Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
Producedby:Fisheriesand
AquacultureDepartment
Title:FisheryHarbourManualonthePreventionofPollutionBayof
BengalProgramme...
Moredetails
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,
STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
2.1Watersampling
2.2Testingprocedures
2.3Investigativeanalysis
2.4Watertreatmentmethods
2.1Watersampling
2.1.1Borewells
2.1.2Municipalmains
2.1.3Watertanksandreservoirs
2.1.4Harbourbasinwater
Waterusedforprocessingfish,washingfishormakingiceissupposedtomeet
drinkingwaterstandardsifitistobeconsideredsafe.Reason:contaminatedwater
isthemaincauseforpathogenloadingoffish,posingaserioushealthhazardtoits
consumer.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
1/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
WHOhasissuedguidelinesfordrinkingwaterquality,areportinthreevolumes.Vol.
1dealswithguidelinevalues,Vol.2dealswitheachcontaminantandVol.3gives
informationonhowtohandlewatersuppliesinsmallruralcommunities.WHO
recognizesthatverystringentstandardscannotbeuseduniversallyandsoarange
ofguidelinevaluesformorethan60parametershavebeenelaborated.Mostnations
havetheirownguidelinesorstandards.Thecontrolexertedbylocalregulatory
authoritiesmaydifferfromplacetoplacedependingonthelocalsituation.Sohow
canacceptablewaterqualitybedefined?Whatcantheharbourmasterdotoensure
quality?Ensuringthequalityoftheharbourbasinwhenitiscontiguouswith
estuarineorcoastalwatersisperhapsbeyondthescopeoftheharbourmaster
excepttoensurethatactivitiesinhisharbourdonotaddtothepollution.However,
heisdutyboundtoensurethatthewaterusedfordrinking,cleaningfish,icemaking
andfishprocessingmeetsstandardsofpotabilitysetinhiscountry.
Qualitativeandquantitativemeasurementsareneededfromtimetotimeto
constantlymonitorthequalityofwaterfromthevarioussourcesofsupply.
Theharbourmastershouldthenensureappropriatewatertreatmentwithin
thefisheryharbourcomplexaswellasinitiateremedialmeasureswiththe
supplierswhenwatersupplyfromoutsideispolluted.
WatersamplingandanalysisshouldbedonebyISOcertifiedlaboratories.Wherever
laboratoriesavailablelocallyarenotISOcertified,itisadvisabletogettheirquality
assessedbyanISOcertifiedlaboratorybycarryingoutcollaborativeteststoensure
thatvariationintheaccuracyofresultsissufficientlysmall.Unreliableresults
exacerbateproblemsofpollutionwhencorrectiveactioncannotbetakenintime.
Samplingandmonitoringtestsshouldbecarriedoutbyqualifiedtechnicians.
Dependingontheactualstateofthefishingharbourinfrastructureand
environmentalconditionsinandaroundtheharbour,monitoringshouldbecarried
outaccordingtoaspecificprogrammeforeachsourceofwatersupply.
2.1.1Borewells
Contaminationmayarisefrompollutantsenteringthewatertablesomedistance
fromtheportorfromsewageenteringtheboreholeitselfintheportareathrough
crackedorcorrodedcasings.Incaseswhereoverdrawingisevident(wateris
brackish),testsshouldbeconductedatleastmonthly.
2.1.2Municipalmains
Supplycouldbecontaminatedatsourceorthroughcorrodedpipelinesleadingtothe
fisheryharbour.Mixingwithsewagelinesduetodefectivepipinghasbeenknownto
occuroften.Completetestsshouldbecarriedouteveryhalfyear,andtheauthorities
shouldbeinformedwhenresultsindicatecontamination.
2.1.3Watertanksandreservoirs
Bothtypesofstructurearepronetobacterialgrowthiftheresidualchlorinelevelsin
themarelowornonexistent.Testingmaynotbenecessaryifperiodicscrubbingis
carriedout.Bacteriologicaltestsshouldbedoneatleasthalfyearly.
