach as well as their fluency in the target
language.

Fundamental points:
- Classes taught in target language L2 (second or foreign language)
- Only everyday language taught
- Small intensive classes
- Grammar learnt inductively
- New language modelled and practised
- Vocabulary is presented through demonstration, object and pictures
- Correct pronunciation and grammar taught

A brief history of methodologies

The audio-lingual method
The audio-lingual method (ALM) was first known as the 'Army' method because it had been adopted
by the military during the Second World War. ALM is not unlike the direct method in that its purpose is
to teach students to communicate in the target language.

The audio-lingual method is a purely behaviouristic approach to language teaching. It

is based on drill work that aims to form good language habits, and it makes use of
extensive conversation practice in the target language. Students enter the target
language classroom without any knowledge and they receive various linguistic stimuli
and respond to them. If they respond correctly, they enjoy a reward and repeat the
response, which promotes good habit formation. If they respond incorrectly, they
receive no reward and therefore repress the response, which represses the response.
The objective is to become fluent in the language.
Its theoretical support also comes from post-war structural linguists. Structural
linguists analyse how language is formed but as it is currently spoken in the speech
community (Stafford paragraph 3). Language was now seen as a set of abstract
linguistic units that made up a whole language system. The realisation that all
languages are complex, unique systems allowed linguists to understand the multifaceted, singular structure of English without comparing it to Latin. This led to new
thinking in terms of how language should be taught. Individual structures should be
presented one at a time and practised via repetition drills. Grammar explanations
should be minimal or non-existent, for students will learn grammatical structures by
inductive analogy.
A typical ALM class consists of ten-minute drill periods interspersed with activities
such as the reading and memorisation of a dialogue. The instructor then examines a
grammar point by contrasting it with a similar point in the students native language.

(The teacher speaks in the native language, but discourages its use among students.)
This is followed by more drillsrepetition drills, substitution drills. Target language
vocabulary is introduced and learnt in context, and teachers make abundant use of
visual aids. Like its predecessors, ALM focuses on the surface forms of language and
rote learning.
While some students, especially those who could memorise dialogues, did well in the
classroom, they still were not able to use the target language with any proficiency.
Fundamental points:
- New material is presented in a dialogue
- Grammar structures presented one at a time
- Structures presented using repetitive drills
- Little or no grammar explanation
- Heavy emphasis on pronunciation
- Use of L1 severely limited
- Dependent on memory, body language and over-learning
- Heavy reliance on CDs, language labs and visuals

A brief history of methodologies

Suggestopedia
It was developed by Georgi Lozanov in 1979. It states that when the mind and body
are relaxed, the brain absorbs knowledge without effort.
The Suggestopedia classroom uses musicparticularly Baroque music with its ideal
sixty beats per minuteto help soothe students as teachers employ various languagelearning activities. In this classroom, even adult learners are encouraged to behave as
pliable, suggestible children, and to regard their teacher as a super-mentor parental
figure. Imagery, music, suggestion, relaxation, comfortable armchairs, and dim
lighting are the essential ingredients of the Suggestopedia classroom. With soft music
playing in the background, students role-play and learn vocabulary under the guidance
of the all-powerful teacher.
In a typical lessonor concertthe teacher plays a piece of music, preferably
Baroque, but any emotionally charged music will do. The teacher then reads a passage
from a text in the target language, trying to harmonise with the music while
maintaining a slow, rhythmic pace. Students follow along with their own texts and

translation. Students then return their translations to the teacher, close their eyes and
settle back to listen to a replay of the music and reading performance.
Fundamental points:
- Use of the power of suggestion
- Use of Baroque music in the background
- Comfortable 'classrooms' that were similar to a living room
- Students could choose a name in the given language

A brief history of methodologies

Total physical response (TPR)
Total physical response goes back to the direct method of the mid-nineteenth century.
James Asher reasoned that since children in the process of acquiring their native
language seem to listen more than they speak and often react physically to speech,
second-language learners might learn a target language in the same way. In addition,
he felt that language classes were too stressful for learners, and he wanted to create an
atmosphere in which learners didnt have to do anything other than respond to
imperatives such as Go to the door! or Walk slowly to the chalkboard! Students could
absorb other linguistic forms such as questions by watching and imitating the teacher
shrug his/her shoulders, look confused, and askWhere is the book? In these ways,
students magically begin asking questions and creating their own commands. In
theory, this process guides them to fluency in the target language.
TPR can be an effective methodology in small doses when language learners have no
knowledge of the target language or are children. It has the advantage of getting
students out of their seats, which alleviates boredom and allows students to associate
specific actions with specific language.
Fundamental points:
- Based upon the way children learn their mother tongue
- Language-body conversations
- Listening skills are developed first and speech emerges later
- Very active involvement and participation from students
- Great for young learners

