Dyn of Sync Mac

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

ELEC0047
October 2012
1 / 75
Modelling the synchronous machine

Stator and rotor windings
f : field winding
d1 , q1 : damper (or amortisseur) windings
q2 : equivalent circuit to account for eddy currents in round-rotor machine
no q2 winding in the model of a salient-pole machine
2 / 75
Basic stator equations

da
dt
db
vb (t) = Ra ib (t)
dt
dc
vc (t) = Ra ic (t)
dt
d
In matrix form: vT = RT iT T with RT = diag(Ra Ra Ra )
dt
va (t)
= Ra ia (t)
3 / 75
Basic rotor equations

df
dt
dd1
0 = Rd1 id1 (t) +
dt
dq1
0 = Rq1 iq1 (t) +
dt
dq2
0 = Rq2 iq2 (t) +
dt
vf (t)
In matrix form: vr = Rr ir +
= Rf if (t) +
dt r
with
Rr = diag(Rf Rd1 Rq1 Rq2 )
4 / 75
Inductances
Assumption: non saturated material

T
r

=
LTT () LTr ()
LT
Lrr
Tr ()

iT
ir
LTT and LTr vary with the rotor position

but not Lrr
the elements of LTT and LTr are obviously periodic functions of
magnetic field created by any coil assumed to be radial in the air gap and its
magnitude to vary sinusoidally with sinusoidal machine
orthogonal coils not coupled magnetically.
5 / 75
LTT () =
L0 + L1 cos 2
Lm L1 cos 2( + 6 ) Lm L1 cos 2( 6 )
Lm L1 cos 2( + ) L0 + L1 cos 2( 2 ) Lm L1 cos 2( + )
6
3
2
Lm L1 cos 2( 6 ) Lm L1 cos 2( + 2 ) L0 + L1 cos 2( + 2
3 )
Lo , L1 , Lm > 0 depend on the geometry and permittivity of material

6 / 75
LTr () =
Laf cos
Lad1 cos
Laq1 sin
Laq2 sin
Laf cos( 2 ) Lad1 cos( 2 ) Laq1 sin( 2 ) Laq2 sin( 2 )
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
Laf cos( + 2
3 ) Lad1 cos( + 3 ) Laq1 sin( + 3 ) Laq2 sin( + 3 )
Laf , Lad1 , Laq1 , Laq2 > 0 depend on geometry of machine and permittivity of
material
Lff
Lfd1
Lrr =
0
0
Lfd1
Ld1d1
0
0
0
0
Lq1q1
Lq1q2
0
0
Lq1q2
Lq2q2
7 / 75
Park transformation and equations

Park transformation
Three-phase (a, b, c) stator variables transformed into Park (d, q, o) variables:
where
vP
P vT
P T
iP
P iT
r cos
2
sin
3
1
cos( 2
3 )
sin( 2
3 )
1
2
It is easily shown that
vP
vd
vq
iP
id
P PT = I
iq
vo
io
cos( + 2
3 )
sin( + 2
3 )
1
2
T
o
T
T
P 1 = P T
8 / 75
Interpretation
The d and q variables relate to fictitious windings:
attached to the rotor and thus rotating with the latter
d in the direct axis, q in the quadrature axis
producing a magnetic field proportional to the one produced by the stator
windings a, b, c.
The o fictitious winding:
is magnetically not coupled with the d and q windings
plays a role in unbalanced operating conditions only
In steady-state balanced operating conditions:
currents id and iq are constant
current io is zero.
9 / 75
Park equations of the synchronous machine

d
vT = RT iT T
dt
d
P 1 vP = Ra I P 1 iP (P 1 P )
dt
d
d
1
vP = Ra PP iP P ( P 1 ) P PP 1 P
dt
dt
d
= RP iP P P P
dt
0 1 0
with:
RP = RT
P = 1 0 0
0 0 0
Decomposing:
vd
vq
vo
: speed voltages (or emf)
q dd
= Ra id
dt
d
q
d
= Ra iq +
dt
do
= Ra io
dt
d/dt : transformer voltages (or emf)
10 / 75
Park inductance matrix

LPP
LrP
LTT
LT
Tr
LTr
Lrr

LTT
LT
Tr
LTr
Lrr

P 1 P
r

P
r
Ldf
T
r
LPr
Lrr
PLTT P 1
1
LT
Tr P
Ldd
Lqq
=
Ldf
Ldd1
Lqq1
Lqq2

iT
ir

P 1 iP
ir

PLTr
iP
LPP
=
ir
LrP
Lrr
Ldf
LPr
Lrr
Ldd1
Lqq1
Loo
Lff
Lfd1
Lfd1
Ld1d1
Lq1q1
Lq1q2

iP
ir
Lqq2
Lq1q2
Lq2q2
3
3
Ldd = L0 + Lm + L1
Lqq = L0 + Lm L1
Loo = L0 2Lm
2
2
r
r
r
r
3
3
3
3
Laf
Ldd1 =
Lad1
Lqq1 =
Laq1
Lqq2 =
Laq2
=
2
2
2
2
11 / 75
Park equations a bit more detailed
(o winding left aside)
For the (d, f , d1 ) subset we have:
q
vd
Ra
d
id
d
vf =
f
if 0
Rf
dt
0
Rd1
d1
id1
0
and for the (q, q1 , q2 ) subset:
vq
Ra
0 =
Rq1
0
with the following relationships
d
f =
d1
q
q1 =
q2
d
iq
q
d
iq1 + 0
q1
dt
iq2
q2
0
Rq2
between
Ldd
Ldf
Ldd1
Lqq
Lqq1
Lqq2
magnetic fluxes and currents:
Ldf
Ldd1
id
Lff
Lfd1 if
Lfd1 Ld1d1
id1
iq
Lqq1
Lqq2
Lq1q1 Lq1q2 iq1
Lq1q2 Lq2q2
iq2
12 / 75
Energy, power and torque