2.1.4Harbourbasinwater
Typically,harbourbasinsaretestedyearly.However,inareaswheremonsoonsare
veryactive,itmaybeadvisabletotestatthepeakofthedryseasonwheneffluent
pointdischargestendtoremainconcentratedinthewaterbodyandagainduringthe
wetseasonwhenagriculturerunoffmaybeconsiderable.Anothercriticalperiodfor
harboursisthepeakofthefishingseasonwhentheharbourisatitsbusiestand
vesselgeneratedpollutionislikelytobeatitspeak.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
2/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
2.2Testingprocedures
2.2.1Physicaltests
2.2.2Chemicaltests
2.2.3Bacteriologicaltests
Whilethedetailsofsampling,testingandanalysisarebeyondthescopeofthis
handbook,whatfollowsisageneraldescriptionofthesignificanceofwaterquality
testsusuallymade.
Testingproceduresandparametersmaybegroupedintophysical,chemical,
bacteriologicalandmicroscopiccategories.
Physicaltestsindicatepropertiesdetectablebythesenses.
Chemicaltestsdeterminetheamountsofmineralandorganic
substancesthataffectwaterquality.
Bacteriologicaltestsshowthepresenceofbacteria,characteristicof
faecalpollution.
2.2.1Physicaltests
Colour,turbidity,totalsolids,dissolvedsolids,suspendedsolids,odourandtasteare
recorded.
Colourinwatermaybecausedbythepresenceofmineralssuchasironand
manganeseorbysubstancesofvegetableoriginsuchasalgaeandweeds.Colour
testsindicatetheefficacyofthewatertreatmentsystem.
Turbidityinwaterisbecauseofsuspendedsolidsandcolloidalmatter.Itmaybe
duetoerodedsoilcausedbydredgingorduetothegrowthofmicroorganisms.
Highturbiditymakesfiltrationexpensive.Ifsewagesolidsarepresent,pathogens
maybeencasedintheparticlesandescapetheactionofchlorineduringdisinfection.
Odourandtasteareassociatedwiththepresenceoflivingmicroscopicorganisms
ordecayingorganicmatterincludingweeds,algaeorindustrialwastescontaining
ammonia,phenols,halogens,hydrocarbons.Thistasteisimpartedtofish,rendering
themunpalatable.Whilechlorinationdilutesodourandtastecausedbysome
contaminants,itgeneratesafoulodouritselfwhenaddedtowaterspollutedwith
detergents,algaeandsomeotherwastes.
2.2.2Chemicaltests
pH,hardness,presenceofaselectedgroupofchemicalparameters,biocides,highly
toxicchemicals,andB.O.Dareestimated.
pHisameasureofhydrogenionconcentration.Itisanindicatorofrelativeacidityor
alkalinityofwater.Valuesof9.5andaboveindicatehighalkalinitywhilevaluesof3
andbelowindicateacidity.LowpHvalueshelpineffectivechlorinationbutcause
problemswithcorrosion.Valuesbelow4generallydonotsupportlivingorganismsin
themarineenvironment.DrinkingwatershouldhaveapHbetween6.5and8.5.
Harbourbasinwatercanvarybetween6and9.
B.O.D.:Itdenotestheamountofoxygenneededbymicroorganismsforstabilization
ofdecomposableorganicmatterunderaerobicconditions.HighB.O.D.meansthat
thereislessofoxygentosupportlifeandindicatesorganicpollution.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
3/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
2.2.3Bacteriologicaltests
Fortechnicalandeconomicreasons,analyticalproceduresforthedetectionof
harmfulorganismsareimpracticalforroutinewaterqualitysurveillance.Itmustbe
appreciatedthatallthatbacteriologicalanalysiscanproveisthat,atthetimeof
examination,contaminationorbacteriaindicativeoffaecalpollution,couldorcould
notbedemonstratedinagivensampleofwaterusingspecifiedculturemethods.In
addition,theresultsofroutinebacteriologicalexaminationmustalwaysbe
interpretedinthelightofathoroughknowledgeofthewatersupplies,includingtheir
source,treatment,anddistribution.
