Australian Steel Detailers Handbook

Australian
Steel Detailers'
Handbook
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AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION

A.C.N. 000 973 839

A.C.N. 000 973 839
AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS' HANDBOOK
Published by:
Enquiries should be addressed to the publisher:

Business address - Level 13, 99 Mount Street, North Sydney, NSW, 2060, Australia.
Postal address - P.O. Box 6366, North Sydney, NSW, 2059, Australia.
E-mail address - enquiries@aisc.com.au
Website - www.aisc.com.au
Copyright 1999 Australian Institute of Steel Construction

All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form
without the written permission of the Australian Institute of Steel Construction.
i \
First edition 1999
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry:

Australian steel detailer's handbook.
1st ed.
Bibliography.
ISBN 0 909945 79 9.
1. Building, Iron and steel - Handbooks, manuals, etc.
2. Building, Iron and steel - Details - Handbooks, manuals, etc.
3. Steel, structural - Handbooks, manuals, etc.
I. Australian Institute of Steel Construction.
624.1821
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Production & Artwork by Redmark Pty Ltd

6 Kuru Street, North Narrabeen, NSW 2101, Australia
DISCLAIMER
Every effort has been made and all reasonable care taken to ensure the accuracy of the material contained in
this Publication. However, to the extent permitted by law, the Authors, Editors and Publishers of this Publication:
(a) will not be held liable or responsible in any way; and
(b) expressly disclaim any liability or responsibility,

for any loss, damage, costs and expenses incurred in connection with this Publication by any person, whether
that person is the purchaser of this Publication or not. Without limitation, this includes loss, damage, costs and
expenses incurred if any person wholly or partially relies on any part of this Publication, and loss, dam~ge, costs
and expenses incurred as result of the negligence of the Authors, Editors or Publishers.
WARNING
This Publication should be not used without the services of a competent professional person with expert
knowledge in the relevant field, and under no circumstances should this Publication be relied upon to replace
any or all of the knowledge and expertise of such a person.
ii
AISC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS' HANDBOOK
ASDH/01-1999
Australian Steel Detailers' Handbook
Contents
PAGE
Foreword ............................................................................. vii

Acknowledgements .................................................................... vii
Preface ............................................................................. viii
Notation ............................................................................. ix
Abbreviations .......................................................................... ix
1.
2.
3.
4.
INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1-1

1.1
Drafting as a means of communication ............................................. 1-1
1.2
Detail drawings ................................................................ 1-1
1.3
Project organisation ............................................................ 1-2
1.4
Function of the steel detailer ..................................................... 1-4
1.5
Other fields of activity ........................................................... 1-4
STRUCTURAL STEEL . ............................................................ 2-1

2.1
Plain material ...... : .......................................................... 2-1
2.2
Compound sections ............................................................ 2-5
2.3
Characteristics ................................................................ 2-5
2.4
Specifications ................................................................. 2-5
2.5
Physical properties ............................................................. 2-6
2.6
Steel production ............................................................... 2-7
2.7
Tolerances ................................................................... 2-7
DRAFTING EQUIPMENT AND DRAFTING PRACTICES ............................ 3-1

3.1
Manual drafting equipment ..................................................... ~-1 .
3.2
Computer ~ided drafting ..................................................... : ..-s-2-
3 .3
Drafting practices . . . ........................................................... 3-6
3 .4
General procedure . . .......................................................... 3-22
3.5
Approval of completed drawings ................................................. 3-29
ARRANGEMENT AND DETAIL DRAWINGS ........................................ 4-1

4.1
Composition of a typical structure ................................................. 4-1
4.2
Design loading ................................................................ 4-2
4.3
Information provided by the designers ............................................. 4-2
4.4
Drawing sheets ................................................................ 4-5
4.5
Holding down bolt layouts ....................................................... 4-5
4.6
General arrangement drawings ................................................... 4-5
4.7
Detail drawings ............................................................... 4-12
4.8
Components of steel-framed industrial buildings .................................... 4-14
ASDH/01-1999
AISC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILER$' HANDBOOK
iii
5.
6.
7.
8.
iv
FUNDAMENTALS OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING . .............................. 5-1

5 .1
Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................... 5-1
5 .2
Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................... 5-3
5.3
Bending moment .............................................................. 5-3
BOLTING ......................................................................... 6-1

6.1
Introduction .......................................... ' .-...................... 6-1
6.2
Bolt types .................................................................... 6-1
6.3
Bolting categories ............................................................. 6-2
6.4
Design of bolts ................................................................ 6-3
6.5
Bolt length selection ............................................................ 6-3
6.6
Detailing ..................................................................... 6-7
6. 7
Installation of bolts ............................................................. 6-9
6.8
Preparation of bolt lists ........................................................ 6-12
WELDING ......................................................................... 7-1

7.1
Introduction .................................................................. 7-1
7.2
Joint and weld types . . . . . . ............... ~ . . ................................... 7-1
7.3
Edge preparation .............................................................. 7-4
7.4
Reinforcement and backing ...................................................... 7-5
7.5
Incomplete penetration butt welds................................................. 7-5
7.6
Welding positions .............................................................. 7-6
7.7
Practical guidelines ............................................................ 7-7
7.8
Welding symbols .............................................................. 7-7
7 .9
Clearance for welding ......................................................... 7-13
7 .10
Method of giving field instructions ................................................ 7'.c 16
STANDARDISED STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS .................................. 8-1

8.1
Introduction ...... ~ ............................................................ 8-1 .
8.2
Angle seat connection .......................................................... 8-2
8.3
Bearing pad connection ......................................................... 8-3
8.4
Flexible end plate .............................................................. 8-4
8.5
Angle cleat connection .......................................................... 8-6
8.6
Web side plate ................................................................ 8-6
8.7
Welded beam-to-column moment connection ....................................... 8-9
8.8
Bolted beam-to-column moment end plate connection ............................... 8-10
8.9
Splices ..................................................................... 8-11
8.10
Purlin and girt cleats ........................................................... 8-15
8.11
Column base plates ........................................................... 8-16
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9.
BEAMS AND GIRDERS .. .......................................................... 9-1

9.1
Introduction .................................................................. 9-1
9.2
Shop drawings ................................................................ 9-1
9.3
Beam detailing practice ......................................................... 9-1
9.4
Alternate systems of longitudinal dimensioning ....................................... 9-5
9.5
Example of detailing a typical beam ............................................... 9-6
9.6
Example of detailing similar beams ................................................ 9-8
9. 7
Detailing welded plate girders .................................................... 9-8
9.8
Erection clearances ........................................................... 9-10
9.9
Fittings ..................................................................... 9-11
10. COLUMNS .. ..................................................................... 10-1

10.1
Introduction ................................................................. 10-1
10.2
Column bases ............................................................... 10-2
10.3
Splices ............................... , ..................................... 10-3
10.4
Column schedules ............................................................ 10-3
10.5
Column detailing practice ...................................................... 10-3
10.6
Example of detailing a multi-storey column ......................................... 10-7
1O.7
Example of detailing a "portal frame column ......................................... 10-7
10.8
Ancillary details ............................................................. 10-11
11. TRUSSES .................................................. : .................... . 11-1
.1 .
...
11.1
Introduction ................................................................. 11-1
11.2
Types of trusses .............................................................. 11-1
11.3
Chord and web sections ....................................................... 11-2
11.4
Layout and scales ............................................................ 11-2
11.5
Symmetry and rotation ......................................................... 11-2
11.6
Dimensioning ................................................................ 1j-2
11.7
Node poin.t~ - bolted construction ................................................ 1-1-3-
11.8
Node points - welded construction ............................................... 11-4
11.9
Example of detailing a welded truss .............................................. 11-7
11.10
Cambers . . . . . . . . . . .......................................................... 11-8
12. BRACING ........................................................................ 12-1

12.1
Introduction ................................................................. 12-1
12.2
Bracing connections .......................................................... 12-1
12.3
Setting out and detailing of bracing ............................................... 12-1
12.4
Example of detailing of floor bracing .............................................. 12-1
12.5
Additional considerations ....................................................... 12-4
ASDH/01-1999
13. PURLINS, GIRTS AND EAVES STRUTS ........................................... 13-1

13.1
Introduction ................................................................. 13-1
13.2
Purlins ...................................................................... 13-1
13.3
Bridging systems ............................................................. 13-1
13.4
Detailing purlins and bridging .................................................... 13-3
13.5
Girts ....................................................................... 13-3
13.6
Eaves struts ................................................................. 13-3
14. PORTAL FRAMES ................................................................ 14-1

14.1
Introduction ................................................................. 14-1
14.2
Design of portal frames ........................................................ 14-1
14.3
Design details ................................................................ 14-3
14.4
Eaves and apex set-out ........................................................ 14-3
14.5
Shop drawing ................................................................ 14-5
14.6
Pre-set of portal frames ........................................................ 14-7
15') STAIRWAYS ...................................................................... 15-1

15.1
Introduction ................................................................. 15-1
15.2
Design of stairways ........................................................... 15-1
15.3
Detailing .................................................................... 15-4
16. DETAILING FOR ECONOMY ...................................................... 16-1

16.1
Introduction ................................................................. 16-1
16.2
Communication .............................................................. 16-1
16.3
Economy in the use of material .................................................. 16-1
16.4
Rationalisation of member sizes and repetition of details .............................. 16-2
16.5
Standardised details ........................................................... 16-2
16.6
Accuracy in detailing .......................................................... 16-2
16.7
Fabrication ............... , ................................................ 16-3
16.8
Bolting ..................................................................... 16-4
16.9
Welding ..................................................................... 16-6
16.1 O
Transportation ............................................................... 16-6
16.11
Erection .................................................................... 16-7
17. REFERENCES .................................................................... 17-1

17.1
Australian standards ........................................................... 17-1
17.2
Other references. . . . . . . . . ..................................................... 17-2
17.3
Further information ............................................................ 17-2
APPENDIX A Fabrication of structural steelwork

APPENDIX B Sample project drawings
vi
ASDH/01-1999
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FOREWORD
The Australian Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) is a national non-profit organisation dedicated to increasing
knowledge and understanding of the use of structural steel in our society.
Through planned research and development programmes, industry seminars and publishing technical work the
Institute provides leading edge technology and best practice engineering solutions contributing to the growth of
structural steel in Australia. Steel construction industry participants who are responsible for the design, fabrication
and erection of steel structures are readily able to access the resources cif the Institute.
The fabrication and erection of a steel-framed structure requires the co-ordination of trained engineers, architects
and technicians. In the structural steel detailer's office, the original concepts of a structure's framework (as shown
on the architect's and engineer's design drawings) are interpreted and translated into detail drawings. These
drawings, through sketches, lines, dimensions and notes give complete instructions for cutting, punching, drilling
and then assembling the various structural members with bolts and/or welds.
Through the shop drawing, the steel detailer must convey in technical language all information required for the
workshop to fabricate many different types of structural members. To prepare these drawings, a steel detailer must
have knowledge of the latest engineering specifications and be familiar with the specialised techniques of workshop
fabrication and field erection.
\
The purpose of this Ha11dbook is to provide sufficient information for a trainee structural steel detailer (who is
involved in a specialist area of structural drafting) to learn the fundamentals of how to detail most members and
,, connections in a simple steel-framed building. The text includes a general section on computer aided drafting
(CAD). The reader is assumed not to be an Engineer and some engineering fundamentals are included to help in
understanding the procedure. As trainees gain experience, and are trained by studying this book and other AISC
publications, they will acquire the knowledge necessary to become competent steel detailers.
The AISC publishes other literature on structural steel which includes standalone publications, journals and
software. Reference should be made to these items if further information is required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
AISC gratefully acknowledges the contribution and assistance from the following individuals and organisations:
Mr Alan Hawkins (A J Hawkins Ply Ltd)
Mr, Ross Mccaffrey (Steel Plan Australia Ply Ltd)
Mr Ken Morgan (Bayside Drafting (Aust) Ply Ltd)
I
~.
Mr Terry Phelan (Alfasi Constructions Ply Ltd)

Mr Virice"'Rehbein (BDS Steel Detailers Ply Ltd)
AISC Staff
and those who gave constructive comment on the Handbook's contents.

The Handbook is substantially based on the Southern African Institute of Steel Construction (SAISC) publication
"Southern African Structural Steelwork Detailing Manual" and some parts of the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC(USA)) publication "Detailing for Steel Construction". AISC also acknowledges the SAISC and
the AISC(USA) for the use of their respective material.
ASDH/01-1999
vii
PREFACE
The Handbook covers the process of structural steelwork detailing, commencing with the fundamentals of drawing,
continuing with drafting practice and conventions, the types and behaviour of bolts and welds, the conventional
methods of detailing components, and concluding with tips on achieving economy of construction. The Handbook
should serve both as a fundamental guide for trainee steel detailers and as a useful point of reference for more
experienced personnel.
The types of structures covered are those representing the bulk of the typical fabricator's work tasks, i.e. commercial
and industrial buildings, portal frames, platforms and towers. More specialised structures, such as bridges, tanks,
bunkers, etc are not included.
The Handbook is directed mainly at the steel detailer employed by a typical steel detailing firm or steel fabricator to
prepare the working drawings that are required by the workshop for fabrication of the steelwork. However, the topics
dealt with in the Handbook will also be of interest to draftspersons and designers in associated areas of activity,
especially those in architects' and consulting engineers' offices and it is hoped that its contents will be useful in
widening the understanding of steelwork drafting requirements. One aim of the Handbook is to instill into steel
detailers a sense of importance of their role in the total steel construction activity, and of the need to adopt a
responsible attitude towards their work.
Due to fabrication shop and project preferences as well as drafting company practices, there may be several options
for steel detailing and fabrication methodologies. These options may include welded versus bolted construction,
"manual" versus computer numerically controlled {CNC) fabrication, full detailing in the drawing office as against
shop set-out of certain details, piece-meal fabrication instead of large shop assembly, and whether manual or
computer-aided drafting procedures are used. Consequently, in some instances the Handbook notes alternative
procedures or suggested details to convey similar information. Obviously, drafting companies referring to this
Handbook should advise their trainees and other interested staff which of the alternatives are preferred in-house.
The Handbook is based substantially on the "Southern African Structural Steelwork Detailing Manual" (by the
Southern African Institute of Steel Construction, 1994) as it provided some very good material for trainee Australian
steel detailers. Hence, the Handbook should be considered to be an evolving publication reliant on industry
feedback which, in future editions, will bridge the gap from fundamental guide to industry "code-of-the-practice".
Consequently, AISC welcomes comments on improving the Handbook to reach this outcome.
So as to make it more useful to trainee steel detailers and other interested parties, the current edition of the
Handbook has the following features:
It is published in a ring binder so as to permit the revision of specific sections when they are updated by AISC
(this may be initiated by industry feedback)
Based on the fundamental material presented in the body of the Handbook, readers can scrutinise actual steel
detail drawings from leading Australian detailing companies for - a sample project with drawings reduced to A4 size format (Appendix 8)
- a sample project with drawings presented in A3 format as an attachment within a sleeve to the Handbook
The popular AISC publication "Economical Structural Steelwork" which is referenced by the Handbook and
provides important information on the overall aspects of the steel construction industry.
It has been assumed that the structures to be detailed have been substantially designed in accordance with AS
4100 and consequently frequent reference is made to this Standard. Other related steel design Standards may
include AS/NZS 4600, AS 2327.1 and AS 3990-see Chapter 17. Reference is also made to three AISC publications,
namely Standardized Structural Connections (Ref. 1), Design Capacity Tables for Structural Steel, Volume 1: Open
Sections (Ref. 2) and Design Capacity Tables for Structural Steel Hollow Sections (Ref. 3). It is essential that every
steel detailer should be in possession of Ref.1 and it is highly desireable to have access (possibly through their
drawing office library) to Refs. 2 and 3.
The emphasis in this Handbook is on detailing and not on the calculation or design of connections. This subject is
dealt with in other AISC publications. A list of other steel detailing references is provided in Chapter 17. These
references may be useful to those readers wanting more information on the topic.
AISC, 1999.
viii
ASDH/01-1999
NOTATION
a
Thread runout
Length of thread
t5
Plain shank length
Nominal bolt length
Nut height
Washer thickness
Thickness of ply
t1
The thickness of the ply under the bolt head
tP
Thickness of thinner ply
ABBREVIATIONS
'\
The abbreviations listed below are generally used for structural steelwork applications. See also Figure 3.29 for a
schedule of basic abbreviations for structural steel detailing and Figure 3.30 for a schedule of typical building
construction abbreviations.
4.6/S
Commercial grade bolts snug tightened
8.8/S
High strength structural bolts snug tightened
8.8/TB
High strength structural bolts fully tensioned bearing-type
8.8/TF
High strength structural bolts fully tensioned friction-type
AISC
Australian Institute of Steel Construction
BOS
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
BT
Tee Section cut from Universal Beam
CAD
Computer Aided Drafting
CFW
Continuous Fillet Weld
CHS
Circular Hollow Section
CNC
Computer Numeric Controlled
_,,
-~'
"
.GPBW
ASDH/01-1999
Complete Penetration Butt Weld
CT
Tee Section cut from Universal Column
Dia
Diameter
do
ditto
DTI
Design Throat Thickness (of a weld)
East
EA
Equal Angle
EAF
Electric Arc Furnace (Steelmaking)
FL
Flat
GP
General Purpose (weld category)
HD
Holding down
IP
Intersection Point
IPBW
Incomplete Penetration Butt Weld
IZS
Inorganic Zinc Silicate
kN
kilonewtons
ix
'
lg
long
North
No
Number
NTS
Notto Scale
OD
Outside Diameter
PCD
Pitch Circle Diameter
PFC
Parallel Flange Channel
PL
Plate
RFI
Request for information
RHS
Rectangular Hollow Section
RL
Reduced Level
South
SECT
Section
SFL
Standard Floor Level
SHS
Square Hollow Section
SOP
Set Out Point
SP
Structural Purpose (weld category)
TFB
Tapered Flange Beam
TFC
Tapered Flange Channel
UA
Unequal Angle
UB
Universal Beam
UC
Universal Column
UNO
Unless Noted Otherwise
West
WB
Welded Beam
WC
Welded Column
':~~,.;-~
ASDH/01-1999
-,'.
_,
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1
DRAFTING AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION
Drafting is a method of conveying information in pictorial or graphic form. Usually it has to do with the planning or
design of an object or structure, whether it be a single set-screw, a multi-storey building or any of an infinite range
of items, components, machines or structures. A drawing will not only convey accurately the appearance of the
article as built, but will also give the necessary information on how it is to be built.
Another means of communicating information is the spoken or written word. However, this process of information
transmittal involves very lengthy descriptions and requires the continued presence of the conceiver of the project
during the construction process to ensure that the instructions have been understood correctly. It is obvious that
even a simple drawing will convey the required information more clearly and accurately and much more concisely
than can be done by the spoken or written word and will also reduce the need for supervision.
\'--
''
The steel detailer's function, therefore, is to serve as an intermediary between the conceiver and the executor of the
project. Steel detailing is a specialist area of structural drafting. As such, a detailer must be familiar with general
structural drafting practice as well as areas specific to steel shop drawings. The detailer needs to have a clear
understanding of the designer's intent and must commit this information to paper by graphical means. At the same
time the detailer must have a knowledge of the processes involved in the construction or fabrication of the project.
The drawing is then both an instruction to the artisan on how the structure is to be built and a permanent record of
the designer's intent.
It will be evident from this simple illustration that a steel detailer's function is a very important one in the chain of
events from the original conception to the final completion of any item or project. It will also be clear that the main
requirements in the steel detailer's approach are clarity of presentation, accuracy, speed of work as well as patience
and perserverance.
1.2
DETAIL DRAWINGS
Prior to the use of steel as a structural material, the usual practice was to depict, say, a building or a bridge by means
of elevations, plans and cross-sections with, where necessary, enlarged details of special parts of the structure that
required more detailed description. Thus the elevation of a bridge would be to a scale sufficient to show, by means
of suitable annotation, the sizes and shapes of the members making up the girders. Likewise, a plan of the deck
would indicate the layout and size of the floor beams. However, the support bearings and any special member end
connections would be shown to an enlarged scale, in sufficient detail to enable the ironworker, the carpenter or the
blacksmith to construct these components to a reasonable degree of accuracy.
However, with the advent of structural steel, prefabrication became essential, and this brought with it the need to
supplement the arrangement drawings with detail drawings of all individual members and components. These-are
known as shop detail drawings and are usually prepared by a specialist steel detailing company under sub-conff'act
to a steel fabricator for.use in jts workshops. The shop detail drawings are based on the layout and arrangement
drawings supplied by the owner, or the consulting engineer appointed to carry out the design, and are the means
of recording the information required by the workshop personnel to fabricate each and every component of the
structure. It is in the preparation of these drawings that structural steel detailers find their role and are able to play
a vital part in the sequence of events that comprise the total activity of structural engineering.
Examination of any steelwork detail drawing will reveal a stylised presentation, involving the use of standardised
abbreviated notation and special symbols. These all form part of the graphical means of information transmittal
referred to earlier and enable a large amount of complex technical data to be recorded and conveyed in a simple,
concise manner.
It is the purpose of this Handbook to introduce the trainee steel detailer to this technical "language" and to present
the many techniques and conventions that are used in the structural steelwork industry to convey the necessary
information clearly and without ambiguity.
ASDH/01-1999
1-1
1.3
PROJECT ORGANISATION
At this point it is helpful to consider the overall management and technical organisation that is involved in a
construction project and to see where the steel detailer fits. Fig. 1.1 illustrates the stages in the progress of a typical
project and indicates the specialised tasks associated with each stage. It also shows the lines of communication
between the various parties. The chart is representative of a commercial-type building, where the owner appoints
an architect and a consulting engineer and retains financial but not technical control over the planning process.
For the sake of simplicity, the chart covers only those activities connected with the medium of construction under
consideration, ie structural steelwork. Many other aspects have to be taken into acc_ount in the broad planning of a
project, such as cost limitations, location of the project, availability of materials, compliance with building
r----<41--~~--il--~~O~W~N~E~R~~-t-~~~--' '--~~
Conception of
project
Architect reports to
owner on feasibility
and total cost
Owner appoints
architect and
engineer
Owner instructs
architect and
engineer
to proceed
ARC.HITE CT
Preliminary planning
and layout drawings
..---13 1----to~1
}---------~---!
Detailed planning,
final drawings and
specifications
Engineer reports
to architect on
structural cost
-------
''
''
t'
Owner places
contract with
building
contractor
CONSULTING ENGINEER
Preliminary design and
structural cost estimate
} - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - "1- - - -
Detailed design and

arrangement drawings of
steelwork
Engineer and Architect

provides design
information to fabricator
Engages
fabricator
+
i
18
.~..,_____--{71-----T-------'
L@---,~---~t------..
FABRICATOR
t
Engage shop detailer
STEEL DETAILER
Fabrication of
steelwork in shops
Preparation of workshop
drawings for steel fabrication
Erection of steelwork at site
-.----- indicates liaison
COMPLETED
PROJECT
Fig. 1.1: Project organisation -Architect involved
1-2
ASDH/01-1999
-t
I
\-'-, ___ _
regulations, civil engineering and building work, and the provision of services (lighting, heating, air conditioning, fire
protection, safety provisions, etc). All of these matters fall under the responsibility of the architect and/or the
engineer, but only where they directly affect the supporting structure do they concern the steel detailer.
On many projects an architect would not be involved and the consulting engineer would act directly on behalf of the
owner. Such projects include industrial buildings, power stations, steel mills, manufacturing plants, bridges, etc,
where the design is governed by functional rather than aesthetic and civic considerations. Fig. 1.2 illustrates the
organisation of such projects. It will be seen that the engineer undertakes the entire planning role on behalf of the
owner and issues the necessary instructions to the fabricator.
In cases where the owner is a government or public body, or even a large, self-contained organisation, it may well
have its own architectural and engineering staff and will consequently not need to appoint professional firms to
undertake the planning and design. The fabricator will usually be a separate entity, however the overall
organisational framework will be much the same.
One alternative to the project organisation shown in Figs 1 .1 and 1.2 is the emerging trend where the steel detailer
is engaged by the engineer. This speeds up production of the steel detail drawings and allows fabricators to tender
on an accurately defined scope of work .
.----<21----,__ _.=:0~W~N:'..'.E:.'.:R~-t------' '---~

Conception of
project
Engineer reports to
owner on feasibility
and total cost
Owner appoints
engineer
Owner instructs
engineer
to proceed
CONSULTING ENGINEER
Preliminary planning and
design, layout drawings
and structural cost
estimate
Detailed design,
final steelwork arrangement
~--------------
____________ '
drawings and
''
steelwork specifications
--
,.
1,
Engineer provid es
design informati on
to fabricator
Owner places
contract with
contractor
..
i
CONTRACTOR
Engages
fabricator
''
''
'
FABRICATOR
'
Engage shop detailer
STEEL DETAILER
Fabrication of
steelwork in shops
.f7\--
Preparation of workshop
drawings for steel fabrication
Erection of steelwork at site
,. _____ ,.. indicates liaison
COMPLETED
PROJECT
Fig. 1.2: Project organisation - Architect not involved
ASDH/01-1999
1-3
1.4
FUNCTION OF THE STEEL DETAILER
The role of the steel detailer will now be examined more closely. When a contract is placed with a steelwork
fabricator, the sequence of events in this organisation is usually as follows:
1. The contract drawings and specifications are passed on by the management of the company to the drawing
office, where the drawing office manager assesses the extent, complexity and time content of the job. On this
basis the work is allocated to a section leader, a senior shop detailer who in turn must become familiar with all
aspects of the steelwork content. The section leader hands out the drawing work to a suitable number of steel
detailers, including trainees. These constitute the team that will actually do th.e detail drawing work.
2. One of the first requirements is the preparation of a list of the steel materials needed for the structure to enable
the contractor to place orders with steel merchants or mills. The list is compiled from the layout drawings.
3. The steel detailers proceed with the preparation of the steelwork detail drawings. These will provide an accurate
representation of every component of the steel structure, including columns, beams, girders, trusses, bracings,
platforms, stairways, rails, brackets, purlins, girts and the large number of smaller items that comprise a typical
building or structure. As the drawings are completed they are carefully scrutinised by a checker, who is an
experienced senior steel detailer allocated to this task. The importance of thorough checking cannot be overemphasised. The correction of errors at the drafting stage is infinitely cheaper than rectifying errors during
fabrication in the shop or during erection.
The steel detailer's objective should be to produce drawings that will require as little correction as possible and
should never rely on the checker to pick up mistakes. The steel detailer should be critical of their own work,
acting subconsciously as a checker, to ensure the drawings are 'error-free'. The drawings are then submitted to
the engineer for approval.
4. The detail drawings are sent to the fabrication shop for cutting to exact length, drilling or punching the necessary
holes, assembling the various parts by means of bolting or welding to make up the components or
sub-assemblies and application of the surface treatment ready for transport to site.
5. The drawing office personnel also prepare the erection drawings in conjunction with the shop details. These
show the arrangement or layout of the steel framework, usually in skeletal form, and comprise the plans,
elevations and cross-sections that are required by the erector to assist with the assembly of the structure on
site. For easy identification of each component's position in the structure, every component is given a
distinguishing mark, called an erection mark, which is shown on the detail and erection drawings and is marked
(hand-marked, painted or tagged) on the steel components themselves in the fabrication shop; and
6. All drawings are updated to incorporate any revisions that may have occurred during the progress of the job and
a complete set of prints is retained for filing. These serve as a record of the work and are useful for future
reference.
Steps 1 to 4 in the above sequence lie on what is called the 'critical path'. This means that they are operations which,
if delayed or unduly extended, will set back the completion of the whole project. The steel detailer is the main player
in steps 1 to 3, and plays a key role in keeping the project on track in the early stages of its progress. The detailer
must have good visual perception-of the structural aspects of the project, be attentive to detail, accurate and neat
in graphic presentation, and also able to work within defined and often limited time constraints.
1.5
OTHER FIELDS OF ACTIVITY
The previous section outlines the role of the steel detailer in a steel fabricator's drawing office. They may, however,
fill a niche in another environment. For example, certain consulting engineering practices undertake steelwork
detailing, either in relation to projects they are designing or on a contract basis for another organisation. The mining
houses and most public utility companies have their own drawing offices and do detailing work to a greater or lesser
degree. Steel detailers therefore have a wide range of specialised engineering fields open to them, in addition to the
more general run of work offered by typical fabrication companies. They can choose to work in building construction
(from the lightest prefabricated building systems to power stations and multi-storey buildings), mining (both above
and below ground), materials handling, lifting equipment, reticulation of services, marine and offshore structures,
rail transportation, construction equipment and many other fields of activity.
i
In the course of this employment the steel detailer will acquire a vast fund of knowledge extending far beyond the
skills required for the day-to-day job of preparing workshop drawings. This knowledge will relate to the specialised
technology involved in the particular industry in which they are employed and will equip them for progress up the
administrative and managerial ladder. In particular, any aptitude they may have for the calculation of structural details
and connections will open the way for promotion into the field of engineering design, with all its variety and interest.
1-4
ASDH/01-1999
_,,
/,
2. STRUCTURAL STEEL
Due to the various processes involved, the shop where structural steel is fabricated does not produce the steel. The
steel is produced at steelmaking plants and steel products are subsequently manufactured at rolling mills and
downstream finishing plants. The steel products are then shipped, via distribution companies ("distributors" or
"steel service centres"), to the fabrication shops in a variety of grades, shapes and forms. At this stage the steel is
referred to as "stock" or "plain" material.
2.1 PLAIN MATERIAL

The great bulk of plain material for steel structures can be classified into the following basic groups:1.
Universal Columns
(UC)
2.
Universal Beams
(UB)
3.
Taper Flange Beams
(fFB)
4.
Parallel Flange Channels
(PFC)
5.
Taper Flange Channels
(fFC)
6.
Structural Te_es
(BT) or (CT)
These are made by splitting UC, UB, TFB shapes usually along the mid depth of their webs (for BT,
CT sections) or by welding two plates of appropriate thickness to form a 'Tee'. Fabricators frequently
cut beam sections to form tees in their own shop or use the services of a distributor.
7.
Angles
(EA) or (UA)
Consist of two legs, of equal (EA) or unequal (UA) lengths. The legs are set at right angles to each
other.
8.
Welded Beams
(WB)
Consist of three plates, of varying thickness, welded together to form an I-section, There are 'heavy
duty' standard beam sections ranging from 700 mm to 1200 mm in depth.
9.
Welded Columns
(WC)
Consist of three plates, of varying thickness, welded together to form an I-section. There are 'heavy
duty' standard column sections ranging from 350 mm to 500 mm in depth.
10.
Plates
(PL)
Plates range in width from 1200 mm upwards, subject to manufacturer's thickness and length
limitations.
11.
(FL)
Flats
Are rectangular in cross-section and come in many widths and thicknesses. Flats (or Flat Bars) are
limited to maximum widths of 300 mm, depending on thickness. Wider flat bars from 200 mm to
1200 mm in width may be substituted by splitting a larger size plate to suit though this alternative
would not have the rolled edges of a flat bar.
12.
Rounds & Squares
(ROD or RD) or (SQ)
These bars come in many diameters/widths - check with the manufacturer.

13.
Hollow Sections
(CHS), (RHS) or (SHS)-
Are closed steel sections which are available in circular (CHS), rectangular (RHS) and square (SHS)
profiles in a range of sizes, wall thicknesses and grades.
In Australia, the above forms of plain material comply with the following materials standards: AS 1163 (CHS, RHS,
SHS); AS 1594 (PL); AS/NZS 3678 (PL); AS/NZS 3679.1 (UC, UB, TFB, PFC, TFC, EA, UA, FL, Rod/RD, SQ and
generally BT and CT); AS/NZS 3679.2 (WB, WC)-see Chapter 17.
A clear understanding of the various forms and shapes in which structural steel is available is essential before the
steel detailer can prepare detail drawings. Fig. 2.1 shows typical cross-sections of plain material.
ASDH/01-1999
2-1
I
UC
T
BT,CT
UB
EA
I
TFB
PFC
TFC
[L
UA
WB
WC
/
=
Plate (PL)
Flat {FL)
0
SHS
0
RHS
CHS
.. Fig. 2.1.:. Typical cross-sections of plain material
Note that TFB and TFC are characterised by tapered flanges and that UC, UB and PFC shapes have parallel inner
and outer flange surfaces. For details of this nature refer to the manufacturer's catalogue which lists all shapes
commonly used in construction, including sizes, kg/metre, dimensions and properties.
Table 2.1 has been prepared to show the customary methods of designating individual pieces of structural shapes
and plates on shop drawings, the conventional way of drawing these shapes, and the correct names of their
component parts.
This system is generally accepted and used in structural drafting offices, although some minor deviations may occur
when the trade names of proprietary designations are substituted for some of the listed "Group Symbols", when
designating material. Table 2.1 should be studied carefully.
2-2
ASDH/01-1999
Table 2.1 Usual method of designating and sketching structural steel shapes
Group
symbols
Example of designating on
shop drawings
UC
310UC158 x 2585
UB
530UB82.0 x 2382
WB
900WB282 x 7325
WC
400WC270 x 4250
TFB
125TFB x 1525
Conventional way of showing on detail drawings

and the identification of major parts
Flange
lil
Length
i-
Designation x Length
Toe
/
IJJI
LJ
Fillet or Weld
Flange
PFC
TFC
300PFC x 3185
125TFC x 1605
-
BT
CT
Flange
Heei"n
Length
r-------------------------------1
----------------
I
100x100x8EA x 250
~langl
i
Length
[-------------------- ----------~!
Heel
Thickness
UA
125xi5x8UA-x 425
Cl
n
IWeb/St;~
100CT26.1x1050
EA
Fillet
Toe
Flange
Length
1558T20.2 x 3185
\;]'
Web--..
Fillet
Leg
'8_
2l
Toe
~R/Legt
_JL!met
_,
Leg2
Length
Heel\,rl/Toe
[-------------------------------,
[5
Fillet
Thickness -.j
Leg1
1-
Note:
1. For details made to a scale of 1:10 or smaller, do not show rounded off toes of angles or flanges, or interior fillets between
flanges and webs. Exaggerate web and flange thickness to suit.
2. On CAD generated drawings the designation may be prefixed by the group symbol e.g. UB530x82.0. This enables a more
logical filing of the sections in the data base and is being further considered for industry standardisation. However, section
designations as noted in the relevant Australian material standards (Chapter 17) should be used where possible. These are
noted above.
ASDH/01-1999
2-3
Table 2.1 (continued)

Group
Symbols
Example of designating on
shop drawings
Conventional way on showing on detail drawings

and the identification of major parts
RHS
150x75x5.0RHS x 2100
r-------------------------------1
-------------------------------
SHS
75x75x5.0SHS x 2500
CHS
\.
Length
Depth
I D
Width
~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::!
Depth I
Thickness
K
a
-1r
SHS Shown similarly but depth and width are equal.
Length
88.9 x 4.0CHS x 270
Cl
t Ce}-
- [:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::!
Thickness
PL
Length
1200x10PL x 2750
Thicknesslr
I
FL
~I ~
Length
1200x10FL x 2750
Thicknesslr .
Width
ROD
Length
50SQ x 200
5l
i
'
2-4
20ROD x 1850
SQ
Length
'
.c
~l
t
ASDH/01-1999
(:
2.2
COMPOUND SECTIONS
Other section types which are suited to specific applications can be fabricated from plain material. Such sections
are termed "compound" sections or members and are made up by welding or bolting sections, plates and flats
together in particular combinations. Generally, welding is the more common means of connecting the components.
Some compound section types are shown in Fig. 2.2 though there are many possible variations in combination of
plain materials. The most widely used compound section is the plate girder which is composed of three plates
welded together. The ability to further customise the section can be achieved by incorporating flanges with different
widths and thickness. Box girders (or box sections) are also popular forms of compound sections.
][
Plate
Girder
Plated
Section
Crane
Beam
Box
Girder
Double
Channel
Fig. 2.2: Compound sections
2.3
CHARACTERISTICS
Steel, specifically structural steel, is fundamental to building, bridge and engineering construction. It is produced in
a wide range of shapes and grades which permit maximum flexibility of design. It is relatively inexpensive to produce
and is the strongest, most versatile and economical material available to the construction industry. Steel is uniform
in quality and dimensionally stable. By the addition of small amounts of copper or other alloying elements, its
resistance to atmospheric corrosion can be enhanced markedly.
Steel also has several unique qualities which make it especially adaptable to the demanding requirements of
modern construction. It can be alloyed, or alloyed and heat-treated, to obtain toughness, ductility and great strength
as the service demands, and yet be capable of ready fabrication with conventional shop equipment.
2.4
SPECIFICATIONS
Structural steel is composed almost entirely of the element iron. Small portions of other elements, particularly carbon
and manganese must also be present to provide strength and ductility. Increasing the carbon content makes steel
stronger and harder-' Decreasing the carbon content makes steel softer and more ductile, but at some sacrifice to
strength. The standard grades of steel used for bridges and buildings contain approximately 0.22-0.25% carbon, yvith
small amounts of several other elements as required or permitted by the particular steel specifications.
"""
All steels are manufactured to specifications which stipulate the chemical and mechanical requirements in detail.Standard specifications for structural steels are established by Standards Australia committees, made up of
representatives of producers, consumers and general interest groups. These committees develop and keep up-todate material specifications to provide and maintain reliable, acceptable and practical standards. Reference to the
latest Australian Standards is recommended for complete information on all structural steels.
The specifications for buildings, as well as most bridge specifications, recognise several grades of steel for
structural purposes.
A summary of relevant Australian Standards is contained in Chapter 17.
Several proprietary steels, so-called because their composition and characteristics are defined by steel producers'
specifications, are also available for structural purposes. Producers of these proprietary steels use rigid control of
melting processes and careful selection of alloys to achieve guaranteed minimum yield stresses. The toughness,
weldability and cost-to-strength ratios compare favourably with those obtainable from standard steels.
Steelmaking is in a constant state of progress. Metallurgical research in the industry is continually developing new
steels for specific purposes and improving the versatility of older steels. As time passes and these new products
prove themselves, writers of Australian Standard Specifications prepare modifications to present specifications or
formulate new ones to recognise technological advances.
Ref. 12 should be consulted for a list and comparison of the various steel grades and products available for construction.
ASDH/01-1999
2-5
2.5
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
The term yield stress and tensile strength are used to describe some of the physical properties of steels and their
action when subjected to externally applied forces.
Assume that a bar of structural steel 25mm square and any convenient length, is clamped in a testing machine
designed to pull the bar apart longitudinally. If this machine is adjusted to pull the bar, so that it is resisting a force,
the bar is said to be stressed in tension.
The bar, loaded as described above is being pulled and therefore elongated, or strained, initially in direct proportion
to the stress being resisted. As the machine load increases, the bar will be stressed and strained proportionally.
Within certain limits the external forces will deform the piece of steel slightly, but on removal of such forces, the steel
will return to its original shape. This property of steel is termed elasticity. Eventually a point is reached beyond which
the elongation will continue with no corresponding increase in stress. This elongation is characteristic of ductile
steels and is termed plasticity.
Fig. 2.3 is a theoretical diagram of the stress-strain relationship of Grade 300 steel (e.g. AS/NZS 3679.1) which
typically exhibits elastic and plastic strain of structural steel during uniaxial stressing.
fu
.......--Rupture
fy
a =Elastic range
b = Plastic range
c = Strain - hardening
d =Necking at failure
fu =Ultimate tensile strength
fy = Yield stress
Strain
Fig. 2.3: Stress-strain relationship
The basic properties for design of structural members have traditionally been obtained by tensile testing of steel
products in the longitudinal or tr~~sverse direction to rolling.
This test involves applying increasing stresses to a prepared test piece until destruction. The quantities generally
evaluated are the onset of plastic strain (yield stress or proof stress), the greatest stress applied prior to failure
(tensile strength), the extension after fracture (percentage elongation) and occasionally the reduction of
cross-section area achieved at fracture.
Structural design codes are based either on minimum yield stress or ultimate tensile strength with percentage
elongation being used to indicate ductility, or the steel's ability to be formed.
This test is generally performed as an acceptance test on all steel products intended for structural applications.
2-6
ASDH/01-1999
2.6
STEEL PRODUCTION
2.6.1. Steelmaking
Steelmaking is a batch process partly due to a range of products being made from the one operation. Steelmaking
includes the combining of carbon with iron as well as the removal of impurities and the addition of alloying elements
to develop specific properties in the steel mix. There are two types of common steelmaking processes: Basic
Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) and Electric Arc Furnace (EAF).
After the steel is made it is either cast into ingots and subsequently rolled into semi-finished shapes (termed slabs,
blooms, billets) or is "continuously cast" into semi-finished shapes.
As this is a specialised area which is outside the scope of the Handbook, further information on steelmaking can be
sourced from other references.
2.6.2. Working the Steel into a More Useful Product

From the semi-finished shape the steel is further rolled in stages to get to its final more useful shape. Basically, the
rolling process consists of passing the steel between two rolls revolving at the same speed but in opposite
directions. The gap between the rolls is smaller than the steel being rolled, so that the steel is reduced in thickness
and at the same time, lengthened. Rolling mills are designed for processing either flat or shaped products. Rolling
or working steel changes_the mechanical and physical properties to give the characteristics necessary in the final
product. Steel can be either hot or cold-rolled in its final forming operations and this choice also has a significant
effect on the steel's final characteristic. Fig. 2.4 shows the hot-rolling operation required in many passes to produce
the final shape - an equal angle.
2.7
TOLERANCES
Mill (or rolling) tolerance is a term used to describe permissible deviations from the published dimensions of, say,
cross-section profiles. This is due to various reasons including roll wear, speed, adjustment and differential cooling
and may cause cross-section elements to be slighter thicker than desired or they may not be square to each other.
The variations are negligible in small shapes, but increase for members made up from larger shapes and must be
taken into consideration in detailing and fabricating connections. Other mill tolerances permit variation in area and
weight, ends out-of-square, camber and sweep (ie slightly curved in length).
Tolerance on the ex-mill dimensions of steel plates and section are listed in AS 1163, AS/NZS 3678, AS/NZS 3679.1,
AS/NZS 3679.2 and mill catalogues. A study of AS/NZS 3679.1 shows that these dimensional tolerances can be
significant enough to warrant consideration in fabrication and erection -see Fig. 2.5. As an example, in.Fig. 2.5 (a),
experienced fabricators are aware of the possibility of dimensional variations, and it is normal practice to ml'ltch
members at splices in such a way as to minimise the effect of these variations.
_,-_
(
It is most important that.the effect of mill tolerances be clearly understood by the steel detailer. The steel defailer
must know when to take them into account, particularly in ordering material and detailing connections involving
heavy rolled shapes. One way to address the issue of mill tolerances is to indicate on the shop drawings where
matching to adjacent members is required. This highlights to the fabricator the need to carefully select the steelwork
for the members to ensure a close dimensional match.
In addition to mill tolerances, tolerances must also be allowed for on the dimensions of fabricated and erected
members. These are typically given in Standards such as AS 4100. In this instance allowances must be made for
slight variations in member length, out-of-squareness, flatness, weld distortion, sweep, camber, beam levels,
column plumbing, etc. Varying such tolerances are not recommended as they would be inconsistent with tolerances
used by the steel/product manufacturer and also those tolerances assumed in design.
ASDH/01-1999
2-7
Roughing pass - 1
Intermediate pass - 2
Roughing pass - 2
Roughing pass - 3
Finishing pass
Fig. 2.4 Progressive stages in hot rolling of steel angles.
1$1
(a) Allow for variation in beam depth in flange splice and for off-centre of webs in web splice.
" -ic
-
$1
(b) Any connection to column web or column flange must make allowances for out-of-square, especially
end plate connections - allow for shimming where necessary.
1$1
(c) Web side plate connection - allow for out-of-square of column flange and off-centre of beam web
Fig. 2.5 Connections where allowance for milltolerance is required

2-8
ASDH/01-1999
I
3. DRAFTING EQUIPMENT AND DRAFTING PRACTICES
Methods of detailing and the equipment required are continually changing. With the introduction of personal
computers, traditional or manual drafting and its equipment is fast becoming superseded.
The first part of this chapter deals with the traditional method of drafting as it provides the basis for computerised
drafting. The second part deals with how a computer drafting office should be set up, explaining the changing duties
of CAD managers, operators and others.
Finally, consideration will be given to drafting practices which are similar to both manual or computerised drafting.
3.1
MANUAL DRAFTING EQUIPMENT
3.1.1
Equipment and Supplies
In the past the vast majority of drawings made for the fabrication of structural steel were done in ink on tracing paper
or drafting film. Today the use of pencil detailing is common in some detailing offices. Equipment requirements and
techniques described in this book are largely oriented towards ink. Some reference will be made to pencil selection
for detailing.
The equipment used by "steel detailers undertaking manual drafting is similar to that found in any manual drafting
office. The types of equipment include for example: drawing boards, scale rules, triangles, templates, compass,
protractors, dividers, ink, pens, pencils and erasers.
3.1.2
Drafting Paper and Film
Although the steel detailer may have little to say about the choice of tracing media they are expected to use, they
should be familiar with the characteristics of the various types they may encounter. Most pencil and ink drawings
are made on tracing paper or plastic film.
3.1.3
Prints and Reproductions
In previous years, after the original drawing was made it was generally reproduced in the form of a print by using:
r-
1.
coated paper - sensitive to light; and
2.
coated paper.,. sensitive to ammonia gas.
Today with the introductionof A3, A2, A1-and AO size photocopiers, copying of the drawing is as simple,, as
photocopying an A4 sheet of paper. This method of copying drawings has slowly overtaken all other methoilS of
copying due to its speed_and ease of handling.
3.1.4
Drawing Boards, T-Squares and Triangles
Most manual drafting rooms are furnished either with_ fully equipped drafting machines, drawing tables or with
drawing boards and T-square. Drawing tables have wooden or metal tops, which may have a tilting adjustment.
Sometimes, drawing tables are equipped with parallel ruling attachments which eliminate the need for a T-square,
or a drafting machine with scales which supplant both the T-square and the triangles. Drafting machines have scales
positioned at 90 degrees to each other and attached to a moveable protractor head which can be rotated and
locked in position to permit measuring and drawing lines at any angle.
3.1.5
Drawing Scales
Due to the size of most structural members, it is necessary to depict them on shop drawings less than full size, using an
appropriate scale for the desired reduction. One such scale commonly used, is 1:10. At this reduction the view of an
object which is actually 300 mm long will have a length of 30 mm on the drawing. All other dimensions of the object
will be shown reduced in the same proportion except as discussed later in this chapter. Other scales of reduction are
also used in structural steel detail drafting. When and why each one is used will become evident in later chapters.
ASDH/01-1999
3-1
3.1.6
Drafting Pencils
The selection of pencils with the degree of hardness (grade) needed to produce satisfactory tracings and prints is
determined by the type of paper or film used, the individual draftspersons "touch" and, to some extent, the humidity.
For lettering on tracing paper, draftspersons commonly use F or H pencils; for border and object lines, HB or F; and
for dimension lines, centre lines, etc, 2H or 3H. Pencil tracing cloth and drafting film will accept pencils about one
grade harder, with comparable results. Both harder and softer grades are available for other types of pencils.
Manufacturers recommend plastic pencils for use on drafting film. Plastic leads have been used with success on
pencil tracing cloth, but they are too hard for use on ordinary tracing paper.
It should be emphasised that linework and lettering must be uniformly black and distinct. Fuzzy and uncertain lines,
barely readable on the tracing, may disappear on the print or be misinterpreted by the operator using the drawing.
3.1.7
Drafting Pens
Drafting pens come in various name brands and head sizes. The selection of the head size to produce satisfactory tracings
and prints is determined by the type of paper used, the article to be detailed and to some extent the individual
draftsperson's "touch". For lettering on tracing paper, draftspersons commonly use 0.3 or 0.4mm size head, for object
lines 0.4 or 0.5 head size, for division lines use 0.2, and 0.6/0.8 for border lines together with member and sheet titles.
Desktop stands are necessary for pen sets when not in use. These stands are essential as they keep the pen heads
clear, moist and ready for use. Care must be taken to keep pen heads clean and in good repair to ensure quality
linework and lettering.
-
Non print leads should be used for preliminary layouts of the structural form or component prior to using ink for the
final detail.
3.2
COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING
Due to the ever changing methods of design and construction, together with the availability of more advanced
technology, the conventional method of manual detail drafting is becoming superseded. Just as the calculator has
replaced the slide rule, computers have now virtually replaced the drawing board.
Computer aided drafting will, as programmers continually write specialised detail drafting programs, open many
doors for detailers. In many ways the detail draftsperson will, over a period of time, replace the design draftsperson
and work more closely with the design consultants than ever before, resulting in numerous advantages as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Reduced technical queries on design drawings.