Power balance of stator:
pT + pJs +
pT
pJs
Wms
pr s
dWms
= pr s
dt
instantaneous power leaving the stator

Joule losses in stator
magnetic energy accumulated in stator windings
power transferred from rotor to stator (mechanical / electrical ?)
Instantaneous power leaving the stator:

pT (t)
= va ia + vb ib + vc ic = vTT iT = vPT PP T iP = vPT iP = vd id + vq iq + vo io

dd
dq
do
d iq q id )
= (Ra id2 + Ra iq2 + Ra io2 ) (id
+ iq
+ io
) +(
dt
dt }
{z
} | dt
|
{z
pJs
dWms /dt
d iq q id )
pr s = (
13 / 75
Power balance of rotor:

dWmr
dWc
+ pr s +
dt
dt
mechanical power provided by the turbine
instantaneous power entering the field winding
Joules losses in rotor
magnetic energy accumulated in rotor windings
kinetic energy of rotating masses.
Pm + pf = pJr +
Pm
pf
pJr
Wmr
Wc
Instantaneous power entering the field winding:

pf
= vf if = vf if + vd1 id1 + vq1 iq1 + vq2 iq2

=
df
dd1
dq1
dq2
2
2
2
(Rf if2 + Rd1 id1
+ Rq1 iq1
+ Rq2 iq2
) + if
+ id1
+ iq1
+ iq2
dt
dt
dt
dt }
|
{z
} |
{z
pJr
dWmr /dt
Pm
dWc
dt
d iq q id ) = power transmitted through torque

(
e
T
Te = d iq q id
14 / 75
Torque components
Te = Ldd id iq + Ldf if iq + Ldd1 id1 iq Lqq iq id Lqq1 iq1 id Lqq2 iq2 id
(Ldd Lqq ) id iq : reluctant synchronous torque
exists only in salient-pole machines
even without excitation (if = 0), the rotor tends to align its direct axis with
the rotating field created by stator currents (minimum reluctance)
' 10 - 20 % of total torque.
Ldd1 id1 iq Lqq1 iq1 id Lqq2 iq2 id : damping torque
vanishes in steady state
Ldf if iq :
largest part of total torque
in steady state, if constant synchronous torque due to excitation
during transients contributes to damping torque.
15 / 75
The machine in steady-state operating conditions
three-phase balanced currents in stator windings

three-phase balanced voltages at the stator terminals
all with angular frequency N
constant (DC) voltage Vf applied to field winding
current in field winding:
if =
Vf
Rf
rotor rotates at synchronous angular speed:

= o + N t
no current in other windings:
id1 = iq1 = iq2 = 0
16 / 75
Open-circuit operation
ia = ib = ic = 0
Magnetic fluxes in d and q windings:
id = iq = io = 0
d = Ldf if
q = 0
Park equations:
vd
vq
= N d = N Ldf if
Going back to stator (phase a for instance):

r
2
va (t) =
N Ldf if sin(o + N t) = 2Eq sin(o + N t)
3
Eq =
N Ldf if
= emf proportional to field current = open-circuit voltage.

3
17 / 75
Under-load operation
va (t) = 2V cos(N t + )
2
vb (t) = 2V cos(N t +
)
3
2
vc (t) = 2V cos(N t + +
)
3
ia (t) =
2I cos(N t + )
2
ib (t) = 2I cos(N t +
)
3
2
ic (t) = 2I cos(N t + +
)
3
Currents and voltages in d and q windings:
id = 3I cos(o )
iq = 3I sin(o )
vd = 3V cos(o )
vq = 3V sin(o )
Magnetic fluxes in d and q windings:
io = 0
vo = 0
d = Ldd id + Ldf if
q = Lqq iq
Park equations:
vd
Ra id N Lqq iq = Ra id Xq iq
vq
Ra iq + N Ldd id + N Ldf if = Ra iq + Xd id +
3Eq
Xd and Xq : direct- and quadrature-axis synchronous reactances, respectively

18 / 75
Phasor diagram
19 / 75
Relationship between voltage and current phasors

V cos(o )
Ra I cos(o ) Xq I sin(o )
V sin(o )
Ra I sin(o ) + Xd I cos(o ) + Eq
are the projections on axes d et q of the equation:

a + RaIa + jXd Id + jXq Iq
Eq = V
Particular case: round-rotor machine
Xd = Xq = X
a + RaIa + jX (Id + Iq ) = V
a + RaIa + jX Ia
Eq = V
20 / 75
Complex, active and reactive powers

It is easily shown that:
aIa? = (vd j vq )(id + j iq )
S = 3V
and hence:
Q = vd iq vq id
P = vd id + vq iq
Neglecting Ra and expressing P and Q as a function of V , Eq and the internal

angle :
P=3
Eq V
3V 2 1
1
sin +
( ) sin 2
Xd
2 Xq Xd
Q=3
Eq V
sin2 cos2
cos 3V 2 (
+
)
Xd
Xq
Xd
In the case of a round-rotor machine:

