TOPIC

CONCEPTS AND ISSUES IN

CURRICULUM

1.2.1 Definitions of Curriculum

Curriculum is defined as the experiences that someone ought to have in order to become
the kind of adult they ought to become
Formal Curriculum
-

Provides detailed descriptions about what students are expected to know and be able
to do.
Developed by state and local education authorities and by subject matter
organisations.

Planned Curriculum (Overt / Explicit / Intended)

-

The overt curriculum is the open, or public, dimension and includes current and
historical interpretations, learning experiences, and learning outcomes.
the intended curriculum is captured most explicitly in state content standards.

Enacted Curriculum
-

Is what is implemented based on the day-to-day choices and decisions teachers make
about content and learning experiences for students.

Hidden Curriculum (Invisible / Covert)

-

a side effect of an education, "[lessons] which are learned but not openly intended
such as the transmission of norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in the classroom and
the social environment. Any learning experience may teach unintended lessons.

Null Curriculum
-

When a topic is never taught, too unimportant, too controversial, too inappropriate,
not worth the time, and not essential.

1.2.3 Forces that influence curriculum construction

Political
-

who makes the selection

Economic
-

new skills were needed in an industrial society

students will spend more time using information technology and learn independently

Social
-

Society is increasingly becoming diverse, especially in urban areas.

diversity in the curriculum
developing curriculum that is responsive to students diverse social and cultural
values and at the same time capable of creating a national identity based on core
values and practices.

1.2.4 Concerns of different shareholders in the Malaysian context

Groups
Environment
al groups

Society

Consumer
Health
groups
Education
Crime
Prevention
Team
Governments

Concern
Conservation
and
preservation
and
the
inculcation of values to love
the environment.
Substance (drugs, alcohol,
cigarettes, glue sniffing and
so forth) abuse prevention
programmes
Rights and responsibilities as
consumers
Introduce health programmes
Sex education
Techniques
and
prevention activities
-

crime

Citizenship education
Rights and responsibilities
as citizens

TOPIC
2

MODELS, PRINCIPLES AND

DEVELOPMENT OF
CURRICULUM DESIGN

2.3.2 Models
Definition - A model consists of interacting parts that serves as a guide or procedure for
action. Some models are simple while others are very complex. In many instances,
models are more similar than different and are often refinements or revisions of earlier
models. A simplified representation of reality which is often depicted in diagrammatic
(graphic) form.
Purpose - to provide a structure for examining the elements that go to make up
curriculum planning, and how these elements interrelate.
2.3.3 Tylers Objective Model
Instructional Objective
- a detailed description that states how an instructor will use an instructional activity ,
innovation or program to reach the desired learning objective(s).
Purpose
To measure students progress towards objectives
Method
1. Specify Instructional Objectives
2. Collect performance Data
3. Compare performance data with the objectives/standards specified
Consists of four primary steps :

Development of performance objectives

Development of activities
Organisation of activities
Evaluation

By "purposes", Tyler was referring to "objectives" and when developing curriculum

objectives data should be gathered from three sources;
i.
ii.
iii.

the subject area (e.g. Science, Mathematics, Geography, History)

the learners (e.g. economically disadvantaged, gifted, varying academic abilities)
society (e.g. ethics, patriotism, national unity, environmental awareness,
employment, market needs).

2.3.4 Wheelers Process Model

Instead of a linear model, Wheeler developed a cyclical model.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Aims, goals and objectives

Selection of learning experiences
Selection of content
Organisation and integration of experiences
Evaluation

Principles of Curriculum Designs

Scope content to be taught
Sequence How content and experience can build on what come before
Continuity Same subjects during primary and secondary school
Integration Integrate Science in English
Articulation Sequence content from easy to difficult
Balance Balance weight to each aspect of curriculum

CONSIDERATIONS IN
DESIGNING A
CURRICULUM

TOPIC
3

Consideration in Curriculum Design

Needs analysis
Target group
Aims and objectives
Content
Learning theories, approaches and methods
Personnel
Material selection
Monitoring and support
Assessment and evaluation
Constraints
TOPIC
4

CURRICULUM AND THE

TEACHER

TOPIC
5

CURRENT ISSUES IN
CURRICULUM
IMPLEMENTATION

5.3 Definition of Curriculum Implementation

Curriculum implementation refers to how the planned or officially designed course of
study is translated by the teacher into syllabuses, schemes of work and lessons to be
delivered to students.
5.4 Factors That Influence Curriculum Implementation
The Teacher
The Learners
Resource Materials and Facilities
Interest Groups
The School Environment
-Schools located in rich socio-economic environments and those that have adequate
human and material resources can implement the curriculum to an extent that would
be difficult or impossible for schools in poor economic environments.
Culture and Ideology
Some communities may resist a domineering culture or government ideology and hence
affect the implementation of the centrally planned curriculum.
Instructional Supervision
5.5 Current Issues in Curriculum Implementation
Literacy
Literacy is the ability to read and write. The inability to do so is called illiteracy or
analphabetism.
Access to Education
Access to education is the ability of people to have equal opportunity in education,
regardless of their social class, gender, ethnicity background or physical and mental
disabilities.
Equity in Education
In education, the term equity refers to the principle of fairness.
Socio-economic equity in education
Income and class
Costs of education
Tracking