Production of detail drawings directly from design drawings.
Reduced hours required on a project.
Increased accuracy.
In addition to the above, computer aided drafting (CAD) provides and maintains a uniform system of control and
production of CAD drawings. --- " In changing a manual drawing office into a CAD drawing office, a company's internal structure remains the same
but some personnel now have special duties as noted below.
3.2.1
Drafting Personnel
3.2.1.1 Chief Draftsperson

The Chief Draftsperson controls the allocation of projects to the Project Managers or squad leaders and organises
labour to meet deadlines. In addition to these duties, it is the Chief Draftsperson's role to firstly develop and then
control the implementation of CAD standards, to decide when to introduce new software and hardware, to handle
upgrades and most importantly to handle the security of the company's CAD system.
3.2.1.2 Project Manager

The Project Manager is responsible for the overall handling of the drafting contracts, including direct contact with
the consultants and building contractors, controls the issue of drawing numbers and the general day to day running
of the contract. Additionally, the Product Manager, along with the chief draftsperson, plans the allocation of labour.
3-2
ASDH/01-1999
3.2.1.3 CAD Manager

All CAD offices must allocate this position to someone fully conversant with computers and how they operate, they
must be reliable, and their role is the key to a successfully run office. They must also:
1. be able to co-ordinate the output of all CAD stations within the office;
2. be able to handle maintenance of the computers, fix minor problems, such as replacement of video card
controllers;
3. control the reporting of faults within the machines;
4. maintain software;
5. maintain archive records;
6. setup networks when required; and
7. setup a maintenance plan.
3.2.1.4 CAD Operator

Perhaps the best CAD Operators are ex-steel detailers trained to use the CAD system as they have the conventional
training and experience gained in manual drafting and the general experience in handling projects. Together with
having the added responsibilities of maintaining their own personal computer they must:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
retain the integrity of the computer as set up by the CAD Manager;

maintain good file management, delete backup files and drawing files from their computer when required;
run hard disk maintenance programs;
keep their computer surfaces clean and free from dust; and
report all irregularities to CAD Manager/Chief Draftsperson eg. viruses.
3.2.2
Security
Special procedures must be put in place for protection of the developed system and unless protected by locks,
codes etc, it would be very easy for the system to be copied by someone for unauthorised use.
Suggested procedures include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
special hardware locks on sensitive software;

limited access to software and specialised systems;
procedures for authorised operators;
encryption of programs to prevent unauthorised changing;
training of all personnel in how and why procedures are used to maintain security;
supervision of all hardware and software entering and leaving the premises; and
signing of a contract by all CAD Operators stating that action will be taken if caught copying cir removing
company's software.
3.2.3
DocumentControl
The requirements of document control for CAD drawing is far more crucial than for conventional methods of
detailing as the information pertaining to the detail drawing is invisible within the computer system, until the drawing
is plotted onto a drawing sheet. Whenever possible the procedures of handling the information (electronic drawing)
should be handled by the computer system (the computer program) to eliminate human error. Hurdles and safety
nets should be put in place to control and help operators whenever a critical stage is reached.
Document control is simply the handling of the document and in this case the document is a CAD detail drawing.
Document control should follow a similar pattern as set out below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
allocate a job number to the contract;

create a job control file within the CAD system;
select drawing sheet size, select scale and drawing number;
produce detail drawing;
save information to a disk or save to network;
plot checkprint to issue to checking department;
back draft drawing, signed and save to disk or network; and
advise Chief Draftsperson and document control personnel to issue detail drawings.
ASDH/01-1999
3-3
At all times only one master original drawing should be kept, clearly identified as such. Paper plots cannot by
definition be the original as they are plotted from an electronic copy. This electronic copy is the master original.
For safety reasons an identical back-up copy should be kept (if no network is in place) at all times in case of file
corruption or disk failure.
If the system of handling drawings is by the use of floppy disk, it is as mentioned above, important to save to two
separate disks:
(i) master disk - clearly identified as master; and
(ii) back up disk - clearly identified as backup.
These disks should be stored in separate locations within the office.
If the system in use is a network system, the master should reside in a particular area with the backup copies kept
on a separate drive being either:
(a) tape backup;
(b) local hard drive; or
(c) a different logical drive on the network - file server.
3.2.4
Hardware
Hardware is the "machinery" used in a computer system. The ideal requirement for operating on a general system
should be:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
high speed computer processor with adequate memory;

17" colour monitor (recommended minimum size);
digitiser or mouse;
keyboard; and
AO plotter with continuous paper feed.
The selection of the above items must be carefully made ensuring that the complete system will adequately meet
your needs for at least 3 - 5 years.
Purchase prices for computer hardware are continually dropping, though they are still very high. In addition,
technological advances are frequent which results in rapid redundancies in equipment.
3.2.5
Software
The typical software requirements for a CAD station should be:

1.
2.
3
4.
5.
operating system;
computer drafting software;
graphics drivers;
file management program;_51n_q
diagnostics programs.
The selection of the above programs should be carefully made to ensure that there are no software/hardware
conflicts as these problems are difficult to find and expensive to fix.
3.2.6
Standard Setup
Sufficient thought is seldom placed on the standard setup of drawings. This will drive your drawings, therefore
important decisions are to be made. These include:
1. drawing size -AO, A1, A2, A3, 81. The recommended size is the A series and the A1 size sheet is the industry's
standard;
2. units - metric;
3. scale-full size, 1.5, 1.10, 1.15, 1.20, 1.25, 1.50, 1.100, 1.200, 1.500, 1.1000;
3-4
ASDH/01-1999
r-
4. title blocks:
client;
project;
drawing title;
revision No;
scale;
drawn by;
date;
checked by;
drawing No;
job No .
5. revision blocks:
revision No;
by;
description;
date issued;
checked by.
6. reference blocks:
ref drawing No;

title.
7. bolt blocks (if required):

grips;
length;
type;
quantity;
location .
8. material lists Qt required):
item No;
description;
remarks;
length;
quantity;
mass .
9. applicable notes:
standard welds;
surface preparation .
__,
10. layers
Layers allow you to-gmup entities, assign them special colours and line types, and also to control their display,
the concept of layers is similar to transparent overlays, you can define as many layers as you like.
Layers should be named in an organised manner, so that they are easily identified. Assignment of layers may be
based on line types or the elements being drawn depending on the individual drafting office procedures.
3.2.7
Holds and Revisions
Hold clouds on drawings must be shown with an "inverted" cloud.

Revision clouds must be used to highlight all changes to drawings. However, one revision cloud with a description of the
revisions to that drawing may be used where it is not practical to cloud changes. Revision number triangles must be
placed within the cloud and placed near the border for easy visibility. All clouds should be drawn in a thick line eg. 0.7mm.
3.2.8
Plotting
Plotting of checkprints can usually be done to A2. size if the original drawing is drawn on an A 1 at about 1 :1 O scale.
Complex drawings or those drawn to a large scale eg. 1:50 should be plotted on A 1.
Final plots for the client should always be full size except for simple details where it is sometimes possible to plot
for issue of A2. or A3 size (if original drawings are no bigger than A1 at 1:10 scale).
ASDH/01-1999
3-5
3.2.9
Identification
Checkplots should be clearly identified as such by a "checkprint" block or stamp on the drawing which should be
on the electronic copy.
Final plots should contain signatures of authorisation - again these should be on the electronic copy.
3.2.10 Filing
Paper plots are not originals and should be treated with caution. The only true original is the electronic master copy.
After use, plots should be disposed of or issued to the client as part of their copying requirements. This saves paper
and filing space. (A laser printed A4 copy is very useful as a long term reference copy if required).
3.2.11 Storage
CAD drawings can be stored permanently in various ways :
1.
2.
3.
4.
floppy disk - 3%" or 51/,( disks labelled with the contract No, drawing No, title of drawings, disk box No;
hard disk - local drive or network file server;
tape:.., used mainly for archiving or daily backup due to slow access time; and
as technology develops other methods will become available.
If drawings are stored on floppy aisk, that floppy disk number should appear on the drawing somewhere to enable
quick retrieval. If stored on disk or tape the drawing should be saved in a sub-directory that matches the Job No.
or area code etc.
3.2.12 Revisions
Revisions to finalised CAD drawings must take place under a controlled procedure. This is to prevent drawings being
accessed and altered "at will". Changes shou Id be authorised by the project manager responsible. All revisions must be
clouded and the revision number raised on the drawing. Checking and issuing procedures should match that of the
new drawing.
3.2.13 Automatic Steel Detailing Software Packages

The development of sophisticated software packages which automate the production of shop detail drawings is
rapidly revolutionising the detail drafting industry. These software packages model the entire structural frame in
three dimensions using solid members generally rather than wire frames. The packages include libraries of available
steel sections ancl typical connection details which can be readily applied to members forming the frame.
Customising the libraries is also possible to allow for non-standard section types and connections.
These packages are extremelypowerful tools which are capable for detecting clashes between members and bolts
etc., and greatly reduce the manual checking time. The computer generated shop details can be output as drawings
or downloaded as data files for computer numeric controlled (CNC) fabrication equipment.
3.3
DRAFTING PRACTICES
3.3.1
Linework and Lettering
The good appearance of any drawing is largely a matter of uniformity in making lines and letters. The utility of
drawing depends on the strength and contrast of the various line symbols and legibility. It follows that the most
desirable drawing is one that combines uniformity and utility. No matter how uniform in appearance, fine, delicate
linework and tiny lettering must be avoided, since oil and grease on prints in the shop or field can render such a
drawing useless or misleading.
To aid the trainee in selecting the proper weights, Fig. 3.1 shows recommended line conventions generally used in
structural drafting. Reference should also be made to AS 1100. Fig. 3.2 illustrates the appearance of such lines as
they relate to each other on a drawing.
Border lines, where not preprinted on the sheet, should be made heavy and black, to contrast strongly with all other lines.
When manually drafting, the dashes and spaces of hidden object lines should be proportioned by eye, uniform, and
3-6
ASDH/01-1999
Type of line
Line thickness
Pencil lead
(a) Heavy
HBorF
Outlines, underlining of titles, border lines
_J
Elevation and section arrow lines
--------Hidden outlines
'
(b) Medium
--
Break or cut-away lines
Dimension, projection, leader, bolt centre lines
~
Cross-hatching lines
(c) Fine
.-
.
-
~-
2H
~
__
,.
Centre lines
----------------------Adjacent items, items in front of cutting plane
The three main types of line used in drafting are:

a) Heavy: Used for visible outlines of objects, section or elevation arrow lines and underlining (if used).
b) Medium: Used for dotted lines indicating hidden outlines.
c) Fine: Used for centre lines, dimension lines, projection lines, gauge lines, cross-hatching and break lines.
For further information refer to AS 1100. A simple example of the use of the various types of line is shown in
Fig. 3.2.
Fig. 3.1: Line types and thicknesses

ASDH/01-1999
3-7
c
a = Heavy line
b = Medium line
c= Fine line
c
b
_ __.!!____
SECT A-A a
Fig. 3.2: Use of the various types of lines
A B~CD if: G JF1i
I, .
I J Kl .JM/N OP
Q RS TU ~ 1W X
vz
23456if 89Q
OJibJ C ((ft (S If QJ lh 1i j tk.
:J
f/ 1m lfi1 op
q. 1r s if u
't#WllJjZ
Fig. 3.3: Lettering style
3-8
ASDH/01-1999
=-
~-;
1- '
slightly less pronounced in weight than visible object lines. The dashes should be firm, not feathered, and about
twice the length of the intervening spaces (see Fig. 3.1). A dashed line should start with a solid line, not a space.
Corners should be formed with intersecting dashes. A good average proportion is 4mm dashes and 2mm spaces.
The starting and stopping of all lines should be positive. Over-riding of object and dimension lines beyond their
proper terminations must be avoided.
Most manually drawn circle and circles arcs are executed with a compass. Small circles are conveniently made with
a circle template. Extremely large circles require a beam compass or railroad curves.
Additionally, with manual drafting, certain small circles and other symbols representing holes and bolts on shop and
erection drawings may be conveniently drawn freehand. Freehand execution speeds up the work considerably, and
when done carefully is entirely satisfactory.
All lettering, dimension figures and arrowheads on manually drafted shop drawings are made freehand using a style
that is essentially legible, uniform and capable of rapid execution. Apart from dimensional accuracy there is no
feature more important than lettering. Illegible figures can result in costly errors in the workshop or at site.
The ability to letter well can be acquired only by continued careful practice. Even with the introduction of CAD
drafting it is still essential for a trainee to have a legible handstyle. The style of lettering shown in Fig. 3.3 has been
widely adopted for its clearness and speed in use.
The size of the lettering should be easily read if microfilm reproduction is required. The same drawing may contain
lettering of more than one size, depending upon the nature and importance of the information it imparts.
(a) Perspective view
(b) Isometric view
__,
View A
i
ViewB
ViewC
(c) Orthographic projection
Fig. 3.4: Types of pictorial drawing
ASDH/01-1999
3-9
3.3.2
Orthographic Projection
Although pictorial drawings (see Fig. 3.4) have some application in developing and communicating ideas, they do not
lend themselves readily to making structural shop drawings. A multiview system known as 'orthographic projection'
is used for shop details throughout the industry. The basis of this method is to show the characteristics of an object
by using as many dimensioned views as necessary to describe it fully. The views show the shape of the object, as
observed from several directions, and are related to each other by location on the drawing and by their dimensioning.
Fig. 3.5 is an 'isometric' drawing ofa short universal column in which the four faces A, B, C and Dare labelled. The
arrows indicate the directions in which the surfaces are viewed in orthographic projection.
3.3.2.1 Third angle projection

Detailing of steelwork within Australia is undertaken in third (3rd) angle projection.
Fig. 3.6 shows the views in Fig. 3.5 separated and arranged in 3rd angle orthographic projection. Note that this system
required the selection of a principal view, in this case face B, from which the other views are projected. With respect
to face B, faces A and C are left and right views respectively, projected laterally and in alignment with face B. In a
similar manner, the top view is projected vertically from face B, and represents the column as seen from above.
Note that no bottom view is given in Fig. 3.6. In the illustration, the top view gives the shape description and the
bottom view, being identical, would serve no purpose. Had a bottom view been required to show detail attachments,
it would have been drawn as though observed from underneath, as would be the case in 3rd angle projection. Note
also that face D is omitted. Structural members with a single web rarely require more than one web view, as detail
attachments on the far side of web can be shown readily by hidden {dashed) lines. Had a box-shaped member
required a separate view from the rear (face D), it would have been located to the right of face C.
The usual procedure in preparing an orthographic projection is to draw the principal view to scale, then project the
scaled dimensions to the other views. In Fig. ::i.6, with face B drawn to scale, the section depth and flange thickness
can be projected to the top view and the length to the side views A and C. The only additional scaling required is
that necessary to show flange width. Thicknesses should not be to scale. Proportion for clarity and location of web
and holes. The advantage of projecting as many lines as possible will be more apparent when drawing complicated
built-up sections, or members with attached detail material which must appear in more than one view.
Fig. 3.6 is intended primarily as an example of the relationship of views in 3rd angle orthographic projection. In
preparing a working drawing, the number of views needed is determined by the amount and kind of fabrication
required and the attached detail material. The spacing of the views must permit adequate dimensioning and the
addition of any notes that may be required. More information covering the preparation of working drawings will be
found in later chapters.
The application of orthograp!lic projection to structural drafting is governed by certain rules. However, modificatibns,
special devices and shortcuts which have been developed by common usage through the years are generally
accepted in all structural drafting offices. Although much of this information will be absorbed gradually by the
trainees as they follow the methods and examples in later chapters of this book, some of the more basic concepts
will be discussed here.
Fig. 3.5: Isometric drawing of a short universal column
3-10
ASDH/01-1999
3.3.3
Selection of Views
The principal view of a structural member should be the one which contains the most information concerning cuts,
copes, hole punching and drilling, and attached fittings. In the case of beams, channels, columns and girders, which
comprise the bulk of structural work, this usually means the web view. If at all possible, the principal view should
show the majority of detail fittings on the side toward the observer so as to minimise the need for hidden lines. An
exception to this general rule relates to single channels, which are generally shown with their backs toward the
observer because shop layout can be performed more easily on the flat back surface. In showing the hidden lines,
it is accepted practice to indicate hidden edges and surfaces only partially, to the extent necessary to clarify the
sketch. Long runs of hidden lines should be avoided.
Projected views should be shown only if they contribute to clarity and understanding. If top, bottom or end views
are not required to show fabricators the location of fittings, or an unusual cross-sectional configuration, they should
be omitted. Since the shape descriptions of standard rolled sections such as universal sections, channels and
angles are understood by all concerned from the designation, the end views which merely illustrate the appearance
of such a shape are unnecessary. However, some workshop "in-house" standards require that the rolled section
shapes are fully shown.
3.3.3.1 Orientation of views on the drawing
The principal view may be placed on a drawing either in the same orientation the member will assume in the final
structure or horizontally. A general rule is to detail the member reading the erection plan from the bottom of the
drawing or from the rightend of the drawing. For example, beams and girders are placed horizontally on the sheet.
TOP VIEW
~
Flangewidth\
(D)
~ -@?--~-.~----
~------~
l:'I
l!I
l!I
Iii
Ip
:;,fe
-- . +t --------
-1'1--f - -
Weblhickness
lr
-.
:o-..
'
'
Face: A
---
--
Faces: B (&D)
Face:C
Fig. 3.6: Detailing in third angle projection
ASDH/01-1999
3-11
Top of beam~i~-.----
1---#!i
' ]!___
tffli
SECT C-C
Displaced section
SECT B-B
~~---jf--~~~----+101
Fig. 3.7: Positioning cuts for sectional views

Depending on drawing office practice, columns are shown either vertically or horizontally on the sheet with the lower
ends at tfie bottom or to the left. Diagonal trusses and bracing members, when not shown in place, are located
horizontally with their left ends at the left sideof the sheet.
3.3.3.2 Sectional views

It is conceivable for a top or end view to be drawn to include all the fabrication and detail fittings appearing throughout
the length or depth of a member. However, ttie view, with its innumerable visible and hidden lines, would become
so complicated that it would be difficult to interpret. This problem is readily solved by use of separate sectional views.
When it is necessary to show or dimension an interior detail which is not visible in the usual top or end views, it is
customary to use a sectional view located conveniently near the detail. The position of the section is established by
a line representing the imaginary cutting plane. Directional arrows are added to indicate which way the cut surface
is being viewed (see Fig. 3. 7). The corresponding sectional view, constructed by projection and scaling, permits
picturing the detail for whatever treatment is required.
Sectional views are usually projected from the principal view in the same manner as end or top views. The accepted
practice is to observe sections looking downward or to the left. If, due to lack of space on the drawing, the sectional
view must be displaced from its normal projected position, it should retain its proper orientation and in no case be
turned 90 (see Fig. 3. 7). So.metimes it may be advisable to use an offset cutting plane, so that one sectional \liew
serves in place of two (see Fig. 3.8). As noted elsewhere, linework should be used sparingly in drawing sectional
views, For example, it is usually unnecessary to show the cut section of the main member when the only interest is
in the detail of the fitting. Sufficient references to centre lines or other points projected from the member to locate
such a detail may then be required (see Fig. 3. 7). However, part cut sections may be shown for clarity.
The labelling of section cutting planes and sectional views for identification is sometimes abbreviated to a single
letter or number. See Section 3.3.4.7. for further details.
The cross-hatching of the cut surfaces of sectional views is generally omitted in structural work as a time
A1
~-
- - -
.~
:-tt-
UB---.,.
.~
..
;_
l: J-
: --II-...
A
~Offset cutting plane
SECT A -A
Fig. 3.8: Offset cutting planes
3-12
ASDH/01-1999
consuming embellishment. However, it may be used to a limited extent when the adjacent parts in a complicated
assembly must be identified, or when the section involves machine parts. When used, cross-hatching lines should
be spaced evenly at an angle of 45' and should be sloped in opposite directions on adjacent pieces to indicate
separate plies of materials.
Distinctive "shading" is used instead of cross-hatching for certain construction materials. The shading conventions
for timber, concrete, brickwork and grout are shown in details (c) to (f) of Fig. 3.9. When structural steel members
are shown in cross section they are usually not shaded, unless there is some special reason for shading -see details
(g) and (h) of the figure.
Longitudinal sections through bolts, nuts, rivets, pins, shafts and similar parts are not shaded.
11
(a)
(b)
General
Ad~cent
0 ject
(f)
Grout
(c)
(d)
(e)
Timber
(Cross section)
Concrete
Brickwork
(g)
Steel sections
(h)
Steel sections
Fig. 3.9: Shading of cross-sections
3.3.3.3 Auxiliary views

When it is necessary to represent and dimension a surface which slopes with respect to the usual front, top and end
views, an auxiliary view must be constructed. An auxiliary view is projected perpendicularly from the sloping surface
in such a way as to present a true, undistorted appearance. The skewed detail, shown in Fig. 3.1 O demonstrates
the use of auxiliary views.
UB
...... ~
..........'
Fig. 3.10: Auxiliary views

ASDH/01-1999
3-13
3.3.4
Break Lines and Symbols
3.3.4.1 Breaklines
When only a part of an object is to be shown it is necessary to use break lines. These denote an imaginary cut through
the object and imply that anything beyond the cut line is not of importance in that particular view. Examples are shown
in Fig. 3.11, where details (a) and (b) indicate short breaks, (c) a lorig break and detail (d) is used for circular sections.
Break lines should not be used to indicate foreshortening the length of a beam or column, nor should they be used
to show reduction of the width or depth of any structural member. However; since machine drawing practice
sanctions break symbols to show reduction in length of such parts as pipe and shafting, this custom may be
retained where machinery is involved on structural details. It should be emphasised that dimensions control all
aspects of structural work. Break lines are not required to alert the reader to "not to scale" drawings.
DD
(a)
(b)
m
i
(c)
(d)
Fig. 3.11: Break lines
3.3.4.2 Match lines

On long members, particularly bridge girders, where the detail requires more than one sheet, it is customary to draw
as much of the drawing as convenient on the first sheet of a series, and to continue the drawing on succeeding
sheets until the member is complete. The several sections of such a member are related to one another by 'match
lines'. Match lines are usually established at a readily identifiable point, such as a stiffener gauge line, or, for welded
work, the face of a stiffener. Match lines are tied by dimensions to the closest dimensional feature of all the views
they cross. The ends of each pair of match lines carry identical numbers or letters, as 1-1, 2-2 or X-X, Y-Y as shown
in Fig. 3.12.
MATCH LINE
~1
MATCH LINE
Balance of _ __
detail
,____ Balance of
detail
FIRST SHEET
SECOND SHEET
Fig. 3.12: Use of match lines
3-14
ASDH/01-1999
3.3.4.3 Pointer arrows

Leader lines and arrows are used to relate a note to the object to which it refers. Examples of leader lines are shown
in Fig. 3.13. The arrow head should normally point to the outline of the object as in detail (a) and not to the surface
as in (b) of Fig. 3.13. However, where the note applies specifically to the surface, the leader line terminates on the
surface and has a dot at its end, as shown in Fig 3.13 (c).
In the case of flat plates and groups of holes, the arrow should preferably point to the view showing the surface of
the plate and the main view of the holes as in detail (d) of Fig. 3.13 and not to the plate edge as in (e).
10PL
10PL
75x75x6EA
Cleat
75x75x6EA
Cleat
22dia
holes
22dia
holes
(a)
(c)
(b)
(e)
(d)
Fig. 3.13: Pointer arrows
3.3.4.4 Indication of bolts and bolt holes

Bolts and bolt holes are shown in accordance with the symbols indicated in Fig. 3.14. The diameters should be
drawn to scale. It will be seen that a distinction is made between shop bolts, which are installed during assembly in
the shop, and site bolts, which are used to connect the components together during erection. Note also that the
bolts themselves are not shown, only the holes, even when two items are shown as being attached to each other.
Description
Shop bolts
Site bolts
. Plain holes
i'
..
c'
'..
Countersunk
near side
Countersunk
far side
(a) Bolt symbols
-~----}--~
(b) Drawing of bolt
Fig. 3.14: Bolts and bolt symbols
ASDH/01-1999
3-15
In large-scale details, where it is desired to show the bolts for some reason, they may be depicted as in detail
Fig. 3.14(b). Note the method of showing the thread and that the width of the head and nut are slightly enlarged to
make drawing easier.
3.3.4.5 Indication of welding

Welding is indicated by the standard symbols given in AS 1101.3. The most commonly used ones are considered
in Chapter 7 where an explanation of the symbols is also given. It is very important that steel detailers familiarise
themselves thoroughly with these symbols.
The actual welds are usually not shown on the drawing, as the symbols are self-explanatory. However, when there
is a special reason for depicting a weld the convention shown in Fig. 3.15 is used.
Fillet welds
Butt welds
Fig. 3.15: Graphical representation of welds
3.3.4.6 Machining symbols

If machining of a steel surface is required it is shown by means of the symbols given in Fig. 3.16. Detail (a) in Fig. 3.16
shows the basic symbol, consisting of an equilateral triangle with one side extended and its apex on the line
representing the surface to be machined. If it is wished to specify the surface texture the symbol shown in Fig. 3.16
(b) is used, where the figure above the triangle is the roughness value expressed in micrometres. Additional
information on the process used (Fig. 3.16(c)) can also be shown.
Milled
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 3.16: Machining symbols
3.3.4.7 Elevation and section arrows

Pairs of arrows are used to show:
1. In which direction the elevations are viewed; and
2. The cutting-lines and the viewing directions of the sections.
These arrows may be drawn in various ways with a few styles shown in Fig. 3.17 though usually each company or
drawing office will have its own standard presentation. The style shown in the last example of Fig. 3.17 is used when
the elevation or section represented by the arrows appears on a different drawing. The number in the lower half of
the circle is the number of the drawing on which the view appears. On that drawing the title of the view in question
would refer back to the first drawing. This is done by inserting the number of the first drawing below the line of the
section or elevation mark. For further information and explanation of cross referencing system refer to ''A Guide to
the Requirements for Engineering Drawings of Structural Steelwork'' (Ref. 6).
3-16
ASDH/01-1999
.,
~
g
OS
r T
iii
c.2
Elevation A-A
~ &>
FOi
( On Same Drawing )
01ij
L
( On Drawing No. 23 )
Elevation A-A
Elevation
Elevation
@-@
( On Same Drawing )
( On Drawing No. 22 )
Fig. 3. 17 Elevation arrows (Section arrows are similar)
3.3.5
Dimension Lines
In structural detailing, dimensions should be given to the centre lines of universal sections and to the backs of
channels and angles. For beams, vertical dimensions should be given to the top or the bottom flange, whichever is
the critical level, but not to both because of variations in section depth. Basic rules for dimensioning are shown in
Fig. 3.18.
An example of dimensioning as applied to a universal beam is given in Fig. 3.19, where the above rules are
illustrated. Note that for small dimensions the arrow heads are placed beyond the dimension space, pointing
inwards. For two equal small dimensions, two inward pointing arrows are used, with a dot on the centre projection
line. This practice is used only where there is insufficient space to fit in the usually outward pointing arrows. Another
common method is to use a slash (/) in lieu of an arrow head.
When bolts are arranged at regular spacing in a circular pattern, the circle on which their centres are located is called
the pitch circle and the diameter of this circle is called the pitch circle diameter (PCD). The ways of dimensioning
such bolts are shown in Fig. 3.20 where detail (a) shows the method used for larger PCDs and detail (b) the method
for smaller PCDs.
The methods of dimensioning diameters and radii are illustrated in Fig. 3.21. Details (a) and (d) show the usual
methods, whilst (b) and (c) are used for small diameters. Details (f) and (g) show corners with small radii. Note that
the centres are not shown. In {h) the radius is-large and the centre is also not shown. When the position ofthe c~tre
is to be identified, the method shown in 0) is used.
:E'-----1-----:----------i----+-----+-----~------------
..._______ Small gap
40
Projection line
65
200
120
45
Dimension
lines well
spaced at
equal intervals
140
305
Dimension line/
\Short extension
Fig. 3.18: Projection and dimension lines

ASDH/01-1999
3-17
1180
60
70
380
100
- --- M-J-
1-:11-:~
~------------------~
0
----- -------
100
470
1------
... -
----------M~~!!~'!H:
.
I
I'-
~
'
0
0
'
I
'
I
'
I
~J.
'
f~
0
I'0
I'-
35
-1
I+-
---
35
~ ---~~,_H,-----------------------------------IH..H4Hl-
ld
Fig. 3.19: Dimensioning of beam
~---
150 PCD
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3.20: Dimensioning of holes in circular pattern

