Democracy and Suppression

Democracy and suppression
Contents
1
Democracy
1.1
History of democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Medieval institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3
Indigenous peoples of the Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4
Rise of democracy in modern national governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.1.5
Contemporary trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.1.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.1.7
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.1.8
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.1.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
1.1.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
Third Wave Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.2.1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.2.2
The Third Wave
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
1.2.3
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
1.2.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
1.2.5
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
Surage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
1.3.1
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.3.2
Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.3.3
Forms of exclusion from surage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
1.3.4
History around the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
1.3.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
1.3.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
1.3.7
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
1.3.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
Womens surage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
1.4.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
1.4.2
Surage movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
1.4.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
1.2
1.3
1.4
ii
CONTENTS
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.4.4
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
1.4.5
By country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
1.4.6
Womens surage in religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
1.4.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
1.4.8
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
1.4.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
1.4.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
1.4.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
Timeline of womens surage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
1.5.1
18th century
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
1.5.2
19th century
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
1.5.3
20th century
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
1.5.4
21st century
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
1.5.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
1.5.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
1.5.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
Democratization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
1.6.1
Causes of democratization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
1.6.2
Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
1.6.3
Indicators of democratization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
1.6.4
Views on democratization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
1.6.5
Democratization in other contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
1.6.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
1.6.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
1.6.8
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
1.6.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
Revolutions of 1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
1.7.1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
1.7.2
Solidaritys impact grows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
1.7.3
National political movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
1.7.4
Malta Summit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
1.7.5
Election chronology in Central and Eastern Europe 19891991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
1.7.6
Albania and Yugoslavia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
1.7.7
Dissolution of the Soviet Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
1.7.8
Other events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
1.7.9
Political reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
1.7.10 Economic reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
1.7.11 Ideological continuation of communism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
1.7.12 Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
1.7.13 Remembrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
1.7.14 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
CONTENTS
iii
1.7.15 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
1.7.16 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
1.7.17 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
Spanish transition to democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
1.8.1
Political role of Juan Carlos I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
1.8.2
First government of Adolfo Surez (July 1976 - June 1977) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
1.8.3
First elections and the draft of the Constitution
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
1.8.4
Governments of the UCD
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
1.8.5
The PSOE in government
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
1.8.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
1.8.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
1.8.8
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
1.8.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
Portuguese transition to democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
1.9.1
Background: the Salazar-Caetano era
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
1.9.2
Spnola and revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
1.9.3
The transition to civilian rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
1.9.4
Consolidation of democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
1.9.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
1.9.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
1.10 Velvet Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
1.10.1 Prior to the revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
1.10.2 Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
1.8
1.9
1.10.3 Aftermath
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
1.10.4 Open questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

1.10.5 External factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
1.10.6 Pace of change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
1.10.7 Jingled keys
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
1.10.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

1.10.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
1.10.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
1.10.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
1.11 Chilean transition to democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
1.11.1 1988 plebiscite and reform of the Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
1.11.2 Aylwin administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
1.11.3 Frei Ruiz-Tagle administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1.11.4 Arrest and trial of Pinochet and Lagos administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1.11.5 Bachelet administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
1.11.6 Piera administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
1.11.7 Second Bachelet administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
1.11.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
iv
CONTENTS
1.11.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
1.11.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
1.12 Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
1.12.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
1.12.2 Initial negotiations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
1.12.3 CODESA I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1.12.4 CODESA II and the breakdown of negotiations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1.12.5 Resumption of negotiations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1.12.6 Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1.12.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1.13 Perestroika . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
1.13.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
1.13.2 Economic reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
1.13.3 Comparison with China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
1.13.4 Education after perestroika . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.13.5 Perestroika and glasnost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.13.6 Womens activism in Russia during perestroika . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.13.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
1.13.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
1.13.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
1.13.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Human rights
2.1
2.2
2.3
117
History of human rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

2.1.1
Ancient World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.1.2
Modern human rights movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.1.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.1.4
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Three generations of human rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

2.2.1
First-generation human rights
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.2.2
Second-generation human rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.2.3
Third-generation human rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.2.4
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.2.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2.2.6
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2.2.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Civil and political rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

