PATTS REVIEW CENTER

PATTS COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

HIGH-SPEED AERODYNAMICS
REVIEWER: R.R. RENIGEN
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
When a change in pressure is accompanied by such a change in density, the flow is called compressible and
the amount of compressibility depends on the velocity of the air.
At supersonic speeds, all pressure changes are accompanied either by shock waves, through which the
pressure and density are increased, or else by expansion waves, through which these quantities are reduced.
GASES
A gas is composed of individual, distinct particles, each in continual, irregular motion, and these particles are
constantly colliding with each other.
1 Perfect Gas Law equation
P = RT
Where: P = Pressure in Pa
= Density in Kg/m3
R = Universal gas constant ( = 287.08 J/Kg-K for air)
T = Absolute temperature in K
2 Adiabatic Process


0

P
P0

Where:

CP
CV

= specific heat ratio ( = 1.4 for dry air )

CP = specific heat at constant pressure ( = 1,006 J/Kg-K )

CV = specific heat at constant volume ( = 718.6 J/Kg-K )

3 Speed of Sound in Air, Va

Speed of sound sound waves travel through the air at a definite speed.
P

Va =

Va =

RT

Va =

20.05

Va in m/s , T in K

4 Compressible Bernoulli Equation

V2
2

constant

constant
1 2

Where:

OR:

V2

2
1

V
0
2

P0

0

5 Stagnation Pressure in Compressible Fluids

At the stagnation point, the velocity is zero and the pressure and density are at maximum.
PS

1 V0
P0 1

2 Va20

6 Mach Number
V
M =

Va

7 Reynolds Number
VR
RN =

where:
V = average axial velocity
R = inner radius of tube
= dynamic viscosity of air
8 Law of Continuity

AV

where : constant
1 2

Constant

1A1V1 =

2A2V2
Relevant Properties of gases

Types of gas

Ratio of Specific
Heats
1.4
1.288
1.4
1.666
1.666
1.666
1.395
1.399

Air
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Hydrogen (H2)
Helium (He)
Neon (Ne)
Argon (A)
Oxygen (O2)
Nitrogen (N2)

Gas Constant
R( J/Kg-K)
287.08
188.96
4125.52
2077.67
412.10
208.17
259.90
296.86

One-dimensional Flow Nozzles and Diffusers

One-dimensional flow is used to describe a flow in which flow conditions are sensibly constant across a
cross-section of a nozzle or diffuser normal to the flow direction. Conditions change only along a stream line from
one cross-section to the other along the length of the nozzle or diffuser. In two-dimensional flow, condition changes
across a cross-section.
Thermodynamic Relations Isentropic or Reversible Adiabatic Gas Laws apply in a flow where no
compression shock waves occur. Note that isentropic losses in pressure exist through shock waves.

1. Pressure, Density, Temperature, Speed of Sound and Mach Number Equations

For any gas

P2

T2
=

P1

-1

Va2
=

T1

2
-1

(-1) M1 + 2
-1

(-1) M22 + 2
2

=
Va1

For air, = 1.4

1. 4

3.5

P2
=

T2
=

3.5

M12 + 5

Va2
=

P1
2.

T1

M22 + 5

Va1

Area Mach Number Relationship

For any gas

A2
A1

2
M 2 1 M 2 2

M1 1 M 1 2 2

1
2 1

For air
3
A2

=
A1

M22 + 5

M1

M2

M12 + 5

Problems:
1. The temperature and pressure at the stagnation point of a high-speed missile are 934R and 7.8 atm, respectively.
Calculate the density at this point.
3. Consider the isentropic flow over an airfoil. The freestream conditions are T = 245 K and P= 4.35 104N/m2.
At a point on the airfoil, the pressure P = 3.6 104N/m2. Calculate the density at this point.
4. Consider the isentropic flow through a supersonic wind-tunnel nozzle. The reservoir properties are T o= 500 K
and Po = 10 atm. If P = 1 atm at the nozzle exit, calculate the exit temperature and density.
5. In the reservoir of a supersonic wind tunnel, the velocity is negligible, and the temperature is 1000 K. The
temperature at the nozzle exit is 600 K. Assuming adiabatic flow through the nozzle, calculate the velocity at the
exit.
6. An airfoil in a freestream where P = 0.61 atm, = 0.819 Kg/m3, and V = 300 m/s. At a point on the airfoil
surface, the pressure is 0.5 atm. Assuming isentropic flow, calculate the velocity at that point.
7. An air tank with a nozzle has a pressure of 196.32 KPa and density of 1.9 Kg/m 3. Outside the convergingdiverging nozzle, the pressure is atmospheric and designed to have a Mach No. of 1.0 and 1.5 at the throat and
exit respectively. The area at the throat is 0.11m 2. Calculate the following: (a) Temperature and speed of sound at
the tank. (b) Pressure, density, temperature and speed of sound at the throat. (c) Mass flow at the exit.

MACH NUMBERS AND SHOCK WAVES

Mach Number Classification
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Incompressible
Subsonic
Sonic
Transonic
Supersonic
Hypersonic

,
,
,
,
,
,

M 0.3
M 1.0
M 1.0
0.8 M 1.2
1.0 M 5
M>5

Shock wave
A large-amplitude compression wave, such as that produced by an explosion, caused by supersonic motion of
a body in motion.
Manifest the collapsed area of the dense region where the density is instantaneous.
Formed thru the continuous compilation of particles travelling at high speeds that form a boundary line.

Reaction from a Shock Wave

a. Compression of Gases
When the flow is supersonic, compression does not occur gradually, but takes place very suddenly in a thin
region, which is known as a shock wave.
It is the region of increasing pressure and density with falling velocity.
Compressions are propagated as finite disturbances, at a speed greater than the speed of sound.
b. Expansion of Gases
Regions in which the velocity increases, while pressure and density decrease are known as expansion
regions.
Disturbances in the flow which constitute expansions are propagated as infinitesimal disturbances with speed
of sound.
Types of Waves
a. shock waves/compression waves
1. Normal Shock Waves (NSW)
formed by blunt bodies
2. Oblique Shock Waves (OSW)
a function of deflecting angles
b. expansion waves

When the density is decreased, the change is gradual rather than as in the compressive case, and is always of
the oblique type. Because the change is gradual, it is not a shock wave and has no normal type corresponding
to the compressive case.