P=3
Eq V
sin
X
Q=3
Eq V
V2
cos 3
X
X
21 / 75
Inductances and time constants of the synchronous machine
Inductances and time constants of the synch. machine

Over ' 0.1 s after a disturbance:
rotor speed cannot change significantly due to inertia
transients essentially of electromagnetic nature (changing magnetic fluxes in
windings)
Assumptions:
constant
non saturated material
Objectives
define accurately the time constants and inductances involved in the
short-circuit current of the synchronous machine (see course ELEC0029)
use these expressions to obtain inductances and resistances of Park theory
from measurements
introduce the quasi-sinusoidal approximation through an example.
22 / 75
Laplace transform of Park equations
q (s)
Vd (s) +
=
Vf (s)
0
Ra + sLdd
sLdf
sLdd1
|
sLdf
sLdd1
Id (s)
If (s)
Rf + sLff
sLfd1
sLfd1
Rd1 + sLd1 d1
Id1 (s)
{z
}
Rd + sLd
d (s)
Vq (s)
=
0
0
id (0)
+Ld if (0)
id1 (0)
Ra + sLqq
sLqq1
Rq1 + sLq1 q1
sLqq1
sLqq2
sLq1 q2
{z
|
Rq + sLq
iq (0)
+Lq iq1 (0)
iq2 (0)
Iq (s)
sLqq2
Iq1 (s)
sLq1 q2
Iq2 (s)
Rq2 + sLq2 q2
}
23 / 75
Time constants and inductances

Eliminating If , Id1 , Iq1 and Iq2 yields:
q (s) = Zd (s)Id (s) + sG (s)Vf (s)
Vd (s) +
d (s) = Zq (s)Iq (s)
Vq (s)
with:
Zd (s)
= Ra + sLdd
sLdf
= Ra + s`d (s)
Zq (s)
= Ra + sLqq
= Ra + s`q (s)
sLdd1
Rf + sLff
sLfd1
sLfd1
Rd1 + sLd1 d1
1
sLdf
sLdd1
`d (s) : d-axis operational inductance

sLqq1
sLqq2
Rq1 + sLq1 q1
sLq1 q2
sLq1 q2
Rq2 + sLq2 q2
1
sLqq1
sLqq2
`q (s) : q-axis operational inductance
24 / 75
Knowing the properties of RL circuits, `d (s) and `q (s) can be factorized into:
0
00
`d (s)
= Ldd
(1 + sTd )(1 + sTd )

0
00
(1 + sTd0 )(1 + sTd0 )
`q (s)
= Lqq
(1 + sTq )(1 + sTq )

0
00
(1 + sTq0 )(1 + sTq0 )
00
00
00
00
with
0 < Td < Td0 < Td < Td0
with
0 < Tq < Tq0 < Tq < Tq0
00
Limit values:
lim `d (s)
Ldd
lim `d (s)
Ld = Ldd
lim `q (s)
Lqq
lim `q (s)
Lq = Lqq
s0
s0
00
00
d-axis synchronous inductance

0
00
00
Td Td
d-axis subtransient inductance
0
00
Td0 Td0
q-axis synchronous inductance
Tq Tq
0
00
Tq0 Tq0
q-axis subtransient inductance
25 / 75
00
Direct derivation of Ld :
elimin. of f and d1
Rd + sLd
Ra + s`d (s)
00
sLd
sLd
elimin. of f and d1
00
Ld
= Ldd
=
Ldd
Ldf
Ldd1
Lff
Lfd1
Lfd1
Ld1 d1
1
Ldf
Ldd1
L2df Ld1 d1 + Lff L2dd1 2Ldf Lfd1 Ldd1

Lff Ld1 d1 L2fd1
and similarly for the q axis.
26 / 75
Transient inductances
If damper winding effects are neglected, the operational inductances become:
0
1 + sTq
`q (s) = Lqq
0
1 + sTq0
1 + sTd
`d (s) = Ldd
0
1 + sTd0
with the limit values:
0
lim `d (s)
= Ld = Ldd
lim `q (s)
Td
0
Td0
d-axis transient inductance
Lq = Lqq
Tq
0
Tq0
q-axis transient inductance
00
Using the same derivation as for Ld , one easily gets:

0
Ld = Ldd
L2df
Lff
Lq = Lqq
L2qq1
Lq1 q1
27 / 75
Typical values
Ld
Lq
0
Ld
0
Lq
00
Ld
00
Lq
machine with
round rotor salient poles
(pu)
(pu)
1.5-2.5
0.9-1.5
1.5-2.5
0.5-1.1
0.2-0.4
0.3-0.5
0.2-0.4
0.15-0.30
0.25-0.35
0.15-0.30
0.25-0.35
Td0
0
Td
00
Td0
00
Td
0
Tq0
0
Tq
00
Tq0
00
Tq
T
machine with
round rotor salient poles
(s)
(s)
8.0-12.0
3.0-8.0
0.95-1.30
1.0-2.5
0.025-0.065 0.025-0.065
0.02-0.05
0.02-0.05
2.0
0.8
0.20-0.50
0.04-0.15
0.02-0.05
0.02-0.05
0.02-0.60
0.02-0.20
inductances in per unit on the machine nominal voltage and apparent power
28 / 75
Comments
in the direct axis: pronounced time decoupling:
0
00
Td0 Td0
00
00
Td Td
00
subtransient time constants Td and Td0 : short, originate from damper winding
0
0
transient time constants Td and Td0 : long, originate from field winding
in the quadrature axis: less pronounced time decoupling (windings of quite