A brief history of methodologies

The communicative approach ('CLT')
The communicative method was developed during the 1970s by the Council of
Europe. This method is a more recent phenomenon that comprises all sorts of
methodologies.
The communicative method is still the method of choice. CLT does not teach about
language; rather, it teaches language. It is often associated with the 'functionalnotional' approach; that is, the emphasis is on functions such as time, location, travel
and measurements. In short, it seeks to recreate real-life social and functional
situations in the classroom to guide students toward communicative competence. The
linguistic accuracy that was deemed so essential in grammar-translation, the direct
method, and other approaches is not as important in the communicative classroom.
Teachers avoid upsetting their students by requiring them to identify or recognise
nouns, verbs, or direct objects; instead, they guide them to second-language
proficiency by employing 'the three Ps' presentation, practice, and production.
Teachers present the target language via everyday situations; they give students time
to practise the language via structured situational dialogues; and, finally, they step
aside for students production of the languagethe phase in which they are able to
function independently in the target language. Grammar has recently made a
comeback in CLT and teachers now incorporate grammar in their lessons.
Students work in pairs or small groups. The student is the centre of the class and the
teacher is a guide or a facilitator.
Fundamental points in the next article.

A brief history of methodologies

CONCLUSION
Teaching English as a second language or a foreign language has come a long way
since rote learning. Still, it has a long way to go. The trend since the late 1990s has
been toward eclecticism, and this is probably the healthiest approach for it
accommodates many styles of learning. Furthermore, an eclectic approach allows
teachers to glean the effective elements from many methods that really work in the
classroom.
Language learning methodologies certainly mirror the times in which they thrive; but
some have claimed to have virtues that are not evident beyond their theoretical
framework.
The eclectic approach takes the best that theorists have to offer and incorporates it
with techniques that work. Language learning is difficult business. Students attitudes

about school and authority, their home situations, literacy, self-confidence, academic
level, identification with their native language and country are only a few factors that
affect their ability to learn or acquire a new language. In the end, teachers have a
tremendous challenge in trying to give their students the tools with which to function
on all levels in the target language.

The Communicative Approach

The communicative approach focuses on the importance of students actually using
English to exchange information which is integral to experiences that are relevant to
their daily lives. Below you will find some of the fundamental points of the
communicative approach.
Students develop an incentive to learn by participating in activities that allow them to
use English immediately by communicating in topics that are relevant to their daily
lives.
Students are involved in meaningful use of the language in real-world contexts.
The teacher guides the students in the direction of spontaneous use of the language.
Natural speech is used primarily in the classroom.
Students are motivated to learn the language by participating in challenging and
enjoyable activities.
Students are the centre of the class. The lesson does not revolve around the teacher.
The communicative approach places emphasis on function over form. Grammar is
presented inductively and practised throughout the lesson. Grammar points are
reintroduced in later lessons to create a new use or function for the language.
Students are encouraged to try out what they have learnt in a context of free choice.
Students are presented with structured activities to solidify information taught but
guided on to unstructured activities to develop fluency in the language.
Memorisation and repetition have their place, mainly in pronunciation, but are not
emphasised.
Students are not overloaded with grammar rules. Grammar should be presented but
teachers need to emphasise the use of the language not the grammar formula.
Students and teachers focus on grammar as a framework for guidance and selfcorrection.
Language is treated as more than the sum of its parts. The teacher should
emphasise meaningful communication rather than individual sounds, words or
sentences.

All four skills need to be taught simultaneously and should be integrated. The four
skills are listening comprehension, speaking, reading and writing.
Pair work, small group and class-as-a-whole activities are used to facilitate
interaction among students. Activities should start from simple structured activities, to
open-ended task-based activities that centre around the students and not the teacher.

Multiple intelligences: theory and practice in adult

students
The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) broadens the traditional view of intelligence
as solely composed of verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical abilities. MI theory
maintains that all humans possess at least eight different intelligences that represent a
variety of ways to learn and demonstrate understanding. This digest outlines the basic
tenets of MI theory and describes how it has been applied in teaching English as a
second language (ESL) to adults.