Examples of Normal Shocks

1. Flow over a blunt body
bow shock

This portion of the bow shock is

normal to the flow

M > 1

The flow is supersonic over a blunt body

A strong bow shock wave exists in front of the body.
Although this wave is curved, the region of the shock closest to the nose is essentially normal to the flow.
The streamline that passes through this normal portion of the bow shock later impinges on the nose of the
body and controls the values of stagnation pressure and temperature at the nose.

2. Overexpanded flow through a nozzle

Normal shock inside
the nozzle

M<1

M>1

Supersonic flow is established inside a nozzle (which can be a supersonic wind

tunnel, a rocket engine, etc.)
where the back pressure is high enough to cause a normal shock wave to stand inside the nozzle.
Example of Oblique Shock Wave

Oblique shock

M 2 < M1
P2 > P 1

M1 > 1

2 > 1

P1

T2 > T1

T1

/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /
concave corner

The wall is turned upward at the corner through the deflection angle ; i.e., the corner is concave.
The flow at the wall must be tangent to the wall; hence, the streamline at the wall is also deflected upward
through the angle .
The bulk of the gas is above the wall, the streamlines are turned upward, into the main bulk of the flow.
Whenever a supersonic flow is turned into itself, an oblique shock wave will occur.
The originally horizontal streamlines ahead of the wave are uniformly deflected in crossing the wave, such
that the streamlines behind the wave are parallel to each other and inclined upward at the deflection angle .
Across the wave, the Mach number discontinuously decreases, and the pressure, density, and temperature
discontinuously increase.

Example of Expansion wave

Expansion fan

M1 >1
P1
1

M 2 < M1
T1

/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /

P2 > P 1

2 > 1
T2 > T1

Shows the case where the wall is turned downward at the corner through the deflection angle ; i.e., the
corner is convex.
The flow at the wall must be tangent to the wall; hence, the streamline at the wall is deflected downward
through the angle .
The bulk of the gas is above the wall, the streamlines are turned downward, away from the main bulk of the
flow.
Whenever a supersonic flow is turned away from itself, an expansion wave will occur. This expansion
wave is in the same of a fan centered at the corner. The fan continuously opens in the direction away from
the corner.
The originally horizontal streamlines ahead of the expansion wave are deflected smoothly and continuously
through the expansion fan such that the streamlines behind the wave are parallel to each other and inclined
downward at the deflection angle .
Across the expansion wave, the Mach number increases, and the pressure, temperature, and density decrease.

Water-Wave Analogy Supersonic Speed

V > Va
5

Vt

Disturbance pattern created by particles moving faster than speed of sound.

The speed of the particle is increase until it is greater than the speed at which the pressure waves travel
(V>Va). In the case, the object travels faster than the wavelets it produces, and the individual waves combine
along a common front, where the wavelets intersect, reinforce each other, and create a new and much
stronger wave along the tangent common to all wavelets.
The portion of the wavelets ahead of the point to tangency will lose their identity and be merge into the
envelope created by the other wavelets.
Replacing the wavelets in water by pressure impulses in the air, it can be seen that a definite line of
demarcation is set up in the air, separating the region affected by the body from the free-stream conditions.

Mach Line, Angle and Number

Mach line

V2 - Va2

M>1

Mach Line
The line of disturbance created along the envelope of individual wavelets.
The line so drawn to evaluate the geometric condition of a supersonic pattern (i.e., Mach cone).
The point of contact with the circles of their common tangent is the location of the source.
The disturbance at this point tends to build up into a much stronger disturbance than the one being created by the
source; but since the latter is infinitesimal, the disturbance remains vanishingly weak.

There is still no change in flow properties across this common tangent which, however, divides the region which is
affected by the disturbance from that which is not. This is known as a normal Mach line.
Mach Number, M
The ratio between the speed of the air and the speed of sound in the air.
M

V
Va

Mach Angle,
The angle which the Mach line makes with the free-stream direction.
Defined by the relative velocities between the free airstream V, and the speed of sound in the stream Va.

sin

cos

tan

Va
1

V M

V 2 Va

Va
V 2 Va

M2 1
M

1
M2 1

Problems:
1. A supersonic aircraft flies horizontally at 3,000 meters altitude with a constant velocity of 800 meters per second.
The aircraft passes directly overhead a stationary ground observer. How much time elapses after it has passed
over the observer before the latter hears the noise from the aircraft?
2. A jet plane flies at an altitude of 2,000 meters. An observer on the ground notes that he hears the sound of the
plane exactly 5 seconds after the plane has passed directly overhead. Calculate the velocity of the plane.
Normal Shock Wave Equations

Given
conditions
ahead of the
wave

V1

V2

P1 1 T1 Va1 M1

P2 2 T2 Va2 M2

/////////////////////////////////
10

Unknown
conditions
behind the
wave

1. Mach Number
For any gas

For air, =1.4

1
2

1 M 1 2 2

M2

2M 1 1
2

M12 5

M1 5
6M 1

6M 1

1
2

7M 2 1
1

2. Velocity Ratio

1 M1 2
V2

V1
1 M1 2
2

3. Density Ratio

1 M1
2

1
1 M12 2
2

M1 5

4. Pressure Ratio
2
P2
2 M 1 1

P1
1

7M1 1
6

5. Temperature Ratio
T2

T1

2M

2
1

1 1 M1 2
1 2 M12
2

7M

2
1

1 M1 5
36M 1

6. Stagnation Pressure
01

P1

P0 2

02

P01

P2

1 M 1 2 2

1 M 2 2 2

M1 2 5

3.5

M22 5

3.5

Ahead of the shock

Behind the shock

Total head
pressure across
the NSW

11

P02
P01

2
2 M 1 1

1
1

1 M1 2

1 M1 2 2

2.5

7M 2 1
1

3.5

6M 1 2

M 2 5
1

Problems:
1. Consider a normal shock wave in air where the upstream flow properties are
V1 = 680 mps, T1 = 288 K and P1 = 1 atm. Calculate the velocity, temperature, and pressure downstream
of the shock.
2. A normal shock wave was formed on the surface of a supersonic aircraft at a velocity of 1,600 m/s into
still atmospheric air at standard seal level conditions. Calculate: a)M 1 b)M2 c)P2 d)T2 e)V2.
3.

The pressure upstream of a normal shock wave is 1 atm. The pressure and temperature downstream of
the wave are 10.33 atm and 1390 R, respectively. Calculate the Mach number and temperature upstream
of the wave.