Wheneverchangesinconditionsleadtodeteriorationinthequalityofthewater
supplied,oreveniftheyshouldsuggestanincreasedpossibilityofcontamination,
thefrequencyofbacteriologicalexaminationshouldbeincreased,sothataseriesof
samplesfromwellchosenlocationsmayidentifythehazardandallowremedial
actiontobetaken.Wheneverasanitarysurvey,includingvisualinspection,indicates
thatawatersupplyisobviouslysubjecttopollution,remedialactionmustbetaken,
irrespectiveoftheresultsofbacteriologicalexamination.Forunpipedruralsupplies,
sanitarysurveysmayoftenbetheonlyformofexaminationthatcanbeundertaken
regularly.
Therecognitionthatmicrobialinfectionscanbewaterbornehasledtothe
developmentofmethodsforroutineexaminationtoensurethatwaterintendedfor
humanconsumptionisfreefromexcrementalpollution.Althoughitisnowpossibleto
detectthepresenceofmanypathogensinwater,themethodsofisolationand
enumerationareoftencomplexandtimeconsuming.Itisthereforeimpracticalto
monitordrinkingwaterforeverypossiblemicrobialpathogenthatmightoccurwith
contamination.Amorelogicalapproachisthedetectionoforganismsnormally
presentinthefaecesofmanandotherwarmbloodedanimalsasindicatorsof
excrementalpollution,aswellasoftheefficacyofwatertreatmentanddisinfection.
Thepresenceofsuchorganismsindicatesthepresenceoffaecalmaterialandthus
ofintestinalpathogens.(Theintestinaltractofmancontainscountlessrodshaped
bacteriaknownascoliformorganismsandeachpersondischargesfrom100to400
billioncoliformorganismsperdayinadditiontootherkindsofbacteria).Conversely,
theabsenceoffaecalcommensalorganismsindicatesthatpathogensareprobably
alsoabsent.Searchforsuchindicatorsoffaecalpollutionthusprovidesameansof
qualitycontrol.Theuseofnormalintestinalorganismsasindicatorsoffaecal
pollutionratherthanthepathogensthemselvesisauniversallyacceptedprinciplefor
monitoringandassessingthemicrobialsafetyofwatersupplies.Ideally,thefinding
ofsuchindicatorbacteriashoulddenotethepossiblepresenceofallrelevant
pathogens.
Indicatororganismsshouldbeabundantinexcrementbutabsent,orpresentonlyin
smallnumbers,inothersourcestheyshouldbeeasilyisolated,identifiedand
enumeratedandshouldbeunabletogrowinwater.Theyshouldalsosurvivelonger
thanpathogensinwaterandbemoreresistanttodisinfectants,suchaschlorine.In
practice,thesecriteriacannotallbemetbyanyoneorganism,althoughmanyof
themarefulfilledbycoliformorganisms,especiallyEscherichiacoliastheessential
indicatorofpollutionbyfaecalmaterialofhumanoranimalorigin.
2.3Investigativeanalysis
2.3.1Testcase
Aharbourmaster'sknowledgeofthestateoftheenvironmentinandaroundthe
fishingharbourgoesalongwaytowardpreventingoutbreaksofcontaminationor
diseasewithsubsequentlossofresourcesandincome.Thisisparticularlysoforthe
manysmalltomediumfishingportsscatteredaroundcoastlinesindeveloping
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
4/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
countries,where,moreoftenthannot,environmentalhelpandsupportfromcentral
bodiesismeagreandverytimeconsuming.
Thefollowingisatruelifeexampleofaninvestigativeanalysiscarriedoutinan
ASEANcountryinaharbourthatwasexperiencingproblemswithhygiene(coliform
contaminatedfish).