The theory
Intelligence has traditionally been defined in terms of intelligence quotient (IQ),
which measures a narrow range of verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical abilities.
Howard Gardner (1993) argues that humans possess a number of distinct intelligences
that manifest themselves in different skills and abilities. All human beings apply these
intelligences to solve problems, invent processes, and create things. Intelligence,
according to MI theory, is being able to apply one or more of the intelligences in ways
that are valued by a community or culture. The current MI model outlines eight
intelligences, although Gardner (1999) continues to explore additional possibilities.

* Linguistic intelligence: The ability to use language effectively both orally and in
writing.

* Logical/mathematical intelligence: The ability to use numbers effectively and

reason well.

* Visual/spatial intelligence: The ability to recognise form, space, colour, line and
shape and to graphically represent visual and spatial ideas.

* Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to use the body to express ideas and
feelings and to solve problems.

* Musical intelligence: The ability to recognise rhythm, pitch, and melody.

* Naturalist intelligence: The ability to recognise and classify plants, minerals, and
animals.

* Interpersonal intelligence: The ability to understand another person's feelings,

motivations and intentions and to respond effectively.

* Intrapersonal intelligence: The ability to know about and understand oneself and
recognise one's similarities to and differences from others.

Application of MI theory with adult ESL learners

Rather than functioning as a prescribed teaching method, curriculum, or technique,
MI theory provides a way of understanding intelligence, which teachers can use as a
guide for developing classroom activities that address multiple ways of learning and
knowing (Christison, 1999b). Teaching strategies informed by MI theory can transfer
some control from teacher to learners by giving students choices in the ways they will
learn and demonstrate their learning.
By focusing on problem-solving activities that draw on multiple intelligences, these
teaching strategies encourage learners to build on existing strengths and knowledge to
learn new content and skills (Kallenbach, 1999). It may also mean the adult learners
who have had little success in traditional classrooms where only linguistic and
mathematics skills are valued may experience more success when other intelligences
are tapped. Likewise, adult ESL learners from cultures where other intelligences are
highly valued - such as interpersonal or musical - may find the MI classroom a
productive learning environment.
Broadly speaking, teachers have developed four ways of using MI theory in the
classroom.
1. As a tool to help students develop a better understanding and appreciation of their
own strengths and learning preferences. Christison (1999a) has developed an
inventory to identify the preferred intelligences of adult English language learners.
Learners are asked to respond to six statements about each of eight intelligences. An
excerpt follows.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES INVENTORY FOR ESL/EFL ADULTS

Directions: Rate each statement 2, 1, or 0. 2 means you strongly agree, 1 means you
are in the middle, 0 means you disagree. Total the points for each intelligence.
Compare your scores on the different intelligences.

Verbal/linguistic intelligence
1. I like to read books, magazines, or newspapers.
2. I often write notes and letters to my friends and family.
3. I like to talk to people at parties.
4. I like to tell jokes.
5. I like to talk to my friends on the phone.
6. I like to talk about things I read.

Logical/mathematical intelligence
1. I can do arithmetic easily in my head.
2. I am good at doing a budget.
3. I am good at chess, checkers, or number games.
4. I am good at solving problems.
5. I like to analyse things.
6. I like to organise things.
7. I like crossword puzzles.

Naturalist intelligence
1. I like houseplants.
2. I have or would like to have a pet.

3. I know the names of many different flowers.

4. I know the names of many different wild animals.
5. I like to hike and to be outdoors.
6. I notice the trees and plants in my neighbourhood.
Teachers may adapt the language and accompanying activities to suit the needs of the
language learners in their classes. Word finds, pair dictations, dictionary and spelling
work, focused listening and grammar activities can help learners become comfortable
with the inventory language even while they are engaged in skills work. Teachers may
choose to let the students decide whether or not to score the inventory. Other
activities, such as dialogue journals, murals or bulletin boards and small group
conversations also offer adult ESL learners opportunities to reflect on their own
strengths. The ideas and information that come from these activities can inform
learner needs assessment and goal-setting processes.
_______________________________________________________________
2. As a tool to develop a better understanding of learners' intelligences.
An understanding of MI theory broadens awareness of students' knowledge and skills,
and enables teachers to look at each student from the perspective of strengths and
potential. Teachers also become aware of the different ways in which students may
demonstrate their understanding of material. MI theory provides a structured way of
understanding and addressing the diversity that EFL/ESL instructors often encounter
in the classroom (Christison, 1996). On a given topic or skill, teachers can brainstorm
with learners a list of activities to practise. For instance, beginners can learn about
consumerism by making and labelling collages of merchandise, reading newspaper
ads, developing dialogues, or going on a scavenger hunt to the store. In this way, each
learner can acquire language skills by employing individual strengths or preferences.
_______________________________________________________________
3. As a guide to provide a greater variety of ways for students to learn and to
demonstrate their learning.
Identification of personal strengths can make students more receptive to nontraditional learning activities and can give students a successful experience that builds
their confidence as learners. As learners and teachers work together, intelligences can
emerge naturally through partner interviews, preference grids (I can ..., I like to...),
and needs assessments. However, some teachers have encountered at least initial
resistance to this process of describing intelligences among students whose cultural or
educational backgrounds emphasise more traditional modes of teaching and learning
(Costanzo & Paxton, 1999). In this case, teachers may choose to focus learners'
attention on the language they are practising through these activities rather than on the
theory. (More challenges to using MI-based activities in the adult ESL classroom are
described in the upcoming study on MI from the National Center for the Study of
Adult Learning and Literacy [Viens & Kallenbach, in press].)