different nature)
0
salient-pole machines: single winding in q axis no value for Lq , Tq and Tq0 .
29 / 75
An example of electromagnetic transients: short-circuit of a machine. . .
An example of electromagnetic transients:

short-circuit of a machine operating at no load
Assumptions:
for t < 0 : stator windings opened. Voltage magnitude Eqo =
N Ldf ifo
for t 0: stator windings short-circuited: va = vb = vc = 0

rotor speed constant and equal to synchronous speed : = N
(not valid for long durations !)
constant field voltage vf = vfo = Rf ifo
damper windings ignored (for simplicity of derivation)
30 / 75
Deriving the expression of short-circuit currents

Field winding: Vf (s) =
Rf if0
s
Park equiv. windings: Vd (s) = Vq (s) = Vo (s) = 0

The o winding can be discarded. Indeed:
dio
Ra io + Loo
=0
dt
r
and
io (0) =
2 1
(ia (0) + ib (0) + ic (0)) = 0
3 2
Laplace transform of Park eqs. with windings d1 , q1 and q2 omitted:

(Ra + sLdd )Id (s) + sLdf If (s) + N Lqq Iq (s) Lfd if0
sLdf Id (s) + (Rf + sLff )If (s) Lff if0
Rf if0
(1)
(Ra + sLqq )Iq (s) N (Ldd Id (s) + Lfd If (s))
(2)
(3)
31 / 75
From (2):
If (s) =
sLfd
i0
Id (s) + f
Rf + sLff
s
Substituting If (s) in (1):

[Ra + s`d (s)] Id (s) + N Lqq Iq (s) = 0
0
with `d (s) = Ldd
1 + sTd
0
1 + sTdo
and
Tdo =
(4)
Lff
Rf
Substituting If (s) in (3):
N `d (s)Id (s) + [Ra + sLqq ] Iq (s) =
3Eq0
s
(5)
Lets solve (4) and (5) to obtain Id (s) and Iq (s) (2 eqs. with 2 unknowns).
32 / 75
Determinant:
Ra2
=
+ Ra
`d (s)Lqq

1
1
+
Lqq
`d (s)
s +s +
N2

`d (s)Lqq
Simplifications accounting for the small value of Ra :

assume Ra = 0: Too simplified (some components of currents would not
vanish as observed)
assume Ra2 = 0 only: still heavy and unnecessarily detailed
0
Belgian compromise: Ra2 ' 0 and `d (s) ' lim `d (s) = Ld .

s

1
1
2
2
2
2
2
+ 0 s + N `d (s)Lqq = s +
s + N `d (s)Lqq
' s + Ra
Lqq
T
Ld
with T =
2
Ra
1
0
Ld
1
+
1
Lqq
(6)
33 / 75
Solving with respect to Id (s) and Iq (s):
0
N 3Eq0
N 3Eq0 (1 + sTdo )

=

Id (s) =
0
s`d (s) s 2 + T2 s + N2
Ldd s(1 + sTd ) s 2 + T2 s + N2
0
(Ra + s`d (s)) 3Eq0
3Eq

'

Iq (s) =
2
s`d (s)Lqq s 2 + T s + N2
Lqq s 2 + T2 s + N2
s2 +
2
s + N2 :
T
4
4N2 ' 4N2
T2

2
2
factorized into: s +
+ jN
s+
jN
T
T
discriminant:
34 / 75
Using inverse Laplace transform, neglecting small terms compared to N and

taking (6) into account:
0
0

0
3Eq 0 1
3Eq t/T
1
t/Td
id (t) =
+ 3Eq
0 e
+
e
cos N t
0
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
0
3Eq t/T
iq (t) =
e
sin N t
Xq
Using inverse Park transform iT = P 1 iP = P T iP :

0
Eq0
0 1
1
ia (t) = 2
cos(N t + o ) + 2Eq
0 e t/Td cos(N t + o )
Xd
Xd
Xd
Eq0 t/T
+ 2 0e
cos(N t + o ) cos N t
Xd
Eq0
+ 2 e t/T sin(N t + o ) sin N t
Xq
35 / 75
Using some trigonometric identities:

0
1
1
1
t/Td
ia (t) = 2Eq0
+
e
cos(N t + o )
0
Xd
Xd
Xd

01 1
1
e t/T cos(2N t + o )
+ 2Eq
0
2 Xd
Xq

01 1
1
+ 2Eq
e t/T cos o
0 +
2 Xd
Xq
For the field current:
If (s) =
3N Lfd Eq0
i0

+ f
0
s
Rf Ldd (1 + sTd ) s 2 + T2 s + N2
0
if (t) = if0 +
Xd Xd 0 t/Td0 Xd Xd 0 t/T
if e
if e
cos N t
0
0
Xd
Xd
Refer to Chapter 12 of ELEC0029 for the interpretation of the various terms in

terms of magnetic fields.
36 / 75
More accurate expression taking into account the effect of the damper windings:
ia (t)