2.3.1Testcase
Theportinquestionissituatedinthemouthofanestuary.Thetown'swatersupply
cannotprovidetheportwithpotablewaterandtheportdrawsgroundwaterfroma
seriesofboreholesinandaroundtheportarea.Theport'sstorageinfrastructure
consistsofonlyoneelevatedconcretetankwhichcannotbetakenoutofservicefor
cleaning.Iceissuppliedbyoutsidecontractors.
Currentlaboratorytestresultswereexaminedandfoundtobetooconsistentto
reflectnaturalchangesintheenvironment,pointingafingerofsuspicionatthe
laboratory'sQualityAssurance.AnewlaboratorywithI.S.O.certificationwas
selectedtocarryoutthenewtests.
Watersamplesweretakenbyexternaltechniciansfromtheport'sborehole,the
auctionhall'swatertaps,eachandeveryoneoftheexternalicesuppliersandthe
harbourbasin.
AsamplereportfromthelaboratoryisshowninTable21.
Inthistable,thefirstcolumnindicatesthetestparameterandthelastcolumn
indicatesthemethodusedtodeterminethetestresult(sometimes,morethanone
methodmaybeusedtodetermineresiduals).
Thesecondcolumnindicateshowtheparametersaremeasured,thethirdcolumn
givestheactualtestresultwhichmaythenbecomparedtothevaluesinthefourth
column.Thevaluesinthefourthcolumnarenationalstandardsorlimitssetby
Governmentsandmaydifferfromcountrytocountry.Thevaluesinthethirdcolumn
shouldnotexceedthoseinthefourthcolumn.
Table22showstherecommendedWHOstandardlimitsforpotablewater.
Table21:SAMPLEWATERANALYSISREPORTPORTTAPWATER
Parameter
Unit
Test
Remarks
Requirement
Methods
Colour
Pt.Co
scale
15
Colorimetric
Odour
Pt.Co
scale
negative
odourless
Organoleptic
pH
Pt.Co
scale
6.50
6.58.5
Electrometric
Taste
Pt.Co
scale
normal
tasteless
Organoleptic
Turbity
FTU
Turbidity
Aluminum
mg/l
below0.20
0.2
AAS
Copper
mg/l
below0.03
1.0
AAS
IronTotal
mg/l
below0.04
0.3
AAS
Manganese
mg/l
0.06
0.1
AAS
Sodium
mg/l
96.93
200
AAS
Physical&Chemical*) :
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
5/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
Zinc
mg/l
0.047
AAS
Chloride
mg/l
140.41
250
Argentometric
Flouride
mg/l
0.09
1.5
Colorimetric
Nitrate
mg/l
below0.11
10
Colorimetric
Nitrite
mg/l
0.96
Colorimetric
Sulphate
mg/l
below0.94
400
Turbidimetric
Arsenic
mg/l
below0.001
0.05
AAS
Barium
mg/l
below0.10
AAS
Cadmium
mg/l
below0.005
0.005
AAS
Cyanide
mg/l
below0.01
0.1
Colorimetric
ChromHexavalent
mg/l
below0.006
0.05
Colorimetric
Lead
mg/l
below0.01
0.05
AAS
Mercury
mg/l
below0.001
0.001
AAS
Selenium
mg/l
below0.007
0.01
AAS
OrganicMatterby
KMnO4
mg/l
3.06
10
Permanganantometric
DissolvedSolid
mg/l
431
1000
Gravimetric
HydrogenSulphideas
H2S
mg/l
below0.01
0.05
Colorimetric
mgCaCO3
95.49
500
AAS
perml
6.9x102
1.0x102
PourPlate
Coliform
per100ml
nil
nil
Filtration
E.Coli
per100ml
nil
nil
Filtration
Salmonellasp
per100ml
negative
negative
Filtration
TotalHardness
Bacteriological:
TotalBacteria
*)
StandardMethods
A.Examinationoftheport'sdeepboreholetestreportrevealedthatwhereasthe
ironandmanganeselevelswereoverthelimit,indicatingvegetablematterinthe
acquifer,thesodiumandchloridelevelswerelow,indicatingthatthepumpwasnot
overdrawing.Boththenitrateandnitritelevelswerelowindicatingthatsewage
intrusionintotheboreholecasingwasnotaproblem.Thetotalbacterialcount,
however,wasveryhigh,indicatingthatthewaterhastobechlorinatedtolowerthe
count.