Teachers have noted other positive effects of applying MI theory. A curriculum

informed by MI theory provides a way of handling differing language skill levels
within one class - a very common situation in adult ESL classes (Costanzo & Paxton,
1999). When multiple activities are available, more students can find ways to
participate and take advantage of language acquisition opportunities. With an MI
curriculum, students become aware that different people have different strengths and
that each person has a substantive contribution to make (Kallenbach, 1999). This fits
in well with project-based learning where students in a group can divide tasks based
on individual strengths. For example, one learner might feel confident about planning,
another might prefer to do the writing, and a third might feel able to present the
project to the whole class.
_______________________________________________________________
4. As a guide to develop lesson plans that address the full range of learner needs.
An MI-informed reading lesson may begin with typical pre-reading activities
(reviewing earlier material, predicting what will happen next), followed by silent
reading or reading aloud with discussion of vocabulary and text meaning. Learners
can then complete a project, individually or in groups, to demonstrate their
understanding of the text. The teacher offers a choice of projects, such as descriptive
writing, map drawing, illustration, creation of a dialogue or skit, making a timeline,
songwriting, and retelling. The objective is not to teach to specific intelligences or to
correlate intelligences with specific activities, but rather to allow learners to employ
their preferred ways of processing and communicating new information (Coustan &
Rocka, 1999).
Teachers using this type of lesson report that students become more engaged in and
enthusiastic about reading; the students gain greater understanding of material when
they express what they have read in ways that are comfortable for them; and their
reading strategies improve as reading becomes a tool for completion of projects they
are interested in (Coustan & Rocka, 1999).
_______________________________________________________________

Conclusion
Teachers who use MI theory inform their curriculum development team that they gain
a deeper understanding of students' learning preferences and a greater appreciation of
their strengths. Students are likely to become more engaged in learning as they use
learning modes that match their intelligence strengths. In addition, students' reflection
on their learning broadens their definitions of effective and acceptable teaching and
learning practices. Increased engagement and success in learning stimulates teachers
to raise their expectations, initiating a powerful 'expectation-response' cycle that can
lead to greater achievement levels for all.

Grammar - introduction
What is grammar?
Our main objective in this section of the course is to develop your overall knowledge
and understanding of English grammar. Some of you will have a vast knowledge of
grammar and others will be learning it for the first time. We have divided our
grammar section into different areas for easier learning and understanding. We will
provide you with the necessary information so that you can feel confident when you
start your teaching career. We will not cover all aspects of grammar; the emphasis of
this course is to train you to teach English and not to become an expert in grammar.
Grammar is a set of rules that make up a language. Grammar is also used as a term to
refer to the prescriptive rules of a given language, which may change over time. The
way people spoke in the 1700s is not the way we speak today. Languages are living
organisms and evolve over time so grammar must also evolve and change over time.
Grammar may be separated into two common categories: descriptive and prescriptive.
Both views of grammar are used today, although in general, linguists tend towards a
descriptive approach to grammar, while people teaching a specific language (English)
might tend towards a more prescriptive approach.
A descriptive grammar tries to look at the grammar of any language as it is actually
used, judging whether a sentence is grammatical or not based on the rules of the
speech group in which it is spoken, rather than the set of rules. For example, in many
speech communities, a sentence such as Ya'll ain't gettin' that would be entirely
grammatical, and an entire set of rules of grammar can be deduced that explain why
that formation is used. In another speech community, however, that sentence might be
considered ungrammatical. You are not getting that would be the only version
considered acceptable.
A prescriptive grammar covers the norms of speech as given by authoritative sources,
such as an upper class or academics, and creates strict rules by which all speech
within that language must abide to be considered grammatical. Few linguists take a
prescriptive approach to grammar in the modern times, preferring to describe
language as it exists in a given speech community. Many teachers and pedagogues in
general still have a prescriptive approach towards grammar, however, holding to
standardised rules as being the only proper way to speak.
Prescriptive grammar is also used to some extent in teaching a language to non-native
speakers. When teaching English, for example, it can be useful to employ a standard
form of English as a baseline to teach from. This usually helps reduce confusion
among students. Once the language has been acquired, of course, a less prescriptive
approach will necessarily take over, as the non-native speaker learns regional rules
and new dialects that may not conform to the prescriptive grammar he or she
originally learned.
We will now cover the following areas of grammar:

Parts of speech
Tenses
Modal verbs
Gerunds
Articles
Active and passive voice
'If' conditional clauses
Grammar test (online)
There are two links at the end of the grammar section. Once you click on them a popup window will appear that will take you to a different website where you can practise
and review. They are not part of the test. They are there only for you to review and
prepare for the test. Once you complete the grammar section you will be ready to take
the grammar test.
This is the suggested grammar book:
Grammar for English Language Teachers - Martin Parrot - Cambridge University
Press
www.amazon.co.uk/Grammar-English-Language-Teachers-Exercises/dp/0521477972
"Good teaching is more a giving of right questions than a giving of right answers."
Josef Albers

Grammar
Grammar classifies words based on eight parts of speech. Each part of speech explains
not only what the word is but how the word is used. They allow you to label a word in
a sentence and provide the framework for the rules to follow in a sentence. Learn these
parts of speech and be able to label or name a part of speech in a sentence.

Nouns: Nouns point out or name people, places, things or ideas.

eg chair, computer, car, pen
Types of nouns

Proper nouns a name of one specific person, place or thing that is capitalised.
eg Peter, London, Washington
Common nouns one specific class or group that is not capitalised.
eg dog, lock, pen
Noun as a subject The dog broke the lock

Noun as a direct object The dog broke the lock

Noun as an indirect object I gave Harold the lock
______________________________________________________

Pronouns: Pronouns are used in place of a noun.

Types of pronouns
Personal (subject) I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
Interrogative who, what, where, when, how, why, which, whom
Relative who, which, that, when, whose
Indefinite anyone, someone, somebody, anybody, nobody, no one
Demonstrative these, those, this, that
Reflexive myself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, yourselves, ourselves
Possessive mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs
Possessive adjectives my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their
Object me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them
______________________________________________________

Adjectives: Words used to describe a noun or a pronoun - what kind, how many or
which one.
eg tall, short, beautiful, strong, bold, ugly
Types of adjectives
Comparative bigger than, richer than, better than (eg John is bigger than Peter)
Superlative the biggest, the richest, the best (eg he is the richest man in the world)

______________________________________________________

Verbs: Verbs describe the state of being of a subject. It can also be used to describe
or to show physical or mental action.
eg eat, jump, read, write, dance, fix
Types of verbs
Transitive relates an action that has an object (ie gives transit).
eg Helen baked a cake
Intransitive does not need an object.
eg the baby cried
Linking links the subject and the complement.
eg The old man seems tired
Regular form their past and past participle form with d and ed.
eg work-worked, dance-danced
Irregular forms completely change.
eg go-went, sleep-slept
Auxiliary helping verbs; when used with main verbs show mood and tense.
eg will, have, to be
Modal used to indicate possibility, a need, willingness, ability or obligation.
eg can, could, may, should
Infinitive verbs that are always preceded by 'to'.
eg to go, to dance, to speak
Bare infinitive verbs that are not preceded by 'to'.
eg go, dance, speak
______________________________________________________

Active and passive voices

Verbs can also be used in active or passive voices.

Active voice when the subject is the doer of the action.
eg Mary had helped John
The French built the Eiffel Tower
Colombians grow coffee
Passive voice when the subject becomes the receiver of the action.
eg the Eiffel Tower was built by the French
John had been helped by Mary
Rice is grown by Chinese
Guiltless structure Active voice - eg who broke the lamp?
Passive voice - eg the lamp was broken before I came in
______________________________________________________

Adverbs: Adverbs describe a verb, an adjective or another adverb - when, where,

why, how much, to what extent.
eg he is very rich
Many adverbs are formed by simply adding ly to an adjective or a noun.
eg seriously, quickly, extremely
Types of adverbs
Adverbs of frequency always, sometimes, often, never
Adverbs of time before, yet, still
Adverbs of place there, here, everywhere, somewhere, anywhere
Adverbs of degree almost, nearly, barely, hardly, just
______________________________________________________

Prepositions: Prepositions express relationships between people, things and actions

by placing words in front of nouns, noun phrases or pronouns to connect them to
another word.