3-18
ASDH/01-1999
150 dia
50dia
I
(b)
i
--~~-
!&"'
"
i
- --- -
"
---~--
I
i
(a)
(c)
(d)
(
\
~~~------~-----~{e)
(g)
(!)
-~
i
i
i
i
i
i
--
...
i
i
I
i
i
i
I
iI
i
i
i
i
(h)
(i)
Fig. 3.21: Dimensioning of diameters and radii

ASDH/01-1999
3-19
3.3.6
Scaling Details
Structural details should be drawn to scale. Although this is generally true, there are some permissible, even
inescapable, deviations from the rule.
It is obvious that the length of most members makes strict adherence to longitudinal scaling impractical. As a
consequence, it is acceptable to foreshorten lengths and sometimes widths or depths, to permit long or oversize
members to fit on a drawing or in the space allotted. This foreshortening may be accomplished as follows:
1.
Reducing the scale of all dimensions;
2.
Using a smaller longitudinal than transverse scale;
3.
Reducing dimensions arbitrarily, to no particular scale, as the complexity of the detail will permit; or
4.
Using breaklines.
Frequently, in detailing assembled trusses, the work line diagram is made to a smaller scale than the member detail
scale. By this means the proper angular relationship between members is preserved, an adequate detail scale is
possible, and the entire sketch can be contained conveniently on the sheet.
The separation between object lines which are close together is generally estimated, rather than scaled. The space
is made wide enough so that the lines will not blur together on printing. This applies to the edge views of relatively
thin plates, beam webs, beam flanges or angle legs.
3.3.7
Opposite Hand Components
Components of a structure are often required in pairs. In some instances the two members of the pair are not identical
but one is a mirror image of the other. An example of such a situation are the pair of hands on the human body,
where the left hand is the mirror image of the r.ight hand -the left is said to be 'opposite hand' to the right. An example
of opposite hand components is shown in Fig. 3.22. In engineering detailing practice it is not always necessary to
prepare two details of mirror-image components - a detail could be drawn with only one of the pair shown with the
other described as 'opposite hand'. In Fig. 3.22, just one of the components need only be drawn, with the notation
reading 'One required as drawn. One to opposite hand'.
Most fabricators are today restricting the use of this short-cut concept because, while the cost of the detail drawing
preparation may be somewhat reduced, the opportunity for shop errors is considerably increased. The increased
application of computer graphics is also a deterent since most computer programs, while readily able to create a
mirror image, are not able to handle the complexities of combination detailing.
."...........
---- .....
""
""
"~
""
""
"~
Fig. 3.22: Opposite hand components
3.3.8
Structural Members Billed Only
Certain types of structural material can be described adequately without benefit of any drawing. "Plain" material
(see Chapter 2) not assembled to any other member in the fabricating shop, and on which no fabrication other than
cutting to length is performed, may be completely described by written billing alone (sometimes referred to as a
"Material List"). This applies to all rolled shapes with square cut ends and to rectangular plates and bars. Other items
- such as standard bolts, nuts and washers, and similar "purchased finished" or "off the shelf" items - may also be
billed only with no drawing required on the shop detail drawing unless they are to be assembled to another member.
3-20
ASDH/01-1999
3.3.9
Shipping, Billing & Notes
Each completed fabrication section is given a shipping mark to identify it for the office, shop and field. On any detail
sketch, only the material required for one complete shipping piece is identified. The Material List of the drawing
shows the total requirement for each assembly mark. Some drafting offices may have a standard procedure when
noting assembly marks. Fig. 3.23 indicates the typical -and probably the most popular- method of noting assembly
marks and completed material lists. This is usually positioned above the drawing title block .
---------- .
.......................'
----------~
12
150x10PL
150
11
250x150x9.0RHS
3360
.......................
10
250UB31.4
2074
......................
150x10PL
220
300PFC
2968
200UB25.4
4390
150x10PL
295
410UB59.7
3568
150x10FL
445
610UB125
6268
150x10Fl
370
610UB101
6268
ITEM No
SECTION
No
LENGTH
'
'
----------,
__________ .'
'
: Mass column if desired
----------,
__________ .
----------,
__________
...
'
''
'
----------,
__________ ...'
'
''
'
----------,
MASS :
............
..........
Fig. 3.23 Sample Material List
Instead of noting bolt size, open hole size and coating system requirements on the details for each individual beam,
it is an accepted practice to specify such requirements only once by a general note placed on each shop drawing.
Such a note covers all holes, welding, coating systems and occasionally bolts on the sheet, unless exceptions are
noted on the indiv.idual details (denoted "UNO").
3.3.10 Checking
After structural members are detailed, a small group of more experienced people called "checkers" review and verify
the setout and dimensions on the drawings. Checking all details ensures that errors have not been made and that
standard detailing procedures have been followed.
CAD drawings can be checked "on the screen" but it is still desirable to have a paper copy to mark up any errors
and to show what is checked and found correct. A Jot of valuable time can be saved by checking on screen, if
drawings are drawn to scale.
Checkers should be competent CAD operators so they can find, load and measure drawings quickly and efficiently.
NO CHANGES to drawings should ever be made by checkers.
Alternatively, depending on the drafting office procedure, the checker need not have any CAD training but should
be a fully qualified manually trained senior steel detail draftsperson and/or checker, fully able to check all types of
drawings without any reference to computers.
This "independent" method of checking has the distinct advantage of minimising any errors due to the acceptance
of "tainted" information, by the computer or operator.
ASDH/01-1999
3-21
3.4
GENERAL PROCEDURE
Generally, for the safe commencement and successful completion of structural steel details on any project, the steel
detailer must have at the start of the project a complete set of latest issue Architectural & Engineering reference
drawings, together with the relevant specification and the Bill of Quantities. These consultants' documents usually
form the basis of the Fabrication and/or Drafting Contract, and revisions to these documents should be carefully
monitored and treated in accordance with "in house" drafting office procedures.
The Architectural drawings should show all set out dimensions and levels on the various plans, elevations and
sections, together with construction details shown either on the working drawings or as standard details in book or
file form.
The Engineering drawings generally show the structural steel layout in plans and elevations, and should show the
location and size of all steel members required for the project. When Architect's documents are provided the
Engineer's plans and elevations are usually not dimensioned, but local offsets and levels of specific members should
be fully dimensioned or at least indicated. Further guidance on Engineering drawings is given in Ref. 6.
Special details of connections for steel members are usually provided for specific and/or nominated conditions.
Details of simple connections are shown in typical form, or noted as similar to a typical detail, or those details shown
in Ref. 1. These connection details should be carefully checked prior to commencing drawings, to ensure that they
do indeed apply to the member being detailed.
Should the required information not be available on either the Architect's and Engineer's drawings the steel detailer
must "ask the question" and conform with "in house" drafting procedures or instructions provided by the steel
fabricator and/or drafting contract documents. The procedure usually takes the form of a technical query sheet or
"Request for Information" (RFI}.
The steel detailer must never assume, or make unqualified decisions on the design aspect of any project. An
incorrect assumption or decision would drastically affect the Fabrication and/or Drafting contractual responsibilities
and could lead to expensive unapproved extra costs being added to the contract.
Both Architectural and Engineering drawings will provide general construction notes either as a separate sheet or
included on a working drawing in the appropriate set of documents. These General Notes cover common items of
construction e.g.: references to Australian Standards' requirements, reinforced concrete, brickwork, roof and wall
cladding, steel member sizes, welding, painting, erection bolts, erection procedure etc., and should be noted
carefully by the steel detailer at the commencement of the drawings.
It should be noted that many other consultant drawings besides those of the Architect and Engineer must be referenced
by the steel detailer. These other drawings may provide details of air-conditioning, electrical items, hydraulics etc that
may affect the steel structure.
Also shown on the consultants' drawings will be large scale construction details and sections, together with certain
abbreviations for area reference, surface finishes, members and items used throughout the project. The method of
sectioning and detail referencing together with the sfyle of abbreviations are generally standard and some examples
are shown in Figs. 3.24 to 3.30 inclusive for the trainees reference. These figure include:
- -.- - --- Example of General Notes in Engineer's drawings (Ref.6}
Fig. 3.24.
Typical part plan from Engineer's drawing.
Fig. 3.25.
Typical example of connection details shown on Engineer's drawings. Fig. 3.26.

Sample of part Architect's plan showing job set out
Fig. 3.27.
Typical Architects detail
Fig. 3.28.
Schedule of basic abbreviations for structural steel detailing
Fig. 3.29.
Schedule of typical building construction abbreviations
Fig. 3.30.
3-22
ASDH/01-1999
_,
\
STRUCTURAL STEELWORK NOTES

1.
DESIGN, FABRICATION &ERECTION

Design conforms to AS 4100-1998 and AS/NZS 4600:1996.
Fabrication and erection shall be carried out in accordance with the provisions of AS 4100-1998 and
AS 3828-1998, as appropriate.
These drawings are to be read in conjunction with the project architectural and other consultants'
drawings.
2.
MATERIAL
U.N.O. all material to be
- Grade 250 Hot-rolled plates complying with AS/NZS 3678:1996
- Grade 300 Hot-rolled UB, UC, PFC, TFC, TFS, EA, UA and Flats complying with AS/NZS 3679.1 :1996;
Grade 300 WB, WC complying with AS/NZS 3679.2:1996;
Grade C350 RHS, CHS complying with AS 1163-1991.
3.
WELDING
Welding to be carried out in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.1 :1995. Welding consumables to be E48XX
W50X U.N.O. All welds to be 6 mm CFW SP category U.N.O. CPBW to be SP category U.N.O.
or
Inspection to be carried out to AS/NZS 1554.1 :1995. All GP/SP welds to be 100% visually scanned. SP
welds allow for 25% visual examination U.N.0.
4.
BOLTING
Bolts are galvanised M20 diameter complying with AS/NZS 1252:1996 U.N.O. Bolt category is to be 8.8/S
complying with AS 4100-1998 U.N.O. Threads may be included in shear planes U.N.O.
5.
CONNECTIONS
All details, gauge lines, etc. where not specifically shown are to be in accordance with AISC Design
Capacity Tables for Structural Steel and AISC Standardized Structural Connections.
Plates to be 10 mm thick, ex-standard square edge flats U.N.O.
6.
PURLINS/GIRTS
Puriins and Girts are to be BHP Building Products (BHP-BP), Stramit Metal Building Products, or othJ
sections apprO\/!lQjn writing by the Engineer, complying with AS 1397-1993, and a minimum galvanised
coating of Z350 (350 g/sqm).
'
Cleat connections are to be in accordance with AISC Standardized Connections or manufacturer's

recommendations U.N.O. Bolting and bridging to be in accordance with manufacturer's recommendations.
7.
CORROSION PROTECTION
Painting: The steelwork is to be cleaned to an AS 1627 class 2 16 preparation and given 1 coat of IZS to
give a dry film thickness of 75 m before dispatch to the site, unless the steel is to be encased or
detailed otherwise.
8.
SHOP DRAWINGS
The Steel Fabricator is to provide the Engineer with 3 copies of workshop drawings for inspection before
fabrication is started.
9.
DIMENSIONS
All dimensions in millimetres U.N.O.
Fig. 3.24: Example of General Notes in Engineer's drawings (Ref. 6)
ASDH/01-1999
3-23
i 3B40
3B41
m
....
m
- j-
(")
!
I
!
3B69
:r3B70
3B71
-=i=--'-----'-r----=---_;$'---'----'------'--+--~-------- 19
&!
CJ~ iI
i
i
~"'!I
<!fl';
Third Floor Plan
MEMBER SCHEDULE
MARK
SIZE
3B40- 3B41
MEMBER SCHEDULE
MARK
SIZE
250UB31.4
3B75
610UB101
250UB37.3
3B79- 3B81
310UB40.4
3B57 - 3B58
250UB31.4
3B91-3B95
610UB101
3B59 - 3B63
250UB37.3
3BR32 - 3BR41
3B69- 3B70
460UB67.1
3B71
610UB113
3B42- 3B46
--
---------
150PFC
Additional Comments:
3B75, 3B91 - 3B95
Precamber at midspan +o - 5 mm
19 dia studs 100 long in pairs at 400x150
cross centres throughout.
Weld studs to beams after Bondek is placed.
Fig. 3.25: Typical part plan from Engineer's drawing
3-24
ASDH/01-1999
I
I
8 EndPLs
M20 8.8/Sbolts
TOC
031
832
,..l:.
.i:
--- ~:.
i==:=.#=====::;
.
/
75x75x6EA
2-M20 8.8/S each end _ _ _ __,,
88.9x4.8CHS
2-M20 8.8/S
12 End PL
2-M20 8.8/S
...... ~:
,
10 EndPL
6-M20 8.8/S
"~:
C36
..
Fig. 3.26: Typical example of connection details shown on Engineer's drawings

ASDH/01-1999
3-25
SIMULATOR ROOM-10
G.42
I
oi
I
~!
DP
U>I
---------------- - ----------------------~---1----------------i---------------
c
! !
!
C28
A 12
"71
""""'
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
___ j________________ ~
181
i
i
i
i~
j """""'
----~-----------j
STAIR
C>j
2~
iI
i
C31
C30
i
i
181
r-.1
'
CJ
DJ
--------------------l-----------------------!----.---------------!----------------
I
I
I
I
i
8315 [fil:J
i
l
i
i
i
i
7050
C35
3840 200
4
200
200
4015
795'
15365
200
200
i
~
295
3745 295
4240
5010
110
6730
295
i
iI
295
__,
' i '
590370
6315
110
3710 295
1325 .
295
6610
G)
SECOND FLOOR PLAN

Fig. 3.27: Sample of part Architect's plan showing job set out
3-26
ASDH/01-1999
Kliplock Hi Ten
on 100 'Z' girts
~!
!
---------------------- -------------------
------------------------- ---------------~
--------
13mm Plasterboard
on 76mm stud sections
at 600 ctrs
500
COLUMNC9
250
41
;;>-
.... ~
13mmPlasterboard
on76m m stud sections
'[_]
50x5 Ox3
Fixing
-~~--- --
----- --
Line of sill
flashing
'
'
1
'v
e::1
----------
u
w ,.
--------@
,;~
~
Jl Jl
---~rf~---~-
100 'Z' girt
"
.. "
I
I
''
i.."
i..
Sirrgle stage
louvre
--
Kliplock Hi Ten
wall cladding
Ij I
...
Channel 125x65
Colorbond 300x300
corner capping
Louvre blade
COLUMN C10
FOURTH FLOOR
Fig. 3.28: Typical Architect's detail
ASDH/01-1999
3-27
AOE
BG
BLDG
BM
BOTorBTM
BPL
CFW
CPBW
CTS
CIC
t.
DFT
DIA
DIM
EL or ELV
FLG
FSor F/S
GALV
GND
As Other End
Back Gauge
Building
Back Mark
Bottom
Baseplate
Continuous Fillet Weld
Complete Penetration Butt Weld
Centres
Cross Centres
Centre Line
Dry Film Thickness
Diameter
Dimension(s)
Elevation
Flange
Far Side
Galvanise
Ground
IP
LEV
LH
NOM
NSorN/S
OPP
0/A
RAD
REF
RH
TOG
TOS
TP
TYP
WP
U/S
TEMP
LFH
FFL
Intersection Point
Level
Left Hand
Nominal
Nearside
Opposite
Overall
Radius
Reference
Right Hand
Top of Concrete
Top of Steel
Tangent Point
Typical
Working point
Underside
Template
Locate 1st hole
Finish floor level
Fig. 3.29: Schedule of basic abbreviations for structural steel detailing

(also_see Abbreviations at beginning of the handbook)
GENERALLY
AUG
BSN
CJ
CS
EDB
EJ
FA
FCL
FD
FFL
FH
FHR
FIB
FLP
FR
FW
G
HCD
HD
HWU
L
LP
MH
RC
RS
RD
S
SB
SC
SD
SL
FLOOR AND PAVING FINISHES

Perforated corrugated aluminium
Basin
Construction joint
Cleaners sink
Electrical Distribution Board
Expansion Joint
Fabric Awning
Finished Ceiling Level
Fire Door
Finished Floor Level
Fire Hydrant
Fire Hose Reel
Fire Indicator Board
Laminated Plastic
Fire Rated
Floor Waste Glazing
Hollow Core Door
Hand Dryer --- ,_
Hot Water Heater
Light fitting
Louvred Panels
Manhole
Reinforced Concrete
Roller Shutter
Relative level
Sump
Structural Steel Beam
Structural Steel Column
Solid Core Door
Soffitt Lining
CONG
CPT
FCT
FSV
FVT
PCT
POT
TF
TI
TZ
Concrete
Carpet
Cement Topping
Sheet Vinyl
Vinyl Tiles
Ceramic Tiles
Quarry Tiles
Timber Floor
Terrazzo Tiles
Terrazzo
WALL FINISHED
CB
CFC
CR
FB
FOF
FPB
TZ
WT
Concrete Block
Compressed Fibre sheeting
Cement Render
Face Brickwork
Off-form concrete
Plasterboard
Terrazzo
Wall Tiles
CEILING FINISHES
AT
CAP
FOF
FPB(F)
PB
SP
Acoustic Tiles
Ceiling Access Panel
Off form concrete
Plasterboard and Fire-rated
Particle board
Suspended ceiling system
ROOF AND PLUMBER

DP
FL
GI
OF
RWH
SWP
Storrnwater Downpipe
Flashing
Gutter
Overflow
Rainwater Head
Storrnwater Pit
Fig. 3.30: Schedule of typical building construction abbreviations

3-28
ASDH/01-1999
~--
1~--
3.5
APPROVAL OF COMPLETED DETAIL DRAWINGS
After the detail drawings have been completed and checked, prints or reproducibles {often required on large
contracts) of the drawings must be submitted for approval before workshop operations begin. This applies to all
workshop details and erection plans, since all of these drawings contain some information not specifically shown
on the design drawings. This approval is usually given by the design engineer, or by some other individual whose
authority to represent the owner has been established in the contract documents.
Except for small orders involving relatively little work, the fabricator's drawings are usually submitted for approval in
instalments. For example, for multi-storey buildings, plans and details may be submitted for one tier (two floors) at
a time. Prompt approval of the drawings is essential to meet work schedules and delivery dates. The fabricator
usually includes an allowance in the program for the return of shop drawings. The Project Manager is required to
keep a record (on the Drawing Register) showing the dates on which the drawings are submitted for approval and
the dates on which they were returned. In conjunction with the Chief Draftsperson, a close watch over this aspect
of the work must be maintained.
When the approving authority returns prints with notations for corrections the indicated changes must be checked.
These changes may affect other work in progress in the drafting office or work already released for fabrication. If
found to be in order, the changes should be made promptly and revised drawings issued to the shop. If required,
new prints of the corrected drawings are then submitted for approval.
Acceptance by the approving authority indicates confirmation of the suitability of the details and adequacy of.the
connections. However, the correctness of dimensions on detail drawings and the general fit-up of parts furnished
by the fabricator to be assembled in the field, remains the responsibility of the fabricator.
In preparing the detail drawings, should any discrepancies in the design be discovered they must at once be referred
to the client, consultant or approving authority. Instructions must be received before proceeding further with the
affected part of the work.
ASDH/01-1999
3-29
[blank]
3-30
ASDH/01-1999
4. ARRANGEMENT AND DETAIL DRAWINGS

4.1
COMPOSITION OF A TYPICAL STRUCTURE
In Fig. 4.1 the steel framework for a warehouse-type building is shown in elevation, plan and cross section, with the
names of the main components given. The drawing shows the structure as it will appear when erected on site, but
when detailing the steelwork for shop fabrication it will be necessary for every single component to be separately
drawn and fully described. Note that the building is not fully depicted in the views given - e.g. the end walls and the
far side of the lean-to are not shown. However, for the purpose of illustrating the names of the components, the
figure is adequate.
I
I
I
I
Ki)
"--.I/
I
I
/I~
K1 ""-I/
I
~
I
I
I
I
I
f) I
I
I
Side Elevation
End Elevation
Cross section A-A
~,-Roof
Plan
1 Main columns
2 End wall columns
3 Lean-to columns
4 Trusses
5 Lean-to rafters
6 Purlins
7 Bridging
8 Girts
9 Eaves struts
1O Side bracing
11 End wall bracing
12 Roof bracing :J
13 Door framing 14 End wall rafters
Fig. 4.1: Components of a steel-framed warehouse building

Consider the main columns (Item 1) in Fig. 4.1. There are 12 of these items and it is obvious that they will not all be
identical because of the different attachments to them, eg girts, bracing, trusses, end wall rafters, lean-to rafters,
etc. A careful study will show that there are in fact nine different main columns, seven of which are completely
different and two that are opposite hand to others. The columns could therefore be depicted in seven separate
details, with the note "One required opposite hand" added to two of them. However, as will be seen later, it is
possible to combine certain columns that are almost identical into one detail and thus reduce the number from
seven to, say, four.
A study of the main trusses (Item 4) will show that of the total of four there will be two types only, with no oppositehand details. Note that the end frames have rafters instead of trusses. Although the trusses to which the rafter
bracing is attached appear to be opposite hand, they are in fact identical because one can be swung through 180
in plan to take the place of the other.
A structure is thus made up of a number of parts that are in themselves quite separate and diverse. They are
manufactured in different parts of the fabrication shop - eg trusses in the welding shop, columns and beams in the
punching or drilling bays, etc - yet when they are brought together and connected to each other by bolting or
ASDH/01-1999
4-1
welding, they form a single unified structure. It is obvious that when each component is being detailed, the steel
detailer must have a clear idea of how that component will be connected to the adjacent one. For example, the ends
of the trusses must be attached to the tops of the main columns. As this is usually done by bolting, the necessary
matching holes must be provided in the truss end cleats and the columns.
4.2
DESIGN LOADING
Loading such as selfweight, imposed loading, wind loading, etc, that the structure must be capable of sustaining is
called the nominal loading. It represents the actual loading applied to the structure, and values to be used are
specified in the loading codes AS 1170 Parts 1, 2, 3 and 4.
The modern method of structural design is called limit-states design, which means that the structure is designed
to resist the applied loading under essentially two limiting conditions or states. These are the ultimate and the
serviceability limit states.
4.2.1
Ultimate Limit State
This is the state at which the structure, or any part of it, is just at the point of collapse or failure when subjected to
a combination of applied loads, these loads being the nominal loads multiplied by appropriate factors.
The reason for applying these factors is that it is impossible to estimate accurately the actual intensity of the nominal
loads, and so a "margin of safety" must be built in,
The combination of loading does not necessarily include all of the loads acting simultaneously at their maximum
intensity. For example, when full wind loading is applied other live loading is included at reduced levels, or when full
live loading from one source is applied then live loading from a different source is taken at a lower value, ie. a lower
factor is used. The factors to be used are called partial load factors, since they vary according to the type of load
to which they are applied, whether dead, live, wind, etc. Values are given in the loading code AS 1170 Part 1.
Several combinations of loading usually have to be considered by the engineer and the worst combination
applicable to any particular member in the structure is used in the design of that member. The factored loading thus
derived is called the loading at ultimate limit state, or, more simply, ultimate loading.
4.2.2
Serviceability Limit State
This is the state beyond which the structure or any part of it no longer performs acceptably under the applicable
combination of nominal (not ultimate) loading, ie. in its normal use or function. Examples of where this state is
exceeded are deflection of beams, side sway of structures under wind or crane surge loading, vibration of structures
supporting moving machinery, etc, beyond acceptable limits. The loads applicable are those from nominal loaaing
(sometimes reduced by a load factor less than 1.0) and are called the serviceability loads. Values of the load factors
for the serviceability limit state are also given in AS.1170 Part 1.
It is the responsibility of the ..eogineer_ to ensure that the structure complies with the serviceability limit state.
requirements.
4.3
INFORMATION PROVIDED BY THE DESIGNERS
There are four main types of contract documentation methods referred to in Ref. 6. These are:
1. The engineer shows all member and connection details to a level sufficient to allow accurate pricing and shop
detail preparation, but insufficient information to enable direct fabrication.
2. The engineer includes fully detailed shop drawings.
3. The engineer shows members and their end reactions only.
4. All engineering information is shown on the architectural drawings.
As described in Ref. 6, the first method is the most common method used in Australia. In this case the responsibility
for dimensioning of the primary and building dimensions lies with the architect. The engineer shows structural
dimensions, eg truss and beam depths, bolt centres, plate dimensions, beam and purlin locations, splice locations,
and other specific dimensions which are critical to the structural design. If separate architectural drawings are not
provided (examples of such projects would be mining or processing plant projects) the engineer would provide fully
dimensioned drawings.
4-2
ASDH/01-1999
_,
If reference is made to the project organisation diagrams shown in Figs 1.1 and 1.2 it will be seen that at a certain
point in the sequence of events the designers provide design information to the steel fabricator. It is at this stage,
ideally, that the steel detailer receives all the data needed to proceed with the task of preparing workshop drawings.
The information is usually provided by the designers in the form of general arrangement drawings and a brief
specification. The drawings will include a layout of the structure, generally as shown in Fig. 4.1 and typical
connection details (see sample drawings in Ref. 6 also).
It is essential that the information provided is complete and explicit. The preparation of workshop drawings is an
activity lying on the critical path, which means that any delay in the execution of this task will contribute to an
extension of the time required to complete the whole project. The contractor will have committed to a fixed hand-over
date for the steelwork and any overrun on this date could result in incurring financial penalties for non-compliance.
For a steel-framed building, the following design data would be required from the designers (engineers and architects):
1. General arrangement (ie layout) drawings preferably to scale, including elevations, sections and plans, giving a
complete representation of the entire building. These drawings should give floor levels, beam spacing, the
orientation of the building (by means of a north arrow), location on the site, relationship to other structures (if
any) and where appropriate dimensions for the correct location of members, etc.
Plan views show the locations of column centres and indicate the orientation of column faces. Since the structural
plan is generally a small scale line diagram, enlarged sections are sometimes employed to locate off-centre beams
and to clarify special framing conditions This is particularly true for perimeter (spandrel) framing, beams around
stair wells and ramps, and members to elevator openings. Enlarged parts of the plan, such as those adjacent to
corner columns, ma}' _be used to indicate the designer's solution or to alert the detailer to complex situations.
2. The section sizes of all members in the building, eg columns, beams, all truss members, rafters, purlins, girts,
bracing, crane beams, stairs, fascia fixings, etc.
3. Drawings of any connections, components or details in the structure that lie outside the scope of generally
accepted or standard structural practice.
4. The type of flooring for each suspended floor, eg reinforced concrete slab, composite slab, precast planks and
topping, cellular steel deck and concrete, open grating, floor plate, etc.
5. A column base layout, giving the levels of the bases and the holding down bolt details.
6. The grade of steel to be used for the various parts of the building, eg Grade 300 steel for hot-rolled sections.
7. The bolt grades to be used for the shop and site connections.
8. Cambers, if required, for long span plate girders or trusses.
9. The Australian Standard to which the building was designed.
1O. The specifications to which the steelwork is to be fabricated and erected.
'
In multi-storey buildings withmany columns; a column schedule is of great assistance to the steel detailer, qm19tity_
surveyor and erector. This is a schematic drawing showing the columns only, grouped together row by row,-anq
showing section sizes (prebably varying with height), base levels, floor levels and splice locations. Fig. 4.2 represents part of an engineer's floor plan and indicates how beam sizes are shown. Congestion might
necessitate that only member marks (e.g. 381, 382, 383 etc.) are shown on the plan (Fig. 4.2(a)) with the members
sizes being separately tabulated on the drawing. Connection information would either be included with the member
schedule, a connection schedule, or in separate details. If an architect is involved with the project the grid
dimensions will be shown on the architect's drawings rather than the engineer's drawings.
Unless otherwise indicated by dimensions, members shown on such floor plan drawings are presumed to be:
1 . Placed parallel or at right angles to one another with their webs in a vertical plane.
2. Located at the same particular elevation, and are level from end to end.
In either the architect's or engineer's drawings the vertical position of each floor (or beam) is indicated by a figure
termed RL (reduced level). The RL, which is typically given in metres, is the distance above an established horizontal
plane or datum and may generally be shown on the structure's elevations for a particular floor level -eg (RL 100.000)
or (RL 100.075).
For a floor with varying levels of top surface of steelwork - ie "top of steel" (TOS) - Rls are sometimes noted on the
individual beams as indicated by Fig. 4.2 (b). Alternatively, floor members in this situation may also be noted by "All
steel flush top at RL 100.00 except as noted thus (+75)" or 'TOS at RL 100.00 UNO". In this instance, Rls are not
shown on those beams which are to be erected with their top flanges at RL 100.00 - eg Fig. 4.2 (a).
ASDH/01-1999
4-3
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4-4
ASDH/01-1999
4.4
DRAWING SHEETS
The steel detailer is now in a position to start with the preparation of the drawings to be used for shop fabrication,
site erection and general reference. These drawing comprise:
a) General arrangement drawings.
b) Detail drawings.
The size of paper or film will generally be A 1, A3 or B1, depending on the size of the job. Unless done by CAD, most
companies have pre-printed drawing sheets containing the following basic details:
1. A borderline around all four sides, about 10 mm to 15 mm in from the edge.
2. A title block giving the company's name, plus open panels for the insertion of the project description, drawing
title, job number, drawing number, date, draftsperson's initials, checker's initials and scale of drawing.
3. Additional blocks for the insertion of reference drawing titles and numbers, and descriptions and dates of
revisions.
4.5
'\
HOLDING DOWN BOLT LAYOUTS
A task of the detailer is to prepare a holding down (HD) bolt layout. This is a drawing showing the positions of all the
column bases (located relative to the column grid lines), with the cross-centres of the HD bolts for each base. The
drawing also gives the tO!'kOf-foundation levels, HD bolt projections and grout thicknesses. An example of an HD bolt
layout is given in Fig. 4.3.
Every column base requires at least two and possibly as many as eight HD bolts to attach it to the concrete
foundation. The pupose of the bolts is to position the column base accurately. Bolts also transfer axial (uplift), and
shear forces and (possibly) bending moment from the column base into the foundation. Although HD bolts are set
in the concrete by the civil contractor, it is usual practice for the bolts to be detailed and supplied by the steelwork
contractor. The number, location, diameter and embeddment length of HD bolts should always be decided by
the designer.
Where enlarged details of column bases are shown, the orientation of the columns in the detail should be the same
as in the main plan, to avoid the possibility of the E-W (East-West) and N-S (North-South) bolt centre dimensions
being confused.
Where practicable the bolt centres in plan should be on a square pattern (ie E-W and N-S dimensions equal), to
avoid errors in setting-out, or sufficiently different that correct orientation can be checked by eye on site, before
concreting of the base.
The projection length of the bolt is usually calculated by the detailer using knowledge of the grout, base plate
thicknesses and information from the engimier's drawings. An allowance is also .made for a generous protrusion of_
the bolt thread above the nut. HD bolts are usually made by cutting a standard metric bolt thread on the end:of
round bar. The standard diameters of bar are 16 mm, 20 mm, 24 mm and 30 mm.
a-
-------
The holes in the base plate for the HD bolts should be made considerably larger than the bolt hole diameter, up to
6 mm (as permitted by AS 4100), to allow for inaccuracies in bolt setting.
The HD bolt layout should be prepared early on in the drawing sequence, since the setting-out of the bolts at site
is always an urgent priority. It is necessary for the detailer to concentrate on the column base details at the earliest
opportunity and prepare rough but accurate sketches of all the bases.
4.6
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT DRAWINGS
The general arrangement drawings are similar to those provided by the engineer but include member erection
marks. An example of such a drawing is given in Fig. 4.4. The structure depicted is a simple two-storey building and
can therefore be shown on a single drawing. Many structures require more than one arrangement drawing,
especially when several floor plans are required. An elevation of each side of the building and a plan view of the roof
and the first floor are shown. A typical cross-section is essential as it is often the view that contains the most
information on the building and it is sometimes drawn to a larger scale, or even depicted on a separate drawing.
Much work can be saved if the fabricator can arrange for the engineer to supply transparencies of the engineering
drawings or CAD files. The fabricator can then delete any superfluous design information from the drawings and
add the detailer's own notation (e.g. erection marks, etc) and own drawing number. The use of CAD makes this ideal
situation easily attainable.
ASDH/01-1999
4-5
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ASDH/01-1999
4-7
Fig. 4.4 is intended to show the layout of a complete A 1 size general arrangement drawing, including all necessary
views, title block, etc. The scale of the views on the full size drawing would typically be 1:100, except for Section
A-A, which might be 1:50. However, because of page size limitations it is not possible to include all the detail that
would normally be shown on a general arrangement drawing in the figure. For this reason some of the views, eg the
roof, first floor plan, the south and east elevations and Section A-A, are reproduced separately to a larger size and
with more detail in Figs. 4.5 to 4.9.
It will be seen that the main or more substantial items such as columns, beams (in side elevation) and rafters are
drawn in double lines, whilst other members, including bracing, purlins and girts, are drawn in single lines. In the
plan views the trusses and main floor beams may be drawn in heavier single lines.to distinguish them from other
components. Alternatively, single lines of varied thickness may be used to represent all members.
The direction in which the elevations and sections are viewed comply with the following rule: in relation to the plan,
these are viewed as looking from bottom to top of the plans, or from right to left. A departure from this rule may be
permitted when outside elevations on the north and west sides of the building are required - here the views will be
taken looking from top to bottom and from left to right respectively.
The orientation of the building is shown by means of the 'North' arrow. Where true north is not parallel to one of the
sides of the building (in plan), the 'Grid North' or 'Project North' convention is used for convenience, this being the
direction (parallel to one side of the building) nearest to true north.
The plan grid marking system should be noted. It will be seen that the north-south and east-west centre lines of the
columns in plan represent a rectangular grid and it is usual practice to identify these lines by letters in the one
direction and by numbers in the_other. If the origin. of this grid (ie point A 1) is taken at the lower left corner of the
plan, then the letters and numbers will progress in positive order from left to right in the elevations and sections
(except when the non-standard viewing directions referred to above are used).
Arrangement drawings may also give the respective levels of all floors and the roof. These are given in metres above
a defined datum level, which may be the ground floor level or some other site reference level. If no reference level
is given by the engineer it is usual to take the ground floor as datum and to define it as the 0.000 level.
The following points should be noted in connection with Figs. 4.5 to 4.9:
4.6.1
Roof Plan
The roof plan erection marks of all items are given, eg rafters, purlins, false rafters, bridging and roof bracing. See
Fig. 4.5.
4.6.2
First Floor Plan
The first floor plan erection.marks of all items are given in Fig. 4.6. The following should be noted:
1. The positions ef certain special features are shown, eg plant item in bay B-C/2-3, stairway in bay A-B/3-4 and
floor opening in bay A-B/5-6. The framing beams are dimensioned.
2. The 'top of steer level, abbreviated to-TOS, is given. In this instance it is 120 mm below the first floor level of 3.500
m, allowing for the thickness of the reinforced concrete floor slab.
3. The direction of span of the flooring (in this case north-south) is indicated by the double-headed arrow.
4. The positions of the feet or support points of the plant item are dimensioned.
5. The upper end of the stairway is shown. The arrow should always point up, even when only the foot of the stair
is shown.
6. Beams 815, B15X, 816 and 820 are channels. The direction in which their toes point is shown by the short
length of channel superimposed on each, showing the top flange in greater detail.
7. The use of the abbreviation 'Typ' (=typical) should be noted. This means that the information covered by this
description is generally applicable, unless otherwise noted.
8. The use of the abbreviation 'do' (= ditto) should be noted. The reference is to the beam description directly
above the note. This convention is used when the writing out of the full description would result in excessive
clutter of the drawing.
9. The section designation for each member is either noted next to the erection mark or noted below the plan.
Alternatively, a member schedule based on the erection mark may be used.
4-8
ASDH/01-1999
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4.6.3
Elevations
The South and East elevations are shown in Fig. 4.7 and Fig 4.8 respectively. The following should be noted:
1. Erection marks of only the girts, vertical bracing, door framing and rafters are given. All other components, ie
columns, beams and roof framing, have their marks given elsewhere.
2. Only special dimensions are given, eg the location of the roller shutter door. All other dimensions are shown
elsewhere.
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ASDH/01-1999
4-11
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Reader's Note: Roof and wall cladding

noted though typically not shown.
EAST ELEVATION
Fig. 4.8: East elevation
4.6.4
Cross-section
The cross-section at Section A-A is shown iri Fig. 4.9. The following should be noted:
1. This view may be drawn to a larger scale in order to show as much typical detail as reasonably possible.
2.
Usually, no erection marks are given.
3.
Full particulars of floor levels, foundation plinth levels and grout thickness are shown.
4. The section sizes of all typical members are shown.
4. 7
Detail Drawings
Detail drawings depict every individual structural member and component in the job and include detailed notes as
to their fabrication. This information includes:
1. The section size and overall lengths of members.
2. The positions and
diamet~r~9f all holes.
3. The positions, types and sizes of all welds.

4.
Dimensions of notches, cut-outs and copes where necessary.
5.
Details of attachments such as cleats, brackets, base plates, stiffeners, bearing plates, etc.
6.
Many other details depending on the type of structure.
Before starting the shop drawings, the steel detailer and fabricator should view the engineer's and architect's design
drawings and determine the fabrication methods that will be used for both shop and field connections. Methods
change with new developments, but at the present time the following systems are common:
(a} Shop welded and field bolted.
(b} Shop and field bolted.
(c} Shop and field welded.
The shop preference for a particular system varies with the available equipment and shop experience. Fabrication
plants which have equipment and shop layout adapted to punched or drilled work, perhaps with some machines
operated by computer numerical control (CNC), may lean toward the use of bolts. Other shops may be better suited
for welding and prefer that all shop connections be welded. Many can handle either type of fabrication, but to
balance workloads between shop areas, there may be a preference to select the connection system on a job-to-job
basis.
4-12
ASDH/01-1999
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noted as well as finished floor levels
though these are typically not shown.
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Generally the connection system is selected by the designer and indicated in the design drawings and the job
specifications. However, the designer may be receptive to any proposed changes.
A parallel but equally important decision is to determine on which members the detail material will be assembled,
ie. the column shafts or the beams. For instance, columns may have considerable detail fittings, splice plates, etc.,
attached to them. If all this detail material can be assembled and attached to the columns in the shop, the fabricated
beams can go to the shop assembly area, then to inspection, painting and shipping areas, while the plain beams
(no fittings) go directly to the inspection, painting and shipping areas - an efficient procedure. Special connections
and conditions may require some compromise. Any deviations are resolved by management as the drafting
proceeds.
Since the greater part of the connection material may appear on the columns, preliminary planning is helpful even
before detailing is started. In the case of larger buildings this includes an advance preparation of details covering
job standards for bracing connections, column splices and other features which repeat throughout the structure.
Column and beam gauges are determined, and layouts of bracing connections and standards for framed and seated
connections are made. Job standards involving connection material are customarily placed on separate sheets for
reference in the drawing office and for use in the template shop.
The shop details required for even a relatively small project are seldom produced by one detailer working alone. The
tight time schedules of most contracts may require from two to ten detailers working on a single floor level of
framing. Early development of complete column details speeds the work and minimizes debates which sometimes
arise when several detailers attempt to work up connections to the same column. A well developed set of job
standards goes farther in this diniction by providing common standards for both column and beam detailers.
Beams, trusses, purlins, girts and girders are drawn in the horizontal position, ie parallel to the lower edge of the
sheet. Short columns are drawn in the vertical position, but long columns are placed horizontally, with their bases
to the left. Inclined girders, such as sloping conveyor gantries, may be drawn at their true slope or horizontally.
The most commonly used scale for detail drawings is 1:10, but in the case of large items such as trusses a smaller
scale, say 1 :15 may be used.
In certain cases, mixed or composite scales may be used. For example, long members such as purlins, girts, certain
bracing members or beams not having much detail along their length may have their length drawn to a smaller scale,
but their depth, width and all details {holes, welds, cleats, attachments, etc) drawn to the common scale of, say,
1 :15. However, before this practice is adopted due consideration should be given to the possibility of overcrowding
of detail and consequent lack of clarity. In cases of doubt it is best to use the standard scale.
As far as possible all the beams and girders on one floor should be shown on one drawing or on consecutively
numbered drawings. Rolled beams and welded plate girders should be on separate sheets since they will be
fabricated in different parts of the shop. All other similar-type items, whether they be columns, trusses, bracing
systems, etc, should like"'(ise be grouped together according to their proximity in the structure and/or the
construction method, ie bolting or welding.
Amongst the other items to be detailed are steel stairways. There is a tendency to regard these as relatively -:; ..
unimportant and to leave their detailing until t.he end of the job. In actual fact, they should be given early
consideration and accurate layouts shoufd be drawn to ensure that adequate space is available to accommodate them
and the required headroom is available, both overhead and also under landings. Care should be taken to ensure that
the supporting floor beams at the foot and head of the stairs are properly located so that the stairs are of the required
slope.
Detail drawings should be provided with a list of General Notes, stating the grade of steel, the sizes and types of
bolts to be used, the diameters of the bolt holes and whether the holes should be drilled or punched, the type of
welding electrodes and what painting is required.
The above comments on detail drawings are of a general nature and refer to the content of such drawings and the
conventions applicable to them. In later chapters, detailed aspects of the graphical representation of various items
such as columns, beams, trusses, etc and the particular practices that relate to them will be discussed.
4.8
Components of Steel-Framed Industrial Buildings
Fig. 4.10 is a composite partial representation of an imaginary building, illustrating the many components that go to
make up typical steel-framed structures.
4-14
ASDH/01-1999
(.--..
e;
0
~
...
"'~
Cll
>
~~
z
!!Im
r0
~r-
""
:..
0
0
'C
0
:I
CD
a
"'~
CD
!e.
.!,,
m
Ul
iil
3
>
z
C"
::11
:c
0
m
0
0
"
!.
c
:s::
s
cc
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Floor beams
Column holding-down bolts

Base plates of steel columns
Beams, purlins, girts
Bearing plates for steel beams
18 Canopy frame
19 Monorail
20 Window framing
Bracing for steel members or frames

Brackets attached to steel frame
Columns
Conveyor framework
10 Crane rail beams and stops
11
12
13
14
15
Door frames constituting part of steel frame

Floor plates (raised pattern or plain) or grating, connected to steel frame
Girders
Grillage beams to column base

Headers or trimmers for support of open-web steel joists where headers or trimmers frame
into structural steel members
16 Light-gau~e. cold-i?rmed steel decking/cladding .
17 Lintels built mto brickwork
...
'\"
U1
d.,.i
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Separators, angles, cleats, gussets, shear connectors and other detail fittings
Shelf angles
Steel cores for composite columns
Open-web steel joists, bracing and accessories
Window sills
Suspended ceiling supports
Ties, hangers and sag rods
Trusses and braced frames
Steel stairs and handrails
[blank]
--
4-16
-.-
--
----
ASDH/01-1999
5. FUNDAMENTALS OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

The designer or engineer, responsible for preparing the design drawings, calculates the design loads a steel
structure must support and then determines the size of each structural member required to support these loads.
With an emphasis on beams, this chapter outlines the basic fundamentals of structural engineering so that the
trainee steel detailer can gain an appreciation of how such steel members carry loads. Readers should refer to other
specialised texts on structural engineering should they wish to get further insight into this and other related areas.
5.1
REACTIONS
A horizontal or inclined member that carries a transverse load and is supported at one or more points is called a
beam. The forces acting at the supports are called reactions. The reactions resist the beam loads and hold the beam
in equilibrium, that is, prevent it from moving in any direction.
There are several common beam classifications which describe the type of supports used and hence the reactions
involved:
1. A simple beam is simply supported at each end if the beam ends are free to rotate (Fig. 5.1 ).
2. A fixed beam is rigidly supported at both ends if the beam ends are prevented from rotating (Fig. 5.2).
\.
3. A cantilever beam has one end fixed at a support and the other end free or unsupported (Fig. 5.3). A beam may
also be described as cantilevered when one end overhangs a support and is free to deflect (Fig. 5.4).
4. A continuous beam spans continually over one or more intermediate supports (Fig. 5.5).
A description of shear and bending moment follows:
-->i
"
Rotation
Fig. 5.1: Simple beam (shear reaction at each end)
_/L
Fixed against
rotation
[:1 ----- I
_=:_ ........................ - ...... _.........._.... ..
Fig. 5.2:Beam fixed at both ends (shear and bending moment reaction at each end)
r:j
--~F===========I
Fig. 5.3: Cantilever beam (shear and bending moment reaction at one end only)
Fig. 5.4 Beam overhanging one support (shear reaction only from supports)
Fig. 5.5: Continuous beam (shear reaction only from supports)
ASDH/01-1999
5-1
The two most common types of loads considered in design are dead loads and live loads. Dead loads remain
essentially constant after they are applied. They include the weight of the beam, walls, partitions, floors and other
material which make up the finished structure. Live loads include loads from occupants of the building, lifts,
machinery, travelling cranes, moving vehicles and material or equipment stored in the structure.
Other types of loads considered in design are wind loads, earthquake loads and impact loads caused by machinery
and moving vehicles.
A load that is evenly distributed over a length of beam is called a uniform load .. It may be uniform over the entire
length of the beam or over a portion of the beam. Uniform loads are usually represented in textbooks by closely
wt
orw,.
11111101111111
Fig. 5.6: Unifonn load
spaced vertical lines as shown in Fig. 5.6.
Wh_en a load is assumed to act~at one point, it is called a concentrated load. Although such loads are actually
distributed over a short length of beam, the distance is usually small in comparison to the length of the beam, and
2000
\:.._
4000
120kN
Point A
""'
rf. In
6000
Point B
,.;; ;,.,
Fig. 5. 7: Concentrated load

--:--- -
the load is considered concentra!~d. A single vertical arrow indicates the location and direction of the load as shown.
in Fig. 5.7.
Reactions from different beam loads are calculated using the laws of equilibrium. These laws are based on the
observation that if a beam does not move as loads are applied, all forces acting on the beam are in equilibrium, ie,
they are balanced. The laws are expressed by the following two equations:
(5-1)
(5-2)
Equation (5-1) states that the algebraic sum (indicated by the symbol 1:) of the moments of all the forces equals zero.
A moment is the product of a force expressed in kilonewtons (kN) times a distance expressed in units of length
(metres). This distance is the shortest distance (measured along a line at right angles to the force) to the point about
which the moment is taken. The numerical value of a moment is expressed in units of force and distance such as
kilonewton-metres.
Equation (5-2) states that the algebraic sum of all forces equals zero.
5-2
ASDH/01-1999
'\.
5.2
SHEAR
When vertical or inclined loads are applied to a beam, they produce shear stresses. The shear stresses occur when
one section of the beam tends to "slide over" an adjacent section. Fig. 5.8 shows an imaginary picture of a shear
failure occurring between the right hand reaction force (RR} and the nearest load. The total vertical shear force is
constant between the 80 kN load and RR (113 kN}. Therefore, any vertical cross section of the beam in this area is
subject to a total shear force of 113 kN. Likewise, any cross section cut between the left hand reaction force (RJ
and the 18 kN load is only subject to a total vertical shear force of 70 kN. Note that the total shear force at any
section along the beam will vary depending upon the type of loading. In a simple span, the shear force is greatest
at one or both reactions; hence it is at the ends of such beams that the shear must usually be investigated.
Dividing the total vertical shear at any point along a beam by the area of the web at that point gives an average shear
stress. It is usually assumed that only the web of the beam offers resistance to vertical shear. The area of the web
is generally taken as its thickness times the total depth of the beam. In investigations of shear force stress in a beam
web, the area of fastener holes through the web is not deducted. However, it is necessary to investigate the effect
of reduction of the web area due to deep cuts or copes at the ends of the beam.
The total vertical shear force at any point along a beam is equal to the algebraic sum of all vertical loads and
reactions between that point and either end of the beam, including any load or reaction at the ends of the beam.
Shear force diagrams graphically provide the magnitude of vertical shear force at any point along the beam.
-"
co
1000
-"
0
1000 ~1000 ""
2000
2000
6000
RL=?OkN
RR= 113 kN
LOADING DIAGRAM
(a}
SHEAR DIAGRAM
(b}
Fig. 5.8: Shear force diagram
5.3
BENDING MOMENT
Fig. 5.9 is an exaggerated picture of a deflected beam with several concentrated loads, simply supported by
reactions RL and RR. Under this condition of loading, the top flange of the beam is subjected to compressive
stresses which shorten it slightly. The bottom flange is stressed in tension, and is lengthened by the same amount
the top flange is compressed. It is this shortening and lengthening of opposite flanges of the beam which accounts
for the curved or deflected condition.
Midway between the top and bottom flanges of a symmetrical section is the neutral axis where the stresses change
from compression to tension. The intensity of the bending stress is zero at the neutral axis and increases to a
maximum at the flanges. This increase is in direct proportion to the distance from the neutral axis. The bending
stress (also referred to as "flexural stress"} at any point on the cross section of a beam is a measure of the intensity
of the stress on an imaginary layer of steel of minute thickness.
ASDH/01-1999
5-3
Fig. 5.9(b) shows an enlarged portion of the same beam, at section Z-Z, with the beam to the right of the Z-Z cut
taken away. Replacing this cutaway portion are the bending stresses imposed on the left-hand beam portion. These
are represented as drawn to scale longitudinal internal forces, which are in contrast to the externally applied forces
P1, P2, P3, RL and RR
The distance between a compression force and an equal tensile force is termed a moment arm or couple arm. Each
compressive force coupled with an equal tensile force forms a moment couple. Collectively, all these couples,
beginning with the smaller values near the neutral axis and increasing to the maximum at the top and bottom of the
beam, resist the internal bending moment (M) indicated by the curved arrow.
Note that the stress is maximum at the top and bottom of the beam, where the flanges provide much of the total
cross-sectional area of the structural shape. It is at these points of high stress that the steel member performs most
efficiently in resisting bending. This accounts for the efficiency of the UB and UC shapes used as beams. If the same
volume of steel were rolled into a square bar, its bending resistance would be much less. Even if it were rolled into
a rectangular bar having the same depth as that of one of the beam shapes, its bending resistance would still be
much less, because more steel would be located nearer the neutral axis, where the bending stress is very low.
The maximum bending stress is dependent upon the:
1. Width-thickness ratio of the beam flange.
2. Depth-thickness ratio of the web.
3. Yield stress of the steel.
4. Unbraced length of the member.
The calculation of bending stresses is beyond the scope of this book. However, the maximum bending stress has
been determined for each rolled shape as a function of unbraced length. By multiplying this value by the section
modulus of the shape, tables and charts have been developed which plot the moment capacity versus the effective
length. These Tables and Charts are incorporated in the AISC Design Capacity Tables books (Refs. 2 and 3).
Ps
b
RL
RR
_..
7
(a)
z
le
(Compression)
Neutral
Axis
~(Tension)
z
(b)
Fig. 5.9: Deflected beam
5-4
ASDH/01-1999
6. BOLTING
6.1
INTRODUCTION
The beams, girders, trusses, columns and other members which form a completed structure are designed to
support certain loads. Each of these members must transmit its load through structural joints to supporting
members.
A joint requires a means of fastening - either bolts or welds. In addition, most structural joints require detail
connection material, made of angles, plates or pieces of rolled beams. This chapter is concerned primarily with
bolts, Chapter 7 will cover connections made by welds.
Bolts are widely used for making connections in structural steelwork, especially field connections. An understanding
of all aspects of the use of bolts is consequently vital to designing, detailing, fabricating and erecting steel
structures.
Although usually specified by an engineer, the selection of a bolt for use in a structural steel connection will need to
have regard to a variety of factors including the:
1. Nature of the forces to be resisted.
2. Design capacity of available bolt types.
(.
3. Amount of joint slippage desired.

4. Degree of flexibility/rigidity desired in the joint.
5. Cost of the installed fastener.
6.2
BOLT TYPES
The two basic types of metric bolt in use for structural engineering purposes in Australia are the:
1. Commercial (Strength Grade 4.6) bolt to AS/NZS 1111; and
2. High strength structural (Strength Grade 8.8) bolt to AS/NZS 1252.
Commercial bolts are made of low carbon steel with mechanical properties similar to that of Grade 250 material.
High strength structural bolts are made by heat-treating, quenching and tempering medium carbon steel.
Accordingly, heating or welding a commercial bolt will cause no significant change in its properties, but either
process will cause a significant degradation in the mechanical properties of high strength structural bolts .
..
Only a limited range of sizes of these bolts are used in structural engineering. The commercial bolt is commonly
used in the following diameters:
M12 - purlin and girt applications
M16 - cleats, brackets (relatively lightly loaded)
M20 - general structural connections, holding down bolts
M24 - general structural connections, holding down bolts
M30 - holding down bolts
M36 - holding down bolts
The high strength structural bolt is most commonly used in diameters:
M16 - designed connections in small members
M20 - flexible connections, rigid connections
M24 - flexible connections, rigid connections
M30/
M36 - larger sizes (M30, M36) of the high strength structural bolt should be avoided when full tensioning is
required, since on site tensioning can be difficult and requires special equipment.
Note that the prefix M is used to designate metric bolts with a thread complying with AS 1275.
ASDH/01-1999
6-1
The identification of the two different bolt and nut assemblies can be readily made from the bolt head and nut
markings. An additional distinguishing feature is the larger bolt head and nut of the high strength structural bolt
compared to the commercial bolt.
Commercial bolts to AS/NZS 1111 are not normally supplied with a washer and therefore washers to AS 1237
are ordered separately if required. High strength structural bolts to AS/NZS 1252 are normally supplied as
bolt/nut/washer assemblies.
For further information on the design of bolts the reader is referred to the AISC publication "Bolting of Steel
Structures" (Ref. 7).
6.3
BOLTING CATEGORIES
In Australia a standard bolting category identification system has been adopted for use by designers and detailers.
This system is summarised in Table 6.1.
Category 4.6/S refers to commercial bolts of Strength Grade 4.6, tightened using a standard wrench to a snug-tight
condition (see Section 6. 7).
Category 8.8/S refers to any bolt of Strength Grade 8.8, tightened using a standard wrench to a snug-tight condition
in the same way as for category 4.6/S.
Categories 8.8/TF and 8.8/TB (or 8.8/T when referring generally to both types) refer specifically to high strength
structural bolts of Strength Grade 8.8, fully tensioned in a controlled manner to the requirements of AS 4100 - see
Section 6.7.
The system of category designation identifies the bolt being used by its strength grade designation (4.6 or 8.8) and
the installation procedure by a supplementary letter (S-snug; T-full tensioning). For 8.8/T categories, the type of
joint is identified by an additional letter (F-fr'iction-type joint; B-bearing-type joint).
It is most important to note that the high strength structural bolt may be specified in three ways:
1 . snug-tightened - category 8.8/S;
2. fully tensioned, friction-type-category 8.8/TF; and
3. fully tensioned, bearing-type - category 8.8/TB.
The level of tensioning is the same for both 8.8/TF and 8.8/TB categories.
In practice, 8.8/S category would mainly be used in flexible joints where the extra capacity of the stronger bolt
(compared to 4.6/S category) makes it economical. It is recommended that 8.8/TF category be used only in rigid
joints where a no-slip joint is essential. Note also that 8.8/TF is the only category requiring attention to the faying
surfaces.
Design engineers' drawings and workshop detail drawings should both contain notes summarising the category
designations.
Table 6. 1: Bolt types and bolting categories
Bolting
Category
Method
of
Tensioning
4.6/S
8.8/S
Snug
8.8/TF
(friction
type joint)
Full Tensioning
8.8/T
Minimum
Bolt Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
Minimum
Bolt Yield
Strength
(MPa)
400
240
830
660
Bolt
Name
Bolt
Standard
Specification
Commercial
AS/NZS 1111
High Strength
Structural
AS/NZS 1252
8.8/TB
(bearing
type joint)
6-2
ASDH/01-1999
6.4
DESIGN OF BOLTS
In any bolted structural connection, there are three fundamental modes of force transfer to be considered - two
relating to the transfer of shear and one relating to the transfer of tension. These modes are:
1. Shear/bearing mode where the forces are perpendicular to the bolt axis and are transferred by shear and bearing
on the bolt and bearing on the connected plies.
2. Friction mode, which is similar to the shear/bearing mode in that the forces to be transferred are perpendicular
to the bolt axis. However the transfer of forces does not rely on shear and bearing. The frictional resistance of
the mating surfaces is the prime factor in the force transfer mechanism:
3. Axial tension mode, when the forces to be transferred are parallel to the bolt axis.
Often, the modes are combined, since in a large number of connections it is necessary to transfer both parallel and
perpendicular force components.
Typical connections subjecting bolts to shear forces only are splices in members, end connections to bracing members
and connections of members to gusset plates in trusses. Bolts in tension are found in hanger connections and in bolted
moment connections. The latter type of connection may also subject the bolts to combined shear and tension forces.
,Q.5
BOLT LENGTH SELECTION
The responsibility of selecting bolt lengths for each connection usually rests with the steel detailer. In selecting bolt
lengths, consideration must be given to whether the shear plane cuts across the threaded or unthreaded section of
the bolt. The advantages and disadvantages of both must be clearly understood by the steel detailer. Most
connections are designed on the basis of threads being included in the shear plane. Where designers specifically
require theads to be excluded, the steel detailer must take additional care when calculating bolt lengths to ensure
this requirement is met. The following section discusses the background to this issue.
6.5.1
Plain Shank Lengths
Plain shank bearing lengths for each bolt type are defined in the relevant Australian Standards (AS/NZS 1111 and
AS/NZS 1252) as the distance from the bearing surface of the bolt head to the last scratch of the thread. Ref. 7
provides tables of plain shank lengths for commercial and high strength structural bolts.
6.5.2
Threads Included in Shear Plane
For the case of threads included in the shear plane (Fig. 6.1) the average maximum grip (assuming a 5 ml)'l projection
of threads through the nut) is given in Ref. 7. From this bolt lengths can be easily calculated.
LEGEND:a = thread runout
b = length of thread
ts= plain shank length

t = nominal bolt length
n = nut length
I
-l
l+--------=g'--'----rip
w= washer thickness
I
5
Ag. 6.1: Threads included in shear plane

ASDH/01-1999
6-3
6.5.3
Threads Excluded From Shear Plane
For the case of threads excluded from the shear plane, the situation is as shown in Fig. 6.2. The critical dimension
is t 1 , the thickness of the ply under the bolt head. Refer to Ref. 7 for examples of calculating bolt lengths.
LEGEND:a = thread runout

b = length of thread
ls= plain shank length
t = nominal bolt length
n = nut length
w= washer thickness
6 = usually 3mm
grip
Fig. 6.2: Threads excluded from shear plane
To avoid having to calculate bolt lengths on each occasion where threads are excluded from the shear plane, a
simple table, such as Table 6.2, can be prepared.
Table 6.2 lists the correct bolt length for various combinations of grip and minimum external ply thickness. Note that
the minimum external ply thickness is merely grip minus the critical thickness. The critical thickness is the thinner
ply thickness (or ply thickness under the bolt head - if it is known) for the single shear case, or the sum of the
thicknesses of the thicker external ply and all internal plies for the multiple shear case. Thus the table can be used
directly for all shear cases.
It is essential that in selecting bolt length for the case where threads are to be excluded from the shear plane,
attention should be paid to the ply thicknesses as well as the total grip of the joint. This is an important consideration
since bolts will normally be placed in joints from the more convenient side for the erector, or to provide nuts on the
easier side for tensioning in the case of 8.8ff procedures.
The following matters should be considered when detailing bolts with threads excluded from the shear plane:
1. Bolt length for the threads excluded case must be selected to provide plain shank in the shear plane for
installation from either side of the joint. This usually results in longer bolts than would otherwise be required.
2. Due to the relatively long thread lengths of ISO metric bolts to AS/NZS 1252 and AS/NZS 1111, a bolt with
sufficient plain shank to exclude threads from the shear plane may project well past the nut-washer assembly.
This stickout can cause difficulty in installation because adjacent bolts in a connection may foul one another.
The physical interference of bolts can often be relieved by installing the bolts in the manner shown in Fig. 6.3.
However in joints where tensioning to AS 4100 is required (categories 8.SffF and 8.8ffB) it will not always be
possible to apply the socket of an air wrench to the nuts of bolts with long thread stickout.
3. In joints with thin plies (e.g. 8 mm angle legs or 8 mm endplates), it is often necessary to use extra washers under
the nut where threads are to be excluded from the shear plane in order to ensure that the nut does not run up
to the end of the thread.
4. As the location of the plain shank relative to the shear plane position is critical for the threads excluded case,
such a joint is very sensitive to bolt length selection. This means that bolts have to be selected usually in length
increments of 5 mm and results in the stocking of a great number of different bolt lengths and the subsequent
difficulty in distinguishing correct bolts for a particular joint on site. Alternatively, excessive 'stick-through' must
be accepted.
6-4
ASDH/01-1999
.-
Table 6.2: Bolt lengths for M20 bolts to AS/NZS 1252 - threads excluded from. shear plane.
Bolts above the line to be used with minimum of 1 washer under nut (* indicates 2 washers required).
.L
GRIP(mm)
~
co
6
8
;!!:
10
~
~
!!l
~
z~
!!lm
m
I'"'
I'"'
:II
II.!
::c
12
E'
..
~
ll.
az
r:c
14
24
::!!
26
:ii
28
30
32
34
36
z:
60
65
65
65
70
70
75
75
75
80
80
85
85
85
90
90
90 100 100 100 100100110110 110 110 110120120120 120 130 130 130140140140 140 140 150
65
65
70
70
70
75
75
80
~o
80
85
85
90
90
90 100 100 100 100100110110110 110 110120120120 120 120 130 130140140140 140 140 150"
65
70
70
70
75
75
80
80
80
85
85
90
90
90 100 100 100 100 100 110 110 110 110 110 120 120 120 120 120 130 130 140" 140 140 140 140
70
70
70
75
75
80
80 80
85
85
90
90
90 100 100 100 100 100 110 110 110 110 110 120 120 120 120 120 130 130 140 140 140 140
70
70
75
75
80 80
80
85
85
90
90
90 100 100 100 100 100 110 110 110 110 110 120 120 120 120 120 130 130 140 140 140
70
75
75
80
80
80
85
85
90
90
90 100 100 100 100 100 110 110 110 110 110 120 120 120 120 120 130 130 140 140
75
75
80
80
80
&5 85
90
90
90 100 100 100 100 100 110 110 110 110 110 120 120 120 120 120 130 130 140
75
80 80
80
85 85
90
90
80
80
80 85
85
90. 90
80 80
85
85
90
90
90 100 100 100 100 100 110 110 110 110 110 120 120 120 120 120
80
85
85
90
90
90 100 100 100 100 100 110 110 110 110 110 120 120 120 120
85
85
90
90
90 100 100 100 100 100 110 110 110 110 110 120 120 120
85
90
90
90 100 100 100 100 100 110 110 110 110 110 120 120
90
90
20
>
z
c
;ii;
60
18
22
1214~1s~"~~~~~M$~~~~~~oo~M$~OO~M~~ronMnnoo~M$~~
16
10
When interpolating values, select

longer bolt length.
Table is valid for both single
and multiple shear cases.
90 100 100 100 100 100 110 110 110 110 110 120 120 120 120 120 130 130
90 100 100 100 100 100 110 110 110 110 110 120 120 120 120 120 130
90 100 100 100 100 100 110 110 110 110 110 120
90 100 100 100 100 100 110 110 110 110 110 120
100 100 100 100 110 110 110 110 110 120
38
100 100 110 110 110 110 110 120
40
110 110 110 110 110 120
I., '
Fig. 6.3: Bolt Installation to avoid fouling.
6.5.4
Thread Projection
AS 4100 requires that the length _of a bolt be such that at least one clear thread projects through the nut and that at
least one thread plus the thread run-out is clear beneath the nut after tightening to either /S or
bolting category.
(Fig. 6.4)
rr
~~~~
* *
Min one thread (one pitch)
Fig. 6.4: AS 4100 requirements for thread projection.
The methods of calculation presented in Ref. 7 meet these requirements.