0
00
1
1
1
1
1
t/Td
t/Td
=
+
e
+
e
cos(N t +
0
00
0
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd

1
1
1
+ 2Eqo
00
2 Xd
Xq00

1
1
1
+
+ 2Eqo
e t/T cos o
00
2 Xd
Xq00
2Eqo
00
T =
Xd
Ra
37 / 75
Numerical example :
Eqo = 1, o = 0
Xd = Xq = 2
Xd = 0.3
0
Tdo = 9
00
00
Xd = Xq = 0.2
Ra = 0.005 pu
00
Td = 0.0333 s
from which one obtains:

0
Td = Tdo
Xd
= 1.35 s
Xd
00
T =
Xd
= 40 pu
Ra
40
= 0.127 s
250
38 / 75
39 / 75
Rotor motion
Rotor motion
m angular position of rotor, i.e. angle between one axis attached to the rotor
and one attached to the stator. Linked to electrical angle through:
= p m
p number of pairs of poles
m mechanical angular speed:
m =
electrical angular speed:
d
m
dt
d
= pm
dt
Basic equation of rotating masses (friction torque neglected):

I
d
m = Tm Te
dt
I moment of inertia of all rotating masses

Tm mechanical torque provided by prime mover (turbine, diesel motor, etc.)
Te electromagnetic torque developed by synchronous machine
40 / 75
Rotor motion
Motion equation expressed in terms of :

I d
= Tm Te
p dt
Dividing by the base torque TB = SB /mB :
I mB d
= Tmpu Tepu
pSB dt
Defining the speed in per unit:
1 d
pu =
=
N
N dt
the motion eq. becomes:
2
I mB
d
pu = Tmpu Tepu
SB dt
Defining the inertia constant:
1
I 2
H = 2 mB
SB
the motion eq. becomes:
d
2H pu = Tmpu Tepu
dt
41 / 75
Rotor motion
Inertia constant H
called specific energy
ratio
kinetic energy of rotating masses at nominal speed

apparent nominal power of machine
has dimension of a time

with values in rather narrow interval, whatever the machine power.
H
thermal plant
p=1 : 2 4s
p=2 : 3 7s
hydro plant
1.5 3 s
42 / 75
Rotor motion
Relationship between H and launching time tl

tl : time to reach the nominal angular speed mB when applying to the rotor,
initially at rest, the nominal mechanical torque:
TN =
PN
SB cos N
=
mB
mB
PN : turbine nominal power (in MW)
cos N : nominal power factor
TN
= cos N
TB
cos N
cos N
Uniformly accelerated motion:
mpu = mpu (0) +
t=
t
2H
2H
2H
At t = tl , mpu = 1
tl =
cos N
Nominal mechanical torque in per unit:
TNpu =
Remark. Some define tl with reference to TB , not TN . In this case, tl = 2H.

43 / 75
Rotor motion
Compensated motion equation

In some simplified models, the damper windings are neglected. To compensate for
the neglected damping torque, a correction term can be added to the motion eq. :
d
pu + D(pu sys ) = Tmpu Tepu
D0
dt
is the system angular frequency (defined more precisely in Chapter 3).
2H
where sys
Electromagnetic torque expression

Te = p(d iq q id )
In per unit:
B
Te
=p
(d iq q id )
TB
pSB
Tepu = dpu iqpu qpu idpu
In matrix form:
Te = T
P P iP
0
where P = 1
0
1 0
0 0
0 0
44 / 75
The Quasi-sinusoidal (or phasor) approximation

Standard approximation in the analysis of short- and long-term dynamics
main difference with respect to electromagnetic transient studies
consists in neglecting transformer voltages d/dt in stator equations.
Revisiting the example of a short-circuit of a synchronous machine
operating at no load
[Ra + s`d (s)] Id (s) + N Lqq Iq (s)
N `d (s)Id (s) + [Ra + sLqq ] Iq (s)
Id (s)
Iq (s)
3Eq0
s
0
N 3Eq0 (1 + sTdo )

0
Ldd s(1 + sTd ) s 2 + T2 s + N2
(Ra + s`d (s)) 3Eq0

'0
s`d (s)Lqq s 2 + T2 s + N2
45 / 75
ia (t)

0
1
1
1
t/Td
=
+
e
cos(N t + o )
0
Xd
Xd
Xd

1
1 1
+ 2Eq0
0
2 Xd
Xq

1 1
1
+ 2Eq0
e t/T cos o
0 +
2 Xd
Xq
2Eq0
system dynamics approximated by a succession of sinusoidal regimes

with amplitude varying in time
In this simple example, the rotor speed was assumed constant.
In reality the various machine speeds vary.
system dynamics approximated by a succession of sinusoidal regimes, the
amplitude and phase angle of the alternating quantities varying with time
v (t) =
2 V (t) cos (N t + (t))
i(t) = 2 I (t) cos (N t + (t))

46 / 75
limit of validity:
V (t), (t), I (t), (t), etc. . . must vary smoothly with respect to the period
TN = 2/N
do not include in the model phenomena whose time constant is small
compared to TN ! Illusory gain in accuracy !
notions and techniques relative to sinusoidal regime can be extended to the

quasi-sinusoidal regime, for instance:
rotating vectors and phasors:
v (t) =
2 V (t) cos (N t + (t))