eg He was in the garden

I spoke to Mr. Hall on Friday about the hole in our roof
They can also be used to introduce a phrase which completes the meaning of a verb.
eg I told him about
Types of prepositions
Prepositions of place: at, in, beside, between, for, behind, off, on
Prepositions of time: in, on, at, about, off, on
______________________________________________________

Conjunctions: Conjunctions are words that connect parts of speech - but, because,
and
eg I like tea but I don't like coffee because it's too strong for me.
______________________________________________________

Interjections
Interjections are words to express feelings or emotions - Help! Ouch! Yummy! Wow!
Yuck! Oh God!
eg Help! Call the police

English grammar tenses

In this objective, we will cover the 12 tenses in the English language and provide you
with examples, the formula and key time expressions.
Even though you may think that this may be very simple and easy, it is not. It is
important that you know the tenses and be able to explain them.
Knowing the formulas for each tense is a must. Tenses are the foundation of the
language. One of the challenges that you'll face when teaching English is that students
will actually challenge you to see how much you know. They want to know if you
really know the tenses and their formulas. You have to be able to explain them clearly
and effectively.
If you are a native speaker, you have been using these tenses since you were very
young. If you are not a native speaker then this was the first information that was
probably taught to you. Whether you are a native speaker or not, knowing this

information is extremely important and it is also part of your grammar exam and a
prerequisite for this course. At the end of this objective you should have learned the
tenses, be able to provide examples, the formula and the use of the tense.
If you were to compare the tenses to a house, the tenses would be the beams of a
house. The tenses would be the columns that hold the structure together.
It is important that you purchase a grammar book (online or paperback). Make sure
that it is a grammar book for teachers and not for students. A grammar book is a vital
tool that all teachers should have when preparing their lessons plans.
To learn these tenses, I would recommend that you write sample sentences and
underneath write the formula.

______________________________________________________

Simple tenses

Simple past
Meaning: We use the simple past when we talk about a completed action or condition.
Examples:
I was in Spain last week.
She played the piano when she was a child.
We didnt go to the mall the other day.
Formula - subject + verb in the past tense + complement
Key time expressions last, ago, yesterday
______________________________________________________
Simple present
Meaning: We use the simple present to describe facts, habits, and recurring actions or
situations.
Examples:
I work in Rome.
I walk the dog everyday.

She goes to the gym three times a week.

Formula - subject + verb
Key time expressions - every, usually, sometimes, often, frequently, never, now,
always, after, when, as soon as, until
______________________________________________________
Simple future
Meaning: We use 'will' when discussing unplanned future events and predictions
without evidence, and 'going to' when talking about planned future events and
predictions with evidence.
Examples:
Will:
I will travel to Asia next month.
The plane will land in 20 minutes.
Going to:
It's going to rain later.
We're going to spend a few days with my mother.
Formula - subject + will + bare infinitive + complement / subject + to be + going to +
bare infinitive + complement
Key time expressions next, tomorrow, in, after
______________________________________________________

Progressive or continuous tenses

Past progressive
Meaning: We use this tense to talk about something that was in progress at a specific
time in the past.
Examples:
I was having a horrible nightmare when my alarm clock rang.
The sun wasnt shining when we were swimming.

Formula - subject + was/were + -ing form of the verb + complement

Key time expressions while, when, as
______________________________________________________
Present progressive
Meaning: We use the present progressive when were talking about an action taking
place at the moment of speaking.
Examples:
I am teaching English now.
We are watching a film right now. I can't talk to you.
The weather forecast was not good, but the sun is shining now.
Formula - subject + to be + ing form of the verb
Key time expressions now, presently, currently, these days, always, forever,
constantly
______________________________________________________
Future progressive
Meaning: We use this to talk about something which will be in progress at a time in
the future.
Examples:
I will be leaving soon.
Will you be coming to the party?
I wont be seeing Steve until next week.
Formula - subject + will be + present participle (base verb + -ing)
Key time expressions next, tomorrow, soon, in, later
______________________________________________________

Perfect tenses

Past perfect
Meaning: The past perfect refers to an action taking place before the story being told.
It is used to make it clear that one event happened before another in the past. It is also
known as the past of the past.
Examples:
He wasnt very tired because he had slept well the night before.
Robert had gone out when I arrived at the office.
Formula - subject + had + past participle of the verb + complement
Key time expressions before, until, after, just, went
______________________________________________________
Present perfect
Meaning: When we talk in the present perfect were talking about past actions that are
relevant today or actions that happened in the past but when they occurred is not
important. It also can refer to the recent past.
Examples:
They have not lived there for years.
I have worked here since 1999.
Have you just finished work?
Someone has just eaten my sweet!
Formula - subject + have/has + past participle of verb + complement
Key time expressions since, before, until, yet, already, ever, never, just
______________________________________________________
Future perfect
Meaning: The future perfect refers to a completed action in the future. We can
also use this tense when we project ourselves into the future and when we are looking
back at the completed action at a time later than now.
Examples:
You will have arrived by then.