B.Examinationoftheauctionhall'stapwatertestreport(comparingthemtothe
boreholewater)indicatesthatthebacterialcountisslightlylowerbutnotenoughto
beconsideredsanitaryandfitfordrinking.Theturbidityalsodroppeddramatically
betweenboreholeandtap,indicatingdepositionofsolidsinsidetheport'sonly
storagetank.Thenitratelevelalsodropsasthenitratesarefurtherconvertedto
nitritesindicatingbacteriologicalactivityinsidetheoverheadtankaswell.Asitturned
out,chlorinatingequipmentwasnotinstalled.
C.Examinationoftheicetestreportsrevealsthatbothsodiumandchloridesare
overthelimitindicatingeitherleakingcansattheiceplants(dirtybrinewaterenters
theicewaterduringthechillingoperation)oroverdrawingattheplant'sborehole.
Closerexaminationalsorevealedthatthenitritelevelsareveryhigh(indicating
decomposedsewage)andthatcoliformswerepresentintheice.Thispointeda
fingerattheboreholeofoneparticularplant,whichinfactwasfoundtobe
overdrawingwatertomeetanincreaseindemand.Thepresenceofthecoliforms
alsoindicatedthattheiceplant'sownchlorinatingequipmentwasnotfunctioning
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
6/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
properly.
D.Acloselookattheriverbasinwaterindicatedheavycontaminationbysewageof
thewatercourse.
Theconclusionstobedrawnfromtheaboveexercisearethat:
a)Themostlikelysourceofcontaminationwastheicesuppliedtothe
fishermen,whichinturncontaminatedthefishintheholds
b)Theport'sownwatersupplyandstoragesystemwasinneedofan
overhaul
c)Theport'sriverwaterwasnottobeusedinanyofthefishhandling
processes.
Table23givestheEUrecommendationsforharbourwatersingeneral.
Harbourwaterisneversuitableforuseinfishhandlingprocessesdestinedfor
humanconsumption.
Table22:W.H.O.DRINKINGWATERSTANDARDS
PARAMETER
UNIT
LIMIT
Aluminium
mgAl/l
0.2
Arsenic
mgAs/l
0.05
Barium
mgBa/l
0.05
Berylium
ugBe/l
0.2
Cadmium
ugCd/l
5.0
Calcium
mgCa/l
200.0
Chromium
mgCr/l
0.05
Copper
mgCu/l
1.0
IronTotal
mgFe/l
0.3
Lead
mgPb/l
0.01
Magnesium
mgMg/l
150.0
Manganese
mgMn/l
0.1
Mercury
ugHg/l
1.0
Selenium
mgSe/l
0.01
Sodium
mgNa/l
200.0
Zinc
mgZn/l
5.0
Chlorides
mgCl/l
250.0
Cyanide
mgCn/l
0.1
Fluorides
mgF/l
1.5
Nitrates
mgNO3/l
10.0
Nitrites
mgNO2/l
Sulphates
mgSO4/l
400.0
Suphides
mgH2S/l
TOTAL"drins"
ug/l
0.03
TOTAL"ddt"
ug/l
1.0
Hydrocarbons
mg/l
0.1
AnionicDetergents
mg/l
pH
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
9.2
7/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
Totaldissolvedsolids
mg/l
1500
Totalhardness
mg/l
500
Alkalinity
mg/l
500
TotalBacteria
Count/ml
100
Coliform
Count/100ml
E.Coli
Count/100ml
Salmonella
Count/100ml
MICROBIOLOGICALPARAMETERS
ug=microgramorppb
mg=milligramorppm
Table23:EUESTUARYANDHARBOURBASINWATERSTANDARDS
PARAMETER
UNIT
LIMIT
Mercury
ugHg/l
0.50(D)
Cadmium
ugCd/l
5.00(D)
Arsenic
mgAs/l
0.50(G)
Chromium
mgCr/l
0.50(G)
Copper
mgCu/l
