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SexualandEthnicViolenceandtheConstructionoftheIslamicState|PoliticalViolence@aGlance

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Sexual and Ethnic Violence and the

Construction of the Islamic State
bypoliticalviolenceataglanceonSeptember18,2014

GuestpostbyArielAhram

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AboutUs
BarbaraF.Walterisapolitical
scientistattheUniversityof
California,SanDiego.Erica
Chenowethisapoliticalscientistat
theUniversityofDenver.Together,
theystartedthisblogtoprovide
simple,straightforwardanalysisof
politicalviolencearoundtheworld.

C A TE GO RI ES
SelectCategory

T WI TTE R

YazidiwomenfleeISISforcesinnorthernIraq.ByDomenico.
Theprotectionofwomen,children,andreligiousminoritiesstandprominentlyamongthereasonsPresident
ObamaofferedlastweekforexpandingmilitaryactionagainsttheIslamicStateinIraqinSyria(ISIS),They
killchildren.Theyenslave,rape,andforcewomenintomarriage.Theythreatenedareligiousminoritywith
genocide.Americanpresidentshavecitedsimilarhumanitariangroundstojustifypastmilitary
interventions.TheneedtofreeAfghanwomenfromtheTalibansyokewasacommonarefrainafterthe
September11,2001attacks.LiberatingShiisandKurdswhohadbeenvictimizedbySaddamwasan
expressedgoaloftheIraqinvasionin2003.ObamaattributedsingularmalevolencetoISIS,claimingthat
inaregionthathasknownsomuchbloodshed,theseterroristsareuniqueintheirbrutality.Acloserlook
atISISsuseofviolencerevealsthatitspracticesarehardlynovelandinfactmimic,tosomeextent,with
broadpatternsofstatebuildingbehaviorintheregion.Ratherthanthehallmarksofsavageryandbarbarity,
asseniorU.N.officialsdescribedtheassaultontheYezidis,Shiis,Christians,andothergroupsdeemed
hereticalorapostate,therepertoiresofsexualandethnicviolencearebetterseenaspartofISISsstrategyto
enactaparticularvisionofanIslamicstate.
Sexualandethnicviolence,despiteoftenappearingderanged,haveanunderlyingculturalandstrategic
logic.DrawingonlessonsfromtheYugoslavcivilwarandRwandainparticular,manyscholarshave

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pointedouthowsexualviolenceplaysadistinctiveroleinethnosectarianconflicts.Serbianforceshatched
theBranaPlanin199091specificallytotargetBosnianMuslimwomenandchildren,consideredtheweak
linkofBosniansociety,forsexualviolations.Feministscholarsdescribestheseactsasgenocidalrape,
reasoningthatthesexualassaultssimultaneouslydefiletheMuslimwomen,dishonortheMuslimmenwho
werepowerlesstostopit,augmentedSerbiasowndemographicbasebyimpregnatingthevictim.Yetthese
explanationscaptureonlypartofthestory.InElisabethJeanWoodsterms,violence,sexualandotherwise,
becomesapracticetowhichfightersbecomegraduallyacclimatedtoandbecomeseasiertoenactwith
greaterfamiliarityandalacrity.Examininginstancesofwartimerapeusingcrossnationalstatisticsandin
depthresearchinSierraLeone,TimorLeste,andElSalvador,DaraKayCohenarguesthatrapeisnot
distinctivetoethnic(asopposedtononethnic)conflictsandoftenservesnonmilitarypurposes.Rapeis
especiallycommonforarmedgroupsthatrelyonabductedrecruitsandthosethatdependoncontrabandto
fundtheiroperations,wheredisciplinemayalreadybelackingandfightershavelowlevelsoftrust.
Participationingangrapemayhelptobuildupunitcohesion.
InthecaseofISIS,itisusefultothinkbeyondthecontextofconflictalone.Unlikemanyothercivilwar
belligerents,ISISadamantlyandexplicitlyannouncesitsintentionefforttobuildastate.JustasISISs
calculatedmovestocontrolhydroelectricinstallationsandexploitationofoilfieldsforblackmarket

Tweets

Follow

Erica Chenoweth
@EricaChenoweth

7h

Who's Afraid of "Waging

Nonviolence"? wp.me/p2skv71aL
via @PVGlance
Retweeted by PVGlance
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PVGlance
@PVGlance

8h

Why is the Chinese government so

intimidated by nonviolent protest?
bit.ly/154GCsR
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PVGlance
@PVGlance

13 Jan

What France's past teaches us about

the recent terror attacks.
bit.ly/1BTFpk5

smugglingshowitsattentiontocontrollingresources,ISISssexualandethnicviolencerepresentasmuch
anundertakinginstatemakingasinwarmaking.Thepowertocontrolormanipulatesexualandethnic
identityisakeycomponentofallstatepower.IntheMiddleEast,theregulationofsexualrelationsisoften
usedasameanstocreateorreinforceethnosectarianboundaries.Inthe19thcenturytheOttoman
authoritiesprohibitedmarriagebetweenShiimenandSunniwomenintheprovincesofIraqforfearthat