4. Air at initial velocity would cause a pressure ratio of 3 across a normal shock wave at 6 km above sea
level. Find: a)V1 b)P2 c)2 d)V2 e) Va 2 f)T2.
5. At an altitude of 7 km, air is travelling at a supersonic speed and decelerated by a normal shock wave
which causes a density ratio of 0.325 across the wave. Compute: a) M 1 b)V 1 c) Va1 d)M2 e)V2 f)P2 g)2
h)T2.
6. The flow just upstream of a normal shock wave is given by P 1 = 1 atm, T1 = 288 K, M1 = 2.6. Calculate
the following properties just downstream of the shock: P 2, T2, M2, P0 2 and T0 2 .
7. Air at 10 km above sea level, initially travelling at supersonic speed is decelerated thru a normal shock
wave. The deceleration caused a velocity of 1,600 Kph after the wave. Calculate the following:
a) Velocity and Mach number before the wave
b) P, , T, and Va after the wave.
Oblique Shock Wave Equation (Exact Method): Two-dimensional flow

12

Where:

W = wave angle

= deflection angle

The effect of viscosity in the air and in the formation of a boundary layer is neglected. It is assumed that the flow
over the surface is not affected by frictional forces. Separation and wake effects are likewise neglected.
The flow is assumed to be irrotational. This will be true only when the air deflected along a surface. Whenever the
surface in the airstream has curvature, the initial wave will be curved and the flow will have vorticity. The curvature
of the wave is small if the curvature of the surface is and the effect of vorticity will be correspondingly small.
No heat conduction exists between the adjacent streamline or across the shock wave. The error incurred by this
assumption is negligible.
As with the approximate theory, the shock wave must be attached to the corner or leading edge of the surface over
which the air is flowing.

Ahead of the shock

sin W

VN1
V1

VN1 V1 sin W

M N1 M1 sin W

Or:

sin W

M N1
M1

After the shock

sin W

VN 2
V2

VN 2 V2 sin W

13

sin W

1.

M N2

M N 2 M 2 sin W

M2

Pressure Ratio
For any gas

For air, =1.4

P2 2M1 sin 2 W 1

P1
1

7 M1 sin 2 W 1
6

Or:

P2

P1

2
1
1

2
1

6
=

1 1

2
1

Density Ratio

2.

1 M1 sin 2 W
2

1 1 M12 sin 2 W 2
2

6M1 sin 2 W

M1 sin 2 W 5

Or:

tan W
2

1 tan W
Temperature Ratio

3.

T2 2M1 sin 2 W 1 1 M1 sin 2 W 2

T1
1 2 M12 sin 2 W

4.

= 7M

2
1

sin 2 W 1 M1 sin 2 W 5
2

36M1 sin 2 W

Normal Component of M2

M N2

1
2

1 M1 sin W 2
2

2
2 M1 sin W 1
2

M1 2 sin 2 W 5

7 M 2 sin 2 1
1
W

14

1
2

Mach number after the wave

5.

M2

M N2

sin W

Or:
1
2

1 M1 2 sin 2 W 2

M2

csc W

2
2 M1 sin W 1
2

M1 2 sin 2 W 5

1
2

7M 2 sin 2 1 csc W
1
W

= M
2

Or:

M2

2
1
1

1
2

6.

csc W

M2

2
1
6
1

csc W

Wave Angle2

7.

1
2

P2
1
1
P1

Arc sin
2

2 M 1

1
2

P2
1
6
P
Arc sin 1 2

7 M1

1
2

Deflection Angle

Arc tan 2 cot W

2
2

M1 M1 cos 2 W 2
8.

M1 sin 2 W 1

Velocity Ratio

cos W
V2

V1 cos W
9.

Total Upstream Pressure

P01
P1
10.

01

T01

T1

T02

T2

1 M 1 2 2

1 M 2 2 2

Total Downstream Pressure

P02
P2

02

Problems:

15

1. Using the exact theory method, find the final Mach number and density in the compressive case of an initial
Mach number of 1.75 and a deflection of 8. Assume standard sea level conditions.
2. Find all aerodynamic and thermodynamic conditions on both sides of compression wave. Supersonic stream
is at M=1.6 compressing through an angle of 8. Initial pressure and temperature are 10 psia and 20F,
respectively.
3. Consider a supersonic flow with M=2, P=1 atm, and T=288 K. This flow is deflected at a compression corner
through 20. Calculate M, P, T, and P0 and T0 behind the resulting oblique shock wave.
4. Consider an oblique shock wave with a wave angle of 30. This upstream flow Mach number is 2.4.
Calculate the deflection angle of the flow, the pressure and temperature ratios across the shock wave and the
Mach number behind the wave.
5. Consider an oblique shock wave with W = 35 and a pressure ratio
number.