Racial equity in education

Higher education
Gender equity in education
Multilingualism
i.
ii.
iii.

diglossia: if there is a structural functional distribution of the languages involved,

the society is termed 'diglossic'.
ambilingualism: a region is called ambilingual if this functional distribution is not
observed.
bipart-lingualism: if more than one language can be heard in a small area, but the
large majority of speakers are monolinguals,

Technological innovations
-

Types of Technology Used In The Classroom

1. Use of computers in the classroom
2. Creating class websites and blogs
3. Use of digital microphones in the classroom
4. Use of mobile devices
5. Use of smart interactive Whiteboards
6. Use of online media
7. Use of online study tools

Unity in Education
Special needs

TOPIC
6

CURRICULUM
EVALUATION

1.2.1 Definition of Curriculum Evaluation

Evaluation is a disciplined inquiry to determine the worth of things. Things may include
programmes, procedures or objects. Generally, research and evaluation are different
even though similar data collection tools may be used. The three dimensions on which
they may differ are:
1. evaluation need not have as its objective the generation of knowledge. Evaluation is
applied while research tends to be basic.
2. evaluation presumably, produces information that is used to make decisions or forms
the basis of policy. Evaluation yields information that has immediate use while
research need not.
3. evaluation is a judgment of worth. Evaluation result in value judgments while research
need not and some would say should not.
Evaluation is the systematic and objective assessment of an activity, project,
programme, strategy, policy, topic, theme, sector, operational area or institution. As an
essential part of the policy development process, evaluation provides timely assessments
of the relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability of interventions.
Evaluation is essentially about are we doing the right thing, are we doing it right and
are there better ways of achieving the results?
Evaluations should:
provide assessments of what works and why, highlight intended and unintended
results, and provide strategic lessons to guide decision-makers and inform stakeholders;
-based information that is credible, reliable and useful, enabling the timely
incorporation of findings, recommendations and lessons;
-making processes as a key component to managing for results;
improve the institutional relevance and the achievement of results, optimize the use of
resources, provide client satisfaction and maximize the impact of activities; and
interpretation of information to answer specific questions, based on agreed criteria
and benchmarks among key partners and stakeholders.
Phases of Curriculum Evaluation
1.
2.
3.
4.

Aspects of the curriculum to be evaluated

Data Collection
Analysis of Information
Reporting of Information

Forms of Evaluation
i.
ii.

Formative evaluation
Summative evaluation

Purposes of Evaluation
i.

Implement changes to improve teaching learning outcomes of future courses

ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Remedy weaknesses of course in progress

Explain or confirm existing procedures
Establish accountability ( value for money)
Extend teachers knowledge about practice. (CPD)

Evaluation Methods and Tools

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Surveys and questionnaires

Interviews and questions
Observations and check lists
Documents

TOPIC
7

CURRICULUM
CHANGE

1.2.1 Definition of Curriculum Change and Innovation

Hoyle (1995) defines change as embracing the concepts of innovation, development,
renewal and improvement of a curriculum. Change has magnitude and direction and
takes place within a definite time frame. In the context of curriculum, curriculum change
is dictated by the changes in the economic, social and technological aspects of a society.
Change is a process not an event; it requires time, energy and resources. It is achieved
incrementally and entails development in feelings and skills in using new programmes.
Change should lead to improvement
Harris et al. (1995) describes innovation as an intentional and deliberate process to
bring out desired effects and change. As such, curriculum innovation refers to ideas or
practices that are new and different from those that exist in the formal prescribed
curriculum. Westerly (1969) and Richard (1965), state that curriculum innovation is any
improvement that is deliberate, measurable, durable and unlikely to occur frequently.
Curriculum innovations occurs when human and material resources are created, selected,
organised and used in ways where the outcomes are higher achievement of curriculum
goals and objectives.
The difference between innovation and change is innovation is always planned while
change may occur in response to external events. Curriculum innovations become
meaningful and effective, if they are planned and organised. It is possible that other
types of changes may occur when they are not planned.
1.2.2 Contexts of Curriculum Change
Curriculum change and curriculum innovation are made necessary due to a countrys
political, social, economic, cultural and technological environments. The education
system changes in order to address the needs and demands brought about by these
factors.
At the national level, curriculum change and innovation arise from deliberate policy
decisions. Changes in the education system in Malaysia occur when the central authority
decides to adopt a new idea. This change is usually made known through a circular. One
such example is the introduction of the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR) or
the Primary School Standard Curriculum.
Another reason for curriculum change and innovation is the desire of authorities at
various levels to deliberately change established practices in order to tackle existing
problems or identify new problems and seek ways of dealing with these problems.
Curriculum change and innovation can also be a due to development in technology. For
example, computers are being used in almost every aspects of our society. Thus, the
education system and its curriculum must adapt to this new development. Computers
must not be seen as merely a tool for administrative purposes, but also to make the
computer and related technological advancements part and parcel of the curriculum.
Change can be classified as hardware and software types. Hardware types of changes
involve the additions to existing facilities such as new classrooms, equipment, books and
play grounds. On the other hand, software types affect the content and range of the