The minimum projection through the nut of at least one thread pitch is intended to ensure that full engagement of
the nut thread is achieved. While this is accepted good practice for /S bolting category, it is crucial with
category
in order to achieve the specified minimum bolt tension.
rr
The clearance under the nut is intended to ensure that a nut is never run up to the thread run out on the bolt which
constitutes the end of the threaded portion of the bolt. If the clearance is not provided, the nut will not sit firmly
against the washer and, in the case of category, the necessary turn-of-nut may not have been achieved.
rr
6-6
ASDH/01-1999
6.5.5
Available Bolt Sizes
Where possible a detailer should use bolt sizes that are readily available. Table 6.3 provides a summary of readily
available commercial grade bolt sizes, ie. bolt diameter and length options. A similar table for high strength
structural bolts is provided in Table 6.4.
Table 6.3: Readily available commercial bolt sizes.
Nominal Lengths ! (mm)
Diameter
mm
45
40
x I x
x
x
x
x
M12
M16
M20
M24
M30
M36
55
50
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
60
65
x
x
x
x
x I x
x
x
x
x
70
80
x
x
x
x
x
x
x I x
x
x
x
x
90
x
x
x
x
x
x
100
110
120
130
140
150
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Usually supplied as full thread bolts
Table 6.4: Readily available high strength structural bolt sizes.

Nominal Lengths ! (mm)
Diameter
mm
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
M16
x
x
x
x
Ix
x
x
x
x x
x x
x I x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x x
x x
x IX
x x
M20
M24
x
x
M30
M36
l<
95
100 110 120 130 140 150
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
bolts with shortened thread lengths

min body length = 0.5 x bolt d1a
6.6
DETAILING
6.6.1
Bolt Holes
The diameter of bolt holes in bolted connections is stipulated in AS 4100 to be larger than the bolt diameter by eit@r:
1. 2 mm for M24 bolts .or smaller.
2. 3 mm for bolts larger than M24.
3. 6 mm for holes in base plates.
In some applications, the use of slotted or oversize holes may be justified in order to ease erection difficulties. The
large oversize holes permitted in base plates is to assist in column erection and is related to the out-of-position of
anchor bolts permitted in AS 4100. AS 4100 also makes provision for the use of short and long slotted holes and
oversize holes.
Bolt holes may be machine flame cut or drilled full size for all grades of steel and all types of bolts, or alternatively,
sub-punched 3 mm undersize in diameter and reamed to full size. Punching has become an economic method of
holing structural members.
Hand flame cutting is not permitted by AS 4100 except as a site rectification measure for holes in column base plates,
where it is recognised that some inevitable site correction may be necessary. Hand flame cutting generally produces
rough edges of unsatisfactory appearance.
The limit on the thickness which may be punched is intended to restrict the amount of local deformation and workhardening that may occur.
ASDH/01-1999
6-7
6.6.2
Detailing Limitations
6.6.2.1 Minimum edge distance

Minimum edge distances from the centre of a bolt hole to the edge of a plate or the flange of a rolled section are
specified in AS 4100. These minimum edge distances are based on past successful practice and are related to the
expected edge roughness. Table 6.5 lists these minimum edge distances for commonly-used bolt diameters.
f4~',f&Ffi:~;r;~,:c%fi~~_,;.~:~f~. /Y-''1:;,;:!' ~;4: ~,V\<(:.:/.
AISC's "Standardized Structural Connections" (Ref. 1) recommends an edge distance o(~3li![li~<~.eius!le\'fc5Ct\i120' '
bolts in 22 mm diameter holes.
Table 6.5: AS 4100 - Minimum edge distances

Nominal Diameter
of Fastener
Sheared or Hand
Flame Cut Edge
Rolled Plate, Flat Bar or

Section: Machine Flame
Cut, Sawn or Planed Edge
Rolled Edge of a
Rolled Section or
Flar Bar
mm
mm
mm
mm
12
21
18
15
16
2a
24
20
35
30
25
24
42
36
30
30
53
45
3a
36
63.
54
45
20
6.6.2.2 Maximum edge distance

AS 4100 specifies the maximum edge distance from the centre of a bolt to the nearest edge. This is defined as 12tp
or 150 mm, whichever is the lesser, where tP is the thickness of the thinner outer ply.
6.6.2.3 Minimum pitch of bolts

Minimum pitch of bolts is specified in AS 41 00 as not less than 2.5 times the nominal diameter of the bolt. However,
if it is intended to tension bolts with a special tensioning tool, the minimum distance between the centres of bolt
holes shall be appropriate to the type of tool used. The minimum pitch is actually more related to the tools required
to install the fastener and most practical pitches are more like 3.5 times the bolt diameter.
AISC's "Standardized Structural Connections" (Ref.1) recommends a bolt pitch of 70 mm for M20 bolts with gauge
lines of 70, 90 and 140 mm.
6.6.2.4 Maximum pitch of bolts

Maximum pitch of bolts is stipulated in AS 4100 as the lesser of 15tP and 200 mm, where tP may be taken as the
thickness of the thinner outer ply. Maximum pitch of bolts must be observed as a safeguard against connected
plates getting out of flat, and against the entry of moisture into the joint.
6.6.2.5 Washer requirements

AS 41 00 requires that a washer be used under the rotated part (usually the nut) for all bolting categories. This is
common practice in any case but is particularly important for a.arr bolting category where the bolt is tensioned.
Ref. 7 provides further recommendations for washer requirements for sloping surfaces and slotted oversized holes.
6-8
ASDH/01-1999
-
\
6.7
INSTALLATION OF BOLTS
In structural bolted connections, the installation of bolts involves the initial lining up of the bolt holes, the insertion
of the bolt/nut assembly and the subsequent tightening operation. A shop detailer must be familiar with the different
installation methods as these can affect bolt layouts and overall bolt lengths.
6.7.1
Snug Tightening
This level of bolt tightening is used to describe two situations:

1. A final level of bolt tightening in general bolting (such as bolting categories 4.6/S and 8.8/S).
2 .. An intermediate level of tightening prior to full tensioning in high strength structural bolting (bolting categories
8.8/TF and 8.8/TB).
Snug tightening is defined in AS 4100 as "the tightness attained by a few impacts of an impact wrench or by the full
effort of a person using a standard podger spanner". It is in reality the tightness that exists when all plies in a joint
are in full contact. Typical hand tools, could be of the order of 450 mm long for M20 bolts and about 600 mm long
for M24. For power tools, a distinct change in note in the wrench indicates the achievement of snug tight joints
which are to be subsequently fully tensioned. The choice of method is usually left to the steel erector.
6.7.2
Full Tensioning Methods
Fully tensioned bolts maybe specified as either bearing- or friction-type. The fully tensioned bearing-type allows for
more connection rigidity than its snug tight counterpart. Different methods for achieving this full tensioning need to
be considered. AS 4100 permits two methods of full tensioning:
1. Part-turn of nut.
2. Direct tension indication device.
6.7.2.1 Part-turn of nut method

Controlling tension by the part-turn of nut method is primarily a strain control procedure and the desired tension in
the bolt can be obtained with accuracy. Tensioning of bolt/nut assemblies by the part-turn of nut method should be
carried out in accordance with the procedure in AS 4100. The steps involved are:
1. Snug tightening.
2. Match marking.
3. Final tensioning.
6.7.2.2 Direct tension indication method

The direct tension indication method provides the simplest procedure for achieving the specified minimum bolt
tension while permitting relatively easy subsequent inspection of the installed bolts. Several tension indicating
devices have been developed to provide a means of checking whether the specified minimum bolt tension has been
achieved. In Australia, at the present time, the two most commonly used of these devices are:
1. Load indicator washers (used with conventional high strength structural bolts).
2. Swage lock fasteners (proprietary special fasteners).
A description of these two items follows:
ASDH/01-1999
6-9
(a) Load Indicator Washers
Fig. 6.5: Load indicator washer.
The load indicator washer (Fig. 6.5) is a hardened steel washer carrying 4 to 7 protrusions. The actual number of
protusions is dependent on the bolt diamefer. Load indicating washers are assembled with these protrusions
bearing against the underside of the bolt head.
Where it is necessary, because of joint disposition, to tension bolts by rotating the bolt head, the load indicator
washer must be assembled on the nut side of the joint with an additional nut face washer. Under no circumstances
should the load indicator washer be adjacent to the rotating part. A detailed description of the use of these bolts is
provided in Ref. 7.
Head
..Locking grooves
Pulling grooves
Pin tail section
_,
Shank
Collar
Fig. 6.6: Swage lock fastener.
(b) Swage Lock Fasteners

The swage lock fasteners used in Australia at the present time are of the type shown in Fig. 6.6 and in Ref. 7.
The bolt is a two-piece high strength fastener consisting of a grooved pin and Jocking collar. The pin has a forged
head, shank, annular (not helical) Jocking grooves, a breakneck and pin tail. The collar has a plain bore in the
pre-assembled state. The fastener is installed by means of a special installation tool.
This type of high strength structural fastening is of particular value where the prevailing working environment
subjects structural connections to severe shock, vibration and dynamic loading. The swage lock fastener is often
used on mining structures but would rarely be specified on a commercial building project.
6-10
ASDH/01-1999
6.7.3
Clearances
The shop detailer must pay attention to the clearances necessary to install and tighten the bolts.
When detailing snug tightened bolts (i.e. 4.6/S and 8.8/S categories} - which may only require the use of standard
podger spanners for tightening - space will be found to be adequate if clearances in accordance with Fig. 6. 7, and
standard gauges of members in accordance with Ref. 2, are used. Some accessibility problems may be
encountered when designers specify bolt threads to be excluded from the shear plane in particular joints. Due to
the relatively long standard thread length on ISO metric bolts, the exclusion of threads from shear planes requires
the selection of rather long bolts as noted in Section 6.5.
Bolt
Clearance
Size
12
40
34
22
16
52
45
28
20
65
56
35
24
78
67
41
30
99
85
53-
36
118
102
63
4.6/S and 8.8/S Categories
L,r:~e----L ........
1.J
---~---r--!
-i---'.---!--
r
--
.. ""[so
....
to 400
,J
'
20 to 60
Extension bar
50to 75 -
Clearance
--.-~.~B---
15to20~ 20to55
Universal joint
Normal Sockets*
8.8/TF and 8.8/TB Categories
Clearance
E
16
50
38
25
20
60
45
30
24
80
57
35
Bolt Size
Normal Wrenches
Heavy Wrenches
to 450
some to
600
54
65
*Deep length sockets are also available with greater

length but same diameter as above.
Fig. 6.7: Typical dimensions of hand and power wrenches

ASDH/01-1999
611
The installation and tightening of 8.8/fF and 8.8/fB category bolts, requires more attention to clearance
requirements. At the present time the most efficient and economic method of tensioning these bolts is by the use
of pneumatic impact wrenches. Detailers have to consider the physical dimensions of such tools in relation to
clearances required in joints. Fig. 6. 7 also shows the dimensions of pneumatic impact wrenches and sockets.
Some connection geometries are more sensitive to clearance requirements than others. In particular, the bolted
moment end plate connection may have clearance problems if not detailed properly.
6.8
PREPARATION OF BOLT LISTS
The steel detailer is in the best position to make an accurate list of the required type, number, size and length of
erection bolts.
For the convenience of the erector, and as an aid in checking the listing, each connection requiring bolts is described
on the line of the field bolt list where the number, length and type are first entered (see Fig. 6.8). It is important that
this list is made clearly, accurately and systematically. It is the only piece of information that the erector has of the
type, number, size and length of bolts required for the joints to be assembled. It is also the basis for a summary from
which bolts are ordered and shipped.
The grip is obtained by adding up the thickness of the parts to be joined. Bolt lengths 'L' are calculated in
accordance with Section 6.5.
When the itemised list has been completed, asummary is made by totalling the quantities of like diameters, types
and lengths. From this summary, the fabricator sends the correct quantity of each type, size and length of bolts to
the steel erector.
Lists are not usually prepared for the bolts needed for the shop connections, since a supply may be easily obtained
from plant stock. However on large jobs, it may be necessary to send to the shop an advance list of fasteners
required to assure a sufficient supply.
Most drafting offices will have their own standard field bolt lists. Typically, they should include the following
information:
1. Client
2. Contract or project name
3. Order or job number
4. Date
5. Prepared by and checked by initials
6. Page number
7. Specific bolt details (grip, diameter, length, type- including tensioning procedure, washer type (flat, load-indicating,
bevelled), number required, other remarks eg which members are connected and finish: galvanised, black, etc).
From the field bolt list a summary sheet, see Fig. 6.9, is prepared which includes total number of bolt assemblies
(bolt/nut/washer) for a specific grade, diameter and length. This may also include specialist items like masonry
anchors. The summary sheet is used by the fabricator to order the bolts, nuts and washers. Some fabricators may
require a 5% allowance to be added to the total number of bolts in each size to allow for the misplacement of some
fasteners.
6-12
ASDH/01-1999
-J
(-
- -,'--
375 - 94
Order No. ------------------Page No _________ _1, _________
~---~C''c~-----~-
Prepared
15 - 8 - 94
Date------------------------
__ -~Q !'! ~ !:~: ___________________

Contract._ --~q_ ~?- --~~~~J~~-~y~_. __ _______________
____ ~-i-~~_g ~~- ___ N_.__!?_, _w
_, ________________________
Client _____ -~!!'.".'_~~
No Dia Type
Req'd
Washers/Bolt
Grip
Length
16 20 88 10.10.6 26 55
24 20 88 10.10- 20 50
12 20 46 10.6.10 26 55
II'
376 12 46
30
Ord
Bev Fl.
Hard
L-1. Fl.
II'
II'
Conn
type
II'
Checked by __
!'-'.l:_K.._R, _____
FIELD BOLT LIST

Remarks
TF
B1. B2
TB
B1. B2. B3 to B7
B9. B10. B11 to Columne;
5.
5.
II'
by---~:_!<:_._~_. _____
Purline;
to
B5
+ Girte; - Galvanie;ed
..
.
------1V-
. .-
----- -
L---
A-----
------
...---
------
16 20 88
55
24 20 88
50
12 20 46
55
12
376 12 46
30
376
------
~
SUMMARY.
16
24
Ga Ivan ie;ed
Fig. 6.8: Typical field bolt list.

ASDH/01-1999
6-13
Fabricator
FIELD BOLT SUMMARY LIST

Order No:
Client
Page:
Contract: ................................................................ .
Date:
Prepared by:
Checked by:
Noreq
Dia
Type
Length
Remarks
..
.
Fig. 6.9: Field bolt summary list.
6-14
ASDH/01-1999
7. WELDING
7.1
INTRODUCTION
The use of welding in the fabrication shop, is common in the structural steelwork industry. Much of the drilling or
punching that is required in bolted work is eliminated, but greater care is required in shop assembly as the absence
of holes makes the matching up of adjacent components more difficult. Assembly jigs are sometimes employed to
overcome this problem. Site welding is much less popular on account of the difficulty of holding large components
in exact relationship to each other, often high off the ground, while the welding takes place. The combination of shop
welding and site bolting is found by most fabricators to be the most economical solution.
Arc welding is the process in which fusion occurs by heating with an electric arc that is generated between an
electrode/wire and the surface of the parent materials. Shielding of the arc is normally provided in order to preserve
the integrity of the deposited weld.
The most commonly used welding processes for structural steel are Gas Metal Arc Welding and Flux Cored Arc
Welding for general fabrication, Submerged Arc Welding for high productivity applications and Manual Metal Arc
Welding for maintenance and some small on-site applications.
7.2
JOINT AND WELD TYPES
It is necessary to understand the difference between the tenns 'joint types' and 'weld types'. 'Joint types' describes
the configuration of the steel parts relative to each other, while 'weld types' refers to the type of weld employed to
hold the parts together. Fig. 7.1 shows the five basic joint types used in structural engineering, ie butt, T, corner, lap
and edge. Note that the welds are not shown.
Almost all the welds used to make the above joints are of two basic types, ie butt welds and fillet welds, as shown
in Fig. 7 .2. A butt weld can be defined as one in which the weld metal lies within the outline (in cross section) of the
Butt
+
T
--
Corner
.J.
4-
Lap
Edge
Fig. 7.1: Joint types

ASDH/01-1999
7-1
part connected, whereas a fillet weld is one where the weld metal forms a fillet between the faces of adjoining parts
and thus lies outside the profile of the steel parts.
Butt welds can be subdivided into square, bevel, V, U and J types depending on the shape to which the plate edge
is prepared to accommodate the weld. Fillet and butt weld types are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 7.3.
Butt joint
T - joint (fillet)
T - joint (butt)
Fig. 7.2: Basic weld types - butt and fillet
Weld type
Single
L~
Fillet
~-
L,f"
Square
(no edg~
preparation)
Bevel_ ---
t
-
't r
Notes for fillet weld:
Double
_i
:1' L,
L,f"
t I t
--
tc
'
t I
t r
'
tI
'
Ill
~L,
'---'--H-'
L, & L, are leg lengths

of fillet welds
(L, =L, generally).
L,
DTT = Design Throat

Thickness
Throat Area =
DTT x length of weld
Fig. 7.3: Weld types
7-2
ASDH/01-1999
Square
-:a.,
c:
=::>
Square
n +f c +en f
Single bevel
aJ
r +f
Double bevel
'
SingleJ
DoubleJ
Single bevel
Double bevel
,,'
I +
DoubleV
SingleV
+LTJ f I +
Single U
Double U
SingleJ
DoubleJ
:a
I-
Single bevel
Single bevel
SingleV
SingleJ
SingleJ
SingleU
Double bevel
:.
a;
0
(.)
DoubleJ
Fig. 7.4: Types of complete penetration butt welded joints
ASDH/01-1999
7-3
7.3
EDGE PREPARATIONS
The reason for having to shape or prepare the plate edge in a butt weld is to enable the welding arc to access the
weld through the thickness of the joint. The depth of plate preparation depends on the loading on the joint. The weld
may be either a complete penetration butt weld as shown in Fig. 7.4 or an incomplete penetration butt weld as
shown in Fig. 7.5. Generally speaking, the former case the weld is able to develop the full strength of the connected
plates, whereas in the latter it develops only part of the plate strength.
Examples of butt, T and corner joints having various plate edge preparations are given in Fig. 7.4. All the welds
shown are complete penetration butt welds and are of the square, bevel, V, J or U types. To achieve complete
penetration it is generally necessary to have access to the joint from both sides so as to deposit a weld on the back
(or the second side) of the joint that will fuse with the main or the first weld (after cutting back) and thus provide
continuity of weld metal through the entire thickness of the joint.
Detailed information on the required edge preparations for the various types of welds and for different plate
thicknesses is given in the welding Standard AS/NZS 1554.
Fillet welds generally do not require any edge preparation.
An ideal edge preparation has the following features:

1) It provides access throughout the depth of the weld to ensure the deposition of sound weld metal that will be
properly fused to the parent metal and to the previously deposited weld metal.
2) It minimises the volume of d_eposited weld metal so as to achieve economy and reduce the subsequent joint
distortion caused by shrinkage of the cooling metal.
3) It minimises the cost of edge preparation.

4) It has sufficient tolerance to accommoda!e the variations in fit that are likely in practice.
4 +
V-3 + f
(a) Single V
(b) Single V
(c) Double V
d d
(d) Single bevel
(e) Double bevel
(f) Single J
Note: Dimension 'd' is depth of preparation

Fig. 7.5: Incomplete penetration butt welds
7-4
ASDH/01-1999
7.4
REINFORCEMENT AND BACKING
Where a complete penetration butt weld is required and the weld has a single-bevel, V or U preparation, a small
weld may be laid either before or after the main weld, as shown in details (a) and (b) of Fig. 7.6. In the former case
the small weld is called a "root run" and in the latter a "backing run" (or "back weld").
Alternatively, where complete penetration is required, a steel (or suitable metal) "backing strip" (or "backing bar")
may be used, as shown in (c) and (d) of Fig. 7,6. The bar is tack-welded to one or both of the plates and when the
first run of the main weld is laid it fuses onto the strip to provide complete penetration.
Where it is necessary to increase the strength of a complete penetration butt weld for any reason, or to provide a
smoother transition of a tensile force, "reinforcement" may be added, as marked 'X' on details (e), (f) and (g) of Fig. 7.6.
7.5
(
'
INCOMPLETE PENETRATION BUTT WELDS
In certain joints it is either not necessary (for strength reasons) or not possible (because of lack of access) to deposit
a weld on the back of the joint. In other cases, for example in a double-V joint, it may not be necessary to achieve
complete penetration even though access is available. Welds in such joints are called incomplete penetration butt
welds and a few examples are given in Fig. 7.5. It is necessary, however, for the designer to specify on the weld
symbol or weld note what design throat thickness is necessary for strength requirements. In such cases the steel
detailer must determine the edge prepartion requirements (eg. depth of preparation) for the parent materials :..: as
noted in AS/NZS 1554.1 _-: and include them in the workshop drawings.
\/
+ +
(a)
\/
~+
(b)
Root run
(deposited prior to main weld)
Backing run (or Back weld)