16

P2
3.0 . Calculate the upstream Mach
P1

24

2.530

25

2.433

26

2.344

27

2.261

28

2.185

29

2.115

30

2.050

31

1.989

32

1.932

33

1.879

34

1.830

35

1.783

36

1.740

37

1.699

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

1.660

1.62
4

1.58
9

1.55
7

1.52
6

1.49
8

1.47
0

1.44
4

1.42
0

1.39
6

1.37
4

1.35
3

1.33
3

1.31
5

1.29
7

1.28
0

1.26
4

1.24
8

1.23
4

1.22
0

1.20
7

1.19
4

1.18
3

1.17
2

1.16
1

1.15
2

1.14
2

1.13
4

1.126

1.62
4

1.59
1

1.56
0

1.53
0

1.50
2

1.47
5

1.45
0

1.42
6

1.40
4

1.38
2

1.36
2

1.34
3

1.32
5

1.30
8

1.29
2

1.27
6

1.26
2

1.24
8

1.23
5

1.22
3

1.21
1

1.20
1

1.19
0

1.18
1

1.17
2

1.16
4

1.157

2.608

2.505

2.411

2.324

2.244

2.171

2.102

2.039

1.980

1.924

1.873

1.825

1.779

1.737

1.697

1.66
0

2.691

2.582

2.483

2.391

2.307

2.230

2.158

2.091

2.030

1.972

1.918

1.868

1.821

1.777

1.736

1.69
7

1.66
1

1.62
6

1.59
4

1.56
3

1.53
4

1.50
7

1.48
1

1.45
7

1.43
4

1.41
2

1.39
2

1.37
2

1.35
4

1.33
7

1.32
0

1.30
5

1.29
0

1.27
6

1.26
4

1.25
1

1.24
0

1.23
0

1.22
0

1.21
1

1.20
3

1.19
5

1.188

1.776

1.73
6

1.69
8

1.66
3

1.62
9

1.59
8

1.56
8

1.54
0

1.51
4

1.48
9

1.46
5

1.44
3

1.42
2

1.40
2

1.38
4

1.36
6

1.34
9

1.33
4

1.31
9

1.30
6

1.29
3

1.28
1

1.27
0

1.25
9

1.25
0

1.24
1

1.23
3

1.22
6

1.220

1.819

1.77
7

1.73
8

1.70
1

1.66
6

1.63
4

1.60
3

1.57
4

1.54
7

1.52
2

1.49
7

1.47
5

1.45
3

1.43
3

1.41
4

1.39
6

1.37
9

1.36
4

1.34
9

1.33
5

1.32
2

1.31
1

1.30
0

1.29
0

1.28
0

1.27
2

1.26
5

1.25
8

1.252

1.77
9

1.74
1

1.70
5

1.67
1

1.64
0

1.61
0

1.58
2

1.55
5

1.53
1

1.50
7

1.48
5

1.46
5

1.44
5

1.42
7

1.41
0

1.39
4

1.37
9

1.36
6

1.35
3

1.34
1

1.33
0

1.32
0

1.31
1

1.30
3

1.29
6

1.29
0

1.285

2.782

2.881

2.666

2.757

2.560

2.644

2.463

2.541

2.374

2.447

2.293

2.360

2.217

2.280

2.147

2.207

2.083

2.139

2.022

2.076

1.966

2.017

1.914

1.962

1.865

1.911

1.819

1.864

2.991

2.857

2.735

2.625

2.525

2.433

2.348

2.270

2.199

2.132

2.071

2.013

1.960

1.910

1.863

1.82
0

3.112

2.967

2.836

2.717

2.609

2.511

2.421

2.339

2.263

2.193

2.128

2.067

2.011

1.959

1.910

1.86
5

1.82
2

1.78
3

1.74
5

1.71
0

1.67
8

1.64
7

1.61
8

1.59
1

1.56
5

1.54
1

1.51
9

1.49
7

1.47
8

1.45
9

1.44
2

1.42
6

1.41
1

1.39
7

1.38
4

1.37
2

1.36
1

1.35
2

1.34
3

1.33
5

1.32
9

1.32
3

1.319

1.960

1.91
2

1.86
8

1.82
6

1.78
8

1.75
1

1.71
7

1.68
5

1.65
5

1.62
7

1.60
1

1.57
6

1.55
3

1.53
1

1.51
1

1.49
2

1.47
4

1.45
8

1.44
3

1.42
9

1.41
6

1.40
4

1.39
3

1.38
4

1.37
5

1.36
8

1.36
2

1.35
6

1.353

2.013

1.96
3

1.91
6

1.87
3

1.83
2

1.79
4

1.75
9

1.72
5

1.69
4

1.66
5

1.63
8

1.61
2

1.58
9

1.56
6

1.54
5

1.52
6

1.50
8

1.49
1

1.47
6

1.46
2

1.44
9

1.43
7

1.42
6

1.41
7

1.40
8

1.40
1

1.39
5

1.39
1

1.387

1.96
7

1.92
1

1.87
9

1.83
9

1.80
2

1.76
7

1.73
5

1.70
5

1.67
7

1.65
0

1.62
6

1.60
3

1.58
1

1.56
1

1.54
3

1.52
6

1.51
0

1.49
6

1.48
2

1.47
0

1.46
0

1.45
0

1.44
2

1.43
5

1.43
0

1.42
5

1.423

3.248

3.402

3.089

3.226

2.946

3.070

2.818

2.930

2.702

2.804

2.597

2.690

2.500

2.587

2.412

2.492

2.332

2.406

2.257

2.327

2.188

2.254

2.125

2.186

2.066

2.124

2.011

2.066

10

3.579

3.382

3.208

3.054

2.917

2.793

2.681

2.579

2.487

2.402

2.324

2.252

2.186

2.125

2.068

2.01
6

11

3.784

3.561

3.366

3.195

3.043

2.907

2.785

2.675

2.575

2.484

2.400

2.324

2.253

2.188

2.128

2.07
2

2.02
1

1.97
3

1.92
8

1.88
7

1.84
8

1.81
2

1.77
8

1.74
6

1.71
7

1.69
0

1.66
4

1.64
0

1.61
8

1.59
8

1.57
9

1.56
1

1.54
5

1.53
0

1.51
7

1.50
5

1.49
4

1.48
5

1.47
7

1.47
0

1.46
5

1.46
1

1.459

2.192

2.13
3

2.07
8

2.02
7

1.98
0

1.93
7

1.89
6

1.85
8

1.82
3

1.79
0

1.75
9

1.73
1

1.70
4

1.68
0

1.65
7

1.63
6

1.61
6

1.59
8

1.58
2

1.56
7

1.55
3

1.54
1

1.53
0

1.52
1

1.51
3

1.50
6

1.50
1

1.49
8

1.496

2.261

2.19
8

2.14
0

2.08
6

2.03
6

1.99
0

1.94
7

1.90
7

1.87
0

1.83
6

1.80
4

1.77
4

1.74
6

1.72
1

1.69
7

1.67
5

1.65
5

1.63
6

1.61
9

1.60
4

1.59
0

1.57
8

1.56
7

1.55
8

1.55
0

1.54
4

1.53
9

1.53
6

1.534

2.20
6

2.14
8

2.09
6

2.04
7

2.00
1

1.95
9

1.92
0

1.88
4

1.85
0

1.81
9

1.79
0

1.76
4

1.73
9

1.71
6

1.69
5

1.67
6

1.65
9

1.64
3

1.62
9

1.61
6

1.60
5

1.59
6

1.58
8

1.58