(t) = V (t) e jN t+j(t) v (t) = 2 re V
(t)
V
active, reactive and complex powers, which vary with time.
phasor approximation
47 / 75
Extensions of results relative to steady state

Assuming balanced three-phase voltages of the form:
va
vb
vc
2V (t) cos(N t + (t))
2
)
3
2
)
=
2V (t) cos(N t + (t) +
3
=
2V (t) cos(N t + (t)
lets show that vd is still the projection on the d axis of the rotating vector
relative to voltage va .
vd
=
=
and in per unit:
r

2
2
2
cos va + cos(
) vb + cos( +
) vc = . . .
3
3
3
3V (t) cos( N t (t))

vd = V (t) cos( N t (t)
QED.
48 / 75
Constant rotor speed assumption ' N

Examples:
1
oscillation of with a magnitude of 90o and period of 1 second superposed

to the uniform motion at synchronous speed:
= o + 2fN t +
sin 2t
2
= 100 + 2 cos 2t ' 314 + 10 cos 2t
at its maximum, it deviates from nominal by 10/314 = 3 % only.

2
in a large interconnected system, after primary frequency control, frequency

settles at f 6= fN . |f fN | = 0.1 Hz is already a large deviation. In this case,
machine speeds deviate from nominal by 0.1/50 = 0.2 % only.
a small isolated system may experience larger frequency deviations. But even
for |f fN | = 1 Hz, the machine speeds deviate from nominal by 1/50 = 2 %
only.
49 / 75
Model with transformer voltages neglected and speed set to nominal value
vP
= RP iP N P P
(7)
= LPP iP + LPr ir
(8)
r
vr
LT
Pr iP
+ Lrr ir
d
= Rr ir + r
dt
(9)
(10)
50 / 75
Machine behaviour just after a voltage change
Machine behaviour just after a voltage change (in

particular a short-circuit)
fluxes in rotor windings do not change
rotor currents vary significantly (to keep fluxes constant!)
remark: the stator fluxes do not change either but with the transformer
voltages neglected, the model allows them to change instantaneously.
Obtaining ir from (9):
1 T
ir = L1
rr r Lrr LPr iP
and substituting into (8):

P
1 T
= LPP iP + LPr (L1
rr r Lrr LPr iP )
T
1
(LPP LPr L1
rr LPr )iP + LPr Lrr r
(11)
It is easily shown that:
T
LPP LPr L1
rr LPr
Loo
00
= LP = 0
0
0
00
Ld
0
0
0
00
Lq
(12)
51 / 75
Introducing (11) and (12) into (7):

00
vP = (RP + N PLP )iP N PLPr L1

rr r
Decomposing into d and q components (o left aside):
00
00
vd = Ra id Xq iq + ed
00
00
vq = Ra iq + Xd id + eq
0
00
with ed = N PLPr L1
rr r
00
eq
00
00
00
00
ed , eq are the e.m.f. behind subtransient reactances

ed , eq being proportional to magnetic fluxes:
are continuous (rotor fluxes evolving according to diff. eqs.) can be
computed from the pre-disturbance situation
do not vary much after a disturbance can be considered constant over
00
' 3Tdo
the above equations are similar to the Park eqs. in steady state, except for
the presence of an emf in the d axis.
52 / 75
00
00
In practice Xd ' Xq and the eqs. can be combined into:

00
a + RaIa + jX 00 Ia
E = V
which leads to the following equivalent circuit:
used in short-circuit calculations.
53 / 75
Case study
Case study
generator at bus 2:
synchronous machine modelled with 4 rotor windings
constant excitation and constant mechanical torque
fault on line 1-3:
takes place very near bus 3 applied to bus 3
applied at t = 1 s, cleared at t = 1.1 s by opening one circuit of transm. line
load at bus 5 : exponential model ( = 1.5, = 2.5)
54 / 75
Case study
55 / 75
Case study
56 / 75
Classical model of the synchronous machine

Very simplified model used:
in some analytical developments
in qualitative reasoning
for fast assessment of transient (angle) stability.
Only dynamics = rotor motion. Electrical part simplified as follows:
1
damper windings d1 et q2 ignored
2
magnetic flux in f and q1 windings assumed constant
model valid over no more than ' 1 second
3
same transient reactances in both axes: Xd0 = Xq0 = X 0
4
stator resistance neglected.
vd
= X 0 iq + ed0
vq
= X 0 id + eq0
which can be combined into:

+ jX 0I = E 0 = E 0
V
57 / 75
Modified rotor motion equation

ed0 and eq0 constant
E 0 fixed with respect to d and q axes
differs from by a constant
1 d
= pu
N dt
1 d
= pu
N dt
Rotor motion equation involving powers instead of torques:

d
pu = pu Tmpu pu Tepu
dt
= mechanical power Pm produced by prime mover
2H pu
pu Tmpu
pu Tepu = power transmitted through torque = pr s

= active power Ppu produced by the machine (quasi-sinusoidal approx.,
balanced operating conditions, Ra neglected).
Assuming pu ' 1:
2H
d
pu = Pmpu Ppu
dt
58 / 75
Per unit system for the synchronous machine model