(deposited after main weld)
"
(c)
(d)
Backing strip/bar
/
(e)
(f)
(g)
Reinforcement (marked 'X')
Fig. 7.6: Backing welds, back welds, backing strips/bars and reinforcement
ASDH/01-1999
7-5
7.6
WELDING POSITIONS
The term 'position' when used in connection with a welded joint refers to the position in which the weld bead is laid,
ie whether flat, horizontal, vertical, overhead, etc. These positions are illustrated in Fig. 7.7.
The welding position is of great importance since the quality of the weld is directly affected by the manner in which
the weld metal is deposited. Not all welding processes are suitable for all positions. Many welding consumables are
specified for use in a particular position and should be used only in that position to obtain good results. The best
position is flat or downhand since welding in this position can be carried out much faster than in any other.
Downhand or flat
Horizontal
Vertical
-- ----- -..:-
Overhead
Fig. 7.7: Welding positions
7-6
ASDH/01-1999
7.7
PRACTICAL GUIDELINES
A number of practical guidelines as to the detailed design and proportioning of welds are given below.
1. Intermittent fillet welds - These may be used only to transmit longitudinal (ie along the length of the weld) shear
forces under static loading conditions. They should not be used for steelwork exposed to the weather or other
corrosive conditions. Their effective length should not be less than four times their size (leg length) or 40mm,
whichever is the greater.
2. Plug or slot welds - These are welds that completely fill the hole or slot provided for the purpose and are used
to provide additional strength when there is insufficient room to place the.required length of fillet weld. They may
be used to transmit shear force in a lap joint, to prevent buckling of lapped parts or to join components of builtup members. Their effective area is taken to be the cross-sectional area of the hole or slot in the plane of the
contact surface. Care should be taken when using plug or slot welds in fatigue load conditions as these welds
perform poorly.
3.
Minimum fillet weld sizes - These are specified mainly to avoid cracking of the weld owing to too fast a
dissipation of heat from the weld to the parent material, single-pass fillet welds should not be smaller than the
sizes given below.
Thickness
of thickest part (mm)
Minimum size
Fillet weld (mm)
. Up to 12
.5
over 12 to 20
over 20
4.
Minimum fillet weld lengths - The effective length of a fillet weld intended to transmit load should not be less
than four times its size (leg length).
5.
Partial penetration butt welds - These should not be used in dynamically loaded structures.
6. Size/length ratio of fillet welds - In the interests of the economic use of weld metal, it is generally better to use
a fillet weld of small size than a weld of larger size and shorter length to achieve a required design throat area
(see Fig. 7.3).
7.8
WELDING SYMBOLS
Standardised symbols are used to denote the type and size of welds on structural steel detail drawings.
They are described in detail in AS 1101 Part 3 and should be adopted consistently so as to avoid confusiol'I in
presentation. The main symbols, and a description of the construction of a symbol, are reproduced here in Figs. 7 .8,
7.9, and 7.10.
The following points should be noted in connection with the construction and use of welding symbols:
1. The reference line is drawn in the horizontal direction, ie parallel to the horizontal axis of the drawing.
2. The arrow points to the weld(s) or welded joint being described.
3. The fillet weld symbol is a small isosceles triangle based on the reference line and having its vertical side to the
left.
4. The single-bevel weld symbol is a 45 V with its apex to the reference line and its vertical leg to the left.
5. The double-bevel and double-V weld symbols have their legs at 60 to each other.
6. Symbols and notations referring to the arrow side of the joint are placed below the reference line; those referring
to the other side of the joint are placed above. Arrow side is meant to describe the side of the joint to which the arrow
points. Examples of this principle, as applied to the most commonly used weld types, are given in Fig. 7.11.
7.
In the case of butt welds where only the one plate edge is prepared and the other is left square, the symbol arrow
is cranked and is made to point towards the plate that has the bevel. This is shown in Fig. 7 .11.
ASDH/01-1999
7-7
Butt welds
Location
significance Square
Bevel
Flare
bevel
Flare
'11 -K ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Arrow side
Other side
~~~
Both sides
4t-
Sketch
(weld one side)
-7 ~ 17 ~
~ 1EJ ~
&
'* * r x
f\::2 tLV"l dt3 cQ3 " lf1

Other welds
Location
significance
Edge
Corner
--
--
Fusion Plug
Backing
Fillet run/weld Surfacing spot or slot
Complete_
pen.
from 1
side
'1r --;. ~ ~ ~ -if ~ ~

-17 ~ ~ \ ~ f- I \
Arrow side
Other side
Both sides
Sketch
~-Flange
--
(weld one si~e)
~ le-
w[tr
~ - - -- - -
CD c:3
~~
[I]
--
Note: Arrow side means side of joint to which arrow points
'\
-- ---- -..:-
Fig. 7.8: Basic welding symbols
Weld all
round
Site
weld
Butt Weld
with
Backing
Bar
Surface contour
Flush
JCT ~ ~ --
Finish
Convex
Concave
--
...___...
Machine
Grind
M G
Chipping
Peening
Fig. 7.9: Supplementary welding symbols
7-8
ASDH/01-1999
Elements in this area remain as shown

when tail and arrow are reversed
Surface contour
Basic weld
(a)
Tail:
Information
6
Basic weld
symbol
1 O (8)
Depth of~
preparation
(b)
\Tail
(omitted when
reference
is not used)
'
Size of weld ~
/reference
regarding
process or detail
symbol
/j
Design
throat
thickness
2
0
.----
45
--
Root gap
;nish
rr
Length of weld
Pitch of weld
.
Reference Line
Included_
preparation
angle
Site weld symbol
Weld all round symbol
"-_
" " Contour symbol
Finish symbol
(a) Information regaFding 'other side' of joint (an intermittent fillet weld in this instance)
(b) Information regarding 'arrow-side' of joint (a single bevel incomplete penetration butt weld in this instance)
Fig. 7.10: Construction of a welding symbol
Unfortunately, the 'arrow side, other side' convention referred to in item 6 (above) has a perceived anomaly in certain
applications. In all the joints shown in (d), (e), (h) and 0) of Fig. 7 .12 the symbol on the reference line is upside down
in relation to the actual welds. The steel detailer should be aware of this and not fall into the trap of depicting the
symbol the same way up as the welds. This situation can be avoided by placing the symbol below the joint, with the
arrow pointing upwards. The arrow side of the symbol would then be below the reference line and would refer to the
lower side of the joint.
Examples of the use of weld symbols, as applicable to a number of typical joints, are given in Figs. 7.12 and 7.13,
where the principles outlined above are further illustrated. Note that in case (g) of Fig. 7 .13, which shows staggered
intermittent welds, the triangular weld symbols are also staggered.
c}
ASDH/01-1999
7-9
JOINT
WELD
Location
Detail
Type
Fillet
ARROW
SIDE
Bevel
''
Vee
'
Vee.
----- -.
"
Fillets
BOTH
SIDES
~ ~
~ ~
Bevel
Double
bevel
Double
Vee
Elevation
Jb
Fillet
OTHER
SIDE
Section
&!
--"
~.
~ ~
~ ~
[* ~
tr*
'
Fig. 7.11: Location of weld symbols

7-10
ASDH/01-1999
-,
60
3
60
{
No gap
60
\7
J[
(a)
(f)
60
6 3
60
11
II
{12!~
Root gap = 3 mm
60
+
(g)
(b)
(k)
20
\7
10IQ\
20
10
No gap
Root gap = 3 mm
DTT=8mm
(c)
(h)
20
20
12
20
\7
90
{
No gap
Depth of preparation = 12 mm
JE
+
(i)
(d)
Weldfluk,
60
\\01
~L
CPBW with backing run
\~
_ur
+
Machine
(e)
Fig. 7.12: Weld symbol examples- butt welds
ASDH/01-1999
7-11
150
10
150
50
50
50
::::::::::
::::::::::
:::::::::
450
150
150
(a)
6~ 50 -150
6 50 - 150
45
3
(f)
(b)
200
~.
200
n n
6
10 0
20
20 /____
lilhhlii
200
/
(c)
1111111111
1111111111
200
50
50
10
200
.I.
1111111111
liiiiiilll
200
.I.
200
61\50 - 200
6V50-200
(g)
..
(~
(8)
-
125
-- --- - -..:-
n n
120
(d)
::::::::::
1::::::::::::
4~
(e)
6
6
'c
125
150
120
120
6
6
50
120
::::::::::
::::::::::::1
50 -150
50 -150
6
6
(h)
Fig. 7.13: Weld symbol examples - T, flare and intermittent welds
7-12
ASDH/01-1999
7.9
CLEARANCE FOR WELDING
In welding, the welder must position the electrode in such a way that the nearest point of contact with the base metal
is at the far end of the electrode. Having positioned the electrode, with its far end in close proximity to the weld joint,
the welder then strikes the arc and manipulates the electrode to build up the full weld cross section. To deposit a
satisfactory weld, the welder must have sufficient room to manipulate the electrode, and must be able to see the
root of the weld.
It is unreasonable to expect even the very best welder to make acceptable welds when using the so-called "bent
rod", "curved rod" or "mirror technique". Welds that cannot be made or inspected properly should be avoided.
The preferred position of the electrode when welding in the horizontal position would be one in a plane forming an
angle of 30 with the vertical side of the fillet being laid down. However, little if any difficulty is encountered when,
in order to prevent contact with some projecting part of the work, the angle (angle x in Figs. 7 .14(a) and (b) is
increased). A simple rule used by many fabricators to ensure adequate clearance for the passage of the electrode
in horizontal fillet welding is that the root of the weld shall be visible to the welder. The weld's clear distance from a
projecting element, which might obstruct the passage of the electrode, shall be at least one-half the height of the
projection - distance y/2 as shown in Fig. 7.14(b).
Electrode
Electrode
""'- "A I
I
'7
'
~A
PLAN VIEW
SECTION A-A
(a)
Electrode
~-=~Id./'\xElectrode
2
L_l_
Y
~---1
c
PLAN VIEW
(b)
SECTION B-B
Fig. 7 .14: Clearances for horizontal welding (beam web in horizontal plane)
ASDH/01-1999
7-13
A special case of minimum clearance for welding with a straight electrode is illustrated in Fig. 7.15 (which shows a
beam as it would lie on the skids in the workshop with its web in a horizontal position). In this case the governing
obstruction is the inside of the flange when a straight electrode is used. Assuming a 12 mm setback for the end of
the beam and a 1O mm outside diameter of electrode, this distance could not be less than 32 mm for an angle width
w of 75 mm nor less than 42 mm when w equals 100 mm.
One technique used by fabricators is to cut the end (noted optional cut in Fig. 7.15) of the connection angle to a
bevel and thereby gain additional clearance. This is more expensive, since it involves a secondary shearing
operation to make the bevel cuts.
If the end connection angles must be field welded to the beam web, it is advisable fo shorten the angles to provide
more clearance. The width of the overhanging flange is the major factor in determining how much room is required
for welding. Welded connections of this type in the web of a column are particularly difficult because of the "boxing"
effect created by the projecting flanges of the beam and the column.
Another clearance that is critical to the deposition of fillet welds is the "shelf" on which it is to be placed. Fig. 7.16
shows the recommended minimum shelf for normal size fillet welds made with semi automatic welding processes.
Submerged arc welding would require a wider shelf to contain the flux, although this is sometimes provided by
clamping auxiliary material to the member.
The steel detailer must not only consider clearances required to manipulate the welding electrode, but must also
provide adequate space to permit deposition of the. required fillet weld. In Fig. 7.17, welds are shown along the toes
of two 75 x75 x 8 connection angles. Section A-A in Fig. 7.17 shows thatthe nominal dimensions of the connected
parts provide only 3 mm of surface width on the column flange for each weld. If the details call for 5 mm or 6 mm
fillet welds, the welds obviously cannot be made. The detail shown ih Fig. 7.17 is not a good detail, even if the
column flange is actually 170 mm wide, because any slight deviation in the actual dimensions of the work due to
rolling or fabrication tolerances would result in an undersize weld.
... ..
Setback
Optional cut
20
Electrode
PLAN VIEW
Electrode
45"10 so"
........
----------ELEVATION
Electrode
.....................
. ...................
END VIEW
Fig. 7.15: Clearances for welding at ends of beams
7-14
ASDH/01-1999
VerrteaI or horizontal section
........................
+ +
.
for 4 mm fillets
12
minimum
for 6 mm fillets
14
minimum
for 8 mm fillets
16
minimum
for 10 mm fillets
18
minimum
for 11 mm fillets
20
minimum
for 13 mm fillets
22
mm
minimum
Fig. 7.16: Minimum shelf widths for field welds
6
SECTION A-A
!!
ii
At
Weld
Weld
2 off 75x75x8 EA
Fig. 7.17: Welding angles to columns
ASDH/01-1999
7-15
7.10 METHOD OF GIVING FIELD INSTRUCTIONS

Instructions on the weld size and location can be conveyed to the field only by means of notes or sketches showing
the required work. By systematically presenting this information, the number and complexity of the sketches can be
kept to minimum, yet they will provide complete information. Field welds can be identified by a flag noted on the
weld symbol-see Fig. 7.18.
The information on field welds must be made available to the design engineer at the same time shop drawings are
submitted for approval. Hence, it is often necessary to prepare the field weld details in advance. These details are
usually placed on erection plans or erection diagrams that are submitted for approval with the shop drawings.
To cover the field welding required for framed beam connections a drawing similar to that shown in Fig. 7.18 will
usually suffice. In this case, the sketch, notes and welding symbols show the size, type and extent of field welding
at two typical locations, identified as points 1 and 2. Note thatthe length of weld is not given, because the full length
of the connection angles is to be welded. However, if this is not the case, explicit instructions must be given
concerning the length of field weld required. The strength level of the consumable (electrode or wire) must be
provided (e.g. E48XX or W50X). If special consumables are required, they must be identified.
__,,_,..-~,..---
Provide returns having

length = twice required
{
weld size
Note:
and
Locations of Pts
are shown on the erection
diagram. All electrodes: E 48 XX
low hydrogen
(Special electrode requirement)
CD
Fig. 7.18: Sample field weld instruction
7-16
ASDH/01-1999
8. STANDARDISED STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS

8.1
INTRODUCTION
Structural steel members have been standardised through the range of sections made available by steel
manufacturers. Therefore, it is convenient to standardise the methods of connecting these members by the use of
standard connecting components and geometry. As the fabrication of connections is a significant component in the
construction of steel structures, the use of standard connections minimises the overall cost. Most Australian
fabricators are equipped to produce these standard connection types in a cost efficient manner. A designer or steel
detailer should not deviate from these standards without good reason.
AISC has produced a manual "Standardized Structural Connections" (Ref. 1) to provide the Australian industry with
standard connection layouts. Ref. 1 can also be used by the steel detailer to select suitable connection types when
the designer has not fully specified all the connections in the project. In these instances the designer will usually
specify all special and critical connections leaving the decision on the remaining connections to the fabricator and
steel detailer. Such connections must be approved by the designer prior to commencement of fabrication and
preferably before preparation of the shop detail drawings. Additional information on the design of these connections
is given in "Design of Structural Connections" (Ref. 8).
8.1.1
Connection Types
Ref. 1 covers most typical connections encountered in structural steel projects which can be divided into either
flexible or rigid connections. The flexible connection types covered in Ref. 1 are:
angle seats
bearing pads
flexible end plates
angle cleats
web side plates.
Rigid connection types covered in Ref. 1 are:
fully welded end plates

bolted moment end plates.
Connection types such as splices, purlin cleats and column base plates are also considered in Ref. 1.
This handbook onlyhighlights the basic layout principles of each of these connection types. The reader is referred
to Ref.1 and Ref.8 for detailed descriptions on connection layouts and, if required, design load capacities.
8.1.2
Standard Detailing Parameters
Most connections include welding and/or bolting. Ref .1 standardises welding to 6mm or 8mm fillet welds using E48
electrodes or W50 wire. Bolting is standardised to 20mm diameter (M20) high strength structural bolts in 22mm
diameter holes with threads included in the stiear plane and, where applicable, tightened to snug tight, ie 8.8/S as
described in Chapter 6.
The arrangement of holes for bolts is also standardised. For M20 bolts, AISC recommends the pitch, or distance
between bolt rows, is standardised at 70mm while the gauges, or the distance between lines on which bolts are
placed, are standardised to 70, 90 and 140mm. For angles a standard back gauge, or distance from the back of the
angle to the gauge line, is specified. This back gauge dimension may be varied as necessary, provided minimum
edge distances are applied.
Edge distances, or the distance from the centre of the holes to the end of the section or flat bar cleat, are
standardised at 35mm for M20 bolts, although lesser edge distances are permitted in AS 4100. This edge distance
should be shown on the cleat details.
ASDH/01-1999
8-1
The dimension from the top of the beam to the first row of bolts has also been standardised in Ref.1to100mm. This
allows for a coping of the top of the beam and adequate edge distance. Some designers and steel detailers have
adopted an alternate standard for this parameter of 80 or 85mm. The steel detailer must be aware of the designer's
instructions when detailing each connection.
In four hole cleat plates and base plates it is convenient, wherever possible, to use a square arrangement of the
bolts, ie the same pitch and gauge. This prevents incorrect shop assembly of the cleat or errors in the installation
of hold down bolts on site.
8.1.3
Components
Connecting components such as cleat plates, gussets, end plates, base plates and angle cleats can also be
standardised and are addressed in Ref. 1. Typically, the use of rolled flat bar is promoted wherever possible in
preference to shapes cut from plate. In the case of angle cleats, the use of equal angles with similar bolt hole
patterns is promoted to aid in shop assembly.
The range of available flat bar is usually specified by the steel manufacturer in their product catalogues (see Ref. 4).
Excessive cropping of the corners of connecting components is discouraged to eliminate unnecessary activities in
the fabrication shop. This is usually satisfactory in most structural applications but may not be suitable for
architectural steelwork, where aesthetic considerations govern, or where safety requirements dictate that sharp
corners on plates be removed.
8.1.4
Copes and notches
Where non-aligned beams are connected together at the same level a cope is required in the supported beam to
prevent interference of its top flange with the top flange of the supporting beam. In some circumstances the
supported beam may need to be coped at both flanges, depending on its depth compared to the supporting
member. The depth of the cope has been standardised in Ref. 1 as 65mm. Further recommendations with regard to
its overall shape are also given in Ref.1 and a table is provided giving details of cope requirements for combinations
of supported and supporting beam sizes.
Where beams connect between the flanges of columns, notching of the beam flanges may be necessary to prevent
interference with the column flanges or bolts in the column flange. Sections 9.8 and 10.5.6 consider the issue of
erection clearances and bolt interference in more detail.
8.2
ANGLE SEAT CONNECTION
The main feature of this connection is its ease of erection. The steel detailer's attention is drawn to the following
constraints on this connection type:
1. The standard components required for this connection, shown in Fig. 8.1, are a:
Bolted restraint cleat connected to either the web or flange of the supporting member
Bolted or welded angle seat.
2. The following limitations on the use of a 180 mm long standard angle seat component with a 90 mm gauge
should be noted:
it will not fit between the flanges of 200UB, 200UC, 150UC, 100UC columns
it requires welding from behind the column flange for 1OOUC, 150UC and 200UB to 460UB columns.
3. The restraint cleat has standard holes (22 mm diameter for M20 bolts) which allow for variations in mill and erection
tolerances to be accommodated. Only bolted restraint cleats are recommended.
4. For supported member sections 250 mm deep and smaller, this connection is not recommended since therestraint cleat is large in relation to beam depth. Alternative connections are considered more economic.
5. The 10 mm standard clearance is a critical dimension.
8-2
ASDH/01-1999
no
.,o
~
Restraining
cleat
-'
!Cl.
All bolts M20
40
I+-
___,.
~65
8.8/S Bolting procedure

~
It)
It)
Angle
seat
Optional boIt
or weld
=i=
90
Welds:
6mm CFW, or
8mmCFW
90
LJ
D
l+---o
Fig. 8.1: Angle seat connection
8.3
BEARING PAD CONNECTION
This connection is capable of transmitting loads approaching the full shear capacity of the supported member. It is
normally used in circumstances where the connection has to carry abnormally high reaction forces or where
connections are made to existing structures. Detailing considerations required for this connection type are:
1. The standard components required for this connection, shown in Fig. 8.2, are:
a bearing plate which is welded to the supporting member
an end plate which is welded to the supported member and bolted to the supporting member.
2. The general rule followed in selecting standard component combinations is to use the same component size for
both end plate and bearing pad. The length of the bearing pad, and weld, is usually determined by the designer.
3. The following limitations on the use of 200 mm wide plate as bearing pads should be noted:
they cannot be welded - having regard to welding electrode access requirements - between the flanges of
any UC section column or 200UB, 250UB, 31 OUB section columns
they require welding from behind the column flange for 1OOUC to 200UC, 200UB to 530UB section columns.
4. The following limitations on the use of 150 mm wide plate as bearing pads should be noted:
they cannot be welded - having regard to welding electrode access requirements - between the flanges of
any UC section column or 200UB section columns
they require welding from behind the column flange for 1OOUC, 150UC, 200UB and 250UB columns.
ASDH/01-1999
8-3
5. A 90 mm gauge for M20 bolts is preferred for the beam end plate and web for all sections except 200UB
and 100UC.
6. The connection may need to be shimmed to suit during erection. The connection detail consequently should
include provision for shims of 0- 5 mm nominal thickness. Shims will need to be holed to the same gauge as
the end plate. The maximum shim thickness of 5 mm is a critical dimension.
7. Sawn or machine flame cut edges are recommended at the bearing interface.
Optional position (nom weld)
I
_____,
"""
\ of 0-5 mm. Shim to
i
i
i
~_Clearance
suit as required.
M20 Bolts.
8.8/S Procedure.
l
.~f
6 ors
!
I
Cl
i
i
i
Nominal weld
!-
(,
~r=t=:mm:
,---...,,.- 6 or 8
90
Fig. 8.2: Bearing pad connection
8.4
FLEXIBLE END PLATE
This is common connection and is relatively easy to erect provided that fabrication accuracy is maintained.
The AISC standard detail shows the end plate only welded to the supported beam's web. Other detailing
considerations are:
1. The standard component required for this connection, shown in Fig. 8.3, is an end plate welded to the web of
the supported member and bolted to the supporting member.
2. The 90 mm gauge on the end plate is a first or second preference flange and web gauge for all sections except
those noted under (3) below.
A 140 mm gauge on the end plate is a second preference gauge to facilitate installation in tight applications (e.g.
skew beam-to-beam connections).
3. An end plate with bolts on 90 mm gauge will not fit between the flanges of 150UC and 1OOUC sections when
these sections are used as columns, nor will it bolt to the flange of 200UB or 1OOUC columns.
4. Standard coping details are applied for beam-to-beam connections requiring either a single web cope or a
double web cope.
5. Fabrication of this type of connection requires close control in cutting the beam to length and adequate
consideration must be given to squaring the beam ends such that both end plates are parallel and the effect of
beam camber does not result in out-of-square end plates which makes erection and field fit-up difficult. Shims
may be required on runs of beams to compensate for mill and shop tolerances.
6. The use of this connection for two sided beam-to-beam connections should be considered carefully. Installation
of bolts in the end plates can cause difficulties in this case. When unequal sized beams are used, special coping
8-4
ASDH/01-1999
.
11"'0
'
/6'
0
,...
Rt
@J
,o.
0
,...
"'"'
~.
Cd~
"'"'
End plate
/End plate
.,
"' !
"'
Typical single web coped beam
Drawn for uncoped beam
M20 8.8/S BOLTS

*See Section 8.1.2 for
'a' not= 100 mm
.c
110
0
,...
Cd~
0
,...
@J
,...0
~ 0
e ,...
c
,...0
"'
"'
"'
"'
End plat
"'
"'
E
E
s,...
><
.s
0
.<=
Ci.
CD
"C
CJ
2
a;
E
!!!
"'"'
Typical double web coped beam
\.'
Fig. 8.3: Flexible end plate
of the bottom flange of the smaller beam may be required to prevent it fouling the bolts.
7. Damage of the end plate during transport is not normally of concern and may be rectified on site.
8. Cope dimensions vary depending on beam sizes. See Ref. 1 for further details.
ASDH/01-1999
8-5
8.5
ANGLE CLEAT CONNECTION
This connection requires no welding, either in the shop or on site, and is relatively easy to erect because of its
flexibility of fit-up. This style of connection is becoming increasingly popular with fabricators with computer numeric
controlled (CNC) drilling machines as it avoids the need for the beams to go to the welding bay. The main detailing
considerations are:
1. The standard component required for this connection, shown in Fig. 8.4, is either:
an equal angle if one line of bolts connect to the supported beam; or
an unequal angle if two lines of bolts connect to the supported beam.
2. Bolt holes are normally 2 mm larger than the nominal bolt diameter. In the supported member web and in the
leg connected to it, this diameter of hole will accommodate variations in supported member depth (D) due to
standard rolling tolerances and provide erection tolerances after the supported member is cut to length.
3. The nominal gauge required in the supporting member is (130 + t)mm. The standard gauge of 140 mm can hence
accommodate web thickness of the supported member (t), in the range 9 ~ t ~ 11 mm by virtue of the use of
normal holes (22 mm diameter for M20 bolts). Drifting would allow other web thicknesses to be accommodated
(e.g. 7 ~ t ~ 9 mm or 11 ~ t ~ 13 mm) but would result in some distortion of the cleat. Alternatively, a special
gauge may be adopted in the supporting member.
In order to obviate both drifting and the use of a special gauge, oversize (4 mm larger than nominal bolt diameter)
holes could be used.
4. The following limitations on the use of double angle cleats should be noted:
the angles will not fit between the flanges of 100UC to 250UC nor 200UB, 250UB section columns; and
using a 140 mm gauge, the connecting angles will not bolt to the flange of 200UB to 410UB, 100UC, 150UC
section columns.
5. Standard coping details for beam-to-beam connections can still be adopted on these connections. See Ref.1.
6. The use of this connection for two sided beam-to-beam connections should be considered carefully. Installation
of the bolts in the outstanding legs of the angle cleats can cause difficulties in this case. When unequal sized
beams are used, special coping of the bottom flange of the smaller beam may be required to prevent it fouling
the bolts.
8.6
WEB SIDE PLATE
The welded component of this connection is attached to the supporting member. The web side plate connec!ion
can therefore be used in conjunction with the flexible end-plate connection to avoid mixing both welding and drilling
operations on individual members. Web side plate connections can be used to connect beams to supporting beams
(see Fig. 8.5) or columns (see Fig. 8.6). The connection type is the most commonly adopted method of connecting
steel structures in Australia. The shop detailer's attention is drawn to the following detailing considerations:
1 . The standard components required for this connection is a plate cleat (where possible cut from flat bar) and
shop welded to the supporting beam or column.
2. Bolt holes are normally 2 mm larger than the nominal bolt diameter. This diameter of hole in the supported
member web and the side plate will accommodate variations in supported member depth due to standard rolling
tolerances and provide erection tolerances after the supported member is cut to length.
3. In connections to column webs, a check must be made on the length of bolt to be used to ensure sufficient clearance
is available between the side plate and the inside of the column flange, to permit the bolts to be installed.
4. Standard coping details for beam-to-beam connections can still be adopted on this connection detail. See
Ref.1.
5. Erection clearances must be especially considered for Alternative 'B' (Fig. 8.5 & 8.6) because of the necessity
to angle beams into place during erection. This consideration is most important for the case of a series of beams
in the one row, all connected between the same main supporting members.
8-6
ASDH/01-1999
.d
..
65
~
<II~
l-1-4
I
----I~
I
l-1-4 --I
---,_
11
n11 Bolt rows
'
....
....0
....0
....0
1'
I..-<
I~
1to
'!
1!1
!
.__~
.__~
~r
!
~
'\_
,_ -
~Equal angle cleat
65 65
i---
130+1
I
1!1
. "'
Iii
,f
ALTERNATIVE 'ft<
Single llne of bolts to supported member web
Beam-to-column and beam-to-beam connections
Uncoped, Single and Double Web Coped Members
M20 8 8/S BOLTS

'a' not= 10Omm
,f
55 70
I
n"o
<110
....0
R
....0
0
....
I
'
I
I
"n Bolt rows <

11
,-
,f
'7'
'
~35
\
Unequal angle cleat
ALTERNATIVE 'B'
Double line of bolts to supported member web
Beam-to-column and beam-to-beam connections
Uncoped, Single and Double Web Coped Members
Fig. 8.4: Angle cleat connection
ASDH/01-1999
8-7
55 35
351
l-l-
OS~
110
....0
....0
....0
,,
I
I
I
I
''
\
I
I
0
....
; l\
\1
8~
ALTERNATIVE 'A'
Single line of bolts
to supported member web
(drawn to show double web. cope)
M20 8.8/S BOLTS

'a' not= 100 mm
8 ~
'
ALTERNATIVE 'B'
Double line of bolts
. to supported member web
(drawn to show double web cope)
Fig. 8.5: Web side plate to beams
5535
35 -
55 70 55
;n_
35_
J_I
II
I"
I
I-
1to
OS~
....
....
,,
~W
~' "
I \
....0
....0
....0
.'
;,
\ 8""v
ALTERNATIVE 'A'
Single line of bolts
(drawn to show no cope)
'
,,
\
\8""v
M20 8.8/S BOLTS

'a' not= 100 mm
ALTERNATIVE 'B'
Double line of bolts
(drawn to show no cope)
Fig. 8.6: Web side plate to columns

8-8
ASDH/01-1999
'
8.7
WELDED BEAM-TO-COLUMN MOMENT CONNECTION
This connection is normally used in rigid frame construction. The connection may be shop or site welded. Where
possible shop welded connections used in conjunction with field bolted splices in the beam should be adopted.
Welding to the column may be continuous fillet weld or a combination of continuous fillet weld and a complete
penetration butt weld (to the beam flanges). The fillet weld size should be specified by the designer. Different
fabricators may have different preferences on flange preparation for the butt welds.
These connections may require additional plate stiffeners to be welded to the column web and flanges. These
should be specified by the designer (see Alternative 'Pi in Fig. 8.7)
OR
-f:7+--
Field splice
either:
Stiffeners required
when specified by
the designer
Bolted,
Welded,
Bolted/Welded.
ALTERNATIVE 'A':
Stub girder connection, fully shop welded
Beam stub spliced on site.
NOTE: No backing bar used in flange welds
fa
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
OR-f:T-
; . i - M20 Locating bolts.
! ~+:---Erection cleat.
J
ALTERNATIVE 'B':
Field welded moment connection Including erection cleat.
NOTE:
Flange weld preparation assumes the use of a backing
bar which requires coping Of the beam web.
This should only be required to be removed in special
instances.
ALTERNATIVE 'C':
Field welded moment connection using fillet welded web cleat(s).
NOTES:
(1) Flange web preparation assumes the use of a
backing bar which requires coping of the beam
web. This should only be required to be removed
in special instances.
(2) Detail avoids accurate fitting up of girder web to
column flange.
Fig. 8.7: Welded beam-to-column moment connection
ASDH/01-1999
8-9
8.8
BOLTED BEAM-TO-COLUMN MOMENT END PLATE CONNECTION
This connection is commonly used in rigid frame industrial buildings and is also applicable to orthogonal frames.
Bolted moment end plates can be used with an unhaunched beam (Fig. 8.8), with a haunched beam (Fig. 8.9), or as
a ridge connection (Fig. 8.10). Other detailing considerations are:
1. 8.8/fB fully tensioned bolting procedure is used, with M20 or M24 bolts.
2. Holes are 2 mm larger than the nominal bolt diameter.
3. Fabrication of this type of connection requires close control in cutting the beam to length. Shims may be
required to compensate for mill and shop tolerances.
4. Dimensions for these connections are shown on Figs. 8.8 and 8.9. These dimensions are sufficient to ensure
that bolts can be installed and tensioned, using hand or air wrenches, for beams or rafters meeting the column
at 90 10.
5. Standard haunch details are provided in Ref. 1 for a range of rafter sizes. These can be varied by the designer.
<O
t
0
Stiffeners required
when specified by
the designer
-~_._,.
D, B, g, I varies - see Ref. 1

Fig. 8.8: Bolted end plate connection
r;i
0
It)
(
0
'
C')
Cl
C')
~
It)
g
l<--o
D, B, g, I varies - see Ref. 1

Plate thickness 't'
Fig. 8.9: Haunched end plate connection
8-10
ASDH/01-1999
I
Fig. 8.10: Ridge connection
6. These connections often require additional plate stiffeners to be welded to the column web and flanges
(see Fig. 8.8). These should specified by the designer and, where possible, cut from flat bar.
Where roof slopes exceed 10 particular care needs to be taken to ensure the bolts can be fitted. In these cases it
may be more practical to shop weld the beams at the ridge and provide a field splice at another position.
8.9
(
SPLICES
In many cases stock lengths, or transportable lengths, of section are not long enough. Sections are spliced together
to obtain the required length. These splices can be bolted, welded or a combination of the two. Sections 8.9.1 and
8.9.2 provide details on welded and bolted splices.
8.9.1
Welded Splices
The economics of field welding should be checked with the fabricator before it is specified/detailed. Other detailing
considerations are:
1. Flange weld preparation in beam splices (see Fig. 8.11) assumes the use of a backing strip - which requires
coping of the beam web. The backing strip should only be required to be removed in special instances.
2. Details avoid accurate fitting up of member sections.
3. A shop splice with full penetration welding without web plate is a detail used at the discretion of a fabricator and
is not a detail in use as a site connection.
4. Column splices (see Fig. 8.12) should be located in positions where access can be easily obtai11ed for site
welding - generally 50CHlOO mm above floor level.
II
Standard component
Locating bolts.
M20-4.6/S procedure
Fig. 8.11: Welded Beam Splice - Web Doubler Plates

ASDH/01-1999
8-11
Erection cleat.
Standard
component
or:J-v
Cold sawn ends.
Cold sawn ends.
M20-4.6/S
(a) Welded column splice -Web doubler plates
(b) Welded column splice - Full penetration web weld
Erection cleat.
I
Coldsawn
ends.
( c) Welded column splice - Cap plate
Fig. 8.12: Welded column splices
8.9.2
Bolted Splices
Bolted splices are generally used in the field. A variety of bolted splices are shown in Fig. 8.13 and 8.14. If a specific
type is not specified by the designer the steel detailer should detail the connection to suit the fabricator's preferred
fabrication and erection method. However, some of the components may be shop bolted before delivery to site. The
main detailing considerations are:
1. 8.8/TB or 8.8/TF bolts are usually specified by the designer for these connections.
2. Where flange splice plates are used, assemble joints with nuts to outside of splice plate (see Fig. 8.13(a)). This
arrangement is recommended for ease of tensioning, since in universal sections sufficient clearance is not
always available between flanges for a standard air wrench.
3. Where packers are required, these can be conveniently provided as hot rolled strip in thicknesses of 1.6, 2.0,
2.5 or 3.0 mm as necessary, which are prepunched to match the holing on the splice plate component.
4. Gauge of flange splice plates is chosen to match first preference flange gauge of section.
5. Recommended web plate components are 6 mm plate unless given by the designer. Two web splice plates, one
on each side of the web, are recommended for beam and column splices. This creates a symmetric load transfer
with respect to the plane of the web.
6. Members can be prepared for bearing by cold sawing.
7. The cap plate detail of Fig. 8.14(a) is usually reserved for column splices between members with significant
differences in member depth. Unless approved by the designer, column centrelines must match up over the full
column height.
8-12
ASDH/01-1999
'
\"'-..__ --',
Standard component
to suit
'n' Rows
70707070701
Assemble wit h nuts

to outside
11
'
0
I'-
'
'
0
I'-
70
a:
0
I'-
:c:
0
I'-
'
[
rn
3::
'
''
(a) Bolted moment splice in beam - three plate flange splice
(
Standard component
to suit
packer to match
'n'Rows
"
70 70 70 70 70
/
ng
.,_
,,
~
a:
,,
:c:
I I
I/
/
0
I'0
I'-
,,
"
70
0
I'-
_,
0
I'-
3_
(
(b) Bolted moment splice in beam - one plate flange splice
70
<'--=-
no
,,
0
I'0
I'0
I'0
I'-
_,,/
Standard component
to suit
;:;
.''
'.'\ /
/--
_,
~
:c:
a:
'
\
-;; -~
!'"' i
(c) Bolted beam splices
Fig. 8.13: Bolted beam splices

ASDH/01-1999
8-13
Standard components to suit
70 70
11
II
/110
,. co~
.'
"
0
....
....0
....0
0
....
70
'
cc0
:c:
'
II
70 70
v
(d) Combination bolted and welded flange splice
"'
70 70
/v
70 70
anes
110
"
.
I
....0
0
_, ....
i125
"
<U~
125
~
:c
cc
,
I
'
,I
I
~
'
'
'
\
\
Component for supporting member
(e) Continuous bolted secondary beam connection

Fig. 8.13: Bolted beam splices (cont.)
8.
In order to accommodate out-of-alignment of member webs at a splice, the use of shims may be necessary. To
mitigate the effects of any out-of-alignment, holes in member flanges should be located using the centreline of
the member web as a reference point.
9.
In order to accommodate out-of-square of member flanges at a splice, the use of shims may be necessary.
1o. Column splices should be located in positions where access can be easily obtained for the installation of the
bolts - generally 500-800 mm above floor level.
8-14
ASDH/01-1999
I
Al
\
I Ill
~
i
D
I
I
...
...
...
...
. ~!
~]:::
..
.1 ....
0
0
R
L
IJ
A
"
(a) With cap plate - Unequal members
(b) With web cleat - Unequal members

,j
.,
i
i
I
I
...
0
!JI
R
R
R
..
Ao
(c) With web cleat - Equal members

Fig. 8.14: Bolted column splices
8.10 PURLIN AND GIRT CLEATS

Cleats are used to connect purlins and girts to the main structural frame (Figs 4.1 and 4. 10). The standard
component for the cleat is a plate of varying length (Figs. 8.15 and 8.16). The length '! 'is dependent on the purlin
depth. The bolt spacing also varies with the purlin size. Both are given in the purlin manufacturer's instructions.
Standard cleats suit metric sizes of cold formed purlin and girt sections, and also soft-converted imperial sizes.
Holes are 18 mm dia. for M12 4.6/S bolts, and 22 mm dia. for M16 4.6/S bolts. One washer is recommended
under the nut for M12 or M16 bolts. Some purlin manufacturers supply special washer-face bolts and nuts in
differing grades.
ASDH/01-1999
8-15
Cleats are welded to the main frame using 4 or 6 mm fillet welds for full width of cleat. E41 XX/W40X or E48XX/W50X
electrodes may be used.
Refer to chapter 13 for further details.
30 for 100 mm deep purlin
55 for 300/350 mm deep purlin
1O nom clearance
Fig. 8.15: Purlin and Girt Holing Detail
gi 251
65 65 '
80
~
125
...
:31'
40 for 100 mm deep purlin

65 for 300/350 mm deeo ourtin
Fig. 8.16: Cleat Detail
8.11 COLUMN BASE PLATES

Unless shown on the designer's drawings, standard baseplates can be used for most column sections. Typical
baseplate layouts are shown in Fig. 8.17. Where possible baseplates should be cut from flat bar. Ref. 1 provides
details on commonly used baseplate dimensions and holing. In many cases fabricators prefer a minimum of four
holes to facilitate erection.
Holding down bolts are usually grade 4.6/S (Refer Section 4.5 for additional information). Column shafts are
normally provided with cold sawn ends to provide full bearing contact on the baseplate. Welding is usually by
continuous fillet welds.
I[
JI
Universal beam or column
= =
RHSorTFB
SHSorCHS
Channel
Fig. 8.17: Common base plate details

8-16
ASDH/01-1999
9. BEAMS AND GIRDERS

9.1
INTRODUCTION
A beam or girder is a member that is subject primarily to bending, ie it is loaded in a direction transverse to its
longitudinal axis. The most efficient shape has been found to be the universal section, where the two relatively thick
flanges provide the resistance to bending and the thin web the resistance to shear. The commonly used members
are the hot-rolled universal section and, for large loads, the welded plate girder {see Section 2). Beams are generally
placed with their web in the same plane as the applied loads.
In most structures the beams are horizontal and resist gravity loads, ie loads acting vertically downwards. Examples
are main and secondary floor beams carrying the dead load of the floor plus the live loading on it, beams and girders
in floors carrying plant and equipment in industrial buildings, and roof rafters supporting the purlins and roof
cladding of the building {see Fig. 4.10).
There are many other members in a typical structure, some of them relatively small or minor, that can be defined as
beams, including walkway and stair stringers, grillage beams, door lintels, canopy beams, monorail beams,
cantilever brackets, etc. For the purpose of this chapter only those types that comprise the majority, ie simplysupported floor beams and girders in buildings, will be considered.
9.2
SHOP DRAWINGS
The required information for fabrication of a beam is shown on a shop detail drawing. As a rule, each beam in a
system of floor or roof framing makes a convenient shipping and erection unit. The shop drawing seldom shows any
of the adjacent members to which the beam will later be connected in the field. However, in preparing a detail
drawing, all features which have a bearing on the erection of the beam must be investigated.
The location of open holes in the beam connections {eg bolt holes) must match the location of similar holes in the
supporting members. Proper erection clearances must be provided and possible interference must be eliminated,
so that the beam can be swung or lowered into position for connection to its supporting members.
In preparing shop details, the steel detailer will make constant reference to the tables of "Rationalized Dimensions".
- see Ref.2 for such tables. These tables list the cross-sectional dimensions of commonly rolled structural steel
shapes, to the nearest 1mm, the smallest unit to which a shop usually works.
Drafting offices may not always agree on standard methods of making shop drawings. In fact, the client and/or
fabricator's "in-house" standards will often dictate on the shop drawing presentation to be adopted for a particular
project.
9.3
BEAM DETAILING PRACTICE
In the preparation of shop detail drawings of beams and girders, certain conventions and standard practices are_
used, which not only make the shop detailer's task easier and quicker, but also allow the drawing to be read more
easily in the shop.
9.3.1
Layout of Drawings
Beams are drawn as though they are viewed from the bottom or right hand edge of the drawing of the floor plan.
Beam B15 in Fig. 9.1 would therefore be drawn with its north end to the right. A note should be added calling for
the beam end top surface to be marked 'NORTH' or 'WEST', as applicable {'NORTH' in the case of B15).
It should be made a regular practice for the 'NORTH' or 'WEST' marks always to be placed on the top flange of the
beam. This will indicate to the erector which way up the beam should be erected. Chapter 3 has considered beam
scales and basic drawing layout conventions.
Alternate methods of marking ends for erection may be used on specific projects. This is generally indicated on the
erection plan using a general note.
ASDH/01-1999
9-1
t
I
814
0
"'O>
C17
~ 70 l
~
C18
1-7!--~~-
70
000
816
1-71
...
O>
B10
B12
0
"'
....
"'
~
ID
ID
"'
- - -BS
- - H - - - - - -BB- - - - - H --~~~
4000
.!,
C14
4000
.!
C15
General notes: TOS +13000 UNO

Bolts: M20 Gr 8.8/S
Steel: Gr 300
Fig. 9.1: Partial floor layout
9.3.2
Dimensioning
The following sets of longitudinal dimensions should be given by the steel detailer (see Fig. 9.2):
1. The centre-to-centre distance between the supports, ie column to column, beam to beam or column to beam.
This dimension is given for reference and to facilitate the checking of details. It is not essential to the fabrication
of the beam.
2. The overall length of the beam. This is the support centre distance less the two dimensions given at the ends of
the overall dimension line. The dimension at the end of the overall dimension line represents the distance from the
support centre to the extreme end of the beam, ie the face of the cleats.
3. Dimensions of the holing or other details occurring along the length of the beam, eg web and flange holes,
cleats, etc. The dimensions start and end at the cut ends of the beam section. This makes it easier to mark off
the holes in the shop as at this stage the end cleats are not yet attached.
4. Longitudinal dimensions to groups of holes in the web or flange are usually given to the centres of these groups.
This simplifies the detailer's and checker's work, since the centre-to-centre distances of the groups are the same
as the corresponding secondary beam centres on the floor plan. In addition, shop marking-off is simplified in
that centre lines can be marked and then the centre of punched or drilled holes marked by using a template.
5. Overall cut length of the beam.
9-2
ASDH/01-1999
----,
,,..--..
I
~
0
~
~
(0
)8
(opt)
J'
5000 CTS (opt)
4985 O/A
610UB101 x 4965
1Q..
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z
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m
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~
i=
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Q.
a
Q.
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r-
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~l
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~
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"'
1 0
:I
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-
-
!<--<
~i
~
s
1 - BEAM REQD THUS MKD B15
Reader's Note: "(opt)" indicates optional dimensions which are not essential
for the fabrication of the steelwork but are useful to the steel
detailer for detailing and checking purposes.
r
AOE
'-
All holes 22 dia

for M20 Gr 8.8/S bolts
;ii::
140
140c/~ ~ r;
NORTH
4 - holes
:c
?Z
0
0
140
!"
Ill
Cl
Ill
1983
!'?
i:
10
933
2982
c:
!!!
4032
l>
~
r-
~(opt)
'
Vertical dimensions from the top flange downwards are required to locate the topmost holes in the end connection
elements, whether angle cleats or welded plates. Every effort should be made to keep these dimension uniform,
certainly for each beam and preferably for all the beams in a particular job. The use of AISC standard details {Ref. 1)
should assist this situation.
9.3.3
Identical Ends
Where the connections at both ends of a beam are identical, it is only necessary to detail the one connection and
to mark the other 'AOE' {as other end). However some fabricators do not accept such details and it may be
necessary for the steel detailer to fully detail both ends of the beam.
9.3.4
Notation
9.3.4.1 Beam section

The beam section is fully described by giving its section designation and exact cut length, eg 610UB101 x 4965.
This description may be placed close to but not on the elevation of the beam. The information is also contained in
the material list on the drawing.
9.3.4.2 Beam levels

-
The level of the top of the beam, designated the top-of-steel (TOS) level, may be noted on the detail, eg + 13,000
{ie 13.0 m above datum).
9.3.4.3 Beam marks

The erection mark of the beam should be included in the title of the beam detail, eg 1-BEAM REQDTHUS MKD B15.
9.3.5
Surface Treatment
If a shop coat of paint had been specified and the field bolts were for a friction type connection {ie 8.8/TF), a note
would be added to the drawing reading "OMIT PAINT ON {fitting or part number)" or just "OMIT PAINT" or "NO
PAINT" if located near the cleat or bracket concerned. If such a note is applicable to several cleats and/or locations
it is usually placed in a General Note on the drawing, eg:
Omit paint on cleats {then specify cleats); or

Omit paint nearside {farside) in areas shown thus .
9.3.6
General Notes
Information common to all the beams on a particular drawing is grouped together under the heading 'General Notes'
and located near the title block. An example would be:
General Notes:
Steel:
: Grade 300 MPa
Bolts:
: M20 Grade 8.8/S UNO
Bolt holes
: 22dia
Mark beam ends 'North' or 'West' on top flange, as indicated.
9-4
ASDH/01-1999
9.4
ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS OF LONGITUDINAL DIMENSIONING
The method of longitudinal dimensioning referred to in Section 9.3.2 may be regarded as the traditional method.
However, there are several other variations, each having its own merit, and a fabricator will usually select one of
these as being best suited to their production methods. Three systems are shown in examples (a) to (c) in Fig. 9.3.
The figure depicts any typical beam having one or more groups of holes in the web (or in the flanges).
The system shown in Fig. 9.3(a) corresponds with the method described in Section 9.3.2 and Fig. 9.2. The main
dimensions, to the centres of the bolt hole groups, are given consecutively from end to end of the beam. They are
called chain dimensions because they follow one after the other like links in a chain. As stated, this is a simple
method for the detailer and checker and provides a record of the centres of the supported beams.
In Fig. 9.3(b) the dimensions are given to the holes themselves and not to the centres of the hole groups. This