2

1.57
7

1.57
5

1.574

12

13

4.026

4.320

3.769

4.017

3.548

3.760

3.355

3.540

3.185

3.348

3.035

3.180

2.901

3.031

2.780

2.898

2.671

2.779

2.573

2.671

2.483

2.573

2.401

2.485

2.325

2.403

2.256

2.329

14

4.686

4.318

4.014

3.757

3.537

3.346

3.178

3.030

2.898

2.780

2.673

2.577

2.489

2.409

2.335

2.26
8

15

5.162

4.697

4.325

4.018

3.759

3.539

3.348

3.181

3.033

2.902

2.784

2.678

2.582

2.495

2.416

2.34
3

2.27
7

2.21
6

2.15
9

2.10
7

2.05
9

2.01
5

1.97
3

1.93
5

1.90
0

1.86
7

1.83
7

1.80
9

1.78
3

1.75
9

1.73
8

1.71
8

1.70
0

1.68
3

1.66
9

1.65
6

1.64
5

1.63
5

1.62
8

1.62
2

1.61
7

1.61
5

1.614

2.505

2.42
6

2.35
4

2.28
8

2.22
8

2.17
2

2.12
1

2.07
4

2.03
0

1.98
9

1.95
2

1.91
8

1.88
6

1.85
6

1.82
9

1.80
5

1.78
2

1.76
1

1.74
3

1.72
6

1.71
1

1.69
7

1.68
6

1.67
6

1.66
9

1.66
3

1.65
9

1.65
6

1.656

2.602

2.51
6

2.43
8

2.36
7

2.30
2

2.24
2

2.18
7

2.13
7

2.09
0

2.04
7

2.00
8

1.97
1

1.93
8

1.90
7

1.87
8

1.85
2

1.82
8

1.80
7

1.78
7

1.77
0

1.75
4

1.74
1

1.72
9

1.71
9

1.71
1

1.70
5

1.70
1

1.70
0

1.700

2.53
1

2.45
3

2.38
3

2.31
8

2.25
9

2.20
5

2.15
5

2.10
9

2.06
7

2.02
8

1.99
3

1.96
0

1.93
0

1.90
2

1.87
7

1.85
5

1.83
4

1.81
6

1.80
0

1.78
6

1.77
4

1.76
4

1.75
6

1.75
0

1.74
6

1.74
4

1.745

16

17

5.815

6.795

5.193

5.885

4.717

5.238

4.338

4.747

4.027

4.360

3.767

4.044

3.545

3.781

3.354

3.557

3.187

3.365

3.039

3.197

2.908

3.049

2.791

2.919

2.686

2.802

2.591

2.697

18

8.519

6.948

5.975

5.296

4.788

4.390

4.067

3.800

3.574

3.380

3.211

3.063

2.932

2.815

2.711

2.61
6

19

12.99
3

8.913

7.139

6.086

5.368

4.839

4.428

4.098

3.825

3.596

3.400

3.230

3.081

2.949

2.832

2.72
8

2.63
4

2.54
8

2.47
1

2.40
1

2.33
7

2.27
8

2.22
5

2.17
6

2.13
1

2.08
9

2.05
1

2.01
6

1.98
5

1.95
6

1.92
9

1.90
5

1.88
4

1.86
5

1.84
8

1.83
3

1.82
1

1.81
0

1.80
2

1.79
6

1.79
2

1.79
1

1.792

2.970

2.85
3

2.74
8

2.65
4

2.56
9

2.49
2

2.42
2

2.35
8

2.30
0

2.24
7

2.19
9

2.15
4

2.11
4

2.07
7

2.04
3

2.01
2

1.98
4

1.95
9

1.93
6

1.91
6

1.89
8

1.88
3

1.87
0

1.85
9

1.85
1

1.84
5

1.84
1

1.84
0

1.842

3.128

2.99
5

2.87
7

2.77
2

2.67
7

2.59
2

2.51
6

2.44
6

2.38
3

2.32
5

2.27
3

2.22
5

2.18
1

2.14
2

2.10
5

2.07
2

2.04
3

2.01
6

1.99
2

1.97
0

1.95
2

1.93
5

1.92
2

1.91
1

1.90
2

1.89
6

1.89
2

1.89
1

1.893

3.02
4

2.90
5

2.79
9

2.70
4

2.61
9

2.54
3

2.47
3

2.41
0

2.35
3

2.30
1

2.25
4

2.21
1

2.17
2

2.13
7

2.10
5

2.07
6

2.05
1

2.02
8

2.00
8

1.99
1

1.97
7

1.96
5

1.95
6

1.94
9

1.94
6

1.94
5

1.947

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

14.92
2

9.424

7.376

18.47
0

10.10
3

6.222

7.671

28.32
5

11.04
3

5.457

6.388

4.902

5.564

4.476

4.978

4.136

4.533

3.857

4.182

3.623

3.896

3.424

3.657

3.253

3.454

3.102

3.280

8.040

6.590

5.693

5.069

4.602

4.237

3.941

3.697

3.490

3.313

3.15
9

12.43
0

8.512

6.836

5.847

5.176

4.683

4.302

3.995

3.743

3.531

3.35
1

3.19
4

3.05
7

2.93
7

2.83
0

2.73
5

2.65
0

2.57
3

2.50
4

2.44
1

2.38
5

2.33
3

2.28
7

2.24
4

2.20
6

2.17
2

2.14
1

2.11
4

2.08
9

2.06
8

2.05
0

2.03
5

2.02
2

2.01
3

2.00
6

2.00
2

2.00
2

2.004

3.797

3.57
9

3.39
4

3.23
5

3.09
6

2.97
4

2.86
6

2.77
0

2.68
4

2.60
7

2.53
8

2.47
6

2.41
9

2.36
9

2.32
3

2.28
1

2.24
4

2.21
1

2.18
1

2.15
5

2.13
2

2.11
3

2.09
6

2.08
3

2.07
3

2.06
6

2.06
2

2.06
2

2.065

4.131

3.86
0

3.63
5

3.44
4

3.28
1

3.14
0

3.01
6

2.90
6

2.81
0

2.72
3

2.64
6

2.57
7

2.51
4

2.45
8

2.40
8

2.36
3

2.32
2

2.28
6

2.25
4

2.22
6

2.20
1

2.18
0

2.16
3

2.14
8

2.13
7

2.13
0

2.12
6

2.12
5

2.129

3.93
2

3.69
8

3.50
2

3.33
4

3.18
9

3.06
3

2.95
2

2.85
4

2.76
7

2.68
9

2.62
0

2.55
8

2.50
2

2.45
2

2.40
8

2.36
8

2.33
3

2.30
2

2.27
5

2.25
3

2.23
3

2.21
8

2.20
6

2.19
8

2.19
4

2.19
3

2.197

14.72
2

9.131
19.50
7

7.138

6.031

9.974

7.515

43.96
5

11.19
8

5.303

6.253

4.778

5.454

4.377

4.890

4.058

4.465

7.995

6.523

5.633

5.021

4.567

4.21
5

13.168

8.625

6.855

5.846

5.174

4.68
6

4.31
2

4.01
4

3.77
0

3.56
7

3.39
4

3.24
5

3.11
6

3.00
3

2.90
4

2.81
6

2.73
7

2.66
8

2.60
6

2.55
0

2.50
1

2.45
7

2.41
9

2.38
5

2.35
6

2.33
1

2.31
0

2.29
3

2.28
0

2.27
1

2.26
6

2.26
6

2.269

6.103