curriculum. These may be related to the methods of delivery suggested by curriculum

designers and developers.
Change can occur in the different forms. In substitution, one element replaces another
previously in use. For example new textbooks, new equipment or the replacement of
teachers and administrators. Alteration on the other hand involves change in existing
structures rather than a complete replacement of the whole curriculum, syllabus or
course of study. Addition is the introduction of a new component without changing old
elements or patterns. New elements are added to the existing programme without
seriously disturbing the main structure and content of the prescribed curriculum. These
could be support inputs such as audio-visual aids, workshops and equipment.
Restructuring involves the rearrangement of the curriculum in order to implement
desired changes. It may also involve the sharing of resources among a group of schools
or institutions.
1.2.3 Strategies of Evaluation
The strategies for implementing the curriculum must be considered carefully for change
and innovation to succeed. A strategy of innovation refers to the planned procedures and
techniques used in the desire for change. Harris et al. (1978),
developed some models to explain how the strategies work. The strategies include are as
mentioned below.
1.2.3.1 Participative Problem-Solving.
This strategy focuses on the users, their needs and how they satisfy these needs. The
system identifies and diagnoses its own needs, finds its own solution, tries out and
evaluates the solution and implements the solution if it is satisfactory. Here the emphasis
is on local initiative.
1.2.3.2 Planned Linkage.
The intermediate agencies, such as schools, bring together the users of the innovation in
this model.
1.2.3.4 Coercive Strategies.
These strategies work on the basis of power and coercion by those in authority, using
laws, directories, circulars and others. Ministries of Education generally used these
strategies.
Tanner and Tanner (1980), suggest three principal models which demonstrate how
change takes place.
1.2.3.1The Research, Development and Diffusion Model
In this model, an innovation is thought out at the head or centre and then fed into the
system. This views the processes of change as a logical sequence of phases in which an
innovation is:
1. invented or discovered,
2. developed,
3. produced, and

4. disseminated to the user.

1.2.3.2 Problem-Solving Model
This model is built with the user of the innovation in mind. The user of the innovation
would follow the steps below.
1. Determine the problem.
2. Search for an innovation.
3. Evaluate the trials.
4. Implement the innovation.
1.2.3.3Social Interaction Model
In this model, change proceeds or diffuses through formal or informal contacts between
interacting social groups. The model stresses the importance of interpersonal networks of
information, opinion, leadership and personal contact. This model is based on the
following:
awareness of innovation
interest in the innovation
trial
adoption for permanent use.
1.2.4 Planning and Implementation
For change to be implemented in the curriculum, a process has to take place. This
process involves four major factors. According to Bishop (1986), these factors include:
The change agent
Change agents include teachers, school heads, local authorities or the Ministry of
Education. The agent initiates the innovation or curriculum change in general.
The innovation
This involves executing the change itself; in other words putting it into use or operation.
The user system
This relates to the person or group of people at which the innovation is directed.
Time
Innovation is a social process, which takes place over a period of time.
These factors interact with change and are changed by each other during the process of
innovation. The curriculum change agent is involved with the process, the planning and
the strategies, and is also frequently the user of the innovation.
The Innovation Process

Innovation and change generally follow several logical steps:

1. Identify a problem, dissatisfaction or need that requires attention.
2. Generate possible solutions to the identified problem or need.
3. Select a particular solution or innovation that has been identified as the most
appropriate.
4. Conduct a trial.
5. Evaluate the proposed solution.
6. Review the evaluation.
7. If the innovation has solved the identified problem, implement it on a wide
scale.
8. Adopt and institutionalise the innovation or search for another solution.
Innovation Planning
Effective planning for innovation cannot take place unless the following elements are
considered in the process:
the personnel to be employed
the specification of the actual task
the strategy or procedure to be used to undertake the task
the equipment needed
the buildings and conducive environment
the costs involved
social contexts
time involved
sequencing of activities
rationale for undertaking the innovation
evaluation of the consequences or effects of the innovation.
Conditions for Successful Implementation of Innovations
Potential users of an innovation are more likely to accept it if the conditions below are
met.
The innovation must be relevant to them.
It must be feasible in their particular organizational context.
It must be compatible with the practices, values and characteristics of their system.

 It must pose little or no threat to the user groups identity, integrity and territory. The
innovation must be seen to be tolerable and non-threatening.
The innovation must yield material or non-material benefits. Gains in social status or
recognition may be some of the non-material benefits
It must be flexible and adaptable.