PVGlance
@PVGlance

12 Jan

Prejudice in France from

Kristallnacht to #CharlieHebdo.
bit.ly/1BTFpk5

ShiiIraniansweregainingademographicfootholdintheregion.SinceIslamiclawprivilegesmale
prerogativeoverchildren,themovewasmeanttoblockthepropagationofShiismwithintheOttoman
domain.MarriageofShiiwomentoSunnimenwasstillpermitted,sincethechildrenofsuchaunionwere

PVGlance
@PVGlance

12 Jan

deemedtobeofIranian(i.e.,Shii)origins.Thousandsoffamilieswereinternedinprisonorprisoncamps

Guest blogger @alizaluft takes a

look back at the history of French
antiSemitism to put #CharlieHebdo
in context. bit.ly/1BTFpk5

formonths,wheretheyweresubjecttorapeandtorture,beforebeingtransportedtotheborder.Twoyears

Expand

deemedSunni.SaddamHusseintooksimilarmeasuresinthe1970sand1980s.Inlate1970s,inthe
immediatewakeoftheIslamicRevolutioninIran,thegovernmentmovedtodeportsome40,000people

later,inthemidstoftheIranIraqWar,thegovernmentofferedacashrewardtoIraqimenmarriedto
womenofIranianoriginstodivorceorhavetheirwivesdeported.Thegovernmentsetoutspecific

Tweet to @PVGlance

incentivestoencouragemarriagetowarwidowsandincreasefertility.Thereweresimilarattemptsto
combinepositiveinducementsandharshsexualviolencetopromotetheArabizationoftheKurdish
population.RapeofprisonerswasprevalentduringtheethniccleaningofKurdistaninthelate1980s.State

R E CE N T CO M M E N TS

inflictedsexualviolenceislessseverebuthardlyunknowninthenewIraq.Sexualizedtorturewasamong
themanyabusesAmericanguardsinflictedonIraqiprisonersatAbuGhraib.Oneofthelikelyreasonsthat
ISISchosetocladitsAmericanandBritishbeheadingvictimsinorangejumpsuitswasspecificallytoinvoke
thishistory.SexualviolenceagainstprisonerscontinuedunderformerPrimeMinisterNourialMaliki.
InSyria,sexualviolencewassimilarlyendemicwellbeforetheriseofISIS.ReportsonSyrianprisons
detailedawiderangeofsexuallyabusivepractices,includingburninggenitalia,forcingobjectsintothe

JorgeX.RodriguezonWhos
AfraidofW
jamiegonzoonHowNotTo
RespondtotheChar
ronanfitzonPastandPresentin
France:Do

rectum,andstrippingprisonersnakedforpublicview.InDaraa,wherethefirstantiregimeprotestserupted
in2011,securityofficialsallegedlytauntedlocalfamilieswhosesonshadbeenarrested:Forgetyour
children.Ifyoureallywantyourchildren,youshouldmakemorechildren.Ifyoudontknowhowtomake
morechildren,wellshowyouhowtodoit.GovernmentforcesaswellasthestatesponsoredShabiha
militiahavebeenimplicatedalargenumberofrapesandsexualviolationsofbothmenandwomenduring
theongoingcivilwar.

AlizaonPastandPresentin
France:Do
ronanfitzonPastandPresentin
France:Do
AlizaonPastandPresentin
France:Do

ISISsrepertoiresofsexualandethnicviolencetakethreedistinctforms.Thefirstismaleonmalesexual
violence,includingrape.Althoughthistypeofsexualviolenceisactuallyfairlycommoninconflictsaround
theworld,dataonitaremostsketchy,inpartbecausemenarenotusuallythoughtofasvictimsandoften
avoidreportingtheseincidences.ZainabHawaBangura,theSpecialRepresentativeoftheU.N.Secretary
GeneralonSexualViolenceinConflict,andNickolayMladenov,theU.N.SpecialRepresentativeofthe
SecretaryGeneralforIraq,recordedtestimonyofISISssexualattacksonbothgirlsandboys.Moreover,
KurdishandAssyriansourcessuggestthatISISsystematicallysexuallyassaultsnewrecruitsaspartofan
initiation.Justasformaleonfemalerape,thismaleonmalesexualviolence,perverselycalled