5.35
5

4.82
5

4.42
4

4.10
9

3.85
3

3.64
1

3.46
2

3.30
9

3.17
6

3.06
1

2.96
0

2.87
0

2.79
2

2.72
2

2.66
0

2.60
5

2.55
6

2.51
3

2.47
6

2.44
3

2.41
6

2.39
3

2.37
4

2.36
0

2.35
0

2.34
4

2.34
4

2.348

17.07
5

9.492

7.271

17

29

30

32.16
2

10.77
0

7.809

6.41
8

5.57
1

4.98
7

4.55
4

4.21
8

3.94
8

3.72
6

3.53
9

3.38
1

3.24
4

3.12
6

3.02
3

2.93
2

2.85
2

2.78
2

2.72
0

2.66
5

2.61
7

2.57
5

2.53
9

2.50
9

2.48
3

2.46
2

2.44
6

2.43
5

2.42
9

2.42
8

2.432

12.89
7

8.53
0

6.81
1

5.83
1

5.17
9

4.70
6

4.34
4

4.05
7

3.82
2

3.62
7

3.46
2

3.32
1

3.19
9

3.09
4

3.00
1

2.92
0

2.84
9

2.78
7

2.73
3

2.68
6

2.64
5

2.61
1

2.58
2

2.55
9

2.54
1

2.52
8

2.52
1

2.51
9

2.523

FUNCTIONS FOR CALCULATIONS OF COMPRESSIVE FLOW

18

Prandtl-Mayer Expansion Waves

Forward Mach Line

Rearward Mach Line

1
M1>1

P1
1
T1

M2
P2
2
T2

VT1 M T1

VN1 M N1

1
V2 M 2

V1 M 1

VN 2 M N 2

2
VT2 M T2

The expansion fan is a continuous expansion region which can be visualized as an infinite number of Mach
1
waves, each making the Mach angle = sin -1 M with the local flow direction.
The expansion fan is bounded downstream by a Mach wave which makes the angle 1, with respect to the
1
upstream flow, where 1 = sin-1
. The expansion fan is bounded downstream by another Mach wave which
M
1
makes the angle 2 with respect to the downstream flow, where 2 = sin-1
. Since the expansion through the
M
wave takes place across a continuous succession of Mach waves, and since ds = 0 for each Mach wave, the
expansion is isentropic. This is in direct contrast to flow across an oblique shock, which always experience an
entropy increase.
An expansion wave emanation from a sharp convex corner is called a centered expansion wave. Ludwig Prandtl
and his student Theodor Meyer first worked out a theory for centered expansion waves in 1907-1908, and hence
such waves are commonly denoted as Prandtl-Mayer expansion waves.

19

Steps in solving expansion waves problems:

Va
VN
M N1
1
1 1
M1 V1
V1
M1

1. sin 1 =

VN1 Va1

VN1

sin 1 =

V1

M N1 M N1 1.0

M N1

M1

Va
VN
M N2
1
2 2
M 2 V2
V2
M2

sin 1 =

2. To find M2, use Table (Function for calculations of Expansive Flow).

[f (1)]
3.

[f (2)]

=
=

[f (1)]

[f (1 )]

To find 2:
2

f [f (2)]
2

T2
M1 5

4.
2
T1
M2 5
5. cos 1 =

cos 2 =

VT1
V1
VT2
V2

From formulas of Bernoullis Theorem of

compressible flow using M1 and M2.

M T1
M1
M T2
M2

M 5
P2
g 2
6.

1 2
P1
g 1
M2 5
2

3 .5

Where: [ g(2) ]

f(2)

[ g(1) ]

f(1)

20

 M 2 5
2
h 2
7.

1 2
1
h 1
M2 5

2.5

Where: [ h(2) ]

f(2)

[ h(1) ]

f(1)

Problems:
1. Using the exact theory method, find the final Mach number, pressure and density in the expansion case of an
initial Mach number of 1.75 and a deflection of 8. Assume SSLC.
2. Find all aerodynamic and thermodynamic conditions on both sides of expansion wave. Supersonic stream is
at M = 1.6 expanding through an angle of 8. Initial pressure and temperature are at 10 psia and 20F,
respectively.

21

22

FOR CALCULATIONS OF EXPANSIVE FLOW

f()

0.00

5.00

9.98
14.92

19.81

24.63

29.36

34.00

38.53

42.94

47.22

51.37

55.37

59.23

62.95

66.52

69.94

73.21

76.34

79.34

82.19

84.91

87.50

89.96

92.30

94.53

96.64

98.65

100.5
6
102.3
6
104.0
7
105.7
0
107.2
3
108.6

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
0
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
2
0
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
6
2
7
2
8
2
9
3
0
3
1
3
2
3

g()

h()

0.000
00
0.000
00
0.000
00
0.000
00
0.000
00
0.000
01
0.000
03
0.000
09
0.000
20
0.000
43
0.000
81
0.001
43
0.002
37
0.003
70
0.005
52
0.007
91
0.010
95
0.014
69
0.019
19
0.024
46
0.030
53
0.037
39
0.045
02
0.053
38
0.062
43
0.072
11
0.082
36
0.093
13
0.104
34
0.115
92
0.127
80
0.139
94
0.152
25
0.164

0.000
00
0.000
00
0.000
00
0.000
02
0.000
09
0.000
26
0.000
61
0.001
26
0.002
32
0.003
92
0.006
21
0.009
31
0.013
32
0.018
32
0.024
38
0.031
53
0.039
77
0.049
06
0.059
37
0.070
62
0.082
73
0.095
62
0.109
18
0.123
30
0.137
89
0.152
85
0.168
08
0.183
50
0.199
01
0.214
55
0.230
05
0.245
44
0.260
68
0.275

3
3
4
3
5
3
6
3
7
3
8
3
9
4
0
4
1
4
2
4
3
4
4
4
5
4
6
4
7
4
8
4
9
5
0
5
1
5
2
5
3
5
4
5
5
5
6
5
7
5
8

9
110.0
7
111.3
7
112.6
1
113.7
7
114.8
8
115.9
2
116.9
0
117.8
3
118.7
1
119.5
4
120.3
2
121.0
6
121.7
5
122.4
0
123.0
2
123.5
9
124.1
4
124.6
4
125.1
2
125.5
7
125.9
9
126.3
8
126.7
4
127.0
8
127.4
0