method is useful when templates are not employed and the holes are marked off directly onto the beam. Here again,
chain or consecutive dimensions are used.
In Fig. 9.3(c) running dimensions are used to locate the holes themselves to avoid the use of a template. Here the
dimensions are written on extensions of the hole centre lines and the figure '000' is added to the left-hand end of
the beam to indicate that this is the datum or starting point of the running dimensions. The measuring tape is held in
one position and the cumulative dimensions marked off on the beam. This obviously speeds up the marking process.
842
892
950
180
140
"J---<
(a)
140
790
180
802
(b)
a;
~ "'
"'~ 18"'
~
(c)
Fig. 9.3: Alternative methods of dimensioning bolt hole groups
ASDH/01-1999
9-5
This method is also applicable to shops equipped with computer numeric-controlled (CNC) drilling and punching
lines. Note that with running dimensions it is not necessary to have a closing dimension at the right-hand end of
the beam.
Where the bolt group centre lines are dimensioned as in Fig. 9.3 (a), the hole cross-centres are dimensioned simply
as 140 and 180, it being understood that these dimensions are placed symmetrically (ie 70 + 70 and 90 + 90) about
the centre line. Alternatively, equal signs may be used to indicate symmetrical spacing about the centreline.
9.5
EXAMPLE OF DETAILING A TYPICAL BEAM
This example of the preparation of the shop details of a typical beam uses bolted angle cleats for the beam
connection. Similar procedures would apply for other standard connection methods described in Chapter 8.
For the purpose of illustration we will look at beam 815 of Fig. 9.1. 815 has holing in the top flange for the support
of the machine footing and is notched at its north end to clear beam 816. It also has holes in its web to support
beams 810 and 812.
The final details of the beam are shown in Fig. 9.4. The following points should be noted, as they illustrate the
matters discussed above:
1. The beam is drawn as viewed from the right of the layout in Fig. 9.1, ie it has its north end to the right.
2. The beam is drawn to a composite scale, ie 1:25 for the overall length and 1 :20 for its height and width and all
_the details. (The scales used-in Fig. 9.4 are somewhat reduced because of page size limitations.)
3. The main view is the elevation. A plan is not necessary, since the top flange hole centres can be covered by the
note '4 holes at 140 c/c'. An end elevation is provided to show the end-connection holing.
4. The centre-to-centre distance of the supports may be given, ie 5000 mm (column to 816 centres).
5. The next most important dimension is the cut length of the beam. This is the support-centre distance less the two
dimensions (8 mm and 7 mm) from the centre of each support to the extreme ends of the beam, less the thickness
of the end connections (1 Omm and 1Omm) and is 4965 mm.
6. The longitudinal dimensions of the holing in the beam section itself start and end at the cut ends of the section.
7. The dimensions of the end angle cleats are provided on the engineer's details. Note the use of the suggested
end distance and spacing of the holes, ie 35 mm and 70 mm. With regards to the cross-centre distance or
gauge, this is set at 140 mm, which permits an edge distance of 35mm.
In the end elevation the cross-centre distance of 120 mm is to be taken as symmetrical about the centre of the
UR-section. The vertical dimensions are given from the top downwards (except for beams supported on seating
cleats, in which case they are given from the bottom upwards. They should never be given from both top.and
bottom because of the rolling tolerance on the c!epth of the section).
8. The beam section is described by giving its section size and exact or cut length, ie 610U8101 x 4965. This
description is placed close-to.but not on the elevation of the beam.
9. The dimensions of the top flange notch are derived using Ref. 1. Note that the length is given from the cut end
of the beam section.
1O. The cleats at the right-hand end of the beam are not dimensioned because they are the same as those at the
left. They are simply marked 'AOE' (as other end).
11. The web holes for the attachment of beams 810 and 812 are shown. On the vertical dimension line of this group
of holes the note 'Centre line 810, 812' may be added. This information is optional and is often omitted. However,
it is certainly useful for general information and also facilitates checking. The dimension of 100 mm down to the
topmost holes has been made the same as on the end cleats for the sake of consistency.
12. The north end of the beam is marked on the top flange, thus also indicating which way up the beam must be
erected. Alternatively, the word 'MARK' may be used instead of 'NORTH'.
13. The TOS level of the beam is given, ie 13000.
14. Finally, the beam is allocated its erection mark, ie 815, in the title and the number required is also given in the title.
9-6
ASDH/01-1999
(-,
,~.
O;
0
~
~
"'"'
"'
J'
(opt)
5000 CTS (opt)
610UB101 x 4965
4032
1Q.
~ ~
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... tq..
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Oi
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140 clc
._
140
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I+-'
- -
--
~1
NORTH
~
All holes 22 dia

for M20 Gr 8.818 bolts
2 - 90x90x8L
x3501g
1 - BEAM REQD THUS MKD 815

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:=1
0
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"
1983
120
0
0
i-1--0
933
2982
~(opt)
4985 OIA
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AOE
9.6
EXAMPLE OF DETAILING SIMILAR BEAMS
Further aspects of beam detailing are illustrated in Fig. 9.5. The beams shown do not form part of the layout in
Fig. 9.1, but they incorporate many details that were not illustrated in the previous beam drawing (Fig. 9.4).
1. The drawing shows how two similar but not identical beams, 82 and 84, can be included in one sketch. The
details applicable to 84 only are marked 'In 84 only.' All other details apply to both beams.Some fabricators may
require each beam to be drawn separately. Steel detailing software packages would automatically detail these
beams separately.
2. The longitudinal location of the groups of web holes is covered by two sets of chain dimensions, one relating to
82 (only the first group of web holes from the left hand side) and the other to 84 (all three groups of holes). This
enables the holes to be marked off separately for the two beam types.
3. The left ends of the beams have flexible end plate connections and the right ends angle seats of which the angle
components will be detailed on the support. The methods for detailing with these two connections are shown
in Chapter 8 (see also Ref. 1).
4. A plan of the top flange is given to show the flange holes. Note that the web is indicated by two short runs of
dotted lines at the ends, which saves time and makes for less clutter. Alternatively, the holes could have been
noted on the top flange of the elevation as "6 holes 140 c/c" and the plan view need not have been drawn.
5. A plan on the bottom flange, looking downwards, shows the end notch and flange holes. It also allows the two
angle seats for the secondary beam to be shown. If bolted, these could have been detailed separately and called
.up as fittings on the beam. 6. The location of the web holes down from the top of the beam is shown by a single set of dimensions. Note that
in this case the first line of bolts in all the groups are 100 mm down.
7. Below the first group of web holes a pair of angle seats is shown. These are useful when two heavy secondary
beams have to be erected on opposite sides of the main beam. The first secondary beam is allowed to rest on
the seat while the second one is brought into place. They are then bolted through the web of the main beam.
8. The second group of web holes is for the attachment of a secondary channel beam. The direction in which the
channel toes point is shown. This facilitates checking and erection.
9. The end-connection holes at the right end are given as 65 mm from the beam end. There is no need to provide
a closing dimension to the left end. Two holes are also provided at this end of the beam web for a clip angle that
will provide stability for the member.
10. The beams both span east-west, but they have their ends in opposite directions. It is therefore necessary to
provide two 'West end' notes, one for each beam, at the opposite ends.
9.7- DETAILING WELDED PLATE GIRDERS

So far.discussion has centred .oo.beams made from rolled sections, ie universal section and channels. Welded plate
girders are made up from three plates (two flanges and a web) welded together to form a large I-section. Welded
plate girders are used to carry loads beyond the capacity of rolled sections and proprietary welded sections.
The manner of detailing follows the general practice used for beams, but certain special features have to be
considered, eg the noting of web and flange sizes, web stiffeners and welding.
The detailing points requiring special attention are as follows:
1 . If spans exceed the maximum available stock lengths of plate it may be necessary to splice the flanges and the
web. It is assumed here that special arrangements will be made for the transportation of the girder to the site
and that the splices will be shop welds. The opportunity may be taken to vary the flange and web thicknesses
for the sake of material economy. This would usually be specified by the designer.
2. The web is usually made a constant depth for the full length, which means that steps occur in the outer faces
of the flanges at the points of change in the flange thickness. This is done for the sake of simplicity. If there were
some special reason for having the top flange at a constant level throughout, the flange steps could be made
on the underside of the flange, resulting in a reduced web depth, but this would obviously require more
fabrication time. As an alternative to reducing the thickness of the flanges the width could be reduced and a
constant thickness maintained.
3. Welding of the flanges to the web is dictated by the shear distribution across the span and would be specified
by the designer.
9-8
ASDH/01-1999
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spacing of these items should be specified by the designer. Where possible these stiffeners should be cut from
flat bar and fillet welded to the beam.
9.8
ERECTION CLEARANCES
When detailing beams, a clearance must be allowed between the beam end and the face of the supporting member,
whether column or beam. This is to allow the beam to be swung into position during erection, as shown in Fig. 9.6.
The beam cannot be lowered directly into position because its ends would foul the top flanges of the supporting
beams. It must therefore first be rotated in plan, then lowered to the right level and finally be swung in to bring its
ends into line with the holes in the supporting beams. The diagonal distance, c, across the corners of the cleats
must therefore not exceed the face-to-face dimension, a, between the supports. The overall length, b, of the beam
as detailed is the face-to-face distance minus a clearance of 2 mm at each end, ie b : a - 4 mm.
The shorter the beam length, the bigger the ratio of c/b will be and therefore the bigger the required end clearance.
However, the end clearance is never made larger than 2 mm per end. Using this clearance, it can be shown that to
ensure adequate swing-in space the minimum length of beam should be as follows for the common end connection
details, ie two 90 x 90 or 100 x 100 angle cleats or a 160 mm wide end plate:
90 x 90 angles:
min length of beam
4 500 mm
100 x 100 angles:
min length of beam
5 500 mm
160 mm end plate:
min length of beam
3200mm
For longer beams a smaller end clearance is required, the required clearance being inversely proprtional to the beam
length. Thus, for a clearance of 1 mm only at each end, the minimum beam lengths would be double the lengths
given above.
On the other hand, beams shorter than the above would require greater end clearances. To avoid having to provide
clearances over 2 mm it might be necessary for the erector to be instructed to unbolt the cleats at one end of the
beam to facilitate the swing-in. If one angle of the pair is bolted to the supporting beam, the final bolting of the
supported beam will be made easier. In this case bolted angles and not welded plates should obviously be used.
The use of web site plate connections reduces the tight tolerance control problems and can facilitate speedy
erection of the beam.
a Face to face distance
Fig. 9.6: Erection clearance on beam
9-10
ASDH/01-1999
'
9.9
FITTINGS
Fittings such as connecting cleats, stiffeners, base plates and end plates are given assembly marks similar to all
other shop fabricated members. Usually a numerical or alphabetical assembly mark system (eg F1 , F2 etc for
attached fittings and SF1, SF2 etc for site fittings) is used because:
1. It saves billing these fittings again if they are re-used on the same member or on other members.
2. These fittings will be punched on a different machine than that used for the member. The assembly mark assures
the correct fittings will be assembled with the correct member.
The fittings are usually nominated on the member detail drawing using the assembly mark system, with each
individual fitting given a separate mark. Sometimes the size of the plate is listed on the material list of the member
detail drawing to assist with checking and fabrication.
A separate fittings sheet may be prepared with details of all the fittings on the job giving their size, shape, thickness,
holing requirements and number. Fittings sheets can be given to the apprentice boilermaker to produce all of the
fittings for the project. Fittings are then attached to the member by the boilermaker after reference to the member
detail drawing. Loose plates such as packers and splice plates are also detailed on the fitting sheet.
To minimise fabrication costs, fittings should be detailed using the range of standard flats. This keeps cutting to a
minimum. Fig 9. 7 shows fittings which are cut from standard flats rather than plate.
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ASDH/01-1999
9-11
[blank]
9-12
ASDH/01-1999
10. COLUMNS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
A column is a member whose main function is to carry compressive loading. Columns are placed vertically in a
structure and resist gravity or downward loads. In addition, they are often required to withstand bending moments
produced by, for example, side-wind loading on the building, or by eccentrically applied vertical loading, such as
crane loading. There are many lesser members in a structure that resist compressive forces. These are not
necessarily located in the vertical position and are usually called struts.
Columns vary widely in size, shape and degree of complexity, depending on the type of structure in which they
occur. A few of the more common types are depicted in Fig. 10.1. Fig. 10.1 (a) shows a simple single-storey column
in a warehouse-type building. A column in a portal-frame building is shown in Fig 10.1 (b). A crane gantry is
incorporated into many such buildings, the crane beams being supported on brackets off the column. Fig 10.1(c)
depicts an internal column in a multi-storey building and shows how the load is introduced into the column
progressively from top to bottom.
sz Roof
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Fig. 10.1: Types of column
The cross-sectional shape of a column shaft may range from a simple rolled universal section to a large welded box
section. A number of cross-sections commonly used for columnn applications are shown in Fig. 10.2. Some are
compound or built-up sections made from several components welded together.
At the start of a new job, shop drawings of the columns are usually made first. Columns are generally more complex
than other members of a structure, and require more lead time for detailing and fabrication to ensure shipment and
erection in proper sequence. This practice makes it easier to schedule other detailing work for the entire project
team.
ASDH/01-1999
10-1
10.2 COLUMN BASES

All columns require a base plate at their lower end to provide the necessary attachment to the concrete foundation
and to transmit the load (and possibly the moment) in the column shaft into the foundation.
Bases may vary from a simple slab, for columns carrying an axial load only, to a complex built-up base for columns
subjected to a large base moment in addition to an axial load. The general design of the base will have been done
by the engineer but the steel detailer may have to attend to the final dimensioning, the sizing of some of the smaller
components and the welding. Grout thicknesses may also have to be specified. For further information refer
Sections 4.5 and 8.11.
Wherever possible, base plates should be attached to the columns in the shop typically by welding. Where the base
plate is very large, and especially if it is a heavy slab, it may have to be sent to site separately. Angle cleats may then
be provided for the attachment of the column. In the case of exceptionally large bases, the slab may be accurately
positioned and levelled on the foundation and the column shaft then erected on it and attached with cleats.
In all cases a space must be left between the underside of the base and the top of the concrete. This allows for
accurate levelling of the steelwork. The space is later filled with grout, which has the function of ensuring a uniform
spread of the load in the column onto the concrete surface. Steel packs (or shims) are placed on top of the
foundation to make up the difference between the top-of-concrete level and the underside-of-base level. The
columns are placed on to the packs and the HD bolts are then tightened. When all the columns have been erected
the levels of the base plates are checked, by means of a survey level, and the necessary adjustments are made by
increasing or decreasing the amount of packing. Alternatively, column bases may also be erected by the use of
levelling nuts in which two nuts- are placed on each side of the column base plate of each bolt and the column
plumbed by suitable placement of the nuts.
To assist in inserting the grout under the base, any base plate that has a plan dimension greater than 400 mm should
be provided with two or more holes of at least 30 mm diameter to enable the grout to be injected to the central part
of the base.
I
(a)
0
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I
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Fig. 10.2: Column cross-sections
10-2
ASDH/01-1999
10.3 SPLICES
In tall buildings the heights of the columns will be greater than the lengths of steel section available from the mills,
or the lengths of column that can be transported to site. In such cases one or more splices will be required within
the length of a column. The parts of the column will be transported to site separately and then bolted (or possibly
welded) together to make up the full length. The maximum standard length readily available from the mills varies
from 6.0 m to 18.0 m depending on the section, whilst the maximum length of fabricated column that can be
transported to site by road is about 18 m, unless special arrangements for oversize loads are made.
Examples of column splices are given in Section 8.9 and Ref. 1.
In most columns, and especially those in multi-storey buildings, the load in the shaft increases progressively down
the column. If there are splices within the length, the column section may be varied for the sake of economy to suit
the load within each sublength. The easiest way of doing this is by using a common size of universal section, but
varying its mass/m for each sublength. When there is a very large increase in load at a particular floor level, a larger
size may have to be used from that level downwards.
10.4 COLUMN SCHEDULES

To provide the fabricator with suitable information on the size and length of columns required in a (column) tiered
building, the designer may prepare a "column schedule", similar to the one shown in Fig. 10.3. Columns are
identified and oriented on the design plans by an appropriate symbol, usually the column shape in cross section,
and are located by a system of numbering. Their location may be established by using either a simple numerical
sequence, as 1,2, etc., or a two-way grid system, with column centre lines assigned letters in one direction and
numbers in the other direction. Thus, a column at the intersection of lines B and 3 would be 83.
The required size and makeup of a P.articular column is given in the column schedule. As the total load supported
by a column increases through an accumulation of loads from each level of framing the size of the column usually
increases. The schedule shows the column sizes and specifies the elevation at which the sizes must change. For
reasons of economy in fabrication and handling, splices usually occur at every second or third level. Where possible
splices are located 500 to 800 mm above the floor level to facilitate erection.
Each individual column length may support two or three floors, sometimes termed a tier. Horizontal reference lines
in the column schedule represent finished floor lines or some other reference plane. Elevations of floor framing, as
well as column splices, are referred to by note or dimension to these lines. Bottoms of columns (or tops of base
plates), and the "cutoff points" at the column tops are similarly located.
10.5 COLUMN DETAILING PRACTICE

(
The basic principles of layout and dimensioning of columns are the same as those in the section on beam detailing
practice (Section 9 .3).
10.5.1
Complexity
Columns are among the more complex components in a building structure. This may not be immediately apparent,
but when one considers the variety of other components that are connected to a column - trusses, girders, beams,
sheeting girts, vertical bracing, eaves struts, crane girders, etc - it will become clear that before the column can be
detailed, all these items and their means of attachment to the column have to be considered carefully. It is therefore
advisable to sketch all these connections roughly on separate sheets of paper (say, A4) before the column detail is
commenced.
Often major items such as roof girders and floor beams can be detailed in full before the column drawings are
commenced, but as the columns generally have to be fabricated first, because of the sequencing of erection at site,
they require processing right at the beginning of the detailing sequence.
Due to the relative complexity of many columns and the variation of detail from one column to another, it is good
practice not to include too many different columns in one detail, but rather to show several separate details. One
way of doing this is to detail the common or standard type of column as fully dimensioned (eg C1 in Fig. 10.3) and
then to draw the required number of repeats of this column with all the basic details shown, but the dimensions
omitted and the special details added, eg bracing connections, girt cleats, etc. A note would then be added to the
supplementary columns, reading: 'All details not given as for C1 '. It may, however, be easier for the fabricator if each
column type is completely detailed, thereby avoiding the need to refer to several drawings in the workshop.
ASDH/01-1999
10-3
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10.5.2
Layout of Drawings
Columns may be detailed in either the vertical or the horizontal position. The suggested scale is 1:15, so columns
in excess of about 10.0 m or 11.0 m in length are usually drawn in the horizontal position when using AO drawing
sheets. For A1 sheets the column limit is about 7.0 m to 8.0 m. More columns can usually be accommodated on
one sheet in the vertical than in the horizontal position.
When columns are detailed horizontally the base is usually placed towards the left edge of the sheet.
10.5.3
Viewing Direction
Refer to Section 3.3 on drafting practices. Different shop detailing offices also have standard procedures on naming
column faces.
10.5.4
Dimensioning
The chain syst.em of writing longitudinal dimensions or the running or cumulative dimensioning system may be used.
The dimensions extend from the lower or baseplate end, to the upper surface of the column. This is similar to the
practice used in beam detailing discussed in Section 9.3.2.
10.5.5
Intermediate Sections
If sectional plan views are required to illustrate details occurring along the length of a column they may be placed
alongside the main elevation. Examples would be plans on angle seats, crane brackets, girt cleats and even the
base plate. They should be placed near the positions where the section cut-lines would occur. The plans are always
drawn looking down the column shaft and represent a section through the web elevation of the column. This
placement of views is obviously a departure from the orthographic projection convention. An example of this
technique is shown in Fig. 10.4.
10.5.6
Bolt Interference
Special care should be taken to avoid interference between column flange bolts and adjacent column web fittings
(say a horizontal angle seat). The steel detailer should be on the lookout for this kind of situation and adjust the
positions of bolts to provide clearance.
The beam flanges might also foul the column flange bolts while the beam is being lowered down the column web
during erection. The solution here is to cope or notch the sides of the top and bottom flanges of the beam. Steel
detailing software packages will detect bolt interference problems and alert the operator to adjust the detail.
Information on standard coping dimensions .is given in Ref.1.
10.5.7
Identical Fittings
Where several identical fittings occur on the same column or even on the same drawing the fitting need only be
noted and dimensioned once, provided that it is obvious that the others are all identical. Examples are angle seats,
girt cleats, web stiffeners, etc.
The use of separate fitting sheets, as discussed in Section 9.9 can facilitate steel detailing and the fabrication
process.
10.5.8
Direction and Level Marking
The direction in which the column faces in plan should be indicated by placing the mark NORTH or WEST (as the
case may be) on the relevant flange - though a note with the NORTH mark may be generally sufficient.
Levelling marks are sometimes placed on columns about 1.5 m above the base to assist in site checking and in
adjusting the elevation of the column above datum. The mark is usually a thin line inscribed on a background of
white paint. Its position should be shown and dimensioned on the drawing.
ASDH/01-1999
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10.6 EXAMPLE OF DETAILING A MULTI-STOREY COLUMN

To illustrate the method of detailing a typical multi-storey column, the column on grid-line location B3 of the building
shown in Figs. 10.3 and 10.5 will be considered. The column section is a 310UC96.8 in the upper tier, a 310UC137
in the middle tier and a 31OUC158 in the bottom tier. It supports the roof and four intermediate floors and its base
is at - 0500 level (TOC) ie. the top of the concrete footing is 500 mm below the 000 datum. The steel detailer will
need to allow for grout (in this case 50 mm) when calculating the steel column length. It is oriented in plan with its
web north-south and has a base plate 750 x 750 x 70 thickness, designed by the engineer. The splices are shown
typically only on the column schedule, so the detailer will have to proportion them.
10.6.1 Column Detail Drawings

The shop details of the column, in its three segments, would be prepared by the steel detailer. The first segment is
shown in Fig. 10.6. The other two segments would be detailed in a similar fashion.
The actual drawing would be to a composite scale. The following information is included on the drawings:
1. Column shaft sections and overall lengths. Note that the 50 mm grout dimension and the ground level are shown
to facilitate checking.
2. Base plate size, including HD bolt holes.
3. Foundation, floor and top-of-steel-beam levels.
4.
Holing for the beam end connections.
5. Areas adjacent to the 8.8/TF bolt holes are marked to be left unpainted.
6. The erection marks of the column segments (suffixed (a), (b) and (c) in the column mark for the three segments).
7. The packers required at the splices (not shown in Fig 10.6 as this is the widest column segment - packers should
be detailed in the adjacent segment as it will be narrower.)
8. Welding of the base plate to the shaft.
9. The NORTH mark to indicate column orientation on site.
Note that the column web elevation is drawn as viewed from the east (ie from the right-hand edge of the plan
drawing). The plan on the base plate is drawn with the column web in the north-south direction to correspond with
the orientation on the plan drawing.
The longitudinal dimensioning of the holes in the flanges is not given, since in this case the holes are in line with
those in the web, where the longitudinal dimensions are given.
10.6.2 Beam End Connections

(
'~
Before the column can be detailed it is necessary for the steel detailer to have some knowledge of the beam end.
connections. This may1lel" done by the methods described in Chapter 9.
10.6.3 Splices
The detailer also needs to detail the splices above the first and third floor levels (see Fig 10.3 for splice locations).
The detail of the lower splice is shown in Fig. 10.7.
10.7 EXAMPLE OF DETAILING PORTAL FRAME COLUMN

A column in a portal frame building with a crane gantry girder supported on brackets, is detailed in Fig. 10.4.
It is assumed that all the necessary information regarding the rafter connection, crane bracket and column base has
been provided by the designer. The following points should be noted for this type of drawing:
1 . A regular (not composite) scale should be used because of the amount of detail that occurs within the length of
the column.
2. An elevation of the web of the column only is drawn. Views on the flanges are not necessary in this case since
the required information can be given in the sectional plans and, for the flange holing, by the notes giving the
hole cross centres, eg '2 holes 90 centres'.
ASDH/01-1999
10-7
TOC
.. levels
Roof
120 thk slab
4th
150 thkslab
Roof
0
0
N
3rd
do
2nd
do
1st
do
~
Ground
I
ELEVATION ON GRID B
BASE PLAN
Fig. 10.5: Elevation and plan on multi-storey building

10-8
ASDH/01-1999
,-_-,
)>
Cf)
i
I
750x 50x70
~
m
m
I""
~
;::
:II
U?
::c
~
c
DI
0
0
"'
4-42 dia holes

for M36 HD bolts
~...
~
260
~
::
(')
i
!
Q
DI
c.>
i
.a
'
Ill
--
---- ! ----- -- -------,~
-ii.....
I
--
--F ace
(opt)
4200(opl)
600
4x 140
250
70
70
35
(opt}
160-
A'j
rg-
Mkflgnonh
-0
vi o paint
it
---------- ----------------------------------~1-
. - - -
I
-- -
..
a:!
- v 12
SECTION A-A
"'
c
c
10-26 dia holes

for M24 bolts
,a
g
Bolts: M20 ]
Holes: 22 dia UNO
No paint within 100 mm of 8.8/TF bolt holes
ONE COLUMN REQD THUS MKD C/83 (a)
...
true and square
52500/A
- ~
--1
3770
Bearing surface
~tobecut
---~1,1" ------------------ --------'------tI:: -~l~-1-"'" ---u

:u
''
250
:::::::~::::
500 (opt)
~
:I
B-26 dia holes

in each fig for
M24bolts \
~~
(opl)50g~
Basefelate
9
l>
c:
310UC15Bx 5180
Reader's.Note: "(opt)" indicates optional dimensions which are not essential
I ,
No paint
3. The sectional plans are drawn adjacent to the main elevation. They are located near the positions where the
section cut-lines are located or properly referenced and positioned to suit the drawing layout.
4.
Separate strings of longitudinal dimensions are given for the different types of detail, ie one for the crane bracket
and cleat, one for the girt cleats and one for the web holes. Running dimensions, as discussed in Section 9.4,
could also have been used.
5. The dimensions start and end at the cut ends of the column section.
6. The six holes in the inner flange near the top (right) end of the column are dimensioned down from the top of the
shaft, as are the four web stiffeners. These items are for the connection of the portal rafter and relate to the top
end of the member, so no closing dimensions to the base are necessary.
7.
On the plan of the crane bracket a reference dimension of 400 mm is given in brackets. Since building spans
and crane spans are nearly always in fairly round numbers (eg a building span of 12,000 m and a crane span of
11 ,200 m), the column centre to gantry girder centre will also be a round number (400 mm). However, in
fabricating the bracket the shop needs to know the distance from the column face, ie 199 mm (allowing for a
201 mm half-width of the column). Reference dimensions are always given in brackets. They are not used
directly by the shop, but are useful for reference and for checking.
321nom
." '
.:
...,,,'"
.,..,,''
...,.,
......'i
...
.'
..,.,,
"'
g
,_
--
"
""
."".
""
"'
"
..................
"
..
(
\.
310UC137
"
...:!:.,....,,
": :140
g
g
1
90
250x3 packers
-- ,_
Flange splices 250x12 PL
,,
.. ..ai. ..
Ends of columns
prepared for bearing
g
"
'
Web splices
150x10PL
''
''
310UC158
Bolts: M20
GrB.B/TF
I.
327 nom
.I
Fig. 1O.7: Splice at first floor level, column C/83
10-10
ASDH/01-1999
10.8 ANCILLARY DETAILS

10.8.1
Shims
The shims furnished to the erector are for use in filling out the spaces allowed for field clearance at column splices
and shear or moment type beam connections. These may be either the conventional kind, with round punched
holes, or the "finger" type with slots cut through to the edge (see Fig. 10.8).
I+ +++I
Conventional
Finger
Fig. 10.8: Example of shims
The conventional type shim is less expensive to fabricate, the finger type has the advantage of lateral insertion
without the need to remove erection bolts or pins already in place. It should be noted that fabricators prefer that
shims be listed on drawings and order bills.
10.8.2
Lifting Hitches
To assist the erector in handling columns at the site, it is customary to provide some means of attaching a lifting
hitch. Fig. 10.9 illustrates several common types which have proved satisfactory. For columns with flange type
splice plates, it is convenient to place lifting holes in the splice plates.
Where universal columns are not furnished with splice plates, the most satisfactory location of a lifting hole is in the
column web. While this hole reduces the column cross-sectional area slightly, it will seldom be of any significance,
since the column is sized for loads from the floor below and the splice is usually located above the floor.
Other devices shown in Fig. 10.9 are suggested solutions for box columns with top butt plates. In using the
suggested arrangements shown, it will be necessary to determine:
1. the type and size of erection equipment to be used.
2. the capacity of this equipment.
3. the weight of th~ columns to be lifted.
A design investigation must always be undertaken to assure a hitch capacity sufficient to support the weight of-the. column.
-
ASDH/01-1999
10-11
""
....
1111
....
1111
shackle and pin
1111
1111
: 1: ........... .JI
&J
~- ................ :-.. :~
--
by
'
...''
'
Ere~?
--.-
y~
"
.
~
Columns with flange type

splice plates; pin holes in splice
plates.
v
Column with
no splice plates,
pin hole in web.
..............
.
........-.
.,--'
.
'"r"'"'" .........
'
'
''
....................
'
.-- --'
'
Column with butt

plate at top; pin holes
in temporary pin plates.
Box columns with and without butt plates;

pin holes in temporary pin plates.
These plates may remain in place, providing
they do not interfere with the upper shaft.
Fig. 10.9: Examples of lifting hitches
10-12
ASDH/01-1999
11. TRUSSES
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Trusses are used in the roof construction of buildings of medium to large spans. They are able to support heavy loads
on greater spans than beams or rafters made from universal sections. They are also used in footbridges, conveyor
gantries, walkways, etc.
Trusses may be of welded or bolted construction, depending on the fabricator's preferred production method. The
decision to bolt or weld will also depend on whether the component can be transported to site in one or two sections
or must be dispatched piece-meal for on-site assembly. The decision to weld or bolt trusses is usually made by the
designers, however, it is not unusual for the fabricator to propose alternate options.
11.2 TYPES OF TRUSSES

There is a great variety of layouts or configurations for trusses and girders. In the case of roof trusses the panel
length is usually dictated by the purlin positions - and would thus range between 1800 mm and 2300 mm. In other
applications the engineer will have chosen the panel lengths and overall depth to yield the greatest economy of steel
usage.
In all cases the principle of triangulation is used, ie the shape of the girder is made up of a series of adjoining
- _ triangles. The members are all subject to axial forces, either compression or tension.
The upper and lower longitudinal members of a truss or girder are called the top and bottom chords. The vertical
and diagonal members, filling the space between the chords, are called the web members or verticals and
diagonals. The points at which the member ends intersect are called nodes or panel points. The common point at
which the member axes meet at a node or panel point is called a setting-out point (SOP).
In theory the centroidal axes of members meeting at a node should all meet at a common point. However, in bolted
angle construction the bolt lines are used instead of the centroidal lines, as shown in Fig. 11.1 (b). This makes for
easier setting-out of the truss, both in the drawing office and in the shop. With welded angle trusses, gussets are
often omitted and the web members welded directly to the chords, as shown in Fig. 11.1 (a). Here, the web members
are 'nested', ie their ends are placed as close to each other as possible, but their axes do not meet at a common
point. This practice is generally acceptable for smaller trusses, but should only be used with the consent of the
designer. For larger trusses, where eccentricity of axes is unacceptable, gussets or plate extensions to the chord
can be used, as shown in Fig. 11.1(b).
lrorT
(b)
(a)
Fig. 11.1: Truss nodes
ASDH/01-1999
11-1
11.3 CHORD AND WEB SECTIONS

The sections most commonly used in trusses and girders are shown in Fig. 11.2. All of them can be used in either
bolted or welded construction.
(a)
(b)
LI
LI
(c)
H D
(d)
(e)
0
(f)
Fig. 11.2: Chord and web sections
11.4 LAYOUT AND SCALES

The first step in preparing shop details of trusses and bracing is the establishing of working points (ie SOP or
intersection points [IP)). The distance between working points is then computed, as well as bevels which sloping
working lines make with the horizontal or vertical. After working points and bevels are established and distances
calculated, a layout is usually made of each joint. These may be placed on work sheets (not issued to the shop) to
be later placed on the shop detail drawing to a smaller scale. They are sometimes made in advance at the time
material is being ordered. The layouts of the joints are sometimes made directly on the shop drawing, instead of
separate layout sheets, and they then become a part of the finished detail.
The length of plain material is established by deducting the scaled distance from working points to each end of the
member from the calculated distance between working points.
Layouts, whether a part of a detail drawing or on a separate layout sheet, must be drawn accurately and to a large
enough scale. This enables the setback of the plain material from the working point and the size of the gusset plates
to be scaled from them. When the layout is on a separate drawing, a good scale is 1 :20. However, when the layout
is part of the shop detail drawing, it is usually not practical to use a larger scale than 1:10. Scales smaller than this
should not be used if size of material is to be determined by scaling.
The scale used in laying out the working lines need not be the same as that selected for the details along these
working lines. The more complicated the detail, the larger the layout scale must be to provide sufficient room for all
the required dimensions, notes, marks, and descriptions of assembly pieces.
11.5 .. SYMMETRY AND ROTATION

Fewer shop drawings will be reqiiired for detailing trusses, frames and bracing etc. when use is made of any
symmetry in the framing. Because of symmetry, a shipping piece on one side of the building centre line may be
exactly like another piece on the opposite side of the same centre line if rotated 180 in plan.
In other cases such pieces may be "as noted" or "opposite hand" to one another. The details of the left hand portion
can serve as the aetails of the right hand portion, thus cutting the required amount of drafting and shop layout work
in half. When this method of detailing is used, it is always the left half of the "as drawn" shipping piece which is
shown in the drawing. Refer to Section 3.3 for discussions on these issues.
11.6 DIMENSIONING
Working dimensions, (ie those dimensions appearing on the erection plans, such as the centre-to-centre distance
of columns) may be repeated on the shop details for ready reference in checking the details, and.for any subsequent
study of the matching of adjoining shipping pieces. These working dimensions, if provided, are conspicuously
placed outside of all other lines of dimensions.
Next to the working dimensions are placed lines of dimensions locating intermediate panel points and other important
reference points at or near the intersection of working lines. When working points lie outside of the shipping piece,
dimensions giving the distance along the working lines, from the working points to reference points on the shipping
piece are located prominently (see Figs. 11. 7 and 11.8). All of the detail dimensions can be laid out from these
reference points.
11-2
ASDH/01-1999
I.
11.7 NODE POINTS- BOLTED CONSTRUCTION

When gussets are used for connecting the web members to the chords at the node points, the groups of holes for
the bolts must be set out by the detailer. This is drawn roughly for each joint before the detail drawing is started. An
example is given in Fig. 11.3, which shows that standard bolt pitches and end distances are used where possible
and at least a 10 mm clearance is provided at member ends. In some cases clearances of up to 20 mm may be
requested by the fabricator.
)'~
Top of gusset
set back 10 mm
.._'\<::>
(35)
2x130
2x130
~>.
1OOx75x8 UA 1r
'
'''
------,-''
'
\..
--+a----->
C\I
(30)
./
:.---SOP---------.,
0
--
,_ ......
.
~
01
ll)
---~-------------
---
Fig. 11.3: Set-out of node - bolted construction
The thickness of gusset plates is usually determined by the designer. In the interests of saving time and simplicity
of fabrication, the following guidelines should be observed when setting out gussets:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Opposite edges should be parallel where possible.

Adjacent edges should be at right angles where possible.
Corners should not be sniped unless the included angle is less than 90.
The number of edges should be kept to a minimum.
In Fig. 11.4 gussets (a) to (d) are arranged in descending order of simplicity. They can all be cut economically, either
by shearing or by machine gas cutting, from a large plate because they can be 'nested' when being marked off.
In following the above rules it is sometimes necessary to depart from the standard bolt pitch, as for example in
gusset (c) in Fig. 11.4, where the bolt pitch in the vertical line has been increased for the sake of having parallel
edges to the plate. Using a uniform pitch would result in a shape as in (e). The fabricator should select the preferred
procedure and instruct the drawing office as to the procedure to be adopted as standard.
The shape shown in (!)employs standard minimum bolt pitches, but is an expensive gusset to make. In detail (g) the
large number of bolts along the left edge implies a heavy load in the vertical member and consequently the gusset
should be widened as shown by the dotted line to spread the load into a greater width of plate.
ASDH/01-1999
11-3
(b)
(a)
(d)
(e)
(c)
(f)
(g)
Fig. 11.4: Gusset shapes
11.8 NODE POINTS-WELDED CONSTRUCTION
\_
In light welded trusses, it is often possible to avoid using gussets and simply to land the web members on the chords
and weld them. It must be ensured, however, that sufficient landing space is available for the welds to develop the
force in the web member. In heavier trusses and girders the member centroidal axes should meet at a common
point, as previously explained, unless designed otherwise by the engineer.
Again, the steel detailer is required to lay out each joint to a large scale in order to determine the set-back of the
member ends from the SOPs and to check whether sufficient landing is available to accommodate the required
amount of welding. The length of each member is found by calculating the distance between SOPs and subtracting
the end set-backs. Examples of such layouts are given in Fig. 11.5.
Where only two web members meet on the chord and no gusset is used, as in detail (a), the centroidal axes can be
made to intersect at a common point by placing the one web member behind the chord as shown. This, however,
is an expensive detail as the truss has to be turned over to weld the second member. It should only be used after
consultation with the designer and fabricator.
Where eccentricity is acceptable, the layout shown in (b) can be used since the centroidal axes have no major
significance. The backs of the angles can be used in calculating set-backs. Where several members are involved
and concentricity is required, the set-outs in examples (c) or (d) are necessary. In (c) the gusset is butt jointed to the
toe of the chord, whereas in (d) it extends behind the chord and is fillet welded.
11-4
ASDH/01-1999
,.,0
------~
(b)
(a)
200
200
220
(c)
220
(d)
Bracings: 75x75x10 EA
Chords: 125x125x8 EA
All set back and gussets dimensions are scaled.
Fig. 11.5: Layouts of nodes - welded construction
In details (a) to (c) of.Fig. 11.5 the web members must clear the chord root radius by at least 5 mm, as shown in Fig.
11.6, and in (d) the top edge of the gusset should be set back 6-10mm from the top of the chord. In details (b) and
(d) the chords and web members could be double angles instead of the single angles shown, and in (b) and (c)Jhe .
chord could be a T-section.
0
.E
E
cb
=:::;i;_j_
Fig. 11.6: Chord clearances
ASDH/01-1999
11-5
......
d>
1'-c~~
10050SoP
2<>10
10.125M7Q,
' \
2010
2010.
>
iii
9
>
c:
!!!
!!!m
m
r
!fl
0
0
;ii;
i~ ~~:~~1401g(typ)
~
a
!fl
!!
.... lg
\I~
SOP
NORTH
li!T 1'!t
Ill
:e
~Is
~ ~
1J...J
(J)
...
2
"'
"'
..
~ats I.~ I I
:1'i1r~~
End
....
1898
'"I
2000
,.I
!!
~
2000
2000
,.I
Bolts: M20 Gr8.8/S

Holes : 22 dla
Gul>SetS : 8 PL
2000
Symabt~
10000
'~
SOP (top af chord)
4-holes 'A'
\:!
100
Q.
cm
------
~...
...:....
..
Ir
(J)
:c
z>
4holes'A'
:D
Cl!
.~,12".l,s<j~
1885
175 .120
1815
2 - TRUSSES REQD AS DRAWN MKD T2

2 - TRUSSES REQD WITHOUT HOLES 'A' MKD T1
Reader's Note: Due to size and resolution of drawing - see Item 1 of Section 11.9
and Fig. 11.8 also.
"'
/---....._
Truss Members
a75x76x8EA
b75X75x6EA
c65x65x8EA
d50x50x8EA
11.9 EXAMPLE OF DETAILING A WELDED TRUSS

The shop detail of a 20 m span welded truss is shown in Fig: 11. 7. The distances between the set out points (SOP's)
are worked out by using trigonometry. The following additional points should be noted:
1. The centroidal axes of the members do not meet at a common point at the nodes, so node SOPs are not used
and SOP distances are not calculated. To determine the net lengths of the web bracing members a layout of
each node is prepared. An example is shown in Fig. 11.8. Using the back lines of the web angles, imaginary
intersection points are established as shown. The length of each diagonal can then be found by calculating the
intersection point distance and subtracting the two (scaled) end setbacks. Two clearances must be provided, ie
a 5 mm clearance between the web members and the chord angle root radius (as in Fig. 11.6) and at least a 10
mm clearance between the two web members themselves. Note that in preparing the node layouts the chords
should be drawn first. The diagonal is then drawn and the verticals are 'nested' to it. This is easier than drawing
the verticals and 'nesting' the diagonal to them. The slope of the diagonal is taken from the truss drawing. If the
slope obtained from the layout (ie 1935/2000) differs significantly, the layout should be redrawn.
2. As the length of the truss is too large to transport in one piece, a site-bolted splice at midspan should be provided.
3. Two types of truss are included in the detail, ie one standard (T1) and one with chord bracing connections (T2).
4. A plan on the top chord is necessary to show the chord bracing holes and to indicate that the purlin cleats are
. offset from the rafter (note that the centre-point between the purlin holes is 3 mm from the back of the chord angle,
corresponding with the centre of the T-cleat to the column and thus with the centre line of the column itself).
5. An enlarged detail ofone node is given to show the distribution of the welding.
IP
---i1--
2000
Dimensions marked are scaled

IP distance of diagonal= J"'1=93=5~+'--2-oo-o~-=_2_7_8_3
Net length of diagonal = 2783-136 -14 = 2633, say 2630
Fig. 11.8: Layout of nodes - welded truss
ASDH/01-1999
11-7
11.10 CAMBERS
Trusses of larger span may be cambered, ie. a built-in upward curvature across the span of the truss to compensate
for the deflection caused by downward loading. The amount of camber would be specified by the designer. The
shape of the curve may be either a circular arc or, more commonly, a parabola.
In doing a camber set-out, as shown in Fig. 11.9, each node is raised vertically by an amount equal to the coordinate of the curve (in this case a parabola). The vertical members therefore remain vertical and the lengths (SOP
distances) of the diagonals can be calculated by solving the right-angled triangles.
The chords are assumed to retain their original lengths of 4000 mm per panel (the actual difference in the first panel
is only 0.1 mm). They are fabricated as straight members and can easily take up the slight curvature when being
built into the girder (the maximum out-of-straightness, in the third panel, is only 1:3000).
However, iri the case of the gussets it is advisable to make allowance for the slope of the chords at the first and
second verticals at least. In the first panel the slope is 27/4000, which on a gusset length of, say, 350 mm would
represent a rise of 2.4 mm.
In addition to allowing for elastic deflection owing to load, it is advisable to provide a further amount of camber to
counteract the effects of bolt slip in web members connected by bearing bolts (ie they are not welded or friction
type bolted). A rule-of-thumb value for the camber is 1 mm per web member end. In the present example (Fig. 11.9)
this woulcl be 11 members x 2 ends x 1 mm = 22 mm. The total amount of camber would then be 48 mm + 22 mm
=70mm.
Camber = span/500 = 48 mm