2.3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
2.3.2
Protection of rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
2.3.3
Other rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
2.3.4
Civil rights movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
2.3.5
Problems and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
CONTENTS
2.4
2.3.6
First-generation rights
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.3.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.3.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.3.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Universal Declaration of Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

2.4.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.4.2
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.4.3
International Human Rights Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.4.4
Signicance and legal eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.4.5
Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.4.6
Organizations promoting the UDHR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
2.4.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
2.4.8
Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.4.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

2.5
2.6
2.7
Virginia Declaration of Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

2.5.1
Drafting and adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.5.2
Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
2.5.3
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
2.5.4
Inuence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.5.5
Quotations derived from the Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.5.6
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.5.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

2.6.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.6.2
Philosophical and theoretical context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.6.3
Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.6.4
Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
2.6.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
2.6.6
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
2.6.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.6.8
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.6.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Four Freedoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

2.7.1
Historical context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
2.7.2
Declarations
2.7.3
Opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
2.7.4
Hypocrisies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.7.5
United Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.7.6
Disarmament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.7.7
Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
vi
CONTENTS
2.7.8
Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.7.9
Use in popular culture
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2.7.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

2.7.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2.7.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2.8
2.9
Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

2.8.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2.8.2
Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2.8.3
Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
2.8.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
2.8.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
2.8.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Minority rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

2.9.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
2.9.2
National minorities in the law of the EC/EU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2.9.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2.9.4
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2.9.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2.9.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2.10 African-American Civil Rights Movement (195468) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

2.10.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2.10.2 Mass action replacing litigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
2.10.3 Key events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
2.10.4 Other issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
2.10.5 Prison reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
2.10.6 Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
2.10.7 Documentary lms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
2.10.8 Activist organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
2.10.9 Individual activists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
2.10.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2.10.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2.10.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
2.10.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
2.11 Martin Luther King, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
2.11.1 Early life and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
2.11.2 Ideas, inuences, and political stances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
2.11.3 Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
2.11.4 Southern Christian Leadership Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
2.11.5 March on Washington, 1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
2.11.6 Selma Voting Rights Movement and Bloody Sunday, 1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
2.11.7 Chicago Open Housing Movement, 1966 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
CONTENTS
vii
2.11.8 Opposition to the Vietnam War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

2.11.9 Poor Peoples Campaign, 1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
2.11.10 Assassination and aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
2.11.11 FBI and Kings personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
2.11.12 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
2.11.13 Awards and recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
2.11.14 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
2.11.15 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
2.11.16 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
2.11.17 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
2.12 Rosa Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
2.12.1 Early years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
2.12.2 Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
2.12.3 Detroit years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
2.12.4 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
2.12.5 Death and funeral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
2.12.6 Legacy and honors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
2.12.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
2.12.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
2.12.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
2.12.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
2.12.11 Related information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
2.13 Malcolm X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
2.13.1 Early years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
2.13.2 Nation of Islam period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
2.13.3 Disillusionment and departure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
2.13.4 Activity immediately after leaving NOI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
2.13.5 Becoming a Sunni Muslim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
2.13.6 Pilgrimage to Mecca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
2.13.7 Traveling abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
2.13.8 Return to United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
2.13.9 Death threats and intimidation from Nation of Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
2.13.10 Assassination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
2.13.11 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
2.13.12 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
2.13.13 Published works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
2.13.14 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
2.13.15 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
2.13.16 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
2.13.17 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
2.14 We Shall Overcome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
viii
CONTENTS
2.14.1 Origins as gospel, folk, and labor song . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
2.14.2 Role of Highlander Folk School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
2.14.3 Use in the 1960s Civil Rights Movement and other protest movements . . . . . . . . . . . 261
2.14.4 Widespread adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
2.14.5 Copyright and royalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
2.14.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
2.14.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
2.14.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
2.14.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
2.14.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
2.15 Black Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
2.15.1 Origin as a political slogan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
2.15.2 A range of ideologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
2.15.3 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
2.15.4 Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
2.15.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
2.15.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
2.15.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
2.15.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
2.16 LGBT rights at the United Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
2.16.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
2.16.2 General Assembly resolution and declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
2.16.3 UN Human Rights Council resolutions and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
2.16.4 Treatment of UN sta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
2.16.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
2.16.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
2.16.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Genocide, racism and surpression