0.50(G)
Iron
mgFe/l
3.00(G)
Lead
mgPb/l
0.50(G)
Nickel
mgNi/l
0.50(G)
Zinc
mgZn/l
50.00(G)
Tributyltin
ug/l
0.002
Triphenyltin
ug/l
0.008
Aldrin
ug/l
0.01
Dieldrin
ug/l
0.01
Endrin
ug/l
0.005
Isodrin
ug/l
0.005
TOTAL"drins"
ug/l
0.03
TOTAL"ddt"all4isomers
ug/l
0.025
paraddt
ug/l
0.01
Hexachlorocyclohexane
ug/l
0.02
Carbontetrachloride
ug/l
12.0
Pentachlorophenol
ug/l
2.0
Hexachlorobenzene
ug/l
0.03
Hexachlorobutadiene
ug/l
0.10
Chloroform
ug/l
12.0
EthyleneDichloride
ug/l
10.0
Perchloroethylene
ug/l
10.0
Trichlorobenzene
ug/l
0.40
Trichloroethylene
ug/l
10.0
Hydrocarbons
ug/l
300.0(G)
Phenols
ug/l
50.0
Surfactants
ug/l
300.0(G)
DissolvedOxygen
%Saturation 80120(G)
pH
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
69
8/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
Sulphide
mg/l
0.04(S)
MICROBIOLOGICALPARAMETERS
Faecalconforms
per100ml
2000
Totalcoliforms
per100ml
10000
Salmonella
Enteroviruses
ug=microgram
G=Guideline
mg=milligram
S=Suggested
D=Dissolved
2.4Watertreatmentmethods
2.4.1Primarytreatment
2.4.2Secondarytreatment
2.4.3Completetreatment
Treatmentofrawwatertoproducewaterofpotablequalitycanbeexpensive.Itis
advisabletodeterminethequantityofwaterneedingtreatment,asnotallwater
usedinafisheryharbourorprocessingplantneedstobeofpotablequality.
Sizingoftheequipmentiscrucialtoproduceacceptablewateratreasonablecost.
Themainpointtorememberisthatseparatesystemsandpipelinesarerequiredfor
potableandnonpotablewatertoavoidcrosscontamination.Eachsystemmustbe
clearlyidentifiedbycontrastingcolouredpipelines.
Waterusedfordrinking,cleaningfishandicemakingmustbefreefrompathogenic
bacteriaandmayrequiresecondarytreatmentorevencompletetreatment
dependingonchemicalelementsthatneedtoberemoved.Waterforotherneeds
likegeneralcleaningmayperhapsneedonlyprimarytreatment.
2.4.1Primarytreatment
Therearefourmethodsofprimarytreatment:chlorinationozonetreatment
ultraviolettreatmentandmembranefiltration.
Chlorination:Freshorseawatercanbechlorinatedusingeitherchlorinegasor
hypochlorites.Chlorinatedwaterminimizesslimedevelopmentonworkingsurfaces
andhelpscontrolodour.
Figure8:CHLORINATIONTREATMENT
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
9/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
Themainadvantagesofusingchlorinegasare:
Itisthemostefficientmethodofmakingfreechlorineavailabletoraw
water.
ItlowersthepHofthewaterslightly.
Controlissimpletestingsimpleanditisnotanexpensivemethod.
Themaindisadvantagesare:
Chlorinegasistoxicandcancombinewithotherchemicalstoform
combustibleandexplosivematerials.
Automaticcontrolsystemsareexpensive.
Chlorinecylindersmaynotbereadilyavailableatsmallcentres.
Chlorineexpandsrapidlyonheatingandhencethecylindersmust
havefusibleplugssetat70C.Italsoreactswithwater,releasingheat.
Watershouldnotthereforebesprayedonaleakingcylinder.