Will you have finished your report on time?

I will not have left by the time you read this.
Formula - subject + will have + past participle of verb
Key time expression - by
______________________________________________________

Perfect progressive tenses

Past perfect progressive

Meaning: We use the past perfect progressive when you want to focus on an action
which was in progress up to or near a time in the past, rather than a completed event.
Examples:
I hadnt been sleeping long when you called.
It had been raining hard for several hours and the streets were very wet.
Had you been waiting long before the taxi arrived?
Formula - subject + had + past participle of 'to be' (been) + -ing form of the verb +
complement
Key time expression since
______________________________________________________
Present perfect progressive
Meaning: We use the present perfect progressive to talk about an action that started in
the past and stopped recently. We can also talk about an action that started in the past
and is continuing now.
Examples:
She has been dancing for three hours.
They have been waiting for you all day.
Formula: subject + have/has + been + ing + complement
Key time expression since

______________________________________________________
Future perfect progressive
Meaning: These are actions or events in a time between now and some future time,
that may be unfinished.
Examples:
We will have been living in Madrid for five years in June.
We will have been working out for two hours at 6 oclock.
Formula - subject + will have + been + present participle (base form ing)
Key time expressions by, after
______________________________________________________
These are the 12 tenses in the English language. As mentioned before, please learn
them as they are part of the grammar exam.

Grammar: parts of speech and conditional clauses

The English language has these additional basic grammar objectives:

Conjunctions Words that connect parts of speech.

eg and, or, because, for, however, but, if, so, meanwhile, although
_____________________________________________________________________
__________

Prepositions Prepositions express relationships between people, things or actions

or introduce phrases that complete the meaning of a verb.
eg I spoke to Mr. Hall on Friday about the hole in our roof
I told him about ...
Types of prepositions
Prepositions of place at, in, on, behind, between, for, to, off
Prepositions of time in, on, at, about

_____________________________________________________________________
__________

Articles There are two different types of articles, indefinite and definite.
Although articles are not parts of speech, they are learned by
our ESL or EFL students in the basic levels.

Indefinite a, an
eg Ive just seen an accident
Definite the
eg I saw him run from the accident
_____________________________________________________________________
__________

Gerunds Gerunds are the ing form of a verb used as a noun.

eg running, dancing, singing
He likes singing
Running is a great sport
_____________________________________________________________________
__________

Countable / uncountable nouns

Countable nouns these are nouns that can be counted, eg book, flower, people, TV,
chair, table
Plural terms: many, (a) few, a lot
Uncountable nouns eg information, love, bread, rice, ice, water, oil, sugar
Plural terms: much, (a) little (bit), a lot
Terms used in counting both plenty of, no, enough
Uncountable nouns can become countable when used in containers.
eg Three bags of ice

Many cubes of sugar

Six loaves of bread
_____________________________________________________________________
__________

Modal verbs These are auxiliary verbs that are used to indicate possibility,
necessity, willingness, ability, obligation and more.
Below you will see the different types of modal auxiliary verbs and their uses.

May
eg Teacher, may I go to the bathroom?
He may be at the library
Uses: polite request / formal permission / less than 50 per cent certainty
Present/future - may be
Past - may have (been)
Might
eg I might go to the concert
Uses: polite request / less than 50 per cent certainty
Present / future: might be
Past: might have (been)
Should
eg You should go to the doctor
Uses: advice / suggestion / 90 per cent certain
Present/future: should
Past: should have
Ought to
eg You ought to go to the doctor

Uses: advice / suggestion / 90 per cent certainty

Present/future: ought to
Past: ought to have
Had better
eg You had better go to the doctor / You'd better go to the doctor
Uses: advice with a threat of bad result
Present/future: you had better
Past: none
Be supposed to
eg He is supposed to arrive at two o'clock
Uses: expectation
Present/future: is supposed to / are supposed to
Past: was supposed to
Be to
eg I am to be there at five pm
Uses: strong expectations
Present/future: are to be here / are to pass
Past: were to be
Must
eg You must pass the grammar test
Uses: strong need or necessity / prohibition (must not) / 90 per cent certainty
Present/future: you must
Past: must have (been)
Have to
eg They have to buy the paper today