Vertical ordinates of parabola
found thus: h, = h-c
where c = (alb)' x h
0
0
0
"'
"~o!lo
;i;
a>
"'
0
0
0
"'
...
"'
...
co
~
"'
4000
4000
4000
24000span
Fig. 11.9: Calculation of a cambered shape
11-8
ASDH/01-1999
12. BRACING
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Steel-framed buildings generally require bracing to stabilise them against sideway or longitudinal swaying and to
prevent roof elements such as trusses from buckling or distorting laterally. The location of the bracing in typical
building structures is shown in Figs. 4.1, 4.5 and 4.10. Because of the high strength of steel, member sections tend
to be slender, with little inherent resistance to lateral movement. In this respect steel structures differ from concrete
ones, where the members are so large that moment-resisting connections between beams and columns can easily
be incorporated to provide lateral stiffness, thus doing away with the need for additional bracing.
Bracing systems in steel buildings usually take the form of long, fairly slender members arranged in a triangular
configuration located in the vertical, horizontal and inclined (rafter) planes and connected to the columns, beams
and trusses. Examples of bracing systems are shown in Fig. 12.1. In the multi-storey building example (detail (e) of
Fig. 12.1), four different bracing configurations are shown.
The bracing members themselves may be angles, tees, channels, universal sections, rods or hollow sections.
Circular hollow sections, because of their efficient action as struts over long lengths, are especially suitable for use
as bracing members and are often specified by designers for this application.
12.2 BRACING CONNECTIONS

The general layout of the bracing and sizing of members is provided by the designer. The most common connection
medium is bolting as this is the easiest to carry out on site. A number of different connection types are shown in Figs 12.2.
In most cases the intersection points or setting out points (SOP's) of the bracing systems are located on the centre
lines of the columns, beams, trusses, etc. However, in some bracing cases the axes of the members are often made
to intersect on the column and/or beam flanges (see Fig. 12.2).
Floor bracing systems are usually located in a plane below the top flanges of the beams so as to be clear of the
underside of the floor, as shown in Fig. 12.3. Here again it would be necessary for the designer to indicate the level
of the bracing and the general means of end connection. The bracing plane may be slightly lowered, as in (a) of
Fig. 12.3, or be placed at the bottom flange level if the beams are of uniform depth, as shown in (b). A step, as in
(c), to provide clearance for floor trimmers or services is acceptable. Detail (d) shows an arrangement that often has
to be adopted in process and industrial buildings where a variety of beam depths occur.
12.3 SETTING OUT AND DETAILING OF BRACING

.. Before bracing can be detailed it is necessary to lay out the system based on the appropriate setting out points ..
Once these points have been fixed the distances between them, ie the SOP distances, can be calculated by the solution.
of right-angled triangles..An accurate layout of each joint to a large scale is then made on rough paper with allowance
being made for the necessary clearance between the bracing and adjacent members, in order to measure the setback
of the bracing member ends from the SOPs. The number of bolts for each member end is given by the designer and
the shape of the gusset is drawn using the standard pitches and end distances for the bolt holes. Wherever
practicable, both ends of a member should be made alike so that the member can be erected either way round.
A key plan or elevation, showing member marks or critical dimensions, should be included on the bracing member
detail sheets. Bracing members and fittings are detailed separately.
Where bracing members have a hole or any other detail exactly at mid-length and the calculated length of the
member is an odd number of millimetres. It is convenient to reduce this length by 1 mm in order to yield an even
number. This avoids the awkward situation of having to give the dimensions to the centre point to a half millimetre.
12.4 EXAMPLE OF DETAILING OF FLOOR BRACING

An example of a shop detail drawing of a set of floor bracing is given in Fig. 12.4. The floor beams and the bracing
are connected by means of gussets to the top flanges. The bracing members are single and double sections and
are of bolted construction.
The members are taken out of the bracing system and detailed individually. It is therefore necessary to provide a
small-scale key plan showing the complete layout with the member erection marks.
This method of detailing would be preferred by the fabrication shop as it is only interested in the manufacturing process.
ASDH/01-1999
12-1
Crane beam
(d)
(c)
(b)
(a)
Column bracing
(f)
Ratter bracing
(g)
Floor bracing
(e)
Multistorey column bracing
(h) Floor bracing - alternative

Fig. 12.1: Bracing systems
12-2
ASDH/01-1999
i
i
i
I
i
I
i./
k.,
I
i
i
i
i
I
iI
(b)
(a)
'
(c)
(d)
(e)
lft-
.~ L
Bracing plane
(f)
(g)
Fig. 12.2: Bracing connections
ASDH/01-1999
12-3
~-----------------------::i:::
:i: _______________________:i:
(a)
(b)
1---------------1-----!_9-__~I
l _______________________l
(c)
(d)
-------------------- =Bracing planes

Fig. 12.3: Location of floor bracing
12.5 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

Certain additional practical matters may have to be considered by the steel detailer as noted in 12.5.1 to 12.5.3
below.
12.5.1
Column Bracing
In the column bracing connections shown in Fig. 12.2(a,b,c) the diagonal bracing member is connected (via a bracket)
to both the column and to the horizontal member. However, where the horizontal member is a beam framing onto
the column flange, the type of detail shown in Fig. 12.5 may be used subject to the designer's approval. In this
instance, the bracing is connected to the column only and, since no holing is required in the beam, the beam can
be detailed as a standard rather than a special item. This detail represents a significant cost saving over more
conventional methods.
The gussets and the end welds must of course be sized to match the forces in the bracing and the welds must be
placed symmetrically about the bracing axes. Special care will be needed in the shop to locate the gussets
accurately on the columns, since there are no holes to assist in fixing the position. It will be necessary to provide a
mark on the gusset, as shown in the inset of Fig 12.5, to match up with a similar mark on the column flange.
12.5.2
Bracing Setting Out Points
In the case of welded T-connections, or where gussets are welded to the webs of columns or beams, marking~off
of the gusset or the T-web -can be simplified by locating the SOP on the edge of these items instead of in the
conventional position. This is.illustrated in Fig. 12.6..In calculating the SOP distances of the bracing, allowance must
of course be made for the displacement of the SOPs.
12.5.3
'Draw' In Bracing Lengths
Bracing made from single angle members tends to be flexible because of its slenderness. When located in the
horizontal plane it may sag excessively and in the vertical plane it may be subjeet to vibration under the influence
of dynamic loads caused by wind or cranes. This deficiency can be overcome by introducing 'draw' into the
members, ie detailing them 'short' or slightly under-length so that they tend to become stretched when installed in
the structure. The length of the bracing is determined from the calculated distance between SOPs and is then
reduced by the amount of 'draw' as tabulated below.
Brace length (mm)
Under
2000
4000
6000
8500
11000
13000
to under
to under
to under
to under
to under
and greater
2000
4000
6000
8500
11000
13000
Draw(mm)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Bracing members of double or starred angles or other sections such as I-sections, channels, etc are more rigid and
do not generally require any special treatment.
12-4
ASDH/01-1999
6)
6000 beam CTS (opt)
20ft 75x75x6EA,Lx5770
~
(opt)
35 160
1747
1746
70
70170
70
1747
160
35~)
5l
iii
-----
'
'
--
-,-
---
- ":'1--
-1
-- ----- -
- ---
!!
Iv' ! I !
@
'"
4-BRACING REQD TH(JS MKD FB1
z~
!!lm
m
I""
;::
::D
Cl.!
:z:
~
cCD
45
~
833
35 140
1760
1760
70
70
1760
833
(opl)
...
!')
~
r- ---- --
-1-J - - i--
--::i:----- - I
2-BRACING REQD THUS MKD FB2
i.
...
7500 SOPs - 4 = 7496 (opt)
iii
Gussets : 1OPL
75x75x 10 EAx7086
Bolts : M20 Gr. 8.8/S
:!I
...0CT
ii!
"s
8-GUSSETS REQD
THUSMKDFB6
70170
--- - ---
205
3570 70
~I'll
r-------
(Op[j
cc
3368
iii
3368
']'
Holes : 22 dla
;j
__
(opt)
750

7810 SOP& 4
195
=7806
8-GUSSETS REQD THUS MKD FB7

(opt)
FB7
75x75x 10 EAx7416
70 70
3533
70 70
3533
(opt)
-- - ---
iil,1,
----
195
(opt)
- -- '1
for the fabrii;ation of the steelwork but are useful to the steel
FBS
FB6
FB7
ll
_g
~
FB7
...
750
iil1
:!!
cp
4-GUSSETS REQD
THUS MKD FB5
140 35J!!
(opt)
0
0
"
I;
20ff 75x75x6EA-fxsno
9
>
c:
45
6000 beam CTS (opt)
;e:
en
!!l
70170
500
1.
FB6
4500
.1.
FBS
5000
.1.
20000 col els
FB7~
FB6
5000
.1.
4500
.1
500
...
LAYOUT OF BRACING 2-SETS REQD
...
Fig. 12.5: Bracing-to-column connections
~-Web
of beams
..........
Flange of welded T
.........
.........
.........................
' '
Conventional
- SOP....-
~-'{,.,
x ......
....................
.....
...................
., .,
v~-----'
'
X = edges of gussets
Alternative
Fig. 12.6: Location of bracing setting out points
12-6
ASDH/01-1999
13. PURLINS, GIRTS AND EAVES STRUTS

13.1 INTRODUCTION
As noted in Fig. 4.1, purlins and girts are the members in the plane of the roof and the vertical sides of a typical
building that support the cladding. The purlins span from truss to truss or rafter to rafter and the girts from column
to column. They may be in single spans, continuous over two or more spans or lapped, depending on the
configuration chosen by the designer.
The sections used for purlins and girts are usually cold-formed lipped C-sections and Z-sections because of their
favourable load/mass ratios. They are connected to the structure by means of bolting to cleats, which in turn are
usually welded to the rafters and columns.
Cold-formed purlins are always placed with their top flange pointing up the slope of the roof in order to avoid the
excessive mid-span twist that would occur if they were erected with the toes pointing down-slope. C-section girts
are usually erected toe down so as to prevent the collection of dust or dirt in the web. However, erection of girts with
the toes up is easier due to the ability to land the girt on the cleat prior to bolting.
The most common cladding used in Australia is profiled steel sheeting, which is available in a wide range of profiles
from various manufacturers. Corrugated, trapezoidal and ribbed profiles are obtainable in either Zincalume or
Colorbond finishes. The sheeting is attached to the purlins and girts by means of self tapping screws or, in the case
of the concealed fastened profile, by special clip fittings concealed inside the ribs. The holes for the screws are
drilled on site as cladding proceeds and no predrilling of the purlins or girts is required.
On larger spans, bridging is used at mid-span or third-span points of purlins and girts. Their function is to prevent
down-slope deflection of purlins,vertical deflection of girts and twisting of the purtin section. Cold-formed sections
are especially prone to twisting due to their thin wall thickness - usually only 1.0 mm to 3.0 mm. The bridging is
shown as item 7 in Fig. 4.1.
13.2 PURLINS
Before detailing purlins it is advisable to make rough set-outs of the ridge and of the eaves of the roof (looking in
cross section) to measure the distance between the ridge purlins and to determine the location of the eaves purlin
in relation to the gutter and the top side of the sheeting. Sections should be drawn through the end frame and the
intermediate rafters to establish the purlin cleat dimensions and the end frame sheeting line. This is shown in Fig.
13.1. The spacing of purlins is limited by the type of roof sheeting. The steel detailer must be aware of the spanning
capabilities of the commonly available sheeting profiles. In all cases the capacity of the end span of roof sheeting
is less than the internal spans hence the maximum spacing of the first two and last two purlin spacings on a rafter
are always less than the rest.
There are two lines of bolts in the purlin web, placed vertically, two bolts per end where the purlins are lapped-and
two at the points where the purlins are continuous over the rafter. Bolt centres vary for each purlin size and can also .
vary depending on which,State the project is being built (Victoria having different bolt centres for 150 deep sections
compared with the rest of Australia). It is essential that the shop detailer is familiar with the relevant bolt layout
details specified by the supplier in catalogues such as Refs. 9 and 10. Further information on purlin and girt cleats,
laps and other details is also given in Ref. 1.
Where purlins are not continuous at the support, four bolt holes are provided in the purlin cleat. At these joints there
is a gap of 10mm between the purlin ends and the purlins are thus detailed 5 mm short at these points. The bolts
are M12 or M16 Grade 4.6, however some purlin manufacturers provide their own proprietary bolt systems with inbuilt washers on both the bolt head and nut.
13.3 BRIDGING SYSTEMS

The number and lines of bridging required per bay of the building should be specified by the designer. Most purlin
manufacturers offer proprietary bridging systems whose sections are usually made from cold-formed channels with
a specialist fixing system at each end to prevent the lateral deflection and twisting of purlins (see Fig. 13.1 ). The
bridging holes should be at the same vertical centres as those at the cleats to simplify marking off and to reduce
the likelihood of errors. Always refer to the manufacturer's catalogues such as Refs. 9 and 1O for this information.
In preventing down-slope deflection of purlins between the time of erection and the attachment of the sheeting,
bridging acts in tension, and it is important that the pull at the upper end of each bridging channel is balanced by
ASDH/01-1999
13-1
10Gap
Tie rod
--=---------- 10
Inter - purlin bridging
288
II+-- 250UB31.4
Bridging at ridge
Purlin and girt cleats

150x8 FLx145 lg
260
4800 crs
Sheeting
Flashing
40
Purlins
10
--------
..
"' -----0
False rafter
40
II)
II)
-------------
-:t r:, ..":,
Purlin cleats
125x75x8UA
x1301g
M12 bolts
180UB18.1
Sheeting
line
C15019
Fig. 13.1: Set-outs of purlins and girts
13-2
ASDH/01-1999
the pull in the opposite roof slope. This is one reason for providing a short link at the apex (see Fig. 13.1 ). The
bridging and apex link are also required to restrain the purlins against twisting. Reference should be made to the
purlin manufacturer's catalogues for methods of providing this link (see Ref. 9 and 10).
13.4
DETAILING PURLINS AND BRIDGING
Purlin manufacturers supply purlins cut to length and holed as required for connection to the rafters, lapping, and
attachment of bridging and other fittings such as fly braces and brackets. For this reason purlin manufacturers
sometimes provide steel detailers with purlin schedules and accessory sheets for ordering of purlins and bridging
components respectively. The steel detailer should confirm with the fabricator which purlin manufacturer's
schedules should be used, although some steel detailers have their own schedules which may be accepted by the
preferred manufacturer.
When using purlin schedules the steel detailer must specify certain dimensions as shown in Fig. 13.2. These are:
A-
distance between the centres of supports for the purlin.
B-
distance from the left end of the purlin to the centre of the left support.
C-
distance from the right end of the purlin to the centre of the right support.
D-
distance from the left end to the bridging holes.
E-
distance from the right end to the bridging holes.
. F-
L-
additional dimension (eg for tie rods). If further dimensions must be specified these should be shown on the
drawing accompanying the schedule.
the overall length of the purlin.
LAP - lap length as specified by the designer (from manufacturer's advice) if applicable.
Other information to be included by the steel detailer on the schedule are:
1. mark numbers
2. number off for each purlin mark
3. whether the purlin is as drawn or opposite hand
4. section size
5. the number and size of bolts.
Bridging and accessories are generally ordered by using the purlin manufacturer's system, frequently an
Accessories Sheet .. Methods for determining the required bridging lengths and accessories are speeific to the
manufacturer's system and are described in the manufacturer's catalogues (see Ref. 9 and 10). For example the
- steel detailer will be required to specify tlie bridging and tie rod member type, length and number off. +he.
(_~ . accessories are specified by type and number off and may include items such as angle connectors, clamps, general
purpose brackets and fascia brackets.
13.5 GIRTS
The general detailing principles for girts are the same as those for purlins and only special girt requirements will be
discussed here.
Bridging for girts should be specified by the designer. The detailer should make a check on the location of opening
portions of windows, as the upper half of a horizontally-pivoted window may foul the bridging. Bridging is used to
assist in carrying the self weight of the cladding, in addition to restraining the girt against twisting. At their upper
ends they need to be supported from an eaves beam by proprietary girt hangers and/or propped up off the floor
slab below.
Girts and their associated bridging are detailed using the method described for purlins in Section 13.4.
13.6
EAVES STRUTS
In many buildings the eaves struts (Item 9 in Fig. 4.1) are required to transfer end wall wind loading to the verticallybraced bays in the sides of the building. In these bays the eaves struts actually form part of the bracing system.
ASDH/01-1999
13-3
o~~
'!i
z0
f/)
!::;
fil
! i2
t!l
..
(.)
&
IL
""
""
"" ""
-'' -"'"' ~
IL
80
."'
I
en
"'
c:
_,
.,,a.
c
m
<
'
"C'
"
c:
' ..E
ti
o';
-~.--,;NJ
"'
ID
"'~
"'~
"'~
<
_,
.
IL
IL
II
~~
z0
E
0
c:
~
"'
"'
(.)
"" ""
....
"'
...
- ... -
"'
II..
IC
< ;;::
::!!
"'
II..
....
"'II..
Fig. 13.2: Sample Purlin Schedule
A further function of the eaves strut (especially in the case of portal frames) may be to provide torsional restraint to
the column. If eaves struts are used in this manner they will be designed by the engineer. Many portal frame
buildings are designed without eaves struts along the building length except at vertical bracing locations.
Circular hollow sections are commonly used as eave struts, however many other steel profiles can be used
depending on the structural system developed by the designer. A universal section has been used as an eaves strut
in Fig. 13.1.
Eaves struts are detailed as for other members in the manner described in Chapters 9, 10 and 12.
13-4
ASDH/01-1999
14. PORTAL FRAMES

14.1 INTRODUCTION
The welded portal frame is one of the most popular forms of construction for small to medium span industrial
buildings. Rolled universal sections are utilised for the columns and rafters of the frames, which are usually designed
by elastic analysis. Portal frames are very efficient in material use and are therefore competitive in price.
The columns and rafters are made from different sizes of universal beams with or without welded haunches at their
ends that enable the members to be site-bolted to each other to make up a complete portal frame. An example of
a two-storey portal frame building is shown in Figs. 4.4 and 4.9.
14.2 DESIGN OF PORTAL FRAMES

As well as the main member sizes, the haunch details (where applicable) and bolting particulars should be provided
by the designer. It is important, however, that the steel detailer should understand the behaviour of the frame under
load and be aware of the points of high stress. One of the critical loading conditions for a typical single-storey portal
building, as shown in Fig. 14.1, is self-weight and a uniform superimposed or live load on the roof. The column
bases may be either nominally pinned or fixed. Another critical load condition is horizontal and vertical wind loads
combined with the selfweight of the structure.
Under the vertical down load critical loading condition, the elastic bending moment distribution for the pinned-base
condition is as shown in Fig. 14.1 {b). It is noted that the most highly loaded points in the rafter section are at 'b', ie
at the junctions of the rafter and the column members. (The bending stress at points 'b' are lower because of the
increased depth due to the haunches at these points.) The next most highly stressed parts are at or near the apex.
Uniformly distributed load
III II IIIIIII III IIIIII IIIIIIll I11111111111111111111111111111111

c
(a) Layout of frame
a
(b) Elastic bending moments
Fig. 14.1: Bending moments in a portal frame
ASDH/01-1999
14-1
At the eaves (point 'b') the bending moment is negative, ie tension is induced in the top and compression at the
bottom of the haunch. The top bolts are subject to direct tension and the bottom flange to bearing (against the
column flange). At the apex the bending moment is positive and as a result the bottom bolts are in tension and the
top flange is in bearing.
Purlins
C15019
at 2150 max crs
Roof slope 3:1 o
x
,,....x
Girts
C15019
X"'
Fly brace to purlins

at points 'X'
Rafters 200UB25.4
Columns 250UB31.4
Haunches ex 200UB25.4
Pinned bases
Portals spaced at 4500 crs
r'
I.
18000 span
.I
Typical section through building
Haunches ex 200UB25.4
End plate 150x16
Bolts M20 Gr 8.8/ TB
Eaves height
Col stiffeners 75x8 Flats

Eaves strut 88.9x4.0 CHS
Bolts M20 Gr 8.8/S
fly brace / , . ,
(either small angle
or flat)
i ---------
65x6 fl
1 x M12 4.6/S
View of fly braces
Fig. 14.2: Design details of a portal frame

14-2
ASDH/01-1999
14.3 DESIGN DETAILS

A sketch of an actual portal frame together with eaves and apex details, as would be provided by the designer, is
given in Fig. 14.2. The sketch gives the essential details to ensure that the design requirements are met. It will be
necessary for the steel detailer to do large-scale set-outs to establish purlin positions, exact haunch sizes, etc.
Note that minimum depths of haunch at both eaves and apex are called for (ie 400 mm and 300 mm respectively),
that the bolts through the haunch end plates are Grade 8.8!TB and that the plates themselves are thick. These
details are all required to resist the large tensile forces in the haunch flanges caused by the bending moments shown
in Fig. 14.1 at points 'b' and 'c'. It is usual to employ Grade 8.8!TB bolts as they are of high-strength and are better
able to resist the tensile forces.
At the eaves haunch, the end plate may be extended above the rafter flange to take the two topmost bolts. Another
type of haunch detail is shown in Fig. 14.3, but it should be noted that as the effective haunch depth, 'h', is reduced
the tension in the top four bolts will be increased. This type of detail is not commonly used in Australia.
Fly braces are called for at points 'X' in Fig. 14.2 to stabilise the rafter bottom flange at the points of high negative
bending moment. They are attached to small cleats welded to the beam's bottom flange, as shown in Fig. 14.2.
Fly braces connected to girts are also used on column members.
In portal frame detailing it is very important that the steel detailer interprets all of the design requirements correctly.
Fig. 14.3: Alternative haunch detail
14.4 EAVES AND APEX SET-OUTS

Fig. 14.4 shows the steel detailer's set-outs of the rafter and the top of the column, which are required before
preparation of the final shop details of these items. The roof slope is 3:10 or 16.7'. In detail (a) the eaves purlin is
placed outside the column on a cantilever bracket. The next purlin up is placed at the haunch end to pick up the
flybrace. Its distance from the eaves set-out point (SOP) is 148 + 839 = 987 mm. In detail (b)theapex purlin is located
152 + 17 = 169 mm down from the apex SOP. This allows the remaining purlins to be spaced at (9396 - 987 - 169)
+ 4 = 2060 mm, which is within the maximum spacing of 2150 mm given in the design requirements in Fig. 14.2. Note
that the dimension of 152 mm at the apex was chosen to give a fairly round number (2060 mm) for the purl in spacing.
The placing of the second-lowest purlin at the haunch end results in a shorter end span for the sheeting, ie 223 +
148 + 839 = 1210 mm, which is less than the remaining 2060 mm spans. This is an advantage since the sheeting
deflection in an end span is greater than in intermediate spans. This part of the roof is also subject to more traffic
during gutter cleaning operations.
In detail (c) of Fig. 14.4 the method of calculating the eaves haunch size is shown. The haunch is cut from a
200UB25.4 section in such a way as to provide the maximum depth. Dimension 'a' is given and dimension 'b' to
the inner face of the flange, is the overall depth of the 203 mm section less two flange thicknesses of, say, 8 mm
= 187 mm. This line is at right angles to the haunch flange. The angle between sides 'a' and 'd' is 90' + 16.7' =
106. 7'. The remaining sides and angles are obtained by solving right-angled triangles. The length of the inner face
ASDH/01-1999
14-3
"'"'
..,"'
~
"'....
"'..,
"'
Eave
SOP
(a)
I.
252
.I
(c)
(b)
I.
983
(d)
330
.I
(e)
Fig. 14.4: Set-outs of eaves and apex connections and cutting diagrams of haunches
14-4
ASDH/01-1999
of the flange, ie 102.4 + 880.4 = 982.8 mm, is the same as that of the outer face since both ends of the flange are
cut parallel (see detail {d)). For economy in material and cutting, two haunches are cut from a single piece of
I-section, as shown in detail (d).
The dimensioning of the apex haunch is simpler and the cutting diagram is given in (e). The shaded area represents
waste material. The layouts in {d) and (e) could be done in the shop or the steel detailer could include them in the
detail drawing.
It is important that haunches are cut accurately, or else when they are welded to the rafter they will not present a
perfectly flat plane to which the end plates are to be welded and a distorted portal shape will result. The ends of the
universal section should be saw-cut, while the oblique lines across the webs should be gas-cut.
The fly brace detail, as called for at points 'X' in Fig. 14.2, is shown in Fig. 14.5. It is sloped at about 45' and the
holes in the purlin are on the line of the lower purlin cleat holes. An angle section is usually provided on each side
of the beam web.
250
250
40
40
~.r-
C15019
~~-,~--~-~--~-~-~-~-~--~-~-~--~----~-~-~--~-~--~-~-~--~-~-~-~-""'- ,~-~-~-~-~-~--~-~--~-~-~--~-~--~-~-~--~-~--~-~-~-~-~--~-~-~--~
......,,,
...,.,,,,'
i
Bolts M12
Grade4.6/S
~~==+~
126
+-
90x6FLx901g
200UB25.4
50x50x5 EA
Fig. 14.5: Set-out of purlin fly braces
14.5 SHOP DRAWING

The final shop drawing of the portal frame is presented in Fig. 14.6. The following rules have been followed in
detailing:
1. A composite scale has been used.
2. For the sake of clarity, rafter and column bracing connections have been omitted in this illustration. On the actual
drawing they would be treated as for columns and trusses - see Chapters 1O and 11.
3. The rafter is detailed in the same manner as a beam, except that the end plates are skewed.
4. The overall length of the rafter includes the overrun of the skewed end.
5. The SOPs of the rafter are taken on the inner faces of the end plates.
ASDH/01-1999
14-5
...
~
20DUB25.4 x 9292 O/A
61
9231 SOPs
839
2060
2060
2060
R"
~g
>
c:
!!l
$!
c:
>
z
!!lm
m
r-
F'
::0
C/l
::c
z>
c
m
~
"'a=
..
"O
R"
200UB25.4 x 9292 OJA
(5, ,'.v
~...
~
80
,v
av1so
152
2060
15Dx8 Fl.JC1451g
Haunches ex
250UB.25.4
End plates 150 x 16 PL
900
Holes 22 dla at 90 clc

for M20 8.B/TB
2 90x6 FLx90 lg
12 - RAFTERS REQD MKD R1

126
..:::-3
A-A
CD
11
3
3
CD
C'
CD
18
All holes 1a dta
230
:1.
rn 1-
! 1~~'~,~
~
a
327
30
01
0
0
r -------- .1
"'
50X50xti EA x 327 lg
Cleats as on rafter
48 - FLY BRACES REQD THUS MKD K1

All welds 6mm cont. fillet weld UNO
fJ;
0
2250
2250
250UBS1.4x 5034
50500/A
"'
12 COLUMNS REQD M~D C1
232
160
1000
6. Intermittent welding is used to connect the eaves haunch web to the rafter.
7. In many cases the individual fittings are detailed separately and only shown as fitting items (with appropriate
reference number) on the rafter and column detail drawing.
14.6 PRE-SET OF PORTAL FRAMES

Due to their slender proportions, typical single-span portal frames are subject to fairly large deflections. If it were
desired to counteract the deflection by means of a camber, this could be done by introducing a pre-set into the
geometry of the frame, ie the angle at the end of each rafter (the eaves and the apex) could be adjusted to produce
an upward camber of the frame. For example if a camber equal to the deflection from dead load only were desired,
it would be necessary to raise the apex. In the example shown in Fig. 14. 7, the apex has been raised 30 mm.
In Fig. 14.7(a) the dotted line represents the theoretical shape of the frame, ie the desired final shape under dead
load. The solid line shows the shape to which the frame should be fabricated and provides for an upward apex
displacement 'd' of 30 mm. The length 'c' of the rafter is the same both before and after application of load, so the
column tops have to be displaced inwards by dimension 'g' which is found to be 9 mm. Fig. 14.7{b) shows the shape
of the frame as fabricated.
When the rafter in Fig. 14. 7 is detailed its apex bevel should be increased by 30: 9000 and the eaves bevel by the
same amount plus a further amount of 9:5000 to allow for the column slope (ie. a total of 5:1000). This would. be
incorporated into the detail drawing (Fig. 14.6) by making the apex bevel 303:1000 and the eaves bevel 305:1000.
In practice, however, a pre-set is usually provided only in larger-span portal frames. It is the responsibility of the
designer to decide whether a pre-set should be used or not.
f
0
..,"'II
__
... ---
.. -----;
i
i
0
0
C\I
II
"
CD
i .c
0
0
0
(a)
"'II
(b)
.s:::
r-'
I.
a= 9000
i
i
..
Given: a = 9000
b=2700
d=30
h =5000
c =J~ + b'=J9000'+ 2700' = 9396

f
e' =J9396'- 2730' = 8991
=Jc'-
g = a - f = 9000 - 8991 = 9
Fig. 14.7: Portal frame pre-set
ASDH/01-1999
14-7
"-
[blank]
14-8
ASDH/01-1999
15. STAIRWAYS
15.1 INTRODUCTION
It is essential that the planning of stairways for buildings and other structures with floors or platforms at different
levels be considered at an early stage of the steelwork detailing process. This will ensure that sufficient space and
headroom is allowed, and that beams are properly located to support the stairs.
Stairways are either required for general or access purposes or form part of emergency (eg fire escape) routes. The
proportions, eg slope, width, size, etc are governed by considerations of safety and comfort and are largely
standardised. Stairways, walkways and ladders must comply with AS 1657 - "Fixed, platforms, walkways, stairways
and ladders- Design, construction and installation". Furthermore, where appropriate, stairway and landing design
must comply with the Building Code of Australia (Ref. 11). The Building Code Of Australia has more stringent
requirements particularly in regard to the allowable dimensions for risers and goings than AS 1657 and applies to
stairs that form part of an emergency route in specific building types.
15.2 DESIGN OF STAIRWAYS

15.2.1 General
Steel stairways are used mainly in industrial-type buildings and in mining, process and production plants, and are
also often employed as fire escape routes or feature stairs in multi-storey buildings. With a growing trend to
modularisation in all construction work, steel framed stairs are becoming increasingly common in commercial
buildings as they can be quickly erect~d and used by construction personnel.
First floor
Stairs 800 wide.

Treads 30 mm deep
open grid.
Landing 40 mm deep
open grid.
.
Stringers 200 x 10 FL
Rises 200 mm.
10
Fig. 15.1: General arrangement of stairway

ASDH/01-1999
15-1
The designer will usually give the basic stair requirements, eg riser and going dimensions, slope, width, stringer size
and type of stair treads and landings, in accordance with Ref. 11 or AS 1657. A typical example is shown in Fig.
15.1. In this instance, the stringers are 200 x 10 flats, but in larger stairs channels or rectangular hollow sections are
often used. Note that the 200 mm rise used in this example is only acceptable under AS 1657, ie. it does not satisfy
the BCA requirements.
The descriptive terms used in relation to stairways are illustrated in Fig. 15.2.
Slope
Going Tread
,,ci===:~
.-----t--:;t=::i
Rise
Pitch line
Landing
Risers, where
applicable
_,,..6:=,-+< [..S>verlap
Fig. 15.2: Stairway terminology
Slope is one of the most important characteristics of a stairway and is determined by the combination of risers and
goings. At very steep slopes stairways are considered as ladders and are subject to different detailing requirements
including such items as safety cages.
The width of a stairway is measured as the clear distance between stringers or handrails. The minimum permissible
widths vary depending on the stair use or purpose and it is for this reason that the width should always be specified
by the designer. It is not the intention of this handbook to go into the various stair width and usage options that can
apply.
15.2.2 Stringers
The steel sections most commonly used for stair stringers are flats, channels and rectangular hollow sections
(usually when dictated by architectural considerations). For larger spans the sections should be determined by
structural requirements rather than geometric layout conditions. Cranks in stringers are invariably welded and treads
are bolted or welded to the inner face of the stringers.

At the foot of a flight of stairs where a change in the direction of the stairway occurs, the top edges of stringers
should. not be extended to a landing as shown in Fig. 15.3(a). since this represents a potential trip hazard. Channel
stringers should have their ends.terminated with a vertical plate, as otherwise the projecting top flange could cause
snagging and tearing of trouser legs.
In outdoor situations and where corrosive liquids may be present it would be prudent to support the foot of the
lowest stringer on a concrete plinth as shown in Fig. 15.3(b) in order to prevent corrosion of the fixing cleats and
bolts. However, the bottom rise, measured from floor level, must be made equal to the remaining rises. Alternatively,
the plinth may be made the full height and width of a step and thereby take the place of the bottom tread, as shown
in Fig. 15.3(c). The preferred detail would normally be nominated by the designer.
=
=
=
=
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 15.3: Details at foot of stairway

15-2
ASDH/01-1999
15.2.3 Treads
The main consideration in selecting a suitable plate or grating for treads is the provision of a non-slip surface that
will retain its effectiveness during constant and prolonged use. Treads for steel stairs are almost invariably made
from raised pattern plate, concrete filled or open grating. Grating-type treads are not suitable for use by women
wearing small heels, e.g. for office fire escape stairways.
Minimum net thickness of plate treads are dictated by either the BCA {Ref.11) or AS 1657 and reference should be
made to these documents. Treads should preferably have non-slip edges or nosings at least 25 mm wide with a
raised pattern. Sighting edges are essential for treads made from grating. Nosing edges should have sharp corners
ground off.
15.2.4 Landings
Landings are used between flights to limit the number of risers per flight and at changes of direction. Specific
requirements regarding the sizes and construction of landings are given in Ref.11 and AS 1657. Landings should be
fitted with kick plates {possibly made from flats) that rise at least 100 mm above the flooring. They should extend
around all open sides and under the first step of the rising flight of the stairway. This is particularly important on
mining or processing plants where it is usual for kick plates to be provided on all elevated walkways.
15.2.5 Handrails and Balustrades

{
Stairways and landings should be protected on both sides by a handrail, balustrade or wall. For certain widths of
stairs a handrail must be provided on both sides.
l '
ASDH/01-1999
15-3
15.3 DETAILING
The steel detailer will first prepare a rough large-scale set-out of the stair details as shown in Fig. 15.4. For the
example shown a rise of 200 mm has been specified and the going dimension is 250 mm. Allowing for a 25 mm
overlap of the treads, each tread will then be 275 mm wide. The sloping line connecting the nosings of the treads is
called the pitch line. In this case it coincides with the upper edge of the stringer flat.
Setting out points (SOP's) are established where the pitch line intersects the top-of-flooring levels at ground floor,
landing and first floor. Note that at the landing level there are two SOPs, one for the lower flight and one for the upper.
They are displaced horizontally by 50 mm, which is 10/8 times the landing grid thickness of 40 mm (the landing rests
on top of the stringer). Note also that where the upper flight meets the first floor the stringers are cranked and a
standard tread is placed level with the first floor.
275
2250
/
First floor
SOP
~--+-HR
Post
g
CX>
30
SOP
200 x 10 FL
50
Pitch line
SOPs
/
SOP
25otyp
10
2500S0Ps
Fig. 15.4: Set-out of stair details
15-4
ASDH/01-1999 ~
2000
SOP
250
SOP
. . . . . Ill=~------~
Fig. 15.5: Alternative set-out of upper flight
The horizontal distance required to accommodate the upper flight is 275 + 2250 = 2525 mm. In cases where
horizontal space is limited, this dimension could be' reduced to 2000 mm or 2250 mm by adopting the upper and/or
lower details shown in Fig. 15.5. In this case, as indicated by the figure, a non-standard tread 250 mm long is
required at the upper end and the 25 mm overlap of the first floor over the tread is lost, whilst at the lower end the
stringers require an extra cross channel to support them. The landing edge need not be extended as in Fig. 15.4,
however.
Also shown on the set-out in Fig. 15.4 are the bolt holes for attaching the stair treads and the handrail (HR) posts
(the dimensions are obtained from the suppliers' catalogues).
Once these details have been sorted out, the shop drawing may be prepared. It is shown in three parts in
Figs. 15.6(a), (b) and (c).
"
From Fig. 15.6 it will be apparent that the tread and handrail standard holing is dimensioned only once since it is
typical. The treads and landing grid are shown chain-dotted. The treads will either be bolted to the stringers in the
workshop so that each flight forms a separate unit or the treads and stringers will be despatched piece-meal for
assembly on site. The landing grid will be despatched loose and be welded or clipped to the supporting angles at .
site. The handrailing will also be despatched separately. Note that the landing grid is supplied with an intEl!jral .
kickplate with an overal~h~!ght of 150 mm. The upstand will be 150 mm minus the grid depth of 40 mm, ie 110 mm.
At the landing all four stair stringers are supported on the 180 PFC channel cross beam, which in turn forms part of
the support frame (see Fig. 15.6(c)).
Regarding the shop work on the stringers, templates would be made for the skew-cut ends and the mitre joints
would be butt-welded. The holing for the open grid treads would be marked off from a template, which would be
moved progressively along the stringer slope in 320 mm increments.
ASDH/01-1999
...
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15-5
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./,....-(
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j'
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(threads & HR posts)
@)
.:::
0
~
90x90x8 EA
cleats x 180 lg.
Holes45 BG
Stringers 200x10 FL,

Treads 800x275x30
open grid.
Landing 40 mm open grid
with 150 high kick plates.
SOP
6>0
CD
DI
0
0
;:r;
'!i~~
/~/ \//C>
/
....
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a.
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en
+ :--- .-------
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09
000 ~ = om: sas1J
Fig. 15.6(b): Detail of stairway (part)
ASDH/01-1999
15-7
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150x6
I
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1796
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x 1870 lg
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of kickplate
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Detail of landing
Notes
Stairway of weld construction
Holes 18 dia for M16 4.6/S bolts UNO
Landing panel to be welded to
support steelwork.
.!
As an alternative to open grid treads, treads made from floor plate may be used. The treads would then be directly
welded to the stringers. With the resulting absence of bolting cleats, the treads are much shallower and the stringers
can be reduced in depth. In the example in Fig. 15.8 they are 180 PFC channels.
Figs. 15.7 and 15.8 show the tread set-out and the full shop detail of a stair made in this way. The stair has a slope
of 40' and gives access to a platform decked with floor plating. The total rise is 2300 mm, yielding 12 tread rises of
191.7 mm. The going of 228.4 mm is slightly less than the 250 mm of the previous example, but is considered
sufficient for industrial use.
The handrail standards placed normal to the slope of the stringers are cheaper and stiffer than vertical ones and are
acceptable in an industrial environment.
228
228
255
/SOP
Platform level
m
~
":_j
25
180PFC
Fig. 15.7: Set-out of stair with plate treads
0.
ASDH/01-1999
15-9
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floor plate. Cont..
welded to stringers
along top and front
edges.
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16. DETAILING FOR ECONOMY

16.1 INTRODUCTION
The most important requirement of any structure is that it should be able to support the applied loads safely. The
loading on most typical structures would be the weight of the structure itself, the weight of the cladding, floors and
other permanent attachments and the superimposed or live loading, eg floor live loading in a multi-storey building,
wind loading, dynamic loading from machinery, etc.
In most industrial structures, where aesthetic or architectural considerations are not a major consideration, the next
most important requirement is economy of construction. It is obvious that the owner would wish to have a safe
structure at the lowest reasonable cost.
The designer of the project has the responsibility of meeting the requirements of safety and economy. In the design,
the designer will not only ensure that the structure will support the applied loading with a suitable margin of safety,
but will also aim at using the least appropriate amount of material and specify details of construction that are simple
and easy to carry out. It is in the area of simple, cost-effective details that the steel detailer can assist in achieving
maximum overall economy and ensuring that steelwork remains an efficient fonn of construction. The most costefficient structure is not necessarily the one employing the least amount of steel. Simple detailing has a significant
impact on the overall construction cost.
I
\.
This chapter presents many practical aspects of detailing where economy can be gained in the fabrication and
erection of steelwork. Much of the advice given is based on common sense and may appear obvious to the reader, but
the points discussed are the result of many years of experience gained by fabricators in their quest for cost savings.
For more detailed information the reader is referred to AISC's "Economical Structural Steelwork" (Ref.12) and Steel
Construction Vol. 30 No. 2 "Costing of Steelwork from Feasibility through to Completion" (Ref. 13).
16.2 COMMUNICATION
To meet the objective of efficient detailing the maintenance of a clear line of communication between the designer
and the steel detailer will be of great assistance. Their respective activities are carried out in different offices, often
in different finns and sometimes even in different countries.
It is essential that the steel detailer has the opportunity to discuss freely with the designer any matters lacking clarity.
The steel detailer should also be at liberty to suggest modifications that could lead to simplification. An interchange
of ideas will often lead to a more efficient solution.
16.3 ECONOMY IN THE USE OF MATERIAL

On a dollar-per-tonne basis, steel is a relatively expensive material and it therefore helps to buy it at the lowest price.
Most fabricators purchasetheir material through steel merchants or steel service centres. On very large projects, involving
bulk purchases of material, a fabricator may purchase direct from the mills. In both instances base prices per tonne
are quoted for a certain quantity of any particular section, with discounts offered for larger orders and surcharges
added for non-standard lengths. Price extras are of course also applicable to non-standard grades of steel.
A structure should preferably be designed using a standard grade of steel (Grade 300) and should not contain an
unnecessarily large variety of section sizes nor have excessive member lengths. Wastage (or off-cuts)should be kept
to a minimum. The steel detailer should be aware of the standard steel stock lengths supplied by the steel
manufacturer. These are given in their product catalogues (eg Ref. 4).
Regarding the use of plates, a large range of thicknesses up to 50 mm is available. The range of preferred
thicknesses is 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 28, 32, 36, 40, 45 and 50 mm. Standard widths and lengths are given in
the steel manufacturer's product catalogue and in the AISC Economical Structural Steelwork book (Ref. 12). It is
most important that large plate elements, such as tank shell plates, be detailed so that they can be cut from standard
sizes with a minimum of wastage. Smaller plate components, eg gussets, may be cut from scrap, but where a large
number are required they should be cut from standard plate sizes.
Random splicing of sections and plates by welding, that is the introduction of splices at any point within a member
in order to use up short lengths of section available, is discouraged and should only be done with the agreement of
the designer. In any case, the extra cost of welding should be appreciably less than the savings in scrap before this
approach is adopted.
ASDH/01-1999
16-1
16.4 RATIONALISATION OF MEMBER SIZES AND REPETITION OF DETAILS

The more identical or nearly identical members there are in a structure, the greater will be the speed of production
and the saving in fabrication cost. The rationalisation of member sizes and the repetitive use of identical details are
thus important aims.
On a typical floor layout, for example, the designer may have called for a variety of different beam sizes, including
possibly different masses/metre for the same serial size. There are cases where worthwhile savings can be made
by actually increasing some of the smaller sizes to match those of larger beams, thus simplifying the material
ordering task and reducing the number of different beams to be detailed. The net cost saving is for the fabricator's
benefit and the extra cost of the material should not be passed on to the owner. Similar savings could be made by
rationalising section sizes used in trusses and bracing systems.
The use of repetitive details is also very effective. Two or more beams or bracing members of the same size may
have different end reactions and therefore require different sized end connections, or similar columns may need
slightly different base plates. In such cases it is possible to achieve repetition of detail by increasing the sizes of the
smaller end connections or base plates to match those of the larger. The result is simplification of detail drawing,
quicker throughput in the shops and especially a lesser likelihood of error in assembly and erection. Within
reasonable limits such savings usually outweigh the cost of the additional steel.
Another .means of simplification is to make members symmetrical about their mid-length wherever possible. For
example, main beams can be simplified by ensuring that the incoming secondary beams are arranged
symmetrically, thus facilitating shop marking-off and allowing the beam to be erected either way round.
16.5 STANDARDISED DETAILS

The use of standardised beam end connectiO(IS, column base plates, etc, contributes significantly to savings in time
and labour both in the drawing office and in the workshop. Examples of such details, giving layouts and load
capacities of typical connections, are provided in AISC's "Standardized Structural Connections" book (Ref. 1). Shop
fabrication is speeded up through the frequent use of common standard details.
Even where non-standardised connections are used, it should be ensured that all the steel detailers in the company
use the same kind of detail or connection in a particular situation, and especially in the design of a single structure.
Consistent company standards will greatly promote production efficiency in the workshops.
16.6 ACCURACY IN DETAILING

The need for accuracy in the preparation of drawings was emphasised in Chapter 3. This applies especially to shop
detail drawings and accurate working drawings are a most important factor in achieving overall economy of
fabrication. If, for example; a beam detail relates to six identical or similar beams in a building, a single error on the
drawing is repeated six times in the workshop. The error may be minor, such as the incorrect location of a group of
holes, or a major one where the overall length is incorrectly specified, but in either case the cost of rectification will
be far greater than the cost ofC:liecking the drawing in the first instance.
The cost implications are far more serious when errors are discovered only during erection on site, as does often
happen, and the defective parts have to be returned to the shop for reworking. The thorough checking of all detail
drawings is thus of the utmost importance.
16-2
ASDH/01-1999
_
(.
16.7 FABRICATION
16.7.1
General
The detailing of steelwork should be such as to allow the parts to be fabricated as easily and quickly as possible.
This may seem self-evident, but it must be emphasised that the shop detailer is able to influence production costs
significantly by using straightforward details and connections and by employing many other time and money saving
procedures.
The management of any fabrication company should inform its staff of its preferred manufacturing procedures.
Smaller firms will often opt for welding of shop connections, whereas larger organisations with computer numericcontrolled (CNC) beam drilling and punching lines will obviously prefer bolting. A guide should also be given as to
the maximum size of component that can be handled in the shops. This will be governed by space limitations,