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marriages,dishonorsthewouldberecruitandmakesiteasiertoblackmailhimifheweretodesertor
relentwhileatthesametimebuildingfraternalbondsamongtheperpetrators.
Thesecondformofsexualviolenceisfemalesexualenslavement,comparabletothekindofabductionsused
byLordsResistanceArmyinUgandaandtheRevolutionaryUnitedFrontinSierraLeone.Inthelastfew
monthstherehavebeenmultiplereportsofISISabductingwomenandgirlsafterexecutingordrivingaway
men.Theseactsarejustifiedasatypeofpermissibleconducttowardnonbelieverswhorefusetoaccedeto
Muslimcontrolandareprobablydeemedaformofconcubinage.AfterKurdishforcesretookthedamabove
Mosullastmonth,theyfoundseveralwomeninsideISIScompoundswhohadbeenboundandraped
repeatedly.ISISsallfemalealKhansaabrigadeisreportedlyrunningbrothelsfilledwithcaptiveYezidi
women.Thesesemipublicdisplaysofsexualityinwhichwomenareessentiallypassedfrommantomanare
bothdeclarativeanddegrading.Linkinginsulttosevereinjury,ISISevenprovidedonevictimacellular
phonetocallherfamilyandinformthemaboutherfate.Thebodiesoftheconqueredareineffect
expropriatedassexualandbreedingstock,comparabletowarbooty.Manyvictimsweresopsychologically
scarredthattheyfearreturningtotheirownfamiliesforfearofbringingshametothem.Theseformsof
sexualviolence,then,forceconqueredpeoplesintothebottomoftheIslamicStatessexualandsectarian
hierarchy.Importantly,though,evensuchillegitimatesexualrelationshipscanyieldlegitimatekinship
bonds.Whilecaptivemothersmaybeapostatesandinfidels,thechildrenofMuslimfatheraregenerally
deemedtobeMuslimsthemselves.Thesechildrenmust,atleasttheoretically,beaccordedapositionwith
thecommunityandcouldindeedbedemographicfodderfortheIslamicState.
Arrangedorenforcedmarriage,thethirdformofsexualviolence,isverydifferent.Evenunderduress,
marriagesolidifieshorizontalbonds,tiesofpeerageandalliancebetweenmoreorlessequals.Ofcourse,
arrangedmarriageshavealonghistoryinEuropesdynasticpoliticsandinIslam.TheProphet
Mohammadspolygamousmarriages(particularlytowidows)helpedtocementconsanguinetiesamongthe
communityofearlyMuslimbelievers.Similarly,forISIS,marriageismeanttobeanintraMuslim
engagement.ISISsdirectforbearer,alQaedainIraq,soughttoarrangeunionsbetweenitsfightersandthe
daughtersoftheAnbartribalsheikhs,withsomeapparentsuccessin2003and2004.Morerecently,in
Syria,ISISsetupamarriagebrokeragetorecruitpartnersforitsfighters.Thisisnottosaythatthese
relationshipsarenecessarilyfreeofcoercionindeed,farfromit.Oneofthereasonstriballeadersjoinedthe

A R CHI V ES

U.S.backedSunniAwakeningin2006wastheirunwillingnesstosubmittheirdaughterstomenthey
deemedtheirinferiors.And,ofcourse,wehavelittleinklingaboutthewishesofthebridesthemselves.But

January2015

thesymbolicandpoliticalvalenceofmarriage,involvingreciprocalexchangeandobligationinsteadof

December2014

expropriationandseizure,isdramaticallydifferentthansexualslaveryandconcubinage.Giventheseeming

November2014

permanenceofISISfootholdalongthenowdefunctSyriaIraqfrontier,marryingintotheISISfoldmightbe

October2014

attractiveasawaytoensurepersonalandfamilialprotection.ThisalsohelpsexplainwhyISISwhyISIS
enforcessuchstringentseclusiononmarriedormarriageablewomen.InMosul,ISISimposedcomplete
gendersegregationonuniversitystudies.Alongsideitsdutiesaspurveyorsofsexualslavery,thefemale
KhansaabrigadealsoactsasavirtuepoliceensuringwomenadheretoIslamiccodesofmodesty.

September2014
August2014
July2014
June2014

ISISsviolenceisaheinouscrimeofwar,butalsorepresentsaparticularformofstatecraft.Atfirstglance,it

May2014

mightappearthatthesepractices,thoughjustifiedbyselectiveinterpretationsofIslamiclaw,serveonlyto

April2014

satisfyprurientsexualurges.Muchlikeitsmanipulationofwaterandoilresources,though,ISISsuseof

March2014

sexualandethnicviolencehasbothancientandmodernantecedents.Byselectivelyreinforcing,creating,
andseveringtiesofkinship,theseviolentpracticescanaffectbondsofloyaltyandobediencefarmore
substantiallythanthesimpledistributionofresourcerents.If,asDeborahAvantrightfullyurges,theU.S.
mustdevelopapoliticalaswellasmilitaryresponsetoISIS,thenitwillhavetounderstandthelogicand
legaciesofsexualandethnicviolence,bothbyISISandbytheregimesitchallenges.

February2014
January2014
December2013
November2013
October2013

ArielI.Ahram(@arielahram)isanassistantprofessorinVirginiaTechsSchoolofPublicand

September2013

InternationalAffairsinAlexandria,Va.HeistheauthorofProxyWarriors:TheRiseandFallofState

August2013

SponsoredMilitias(Stanford,2011).

July2013
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TA GS: GE N D E R, GE N O CI D E , I RA Q , I SI S, RA P E , RA P E
D URI N G WA RTI ME , SE X UA L VI O L E N CE , SY RI A

FRO M : GO VE RN A N CE, H UMA N RI GHTS, WA R

What Was England Thinking?

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