Uses: lack of necessity / necessity

Present/future: I have to / I dont have to
Past: I had to / I didnt have to
Will
eg I will pass this test
Uses: 100 per cent certainty / willingness / polite request
Present/future: I will pass / Ill get it / Will you please ?
Past: Be going
eg I am going to pass this test
Uses: 100 per cent certainty / definite plan
Present/future: he is going to be here / I am going to travel this weekend
Past: I was going to go
Can
eg I can ride a horse
Can I go out tonight?
Uses: ability / possibility / informed permission / informal request / impossibility
Present/future: I can ride a bike/ I can lend you $$$/ You can go / Can I go ? /
You cant
Past: Could
eg Could you please pass the salt?
Uses: past ability / polite request / suggestion / less than 50 per cent certainty /
impossibility
Present/future: Could I ? / You could / He could be / That couldnt
Past: I could ...

Would
eg Would you please pass the salt?
Uses: polite request / preferences / repeated action in the past
Present/future: would you please ? / I would rather go
Past: when I was a child I would
Used to
eg I used to play tennis everyday
Uses: repeated action in the past
Past: when I was a kid I used to
Shall
eg Shall we open the door?
Uses: future action / volunteering promise / inevitability
Present/future: Fred shall be there by 8:00am / I shall take care of everything / We
shall overcome this
______________________________________________________________
_________________

'If' conditionals ('if' clauses)

There are three types of 'if' conditionals or 'if' clauses.

Type 1 cause and effect (true in the present/future)

Verb form if clause simple present
Verb form result clause simple present/future
eg If I stop smoking, I live longer
If I stop smoking, I will live longer

Type 2 Hypothetical (untrue in the present/future)

Verb form if clause simple past

Verb form could/should/would + simple form of verb
eg If I won the lottery, I would buy a yacht

Type 3 Hypothetical (unreal in the past)

Verb form if clause past perfect
Verb form result clause would have + past participle
eg If you had driven my car, I wouldnt have got so tired from walking.

Mixed Time Type 2 and 3 - You can also mix type 2 and 3.
eg If I were rich, I would have bought the car we saw yesterday.
If I had travelled by plane, I would be rested.

Teaching grammar communicatively

Language structure or grammar is fundamental in learning a language. Understanding
it and knowing when and how to use it is very important for our students. The
majority of your future students have had some contact with the language but mainly
through grammar structures.
Many teachers are still teaching based on the grammartranslation approach around
the world. When we teach English and interact with students on a daily basis, we
teach grammar directly or indirectly. All major publishers have grammar sections in
their coursebooks because they know of the importance it has on students learning
process.
To be able to teach grammar communicatively we recommend that you follow the
steps presented below. These 10 steps will guide you when teaching grammar in the
presentation stage of your lesson plan.

1. Previous knowledge Always begin with previous knowledge. If you are going to
teach the simple past begin by asking your students questions in the simple present.

This builds their confidence in the language and links previous knowledge to new
information presented.

2. Provide students with examples Show your students, in context, when and how
to use this new language structure presented.

3. Elicit Have students provide you with examples. This will allow you to evaluate
and assess if they are learning or if they know it already.

4. Teach vocabulary Providing students with new vocabulary will allow them to use
the new grammar topic in a different context.

5. Use colour markers / use gestures The majority of our students are visual
learners. Colour markers will allow you to illustrate the new grammar objective. You
can write the verb in the past tense in red to highlight it. Provide your students with
lots of examples. The more examples they have, the easier it will be for students to
understand. Use the board, posters and flash cards as tools to transfer this new
knowledge to them.
6. Use construction paper You can use construction paper, worksheets, colour paper
or any other colourful material that will keep your students focused on the learning
objective.

7. Use flash cards / visual aids A picture is worth a thousand words. A flash card
can eliminate the use of the native language in the classroom and need to translate.

8. Evaluate Once you have taught the grammar objective, have students provide
you with examples in a context. This will also let you know if you were effective in
teaching the new grammar objective.

9. Teach your students the affirmative, negative and question form (ie I am a
teacher, I am not a teacher, are you a teacher?). Your students need to be able to use
all forms in the new grammar topic.

10. Formula/form/name of tense Once you have completed the presentation of the
grammar topic, let your students know the name of the tense and the formula if
necessary.

NEVER begin by presenting the grammar formula first!

In Module 2 you will find a sample lesson plan on grammar. That sample lesson plan
will help you when writing your assignment in Module 2.