Figure9:PERCENTAGEOFAVAILABLECHLORINEBYWEIGHT
COMPOUND
Chlorinegas
CHEMICALCOMPOSITION %CHLORINEBYWEIGHT
Cl2
100.0
Monochloramine
NH2Cl
138.0
Diochloramine
NH4Cl2
165.0
HOCl
135.4
Ca(OCl2)
99.2
HypochlorousAcid
Calciumhypochlorite
Hypochloritesaregenerallyavailableintwoformssodiumhypochloritesolution
normallyavailableat10%concentrationandcalciumhypochloriteavailableasa
powder.
Themaindisadvantagesofusinghypochloritesare:
Calciumhypochloriteisnotstableandmustbestoredinairtight
drums.
Sodiumhypochloriteisquitecorrosiveandcannotbestoredinmetal
containers
Sodiumhypochloritemustbestoredinlightproofcontainers.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
10/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
Itisdifficulttocontroltherateofadditionofhypochloritesinproportion
towaterflow.
HypochloritesraisethepHinwater.
Theyaremoreexpensivethanchlorinegas.
Itisimportanttounderstandthemannerinwhichchlorineorchlorinereleasing
substancesbehavewhenaddedtowater,dependingonothersubstancespresent.
Whenwatercontainsreducingsubstanceslikeferroussaltsor
hydrogensulphide,thesewillreducepartoftheaddedchlorineto
chlorideions.
Whenwatercontainsammonia,organicmatter,bacteriaandother
substancescapableofreactingwithchlorine,theleveloffreechlorine
willbereduced.
Ifthequantityofchlorineaddedissufficientlylargetoensurethatitis
notallreducedorcombined,aportionofitwillremainfreeinthewater.
Thisistermedasresidualfreechlorineorfreechlorine.
Whenchlorinereactschemicallyasinthefirsttwocases,itlosesitsoxidisingpower
andconsequentlyitsdisinfectingproperties.Someammoniacalchlorideshowever
stillretainsomedisinfectingproperties.Chlorinepresentinthisformistermed
residualcombinedchlorineorcombinedchlorine.
Fromthestandpointofdisinfection,themostimportantformisfreechlorine.Routine
analysisalwaysaimsatdeterminingatleastthefreechlorinelevel.
Ozonetreatment:Thoughtheprincipleisrelativelysimple,thismethodneeds
specialequipment,supplyofpureoxygenandtrainedoperators.Ozoneisgenerated
bypassingpureoxygenthroughanozonegenerator.Itisthenbubbledthrougha
gasdiffuseratthebottomofanabsorptioncolumn,inadirectionoppositetotheflow
ofrawwater.Retentionorcontacttimeiscriticalandthesizeoftheabsorption
columndependsonthewaterflow.
Figure10:OZONETREATMENT
Themainadvantagesofozonetreatmentare:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
11/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
Ozoneisamuchmorepowerfulgermicidethanchlorineespeciallyfor
faecalbacteria.
Itreducesturbidityofwaterbybreakingdownorganicconstituents.
Theprocessiseasilycontrolled.
Thedisadvantagesare:
Pureoxygenmaynotbereadilyavailablelocally.
Ozonizedwateriscorrosivetometalpiping.
Ozonedecomposesrapidlyintooxygen.
Waterhastobeaeratedpriortousetoremovetheozone.
Ultravioletirradiationtreatment:Thismethodisoftenusedtotreatdrinking
water.Successfulcommercialinstallationshavebeenmadetopurifyseawaterin
largefishprocessingplants.
Figure11:ULTRAVIOLETIRRADIATIONTREATMENT
ThemainadvantagesofUVtreatmentare:
UVraysintherangeof25002600Angstromunitsarelethaltoall
typesofbacteria.
Thereisnoorganoleptic,chemicalorphysicalchangetothewater
quality.
Overexposuredoesnothaveanyilleffects.
Themaindisadvantagesare:
Electricitysupplyshouldbereliable.
Turbidityreducesefficiency.
Watermayrequirepriortreatmentlikefiltration.