68
0.177
18
0.189
70
0.202
20
0.214
62
0.226
94
0.239
13
0.251
15
0.262
97
0.274
59
0.285
98
0.297
12
0.308
00
0.318
62
0.328
96
0.339
01
0.348
79
0.358
27
0.367
46
0.376
35
0.384
96
0.393
27
0.401
30
0.409
04
0.416
50
0.423
67

71
0.290
51
0.305
03
0.319
24
0.333
14
0.346
69
0.359
88
0.372
71
0.385
17
0.397
25
0.408
94
0.420
26
0.431
20
0.441
77
0.451
96
0.461
79
0.471
25
0.480
37
0.489
14
0.497
57
0.505
67
0.513
45
0.520
91
0.528
07
0.534
93
0.541
49

f()

g()

h()

5
9
6
0
6
1
6
2
6
3
6
4
6
5
6
6

127.6
9
127.9
7
128.2
2
128.4
5
128.6
7
128.8
7
129.0
5
129.2
2

0.430
57
0.437
20
0.443
56
0.449
65
0.455
49
0.461
07
0.466
39
0.471
47

0.547
78
0.553
79
0.559
53
0.565
01
0.570
24
0.575
22
0.579
96
0.584
46

6
7
6
8
6
9
7
0
7
1
7
2
7
3
7
4
7
5
7
6
7
7
7
8
7
9
8
0
8
1
8
2
8
3
8
4
8
5
8
6
8
7
8
8
8
9
9
0

129.3
7
129.5
1
129.6
4
129.7
5
129.8
5
129.9
5
130.0
3
130.1
0
130.1
6
130.2
2
130.2
7
130.3
1
130.3
4
130.3
7
130.3
9
130.4
1
130.4
2
130.4
4
130.4
4
130.4
5
130.4
5
130.4
5
130.4
5
130.4
5

0.476
31
0.480
91
0.485
27
0.489
41
0.493
31
0.497
00
0.500
46
0.503
71
0.506
74
0.509
56
0.512
18
0.514
59
0.516
80
0.518
81
0.520
62
0.522
24
0.523
66
0.524
89
0.525
93
0.526
78
0.527
44
0.527
91
0.528
19
0.528
28

0.588
74
0.592
79
0.596
63
0.600
25
0.603
67
0.606
89
0.609
91
0.612
73
0.615
36
0.617
81
0.620
08
0.622
16
0.624
07
0.625
80
0.627
36
0.628
75
0.629
97
0.631
03
0.631
92
0.632
65
0.633
21
0.633
62
0.633
86
0.633
94

Approximation Method for Oblique Shock & Expansion Waves

This method provides the simple means of determining the change in flow conditions through
oblique shock and expansion waves, particularly pressure distribution on airfoils to obtain the airfoil
section characteristics. In this method, the deflection angle is taken as positive (+) for oblique shock
wave (OSW) and negative (-) for expansion wave (EW).

A.

Pressure Ration and Pressure Coefficient

P
M1 2
1
q

P2
P1

Where:

B.

P2
P1

pressure ratio across OSW or EW

P
q

pressure coefficient across OSW or EW

Pressure Coefficient Determination

1. First-Order Approximation Sometimes referred to as Linear of Ackeret Theory in which
is in first order.
P
= C1
q

where: C1

2
2

M1 1

= deflection angle (rad)

2. Higher-Order Approximation In higher-order approximations, higher-order terms are
added to the first-order term.
a. Second-Order Approximation
P
= C1 + C22
q

where: C 2

M1 M1 2

2 M1 1

b. Third-Order Approximation For OSW, a coefficient D is introduced to correct for

the non-isentropic flow losses across OSW.

P
= C1 + C22 + C33
q

-------------

P
= C1 + C22 + (C3-D)3
q

Where:

C3

1
2

Expansion Wave

-------------

Oblique Shock Wave

1 8 2 3 7 5 6 5 1 4
4
2
M1
M1
M 1 2M1

6
3
3
6

3.5

For Air, =1.4

C3

1
2
1

3.5

4
8
6
4
2
0
.
4
M

1
.
813
M

4
M

2
M

1
1
1
1

1 M14

5 3 4

2
M

1
1
3.5
2

12 M1 1 4

For Air, =1.4

0.2M1

2
1

3 .5

0. 2 M

4
1

1. 6 M 1 2

Problem:
1. Using the Third-Order Approximation, find the pressure acting on the upper and lower
surface of a flat plate inclined at an angle of 10 toward the airflow at initial Mach number of
2 and freestream pressure of 1 atm.
c. Application of Pressure Coefficient Pressure Coefficient can be used to determine
important aerodynamic characteristics of airfoil sections. A practical approach is to
use the second-order approximation which is more accurate than the first-order
method and much simpler than the third-order method. As an example, the Normal

Force Coefficient of a Thin Plate will be considered here.

C N

2
q
L

Where:
P

= C1 + C22

------

OSW

------

EW

= C1(-) + C2(-)2
U

= -C1 + C22
C N 2C 1

4
2

M1 1

Where:
CN = Normal Force Coefficient
= Deflection Angle or Angle of Attack (radians)
M1 = Mach number before Flat Plate
Problem;
1. A two-dimensional thin flat plate is set against an airstream initially at 1,500 meters altitude
at 2,000 mph at an angle of 15. Determine the normal force coefficient and pressure at the
lower and upper surface of the plate.
Airfoil Characteristics
Two-dimensional Characteristics
Basic Aerodynamic Characteristics of Wings:

1. Lift is that component of force which is normal to the direction of the free-stream an
infinite distance ahead of the airfoil.
L

CL

1
V 2 S
2

L

2
PM S
2

L
qS

Where:
q

1
PM 2
2

2. Drag is that component of force parallel to the free-stream direction ahead of the wing.
CD

D
qS

Where:
1
PM 2
2
Three Components of Total Drag
q

a. Form or pressure drag of wave drag is the airwise force resulting from the pressure
distribution when the wing is at the angle of attack at which no lift is generated.
b. Skin Friction is the force created by the tendency of the layer of air next to the surface of
the body to cling to the layer next to it until the free-stream velocity is reached. This shearing
action creates a drag on the surface which is a function of the viscosity, velocity, density and
the type of flow (laminar or turbulent) of the air, as well as the airwise surface dimension.
c. Drag due to lift or drag due to normal force it is the component of the normal force
which is parallel to the direction of the free-stream. It exists only when the airfoil is in an
attitude to supply lift and hence is usually given the name shown at the heading. This force is
called induced drag in the subsonic case but is not so called in the supersonic case because
the type of flow over the lifting surface is of a different character. The term induced drag is
sometimes used to describe the drag created in the region of the tips of rectangular wings
producing lift in supersonic flow, however.
3. Axial force is that component of force parallel to the chord or axis of the wing or body and
is equal to the form drag plus skin friction at zero degree angle of attack.
4. Normal force is the component normal to chord line of the wing.
5. Resultant force is the force representing the resultant of the addition of all local
aerodynamic and viscous forces on the wing from which lift and drag force are resolved.
6. Moment is the resultant of the moments of all forces on a body about some chordwise
reference point.