Recall on per unit systems
Consider two magnetically coupled coils with:
1 = L11 i1 + L12 i2
2 = L21 i1 + L22 i2
For simplicity, we take the same time base in both circuits: t1B = t2B
In per unit: 1pu
2pu
L11 i1
L12 i2
L12 I2B
1
=
+
= L11pu i1pu +
i2pu
1B
L1B I1B
L1B I1B
L1B I1B
2
L21 I1B
=
i1pu + L22pu i2pu
2B
L2B I2B
In Henry, one has L12 = L21 . We request to have the same in per unit:
L12pu = L21pu
I2B
I1B
=
L1B I1B
L2B I2B
S1B t1B = S2B t2B
S1B = S2B
A per unit system with t1B = t2B and S1B = S2B is called reciprocal
59 / 75
in the single phase

circuit equivalent to
stator windings
time
in each
of the d, q
windings
tB =
power
voltage
in each rotor
winding,
for instance f
1
1
=
N
2fN
SB = nominal apparent 3-phase

VB : nominal (rms)
phase-neutral
3VB
VfB : to be chosen
current
IB =
SB
3VB
3IB
SB
VfB
impedance
ZB =
3VB2
SB
3VB2
SB
2
VfB
SB
flux
VB tB
3VB tB
VfB tB
60 / 75
The equal-mutual-flux-linkage per unit system

For two magnetically coupled coils, it is shown that (see theory of transformer):
L11
L22
L`1
L`2
n1
n2
R
L11 L`1
L12
L22 L`2
n12
R
n1 n2
R
n22
R
self-inductance of coil 1
self-inductance of coil 1
leakage inductance of coil 1
leakage inductance of coil 2
number of turns of coil 1
number of turns of coil 2
reluctance of the magnetic circuit followed by the magnetic field lines which
cross both windings; the field is created by i1 and i2 .
61 / 75
Assume we choose V1B and V2B such that:

V1B
n1
=
V2B
n2
In order to have the same base power in both circuits:
V1B I1B = V2B I2B
I1B
n2
=
I2B
n1
We have:
(L11 L`1 )I1B =
n12
n 2 n2
n1 n2
I1B = 1 I2B =
I2B = L12 I2B
R
R n1
R
(13)
The flux created by I2B in coil 1 is equal to the flux created by I1B in the part of
coil 1 crossed by the magnetic field lines common to both coils.
Similarly in coil 2:
(L22 L`2 )I2B =
n22
n 2 n1
n1 n2
I2B = 2 I1B =
I1B = L12 I1B
R
R n2
R
(14)
This per unit system is said to yield equal mutual flux linkages (EMFL)
62 / 75
Alternative definition of base currents

From respectively (13) and (14) :
I1B
L12
=
I2B
L11 L`1
I1B
L22 L`2
=
I2B
L12
A property of this pu system

L12 I2B
(L11 L`1 )
=
= L11pu L`1pu
L1B I1B
L1B
L21 I1B
(L22 L`2 )
=
=
= L22pu L`2pu
L2B I2B
L2B
L12pu =
L21pu
In this pu system, self-inductance = mutual inductance + leakage reactance.

Does not hold true for inductances in Henry !
The inductance matrix of the two coils takes on the form:

L11 L12
L`1 + M
M
L=
=
L12 L22
M
L`2 + M
63 / 75
Application to synchronous machine

we have to choose a base voltage (or current) in each rotor winding.
Lets first consider the field winding f (1 f , 2 d)
we would like to use the EMFL per unit system
we do not know the number of turns of the equivalent circuits f , d, etc.
instead, we can use one of the alternative definitions of base currents:
I
L L`
fB = dd
Ldf
3IB
IfB =
3IB
Ldd L`
Ldf
Ldd , L` can be measured

Ldf can be obtained by measuring the no-load voltage Eq produced by a
known field current if :
N Ldf
3Eq
Eq = if
Ldf =
(15)
N if
3
the base voltage is obtained from VfB =
SB
IfB
64 / 75
What about the other rotor windings ?

one cannot access the d1 , q1 and q2 windings to measure Ldd1 , Lqq1 et Lqq2
using formulae similar to (15)
one may assume there exist base currents Id1 B , Iq1 B et Iq2 B leading to the
EMFL per unit system, but their values are not known
hence, we cannot compute voltages in Volt or currents in Ampere in those
windings (only in pu)
not a big issue in so far as we do not have to connect anything to those
windings (unlike the excitation system to the field winding). . .
65 / 75
Dynamic equivalent circuits of the synchronous machine
In the EMFL per unit system, the Park inductance matrices take on the simplified
form:
L` + Md
Md
Md
Md
L`f + Md
Md
Ld =
Md
Md
L`d1 + Md
L` + Mq
Mq
Mq
Mq
L`q1 + Mq
Mq
Lq =
Mq
Mq
L`q2 + Mq
For symmetry reasons, same leakage inductance L` in d and q windings
66 / 75
67 / 75
Exercises
Exercises
Exercise 1
A machine has the following characteristics:
nominal frequency: 50 Hz
nominal apparent power: 1330 MVA
stator nominal voltage: 24 kV
Xd = 0.9 (value of per phase equivalent)
X` = 0.1083 (value of per phase equivalent)
field current giving the nominal stator voltage at no-load: 2954 A
choose the base power, voltage and current in the stator windings
choose the base power, voltage and current in the field winding, using the
EMFL per unit system
compute Xd , X` and Ldf in per unit.
68 / 75
Exercises
Exercise 2
A 1330 MVA, 50 Hz machine has the following characteristics (values in pu on the
machine base):
X` = 0.20 pu
Xd = 2.10 pu
Xd0 = 0.30 pu
00
Xd = 0.25 pu
00
Tdo = 0.03 s
0
Tdo
= 9.10 s
Ra = 0.004 pu
Xq = 2.10 pu
Xq0 = 0.73 pu
00
Xq = 0.256 pu
00
Tqo = 0.20 s
0
Tqo
= 2.30 s
Determine the inductances and resistances of the Park model, using the EMFL per
00
00
unit system. Check your answers by computing Xd and Xq from the Park
inductance matrices.
Hints:
time constants must be converted in per unit !
identify first the parameters of the equivalent circuits.
69 / 75
Modelling of material saturation
Saturation of magnetic material modifies:

the machine inductances
the initial operating point (in particular the rotor position)
the field current required to obtain a given stator voltage.
Notation
parameters with the upperscript
refer to unsaturated values
parameters without this upperscript refer to saturated values.
70 / 75
Open-circuit magnetic characteristic

Machine operating at no load, rotating at nominal angular speed N .
Terminal voltage Eq measured for various values of the field current if .
saturation factor: k =
Eq = N Md if
Example of saturation model: k =
OA
O 0 A0
= 0 <1
OB
OA
with Md = k Mdu
1
1 + m(Eq )n
The above characteristic is measured in the d axis (field due to if only).

71 / 75
Leakage and air gap flux

The flux linkage in the d winding is decomposed into:
d = L` id + ad
L` id : leakage flux, not subject to saturation (path mainly in the air)
ad : direct-axis component of the air gap flux, subject to saturation.
Expression of ad :
ad = d L` id = Md (id + if + id1 )
Expression of aq :
aq = q L` iq = Mq (iq + iq1 + iq2 )
Considering that the d and q axes are orthogonal, the air gap flux is given by:
q
2 + 2
ag = ad
(16)
aq
72 / 75
Saturation characteristic in loaded conditions

saturation is different in the d and q axes, especially for a salient pole
machine (air gap larger in q axis !). Hence, different saturation factors (kd
and kq ) should be considered
we assume that only the direct-axis saturation characteristic is available,
which is often the case in practice
in this case, the same saturation factor k is assumed in both axes
k is obtained from the open-circuit saturation characteristic as follows.
In no-load conditions:
ad = Md if
k=
and aq = 0
ag = Md if
1
1
1
=
=
1 + m(Eq )n
1 + m(N Md if )n
1 + m(N ag )n
(17)
In loaded conditions: (17) is assumed to hold true with ag given by (16).

73 / 75
Complete model
d
= L` id + ad
= L`f if + ad
q1
= L`q1 if + aq
d1
= L`d1 id1 + ad
q2
= L`q2 if + aq
ad
= Md (id + if + id1 )
Mu
=
qd
n
2 + 2
1 + m N ad
aq
aq
= Mq (iq + iq1 + iq2 )

Mqu
=
q
n
2 + 2
1 + m N ad
aq
Md
vd
d
f
dt
d
d1
dt
2H
dt
= Ra id N q
= vf Rf if
= Rd1 id1
Mq
vq
d
q1
dt
d
q2
dt
= L` iq + aq
= Ra iq + N d
= Rq1 iq1
= Rq2 iq2
= Tm (d iq q id )
74 / 75
Exercise
Exercise
Bring the model of the previous slide in the form:
d
x = f(x, y, u)
dt
0 = g(x, y, u)
with the vector of differential states:
x = [f d1 q1 q2 ]T ,
the vector of algebraic states:
y = [id iq ad aq ]T ,
and the vector of inputs:
u = [vd vq vf Tm ]T
75 / 75

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Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Modelling the synchronous machine

Modelling the synchronous machine

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Modelling the synchronous machine

Basic stator equations

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Modelling the synchronous machine

Basic rotor equations

Rr = diag(Rf Rd1 Rq1 Rq2 )

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Modelling the synchronous machine

LTT and LTr vary with the rotor position

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Modelling the synchronous machine

Lo , L1 , Lm > 0 depend on the geometry and permittivity of material

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Modelling the synchronous machine

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Park transformation and equations

Park transformation and equations

It is easily shown that

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Park transformation and equations

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Park transformation and equations

Park equations of the synchronous machine

: speed voltages (or emf)

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Park transformation and equations

Park inductance matrix

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Park transformation and equations

Park equations a bit more detailed

(o winding left aside)

For the (d, f , d1 ) subset we have:

magnetic fluxes and currents:

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Energy, power and torque

Energy, power and torque

instantaneous power leaving the stator

Instantaneous power leaving the stator:

= va ia + vb ib + vc ic = vTT iT = vPT PP T iP = vPT iP = vd id + vq iq + vo io

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Energy, power and torque

Power balance of rotor:

Instantaneous power entering the field winding:

= vf if = vf if + vd1 id1 + vq1 iq1 + vq2 iq2

d iq q id ) = power transmitted through torque

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

Energy, power and torque

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

The machine in steady-state operating conditions

The machine in steady-state operating conditions

three-phase balanced currents in stator windings

rotor rotates at synchronous angular speed:

Dynamics of the synchronous machine

The machine in steady-state operating conditions

Going back to stator (phase a for instance):

= emf proportional to field current = open-circuit voltage.

Dynamics of the synchronous machine