available crane capacities and transport facilities. The steel detailer must be familiar with all aspects of the
fabricator's capabilities and take these into consideration when detailing the steelwork.
When it comes to the choice between shop welding and shop bolting, however, the designer's requirements must
be taken into account. There may be overriding reasons, such as aesthetics, corrosion resistance, protection
against fatigue failure, etc, why the designer prefers either welding or bolting.
16.7.2 Fabrication Procedures

The fabrication of steelwork consists of cutting the members to length, drilling or punching the necessary holes,
cutting beam flange or web notches where required, welding or bolting on end connections and other attachments,
forming splices in long members, assembling trusses and, finally, shop painting. The cutting and hole-forming
operations can be done on the production line in shops so equipped, but the other operations are all off-line
activities requiring special attention that are more costly. The greaterthe amount of work that can be done on the drilling
or punching line, the lower the labour input. Further discussion on fabrication procedures is given in Appendix A.
16.7.3 Beams and Columns

Rolled universal sections, as used in beams and simple columns, make up a large proportion of most steelwork
projects. The beam to be prepared on a production line only requires more holes (not only in the beam itself, but
also in the end plates and web cleats to be attached to it), but overall savings are gained because of the faster rate
of production. The attachment of cleats to a beam is more easily achieved by bolting than by welding and can be
done by less highly skilled labour. It is sometimes not' possible to fully attain a clear-cut process of just holing (and
no welding) or welding only (and no holing), but the steel detailer should be aware of the implications and adopt the
detailing procedure t>est suited to the workshop's production methods.
(
'
Column base plates .are usually welded to. the shaft. The base should be kept as simple as possible - a thick,.
unstiffened base plate is far cheaper than a thin plate requiring stiffeners or gussets. Where stiffeners are required,
as on moment-resisting_l:/;~ses, as few plates as possible should be employed.
Column splices should be kept to a minimum. In multi-storey buildings the column shaft will usually extend through
three or even four storeys. The splices are nearly always site bolted, but welding may be used if it can be shown to
be cheaper. The abutting ends of the column shafts must be accurately sawn, milled or otherwise finished for direct
bearing and load-transfer. The amount of splicing material - splice plates and bolts - can then be reduced
substantially, resulting in both workshop and site economies.
In rigid-frame construction, where the beam ends are rigidly welded or bolted to the columns, the column web and
flanges often require strengthening by welded stiffeners to resist the transfer of beam flange force into the column.
Such stiffeners require accurate fitting and are expensive to install. Economy can be achieved either by using a
heavier column section that needs no stiffening or by analysing the existing column section more carefully to find
whether stiffening could perhaps be avoided. In either case, reference should be made to the designer to see
whether these alternatives are acceptable.
ASDH/01-1999
16-3
16.7.4 Welded Plate Girders

Welded plate girders consist of a web plate and two flanges welded together to form a large I-section. The assembly is
done in a jig where the flanges are held against the web and welding is done by an automatic submerged arc welding
process. Savings can be made by using preferred plate thicknesses and widths for the webs and flanges, by
employing web stiffeners only when they are needed and by avoiding unnecessary splices in the web and flanges.
The use of one sided stiffeners to avoid having to turn the girder over to weld on the other side obviously saves time
and labour. Vertical stiffeners may be stopped short of the bottom flange by a distance equal to four times the web
thickness, thus obviating the need to cut the stiffeners accurately to length. Matters relating to web stiffening should
be referred to the designer, unless the details are clearly shown on the drawings.
The drilling of holes in plate girders is usually carried out after the flanges and web have been welded together. This
brings with it the difficulty of moving such a heavy piece to the drilling line or alternatively moving portable drill rigs
to the girder. Holing of the girder can be avoided altogether by welding pre-drilled end plates and web cleats to the
girder section.
16.7.5 Trusses
Whether trusses should be of welded or bolted construction could depend on the preferences of the designer or the
fabricator,. Workshops specialising in CNC drilling or punching operations will choose bolted construction, which
offers the advantage of rapid component production and easy assembly. Others will choose welding and will
provide the necessary jigs to facHitate assembly.
With welded trusses it is beneficial to have all of the web members connected to the same side of the chords or
chord gussets to avoid having to turn the trusses over for welding on the other side. Should this aspect not have
been considered by the designer, the steel detailer should offer suitable alternatives. It is obviously cheaper to
avoid using gussets and to weld the web members - and these should preferably have single angles - directly to
the chords, but the chords need to have sufficient depth to allow an adequate lap to be achieved. Angles with a
long vertical leg or T-sections with a deep web are suitable for use as chords. See Chapter 11 for further comments
in this regard.
If welded construction is used, the holing of members should be avoided. Cleats, end connections and other fittings,
already drilled, should be welded on after completion of the truss assembly.
16.7.6 Gussets
Advice on the proportioning of bolted gussets is given in Chapter 11, where simple rules for achieving economy in
layout are presented.
16.8 BOLTING
The subject of bolts and bolting-is covered in detail in Chapter 6, but certain aspects relating specifically to economy
are discussed below.
The cost of a bolted connection is made up of the following:
1. The cost of the bolts themselves.
2. The cost of forming the holes for the bolts.
3. The cost of installing the bolts.
4. The cost of inspection, when required.
The two main types of bolt used in the Australian fabrication industry are the Grade 4.6 mild steel commercial bolt,
and the Grade 8.8 high stregth structural bolt. The latter bolt can be used as snug tightened (8.8/S) or fully tensioned
either as a bearing bolt (8.8/TB) or friction grip bolt (8.8/TF). The relative price ratios, based on kN shear carrying
capacity, of these three bolt catagories, including installation and inspection (where applicable), but excluding holeforming, based on M20 x 70mm bolts are approximately as follows:
Grade 4.6/S : 1.6
Grade 8.8/S : 1.0
Grade 8.8/TB : 2.0
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ASDH/01-1999
The Grade 8.8/S bolt has factored shear and direct tension resistances of almost twice those of a Grade 4.6 bolt.
It is therefore the most efficient fastener on an installed cost basis and would be a suitable choice for a job with a
high proportion of large, fully-stressed connections. In most structures, however, many of the connections contain
only two or three bolts and it is obviously not possible to halve their number since two is the minimum number
used for practical reasons. Discretion must therefore be used in deciding on the bolt grade for a particular job.
The Grade 8.8/TB and 8.8/TF bolts are relatively expensive. The purchase price of the bolt is the same as 8.8/S but
the specialised installation procedure and the need for subsequent inspection add to the cost. These bolts are only
specified when their use is clearly necessary, e.g. in slip-resistant (ie friction-grip) connections and in connections
where large direct-tension forces are induced in the bolts.
The essential points to be considered in the economical design and detailing of bolted connections are:1.
Standardise as much as possible for a project.
2.
Adopt simple details.
3.
Only one bolt diameter and one bolting category should be used in smaller structures. More variety may be
justified on a larger structure, but different diameters or categories should be used in accordance with a
predetermined philosophy.
4.
Only one diameter of bolt should be used in any single connection to facilitate the operation of punching or
drilling holes, regardless of the size of the structure.
5.
Arrange for a minimum number of field connections by making large sub-assemblies in the shop.
6.
Bolts in double shear are markedly more efficient and thought should always be given to arranging the
connection details accordingly if practicable.
7.
If possible, avoid bolted connections with a large number of bolts in line parallel to the force, otherwise
reduction in bolt efficiency will result. Joints less than 300 mm between first and last bolt are 100% efficient,
while longer joints are increasingly less efficient.
8.
The low design capacity of the 4.6/S bolting category means that it is generally restricted in usage to lightly
loaded cleat, bracket or bracing connections.
9.
The advantage of the 8.8/S bolting category lies in its high design loads and the fact that only snug tightening
is required. This bolting category is the most efficient on a cost-in-place per unit capacity. Its use is normally
restricted to flexible (simple) connections. It is the most commonly used bolting category.
1o. Friction joints 8.8/TF are not very cost efficient and should only be used in joints where slip prevention is a
necessity. Bearing joints 8.8/TB are much preferable on a cost basis. 8.8/TF and 8.8/TB categories are
recommended for rigid connections.
..
11 . Try not to mix 8:8/S and 8.8/T bolting categories on the job, but where it is unavoidable arrange the connection
details to a predetermined philosophy..
12. For economy in bolt numbers it may appear desirable to exclude threads from the shear plane. However,
practical reasonsoutlined in Chapter 6 dictate that usually threads are considered included in the shear plane,
unless detailing of the bolts indicates exclusion is certain.
13. Corrosion protection of the bolts should be matched to the end use of the structure.
ASDH/01-1999
16-5
16.9 WELDING
Chapter 7 deals with welding from the point of view of joint and weld types, edge preparations, electrodes, weld
strengths, etc, but additional aspects relating to the economics of welding are given here.
In comparison with bolting the process of welding is expensive, so the amount of welding should be kept to a
minimum. This can be achieved, firstly, by reducing the number or total length of welds to a minimum and, secondly,
by using welds of the smallest practical size consistent with strength requirements. In general, the instruction 'weld
all round' should be avoided except when such welding is really necessary.
Means of reducing the total weld length include the following:
1. On simple column base plates, using a fillet weld on the outer face of each flange and short fillets along the web
of the column section instead of welding all round.
2. In the case of manual fillet welds, using intennittent welds instead of continuous ones, where permissible.
3. When connecting lattice girder diagonals to the chords, welding along the two sides only and not across the
ends of the diagonals.
The volume of weld metal deposited can be reduced by not over-specifying the weld size. For example, doubling
the size of a fillet weld doubles its strength, but requires four times as much weld metal. It is therefore particularly
importanUo keep fillet weld sizes down to a practical minimum. It is also cheaper, strength for strength, to use a
smaller, fillet weld of greater length than a larger one of shorter length. Weld metal in butt joints can be reduced by
specifying incomplete instead of .complete penetration welds, but again this can only be done when consistent with
strength requirements specified by the designer.
Multi-pass welds are much more expensive than single-pass welds. The largest single-pass' fillet that can be !aid
in the downhand position is 8 mm and the steel detailer should be aware of the cost implications when specifying
larger fillets.
Fillet welds should be used in preference to butt welds where this is feasible since the latter usually requires edge
preparation of at least one of the pieces being joined. However, fillet welds larger than 12 mm to 16 mm are very
costly and in this case either complete or incomplete penetration butt welds should be considered.
Weldments should be detailed so that all or most of the welding can be done in the downhand position. Welds
should also be located in such a way that it is not necessary to turn the workpiece over for welding the other side.
Suitable clearance or access should be allowed for the electrode during welding. Stiffeners or other fittings that are
located close to each other or to other protruding parts restrict access and should be avoided. In a right-angled joint
it should be possible for the electrode to be held at an angle of 30 to 45 to one or another of the faces.
A fillet weld laid by an automatic process can be more cost-effective than a manual weld because of the higher
speed of deposition and increased penetration, with the deeper penetration allowing a smaller weld size to be used.
16.10 TRANSPORTATION
The detailer must also be aware of any transport restrictions which may limit the overall, length, width or height of
a member, truss or frame. State road authorities will dictate the legal limits on length, width height and weight of
truck loads. These may be extended beyond these legal limits by obtaining permits from the authority which may
require the load to be escorted. This will generally involve additional transportation costs and must be discussed
with the fabricator before detailing oversized components.
Another situation that may restrict the size of detailed components is when the job is to be sea freighted and
therefore containerised. Each component therefore must be carefully detailed to ensure it will fit into a standard sea
transport container.
16-6
ASDH/01-1999
16.11 ERECTION
Compared with work carried out in the workshop, erection work at site tends to be less efficient because of factors
such as less stringent supervision, the influence of bad weather, untimely steelwork deliveries to site, the working
height above ground level and the slow operation of erection cranes.
The steel detailer is, however, able to reduce some of these effects by taking certain precautions in the preparation
of the details. Three major factors are under the steel detailer's control and will help erection to proceed easily and
quickly, namely:
1. A reduction in the number of members to be erected.
2. Simplification of site connections.
3. Minimisation of the number of bolts and the amount of site welding.
The number of members or pieces to be placed should be kept to a minimum because of the time required to attach
each member to the crane hook, lift it, bolt it into position in the air and return the hook to the ground for the next
lift. The alternative is making up fairly large pieces in the shops, this is generally more economical than assembly on
site provided the sizes are kept within normal transport limitations. The maximum size of load not requiring special
police escort is about 18 m long by 3 m wide by 2 m high.
The connections should be simple, with a minimum number of bolts and proper access for bolt insertion and
t.ightening. Safety of access for the erection crew must also be considered - site erection is one of the more
dangerous activities in steel construction.
Erection tolerances should be such that members can be swung into position without undue risk of jamming.
The provision of seating cleats under beam ends will facilitate the erection of heavy beams and girders. If not
actually designed to transfer load, they should be supplied to assist in the location of the beams until bolting is
completed. Likewise, site-welded connections should always be provided with location cleats welded or bolted to
one of the mating parts and with holes for temporary bolting during welding.
Beam end connections using seating cleats, angle cleats and web side-plate connections are easier to assemble
than those with welded end plates. The latter are less flexible in fit-up.
All pieces that are identical and therefore interchangeable in the structure should be given the same erection mark
in the shop. This will save the erector having to find a particular part with its unique mark when any one of the other
identical pieces would fit.
As mentioned in Section 16.8, it is advantageous to use only one kind of bolt in a structure. However, this ideal
cannot always be realised because of the different sizi:is of the various connections. Main connections generally use
M20 bolts whereas purlins, girts and small fittings only require smaller and often specialist bolts.
,
(
Bolted end connect\ons that transfer moment, such as portal frame haunch connections and rigid beam-to-column
connections, should be detailed to provide adequate clearance for full tensioning of the bolts if 8.8/fB or 8.8/fF
bolts are required.
Where beams on ei!h~ s_ide of a supporting beam or a column web connect through common bolts, the steel
detailer must make provision for the beams to be erected independently to save the erector the trouble of having to
hold both beams in the air whilst the bolts are fitted. Seating cleats may be used to overcome this problem.
When beam or girder ends are connected to column webs, and especially when the column depth is small (as in the
case of small universal sections), there is often a difficulty in fitting the beam into the confined spaces of the column
webs. If the columns cannot be sprung apart, the beam will have to be lifted above the tops of the columns (or above
the next splice position) and lowered down the web of the columns. In such cases it must be ensured that there are
no welded web stiffeners or other obstructions that will prevent the beam from being lowered.
ASDH/01-1999
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[blank]
16-8
ASDH/01-1999
17.REFERENCES
17.1 Australian Standards
AS 1100
'
\
Technical Drawings
AS 1100.101 - General principles
AS 1100.201 - Mechanical engineering drawing
AS 1100.301 -Architectural drawing
AS 1100.401 - Engineering survey and eng. survey design drawing
AS 1100.501 - Structural engineering drawing
AS 1101
Graphic symbols for general engineering
AS 1101.3 Welding and non-destructive examination
AS/NZS 1110 ISO metric precision hexagon bolts and screws
AS/NZS 1111 ISO metric hexagon commercial bolts and screws
AS 1163
Structural steel hollow sections
AS 1170
Minimum design loads on structures
AS 1170.1 Dead and live loads and load combinations
AS 1170.2 Wind loads
AS 1170.3 Snow loads
AS 1170.4 Earthquake loads
AS 1237
Flat metal washers for general engineering purpose (Metric series)
AS 1252
High strength steel bolts with associated nuts and washers for structural engineering
AS 1275
Metric screw th reads for fasteners
AS 1397
Steel sheet and strip - Hot-dipped zinc-coated or aluminium/zinc coated
AS 1548
Steel plates for pressure equipment
AS/NZS 1554 Structural steel welding
AS/NZS 1554.1 Welding of steel structures
AS 1554.2 Stud welding (steel studs to steel)
AS 1554.3 Welding of reinforcing steel
AS/NZS 1554.4 Welding of high strength quenched and tempered steels
AS/NZS 1554.5 Welding of steel structures subject to high levels of fatigue loading
AS 1594
Hot-rolled steel flat products
AS 1627
Metal finishing - Preparation and pre-treatment of surfaces
AS 1657
Fixed platforms, walkways, stairways and ladders - Design, construction and installation
AS/NZS 2312 Guide to the protection of iron and steel against exterior atmospheric corrosion
AS 2327
Composite structures
AS 2.::3?.7 .1 Simply supported beams
AS/NZS 3678 Structural steel - Hot-rolled plates, floorplates and slabs
AS/NZS3679 Structural steel
AS/NZS 3679.1 Hot-rolled bars and sections
AS/NZS 3679.2 Welded I sections
AS3828
Guidelines for the erection of building steelwork
. AS3990
Steelwork for engineering applications
AS 4100
Steel structures
AS/NZS4600 Cold-formed steel structures
ASDH/01-1999
17-1
17.2 Other References

Publications referred to in this Handbook:
1.
AISC, "Standardized Structural Connections", 3rd edition, Australian Institute of Steel Construction,
1985.
AISC, "Design Capacity Tables for Structural Steel, Volume 1: Open Sections", 2nd edition,
Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1994 (and Addendum No.1, 1997).
AISC, "Design Capacity Tables for Structural Steel Hollow Sections", 1st edition, Australian Institute
of Steel Construction, 1992.
BHP Steel, "Hot-rolled and Structural Steel Products", 98 edition, BHP Steel, 1998.
The Institution of Engineers Australia, "AS CZ1: The Australian Engineering Drawing Handbook",
Parts 1 & 2, The Institution of Engineers Australia, 1976, 1997.
AISC, "A Guide to the Requirements for Engineering Drawings of Structural Steelwork", Steel
Construction, Vol 29 No 3, Australian Institute of Steel Construction, September 1995.
Firkins, A. & Hogan, T.J., "Bolting of Steel Structures", 3rd edition, Australian Institute of Steel
Construction", 1990.
Hogan, T.J. & Thomas, l.R., "Design of Structural Connections", 4th edition, Australian Institute of
Steel Construction, 1994.
BHP-BP, "Lysaght Zeds and Gees purlin and girt system - Limit state capacity tables and product
information", BHP-Building Products, 1999.
. Stramit MBP, "Stramit Purlins & Girts - Product Technical Manual", Stramit Metal Building Products,
1999.
ABCB, "Building Code of Australia", Australian Building Codes Board, 1996.
AISC, "Economical Structural Steelwork", 4th edition, Australian Institute of Steel Construction",
1997.
Watson, K.B., Dallas, S., Van Der Kreek, N. & Main, T., "Costing of Steelwork for Feasibility to
Completion", Steel Construction, Vol. 30 No. 2, Australian Institute of Steel Construction, June
1996.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
17.3 Further Information

Further information on steel detailing can be obtained Jrom:
AISC(USA), "Detailing for Steel Construction", American Institute of Steel Construction, 1983.
AISC(USA), "Compu~er Detailing System Tools for Shop Use", Proceedings, National Steel
Construction Conference, Chicago, American Institute of Steel Construction, 1997.
AISC(USA), "Structural Steel Detailing", Anierican Institute of Steel Construction, 1971.
Benton, R., "Basic Structural Detailing", Longman Scientific & Technical, 1989.
CISC, "Fundamentals orstructural Shop Drafting", Canadian Institute of Steel Construction, 1982.
Goetsch, D., L., "Structural Drafting", Delmar, 1982.
Hayward, A. & Weare, F., "Steel Detailers Manual", BSP Professional Books, 1989.
Kamel, A.Z., "Steel Detailing in CAD FormaVBook and Disks", John Wiiey &Sons, 1995.
MacGinley, T. J., "Structural Steelwork Calculations and Detailing", Newnes Butterworth, 1982.
Maclaughlin, D., "Structural Steel Drafting", Delmar, 1997.
Newman, M., "Structural Details for Steel Construction", McGraw-Hill, 1987.
SAISC, "Southern African Structural Steelwork Detailing Manual", The Southern African Institute of
Steel Construction, 1994.
Schuster, J. W., "Structural Steel Fabrication Practices", McGraw-Hill, 1997.
Weaver, G. L., "Structural Detailing for Technicians", McGraw-Hill, 1974.
Weaver, R., "Structural Drafting", Gulf, 1977.
17-2
ASDH/01-1999
Appendix A.
FABRICATION OF STRUCTURAL STEELWORK
The flexibility of a structural shop is its most notable characteristic. No other type of industrial shop is called upon to perform
such a wide variety of work. For example, the fabrication of an industrial plant may be concurrent with the fabrication
of a long span bridge or a multi-storey office building. The rapidity and accuracy with which these structures are
fabricated and erected is a tribute to the steel detailers who detail the work and the shop personnel who perform it.
An understanding of shop operations will help the beginner to understand the reasons for many conventional
practices used in the preparation of shop drawings. A knowledge of the workshop's facilities and equipment will
enable the steel detailer to detail pieces that can be fabricated easily and economically.
Fabrication shops differ considerably in size and layout. However, most conform to the same general pattern of
operation in one or more bays or aisles. The lengths of the bays vary to accommodate required equipment and
provide the desired capacity. The bays usually average 18 metres to 24 metres in clear width, and are serviced by
overhead travelling gantry cranes spanning the full width of the bay. Jib cranes are often attached to, and swing in
an arc about the building columns, for servicing various machines placed beneath them.
,1
'
In large multiple-bay shops, various classes of work are segregated and passed through that bay which is equipped
to handle the particular type of work required. In smaller shops, all classifications of work are usually passed through
one bay. Repair work, minor fabrication and the storage of bolts and small parts are usually handled in a "lean-to",
normally serviced by monorail hoists or fork lift trucks.
Structural steel must pass through various operations during the course of its fabrication. The sequence and importance
of shop operations vary, depending on the type of fabrication required. This wide variation in operations distinguishes
the structural steel fabrication shop from a mass production shop. A typical list of fabrication shop operations follows.
A. brief description of the work performed is then given under sub-headings identifying each operation:
\1
material handling and cutting.

template making.
marking off and setting out.
punching and drilling.
straightening, bending and rolling.
fitting and reaming.
assembly (bolting and welding).
finishing.
quality control.
cleaning and painting.
shipping.
transportation.
A.1
MATERIAL HANDLING AND CUTIING
Most steel is purchased from an established warehouse or steel service centre. It is used for jobs where a customer
desires a quicker delivery than is possible with mill order steel and is willing to pay extra for the service. When steel
arrives at the plant, it must be identified and checked against the fabricators order list, and segregated for a
particular job, or for stock.
Some specifications require that steel, as shipped from the rolling mill be marked with the heat number, manufacturer's
name, brand or trade mark and size. In addition, when a specified yield stress is required, each plate, shape or lift (a
bundle of several pieces) is also marked with the applicable material specification number and colour coded.
Mill Test Reports show the result of physical and chemical tests to each heat number and are furnished on request to
positively identify the steel. Specifications, generally require identification of high-strength steels during fabrication.
These systems of mill identification and control of identification of high-strength steels during fabrication ensure that
the material specified for the various members is continuously identified at all times in the fabricators plant.
Most material passing through a structural shop is too heavy to lift and move by hand. Overhead cranes, fork lifts
and trolleys operating on tracks take the material as received in the shop and deliver it to various machinery. They
also handle the material during its movement through the shop and finally deliver the finished fabricated members
to the transportation or storage yard.
ASDH/01-1999
A1
Material not cut to length at the mill or distributor must first be sent to the guillotine, cropper, saws or gas-cutting
tables. Plates or flat bars under a certain thickness are cut on a guillotine or cropper. Angles are cut on a similar
machine capable of shearing both legs with one stroke. Beams, channels and light column shapes are usually cut
on a high-speed friction saw or a slower cold saw.
A gas torch is used to cut material of a size or thickness beyond the capacity of various machines. It is also used to
cut curved or complex forms. This operation is termed oxygen cutting or flame cutting. The cutting torch provides a
useful and versatile means of cutting steel. The portable type can be taken to the material, either in the shop, in the yard
or on the site. Some gas cutting machines are mounted on power-driven carriages designed to run on small guide tracks.
For relatively straight cutting, a guide rail on an adjacent table controls the cutting torches. For more complex cutting,
an electronic guide tracer follows a full scale template laid on the adjacent table. Some fabricators use computer
numeric controlled (CNC) machines to control the cutting heads and eliminate the need for full size templates.
A.2
TEMPLATE MAKING
A template is a full-size pattern or guide, made of cardboard, wood or metal, used to locate punched or drilled holes,
and cuts or bends to be made in the steel.
Template making is the first major operation required when a new job starts. Detail drawings should be sent to the
shop early enough to ensure an ample supply of templates before actual shop operations begin. The template is the
sole guide to many subsequent operations, such as the cutting of plates, fabrication of bent or curved work, and
punching or drilling of holes.
Each template is marked with the size of required material, number of pieces to be made, the job number, the piece
identification mark and the drawing number on which the part is detailed. CNC machines, as described previously
in this chapter, have eliminated the need for te_mplates in some operations.
A.3
MARKING OFF
A substantial portion of the steel routed through the shop for fabrication passes through the hands of the marking off
crew. Some marking off work is performed without the use of templates. This is true when there is little duplication and
marking off is more economical. Construction lines are marked directly on the steel with chalk lines or soapstone markers.
A centre punch is then used to locate the centres of holes to be punched and the line along which cutting must be done.
The marking off crew checks the plain material for size and straightness. If a piece is bent, or cambered excessively,
it must be sent to the straightening machines.
Material which is to be marked off from templates is placed on skids with the templates clamped in place. All holes
are centre punched and all cuts are marked with a soapstone marker. All centre punch marks and cuts are outlined
with painted lines to prevent being overlooked in later operations.
A.4
PUNCHING AND DRILLING
Punching is the most commonly used method of making bolt holes in steel. Normally mild carbon steel up to a
thickness of 3 mm greater than the diameter of the fastener can be punched. High-strength steels are somewhat
harder and punching may be limited to thinner material. The steel detailer specifies the size of bolt holes to be used.
Except in special cases, holes are punched with a diameter 2 mm larger than the nominal diameter of the bolt to be
used. This provides clearance for inserting fasteners, with some tolerance for slightly mismatched holes.
The type of punch machines vary greatly from single punch to multiple punch in which several holes can be punched
simultaneously in angles, channels, beams and plates. The introduction of CNC in some shops permits fully
automatic operation.
Drilling of structural steel is largely confined to making holes in material thicker than the capacity of the punches, or
to meet special job specification requirements. Drilling equipment includes the standard machine shop drill press, radial
arm drills, multiple-spindle drills, gantry drills and CNC drilling beam lines. The fixed drill press and the radial arm drill
usually drill one hole at a time. For certain classes of work requiring numerous holes, a multi-spindle drill may be used.
Machine manufacturers have combined many formerly separate functions into continuously operating lines for the prefabrication of plain material. One such machine moves the material on a conveyor through a series of jaws, and punches
or drills all holes. In this equipment the drill stands may consist of one or more spindles, arranged to drill a beam or
column flanges and webs simultaneously. One advantage of these highly automated machines is their inherent accuracy.
The elimination of dimensional errors in prefabrication greatly simplifies succeeding shop operations, as well as erection.
A2
ASDH/01-1999
(.
A.5
STRAIGHTENING, BENDING AND ROLLING
Material which may have become bent or distorted during transportation and handling, or in the punching/welding
operation, must be straightened before further fabrication is attempted. The bend press is generally used for
straightening beams, channels, angles and heavy bars. The press is also used to form long radius curves in various
structural members.
Long plates which are slightly curved, or cambered out of alignment longitudinally, are frequently straightened by
the roll straightener. The plates are passed between rolls which exert more pressure on the concave side of the plate
than on the convex side. The pressure slightly increases the length of this side and brings the plate back to
acceptable tolerances of longitudinal alignment.
Misalignments in structural shapes are sometimes corrected by spot or pattern heating. When heat is applied to a
small area of steel, the larger unheated portion of the surrounding material prevents expansion. Upon cooling, the
subs.eiquent shrinking produces a shortening of the member, thus pulling it back into alignment. This method is also
fr8Quently used to produce camber in rolled beams and horizontal curvature in rolled beams and welded girders.
A brake press is used to form angular bends in wide sheets and plates. These machines have throat lengths ranging
from approximately 3000 to 6000 mm. Curved plates used in tanks and stacks are formed in a plate roll machine.
A.6
(
FITTING AND REAMING
Before final assembly the component parts of a member must be fitted up, ie. the parts are assembled temporarily
with bolts, clamps or tack welds. During this operation, the assembly is squared and checked for overall
dimensions. It is then bolted or welded into a finished member.
On bolted work, some holes in the connecting material may not always be in perfect alignment and small amounts
of reaming may be required to permitinsertion of the fasteners.
To assure precise matching of the holes, some specifications require that field connections be reamed to a metal
template or that connecting members be shop assembled and reamed while assembled. Either of these operations
adds considerably to the cost of fabrication, and is generally specified- only for usually large and important
connections, most often encountered in bridge work.
A. 7 . ASSEMBLY
The strength of the entire structure depends upon the proper use of fastening methods. Where options are permitted
by the specifications, a steel detailer must select the most economical fastening method suited to the shop.
f :-. --
A.7.1 Bolting
Permanent shop bolting of structural connections is done with hand or power wrenches.
Some connections for framing structural steel use 4.6/S grade commercial bolts as fasteners where permitted by
specification provisions. These bolts can be tightened by hand with wrenches, turning either bolt or nut until the
connected parts of steel are drawn tightly together. However, use of a power wrench operated by compressed air
is usually more economical.
High strength bolts 8.8/S grade are widely used in connections where loads are heavy. The tightening of
high-strength bolts is usually performed by an air operated power impact wrench. Tightening of high-strength bolts
must be carefully controlled, to suit the type of connection required ie. 8.8/S, 8.8/TF or 8.8/TB . See Chapter 6.
A.7.2 Welding
Welding generators, transformers and automatic welding machines are provided with adjustable controls. These
controls are used to obtain welding power characteristics and rates of weld deposit best suited to the type and
position of work being welded. The welding current is conducted through insulated cables which are connected, to
complete a circuit between the work and the machine, when an electric arc is struck between the electrode and the
work to be welded. Long welds of uniform size are usually deposited by automatic welding machines.
When a number of identical welded assemblies are to be fabricated, special devices known as jigs are used to locate
and clamp the component parts in position. A fixed-type positioner, similar to a jig, permits welding a joint in the
most convenient position. However, the fixed positioner restricts the amount of welding that can be performed
ASDH/01-1999
A3
without re-handling a piece. A movable or universal type positioner permits unlimited mechanical positioning of the
piece. These devices make welds easily accessible, speed the welding process and permit maximum weld quality
at minimum cost.
The marking off work for welded fabrication consists chiefly of marking the edges and ends of components for
accurate cutting. Drilling or punching of plain material is avoided, and holes for erection bolts are confined to fitting
or connection material, when practicable. Sub-assemblies are placed on level skids and tack welded together. This
holds the parts in alignment and facilitates completion of the final welding operations.
An inspection of each transported unit prior to final shop welding is made to check overall dimensions and the
proper location of all connections. This also includes a check of the fit-up of all joints to assure that they can be
properly welded.
A.8 . FINISHING
Structural members whose ends must transmit loads by bearing against one another may be finished to a smooth,
even surface. Finishing is done by sawing, milling or other suitable means.
Several types of sawing machines are available which produce very satisfactory finished cuts. One type of milling
machine employs a movable head fitted with one or more highspeed, carbide-tipped rotary cutters. The head moves
over a bed which securely holds the work in proper alignment during the finishing operation. The term finished,
machine or mill is used on detail drawings to describe any operation that requires the steel to be finished to a
smooth, even surface as previously described.
A.9
QUALITY CONTROL
All work which passes through a fabrication shop is subject to inspection by the fabricator's own inspectors. The
fabricator should provide a quality control procedure to the extent deemed necessary to assure that all work is
performed in accordance with the specification. In addition to checking for compliance with the contract
specifications, inspectors should ensure that the job will fit together properly in the field, where correction of errors
is very costly. They generally check overall dimensions, locations and dimensions of connections, proper assembly
of all fittings and proper installation of fasteners.
The inspection of welding requires special attention. In addition to visual inspection, a number of methods have
been developed to test the soundness of welds, including magnetic particle inspection, dye penetrate inspection,
ultrasonic and radiography inspections. The requirement for these is usually specified by the designer.
A.10 CLEANING AND PAINTING

All steelwork which is to be painted is so indicated on the shop drawings (usually in the general notes). Before
painting, the steelwork must be thoroughly cleaned of all loose mill scale, loose rust and other foreign matter. The
cleaning may be done by hand or power driven wire brushes, by flame de-scaling, by pickling or by sand, shot, or
grit blasting. Certain specifications may require a specific type of treatment as in the case of paints requiring a
surface free of mill scale. The kind and colour of paint, as well as the method of painting, are also controlled by job
specifications.
The identification mark is placed on each piece and a check is made to ensure that proper identification is clearly
indicated.
A.11 Transportation
The loading dock or yard requires a large area serviced by cranes. Here the fabricated members are stored and
transported to the field as required.
Material destined for distant points is usually transported on railroad cars or trucks. Material for local structures is
usually hauled by truck. This requires loading facilities for each type of transport used.
Dispatchers must be familiar with railroad and highway regulations. They must have information on maximum
permissible loads and bridge clearances. When material is wider, longer or heavier than is normally permitted on
streets or highways, special permission must be obtained from the proper local, state or federal authorities.
A4
ASDH/01-1999
(:
'-
Appendix B
SAMPLE PROJECT DRAWINGS
The following drawings in this Appendix are of an industrial type structure using portal frame construction. Readers
should note the progression of these drawings, the type of information they convey and also the particular method of
detailing adopted after the marking plans and holding down bolt layout.
Another set of detailed drawings are contained in the plastic sleeve enclosed within the Handbook folder which
consider a similar - though slightly more complex - structure and alternate detailing method (eg fitting sheets not
being used).
Both of these sets of drawings were drawn by key steel detailing industry practitioners and are provided for further
information for the reader "."hich is beyond that specifically covered in the Handbook.
ASDH/01-1999
81
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-.,....~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~----.
Liii
5500
5500
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Liii
Liii
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H.D BOLTS - TYPE A

14 UNITS = 28 'U' SOI TS
GALVANIZED -
Cf# NUTS .!: "5HRS
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NOT SCALE -
IF IN DOUBT ASK
1. HORIZONTAL MEMBERS HAVE PIECE-MUM STA11PED ON NORTH CA WEST END AND ON TOP SURFACE. MUXS WlTH ASRERllh
ARE STAMPED ON SOUTH OR EAST EllD.
2. cct~5 HAVE PIECE-,..UK STAMPED ON NORTH FACE HEAR BASE CF SHAFT. MARKS WITH ASTERIX. All STAl'l'ED ON SllUTH FACE.
l. VEUICAL BRACING,STAIAS,HANOEAS AND OTHER l~LIHED HEllBERS HAVE PIECE-HAAK STAMPED ON TCP END. HAHS WITll ASTERIXo
ARE STAMPED ON BOTTOM END.
' FIN PLATES FDR BEAMS WU BE ON NOllTH 011 WEST SIDE OF BOAM WEB, UNLESS SHOWN OTHUIWISE, ;. EllOCT SUHS
TO SO\ITH OR E,\ST SIDE Of (I.EU
S. fill PLATES FOR CKANNElS A11E Oli Hl:El UNi.[SS Sf!OWN OTHERWISE.
MARKING PLAN ORG No. 1000-0001
~r- I + A
o..
6/~IH ISSUED FOR APPROVAL

DATE
DETAILS
REVISIONS
ABC7AC FABRICATORS
----
A
N
A.1. S. (.
VEHICLE EXAMJNA TION CENTRE
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R.Mc,
DATE
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SCALE:
N,T,S,
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MARKING PLAN ORCi No, 1000-0002
ABC FABRICATORS
A.l.S.C.
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/AB c I
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A~llOYAL
DETAILS
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L.G.
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2. l41M\IK EOOE OISTAllCf - 35mrn UNLESS NOTED.
3. ~LL W!:UlS TO 6""" CFW UHUSS NOTED,
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A.1.5.L
RAFTER DETAILS
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Alt NOTCHES TO HAVE 11mm RADIUS AT INTERNAL tcRNEl!S
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DRA'liH
L.G.
ClCKEC
"R.Mc.
DATE
6/4/99
SULE,
.T.S.
Conslnd'oo
QUWIH6 No.
IREV.
11000-0006 I A
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f 13
FABRICATION NOTES
1. A1.L Ha.ES 22 U.O.N.

, 2. ALL SHIPES TO BE 15 r 15 U.O.N.
3. 11 mm RAO!US TO All tNJERNAL CORtlERS
4. "sr DENOTES sm: FITTING (HANDUNG PROCEDURE
DE!ERlllNED BY CONTRACT REOOIREMEHTS)
5. FITTINGS !'.<iOW \lllni ll{LO PIID'S ARE "NEAT Flf SIZE
ie NO ALLOWANCE HAS &EN MADE F~ 'llELO GAPS
LJ
--
150
. 75
g
~
'''I gl
75
I AB c I
ABC FABRICATORS
PROJECT :
014 HOLE
Job No
Job No
7777
Orn By
JO.
f 14
A.l.S.C.
FITTING DETAILS
7777 f-------------~-
f 15
Material: 90X8Fl, Length= 150mm
DToBy
DRG No.
1 Q Q Q - FS - Q Q 1 1 I REV.
160
140
A
~r--r=H
130
25l 60 45
~rr=
<O~
;J4 HOLES
14 HOLES
18 HOLES
Job No
7777
Orn By
J.O.
f 16
Job No
Job No
7777
Orn By
7777
Orn By
J.O.
J.Q.
f 17
~ateriol:
f 18
130X6FL, Length= 160mm
FA8R!CATION NOTES
1.
, 2.
l.
4.
ALl Hll..ES 122 U.0.N.

ALL SMIPES TO BE 15 x 15 U.O.N.
11 mm RADruS TO All INTERNAi.. CORflERS
~,- DENOTES SITE flmNG (HANDLING PROCEDURE:
OET'ERMWEO BY CONTRACT REQUIREMENTS)

Fir SIZE
ie NO AU.OWANCE HAS BEEN MADE FOR \\ELO G.t.PS
5. flTIIHGS SHO'Mrl 'MiH WELD PRS>S AR "NEAT
142
41 60 41
~I
~
-iii
Australian Institute of Steel Construclion
~B
++
/AB c I
A.l.S.C.
Job No
~
Job No
7777
Orn By
Material: 75X50X6L, Length= 142mm
FITTING DETAILS
7777 1--------------~----1
J.Q
f 19
PROJECT :
;14 HOLE
;14 HOLES
ABC FABRICATORS
f 20
oToBy
DRG
No.1 000- FS- 001 6 I R~V.
,-------------------------~ ..-'"'-"
..
:i------
m
-f
75
55
MIN RAD
~-
CQJ'
~-
ffi
'--
230
PLAIN MA TERI AL
1000
018 HOLE
600
Job No
Material: 45X45X6l, Length= 220mm
7777
Orn By
7777
Orn By
J.Q.
I 21
Job No
Job No
7777
Orn By
J.Q.
J.Q.
I 22
Material: 1ORB, Length= 258mm
I 23
FABRICATION NOTES
I. All Ha.ES 122 U.O.N.
2. All SMJPES TO BE 15 ~ 15 U.O.H.

3. 11 mm RAlllUS TO All INIERHAL CORNERS
4,
,r DENOTES sm: FlTnNG {HANDUHG PROCEDURE

DETERMINED BY CONTRACT REQUIREMENTS}
5. FITTINGS SHO"' 'MTH WELD PREPS ARE "NEAT FIT" SIZE

~ NO AUOWANCE HAS BEEN MADE Fa! V(LO CAPS
lir=@
-w~
'
ABC/ABC FABRICATORS
PROJECT
Job No
7777
Drn By
J.Q.
I 24
Material: 75XSFL, length= 75mm
A.1.5.C.
FITTING DETAILS
DRG No.
1 0 0 0 - FS - 0 0 2 1
REV.
0

Australian Steel Detailers Handbook

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Australian Steel Detailers Handbook

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Australian

12 - RAFTERS REQD MKD R1

48 - FLY BRACES REQD THUS MKD K1

12 COLUMNS REQD MKD C1

AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION

AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION

AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS' HANDBOOK

Enquiries should be addressed to the publisher:

Copyright 1999 Australian Institute of Steel Construction

First edition 1999

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry:

Production & Artwork by Redmark Pty Ltd

(b) expressly disclaim any liability or responsibility,

AISC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILERS' HANDBOOK

Australian Steel Detailers' Handbook

Foreword ............................................................................. vii

INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1-1

Drafting as a means of communication ............................................. 1-1

Detail drawings ................................................................ 1-1

Project organisation ............................................................ 1-2

Function of the steel detailer ..................................................... 1-4

Other fields of activity ........................................................... 1-4

STRUCTURAL STEEL . ............................................................ 2-1

Plain material ...... : .......................................................... 2-1

Compound sections ............................................................ 2-5

Characteristics ................................................................ 2-5

Specifications ................................................................. 2-5

Physical properties ............................................................. 2-6

Steel production ............................................................... 2-7

Tolerances ................................................................... 2-7

DRAFTING EQUIPMENT AND DRAFTING PRACTICES ............................ 3-1

Manual drafting equipment ..................................................... ~-1 .

Computer ~ided drafting ..................................................... : ..-s-2-

Drafting practices . . . ........................................................... 3-6

General procedure . . .......................................................... 3-22

Approval of completed drawings ................................................. 3-29

ARRANGEMENT AND DETAIL DRAWINGS ........................................ 4-1

Composition of a typical structure ................................................. 4-1

Design loading ................................................................ 4-2

Information provided by the designers ............................................. 4-2

Drawing sheets ................................................................ 4-5

Holding down bolt layouts ....................................................... 4-5

General arrangement drawings ................................................... 4-5

Detail drawings ............................................................... 4-12

Components of steel-framed industrial buildings .................................... 4-14

AISC: AUSTRALIAN STEEL DETAILER$' HANDBOOK

FUNDAMENTALS OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING . .............................. 5-1

Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................... 5-1

Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................... 5-3

Bending moment .............................................................. 5-3

BOLTING ......................................................................... 6-1

Introduction .......................................... ' .-...................... 6-1

Bolt types .................................................................... 6-1

Bolting categories ............................................................. 6-2

Design of bolts ................................................................ 6-3

Bolt length selection ............................................................ 6-3

Detailing ..................................................................... 6-7

Installation of bolts ............................................................. 6-9

Preparation of bolt lists ........................................................ 6-12

WELDING ......................................................................... 7-1

Introduction .................................................................. 7-1

Joint and weld types . . . . . . ............... ~ . . ................................... 7-1

Edge preparation .............................................................. 7-4

Reinforcement and backing ...................................................... 7-5