Forces Acting on Airfoil at Supersonic Speeds

L = NY AY
D = NX AX

;
;

L = Ncos 2 Asin
D = Nsin + Acos

;
;

CL = CN
CA = C D

At = 0:
L=N
A=D

Aerodynamic Characteristics of a Two-dimensional Symmetrical Double-Wedge Airfoil

P
= C1 + C22
q

C1

Where:

M1 1

P
q

second-order degree of accuracy

2
2

------

C2

M1 M1 2

2 M1 1

= pressure change across an oblique compression or an expansion wave

= local angle of attack in radians between the surface and free-stream Mach number.
M = free-stream Mach number.
Notes* = (+) when the free-stream is deflected toward the surface.
= (-) when it is away from the surface.
The values of to be used in the pressure equation for each surface are as follows:
away form the surface; is bigger than

1 = - +
opposite, open to the left
2 = -
3 = +
4 = -
Where:
= angle between free-stream direction and chordline of wing

 = semi-vertex angle of leading and trailing edges.

Pressure Difference over the Front and Rear Halves of the Airfoil at Angle of Attack

Pressure Distribution over Symmetric Double-Wedge Airfoil

P
=

-
q

= 2C1 + 4C2

=
q

P
-

= 2C1 - 4C2

The normal force coefficient CN = q S will be the total difference between the upper and lower
pressure difference (divided by 2 to retain the coefficient form based on the total plan-form area).
N

CN

qS

1
2

1
2

2C1 4C 2 1 2C1 4C 2
2
2
4
2C 1
,
in radians
M2 1

Where:
2

C1

M2 1

pressure coefficient parameter

Total Chordwise Force Coefficient

C DF

1
2

1
2

1
2C1 4C 2 1 2C1 4C 2
2
2

2C1

-------

M2 1

Based on the maximum thickness of the airfoil

Where:

C D F = from drag coefficient

C D F = C D F tan
For small angle , tan

C DF

C DF

, in radians

4 2
M2 1

------

Based on planform area

Drag due to normal force/due to lift

D = N sin + A cos
C D L CN sin + CA cos

Note: CA = C D F C D f

For small angles of attack:

CA cos is very small and sin
Since,

in radians

CN

M2 1

Therefore,
4 2

C DL

M2 1

Additional drag due to skin friction

Depends on the type of strength of shock waves created on the R N whether or not the flow is
laminar or turbulent.
Maybe approximated by the use of coefficients developed by Blasius (laminar) and Von
Karman (turbulent).

Total two-dimensional (sectional) drag of this airfoil

CD

CD F C D L CD f

4 2
M2 1

4
M 1
2

+ C Df

4 2 2
M2 1

+ C Df

Where:
and are in radians and C D f is from the graph against R for turbulent and laminar flow.
Coefficient of moment about the mid-chord

By summating the lift of each surface times the distance to its center of pressure divided
by the chord length, to retain non-dimensionality.
1
2C1 4C 2 0.25 1 2C1 4C 2
2

C m 0.5

C m 0.5

C 2

0.25

Center of Pressure (C.P.) distance at or ahead of the mid-chord point.

-

Moment divided by the normal force

C.P.0.5

C m 0.5 C
CN
C 2 C
2C 1

C 2 C
2C1

Note: For a symmetrical double wedge airfoil, rad.

deg. 57.3

Three General Contours that include the most practical types

The form drag coefficient for any given type of a cross-section may be expressed directly as a
function of the thickness ratio:

C DF

K1 2
M2 1

Where:
t
.
C
K1 = a constant which depends only on the cross-sectional shape.

= the ration of maximum thickness to chord length,

Type
Double-Wedge
Biconvex
Modified double-wedge (a=)
Modified double-wedge General

K1
4
5.33
6
2

Note: a = is the fraction of chord length of the wedge shape at each end.

Optimum Angle of Attack and Maximum

N
ratio
D

The normal force-drag ration is determined, rather than the lift-drag ratio, because the
simplicity of the normal force expression as compared with that of the loft. Form nominal values of
lift-drag ratios, i.e., 5 occurring at optimum angles less than =10 degrees, the lift-drag ratio will be
no more than 5 percent lower than the normal force-drag ratio. The optimum angle of attack for
L
N
highest
ratio will also be slightly higher than that for Dmaximum
.
D
D
N
N
The optimum angle of attack for maximum
is found by differentiating the
D
D
expression to determine the slope as a function of angle of attack and setting this expression equal to
D
zero because the optimum angle occurs where
is a minimum.
N
D

N
0
d

CD
CN

C DF

C DL

C Df

CN

Since,

C DL

dC N 2
4 2
2
d
M 1

CN

dC N
4
2
d
M 1

C DF

opt .

K 1 2
M2 1

K 1 2 C Df M 2 1
4

 CN

CD

K 1 2 C Df M 2 1

max

The expression for optimum angle of attack is related to the maximum lift-drag ratio by the
relation:
opt .

1
N

where: is in radians
max .

Moment and Center of Pressure

C m 0.5 2C 2 A'
Where:
A'

A CB
tC

2
2
2
C
2C

For the double-wedge

2A'

C.P. 0.5

C 2 A' C
C1
Shape

Double-Wedge
Biconvex
Modified double-wedge (a=)
Modified double-wedge General

A'

A CB
C2

2
2
3
2
3
(1-a)

Problems:
1.

Find the section characteristics of a symmetrical double-wedge airfoil of 6% thickness

ratio at S deg. Angle of attack is a supersonic stream of Mach no. M=1.8. Total skin
friction C D f = 0.0053. All coefficients are converted to degree measure in calculations.
2. Find the sectional drag coefficient, optimal angle of attack, and maximum normal forcedrag ratio for a 6% biconvex airfoil at M=1.8, C D f = 0.0053.