Theunitrequiresregularinspectionandmaintenance.
Thicknessofthewaterfilmshouldnotexceed7.5cm.
Membranefiltration:Osmoticmembranetreatmentmethodsaregenerally
expensiveforcommercialscaleinstallations.Combinationsofmembranetreatment
withUVtreatmentunitsareavailablefordomesticuse.
2.4.2Secondarytreatment
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
12/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
Secondarytreatmentofwaterconsistsofsedimentationandfiltrationfollowedby
chlorination.Sedimentationcanbecarriedoutbyholdingtherawwaterinpondsor
tanks.Thefourbasictypesoffiltrationarecartridgefiltration,rapidsandfiltration,
multimediasandfiltration,andupflowfiltration.
Cartridgefiltration:Thissystemisdesignedtohandlewatersoflowturbidityand
willremovesolidsinthe5to100micronrange.
Themainadvantagesare:
Lowcostand'inline'installation.
Changeofcartridgeissimple.
Operationisfoolproof.Oncethecartridgeisclogged,flowsimply
stops.
Themaindisadvantagesare:
Suddenincreaseinturbidityoverloadsthesystem.
Cartridgesmaynotbereadilyavailableandlargestocksmaybe
required.
Rapidsandfiltration:Thissystemconsistsofalayerofgravelwithlayersofsand
ofdecreasingcoarsenessabovethegravel.Assolidsbuildupontop,flow
decreasesuntilitstops.Thisiscorrectedbybackflushingthesystemtoremovethe
solidbuildupontop,Figure12.
Themainadvantagesare:
Costoffiltrationmediaisnegligible.
Operationissimple.
Themaindisadvantagesare:
Aholdingtankforfilteredwaterisrequiredtoprovideclearwaterback
flushing.
Pumpingloadsincreaseassedimentsbuildup.
Figure12:RAPIDSANDFILTRATION
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
13/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
Figure13:CONVENTIONALSANDFILTRATION
Multimediasandfiltration:Thissystemissimilartotherapidsandfiltration
method.
Figure14:MULTIMEDIASANDFILTRATION
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
14/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
Upflowfiltration:Filtrationcanbeatatmosphericpressureorbyusinga
pressurisedsystem,Figures15aand15b.
Themainadvantagesare:
Highflowratesareeasilyattained.
Waterwithturbidityupto1500ppmcanbehandled.
Degreeoffiltrationcanbeeasilyadjusted.
Thefilterbedcanbeeasilycleanedusingthefilteredwater.
Figure15a:ATMOSPHERICPRESSUREUPFLOWFILTER
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
15/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
Figure15b:PRESSURETYPEUPFLOWFILTER
Themaindisadvantageis:
Closesupervisionisnecessarytoensurethatthefilterbeddoesnot
rupture.
2.4.3Completetreatment
Completetreatmentconsistsofflocculation,coagulation,sedimentationandfiltration
followedbydisinfection.Flocculationandcoagulationwillassistinremoving
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
16/17
10/04/2015
Chapter2WATERQUALITYMONITORING,STANDARDSANDTREATMENT
contaminantsinthewater,causingturbidity,colourodourandtastewhichcannotbe
removedbysedimentationalone.Thiscanbeachievedbytheadditionoflimeto
makethewaterslightlyalkaline,followedbytheadditionofcoagulantslikeAlum
(aluminiumsulphate),ferricsulphateorferricchloride.Theresultantprecipitatecan
beremovedbysedimentationandfiltration.
Chemicaltreatmentmayberequiredtoreduceexcessivelevelsofiron,manganese,
chalk,andorganicmatter.Suchtreatmentisusuallyfollowedbyclarification.Iron
mayberemovedbyaerationorchlorinationtoproduceaflocculantwhichcanbe
removedbyfiltration.Manganesemayberemovedbyaerationfollowedby
adjustmentofpHandupflowfiltration.Mostcolourscanberemovedbytreatment
withferricsulphatetoprecipitatethecolours.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05.htm#2.4watertreatmentmethods
17/17