3.1
280
Dictatorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
3.1.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
3.1.2
Roman Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
3.1.3
19th century Latin America caudillo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
3.1.4
Nazism and fascism in the 20th century dictatorships
3.1.5
Dictatorships of Africa and Asia after World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
3.1.6
Democratization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
3.1.7
Measuring dictatorships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
3.1.8
Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
3.1.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
3.1.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

3.1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
3.2
Crimes against humanity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
CONTENTS
ix
3.2.1
History of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
3.2.2
Types of crime against humanity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
3.2.3
Legal status of crimes against humanity in international law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
3.2.4
United Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
3.2.5
International courts and criminal tribunals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
3.2.6
Council of Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
3.2.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
3.2.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
3.2.9
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
3.2.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

3.3
Genocide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
3.3.1
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
3.3.2
As a crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
3.3.3
Criticisms of the CPPCG and other denitions of genocide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
3.3.4
International prosecution of genocide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
3.3.5
Genocide in history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
3.3.6
Stages of genocide, inuences leading to genocide, and eorts to prevent it . . . . . . . . . 300
3.3.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
3.3.8
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
3.3.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
3.3.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

3.3.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
3.4
3.5
Genocides in history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

3.4.1
Alternate denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
3.4.2
PreWorld War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
3.4.3
Twentieth century (from World War I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
3.4.4
International prosecution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
3.4.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
3.4.6
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
3.4.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
3.4.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Ethnic cleansing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

3.5.1
Ethnic cleansing vs. genocide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
3.5.2
Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
3.5.3
Origins of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
3.5.4
Ethnic cleansing as a military, political and economic tactic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
3.5.5
Ethnic cleansing as a crime under international law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
3.5.6
Silent ethnic cleansing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
3.5.7
Instances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
3.5.8
Criticism of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
3.5.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
CONTENTS
3.5.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
3.5.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
3.5.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
3.6
3.7
List of ethnic cleansings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

3.6.1
Ancient and Medieval periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
3.6.2
Early modern period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
3.6.3
19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
3.6.4
20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
3.6.5
21st century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
3.6.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Racism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
3.7.1
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
3.7.2
Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
3.7.3
Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
3.7.4
Declarations and international law against racial discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
3.7.5
Ideology
3.7.6
Ethnic conicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
3.7.7
Academic variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
3.7.8
Evolutionary theories about the origins of racism
3.7.9
Research on inuencing factors
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
3.7.10 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

3.7.11 As state-sponsored activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
3.7.12 Inter-minority variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
3.7.13 Unconscious Racism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
3.7.14 Anti-racism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
3.7.15 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
3.7.16 References & notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
3.7.17 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
3.7.18 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
3.8
Apartheid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
3.8.1
Precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
3.8.2
Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
3.8.3
Homeland system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
3.8.4
Forced removals
3.8.5
Petty apartheid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
3.8.6
Coloured classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
3.8.7
Women under apartheid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
3.8.8
Sport under apartheid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
3.8.9
Asians during apartheid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
3.8.10 Conservatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

3.8.11 Internal resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
CONTENTS
xi
3.8.12 International relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

3.8.13 State security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
3.8.14 Final years of apartheid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
3.8.15 Contrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
3.8.16 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
3.8.17 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
3.8.18 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
3.8.19 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
3.9
Statens institut fr rasbiologi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

3.9.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
3.9.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
425
4.1
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
4.2
Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
4.3
Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Chapter 1
Democracy
1.1 History of democracy
contrasts arise when the village and the city are examined as political communities. In urban governments, all
other forms of rule monarchy, tyranny, aristocracy, and
oligarchy have ourished.[2]
Proto-democratic societies
In recent decades scholars such as political theorist John

Keane explored the advancements toward democratic
government that preceded Ancient Greece. Keane, in his
work The Life and Death of Democracy, cites the ancient
civilization of Sumer in Mesopotamia, occupying areas
we now know as Syria, Iran and Iraq, as a model for early
democracy. He considers the institutions of these ancient
societies as a precursor to the system of democracy in
Ancient Greece around 2600 BCE, which developed afThe Acropolis of Athens by Leo von Klenze.
ter the appearance of the earliest civilizations in Ancient
Democracy can be traced back from the present day to Egypt and the Ancient Near East.[4]
classical Athens in the 6th century B.C.E. Democracy
is a type of political system, or a system of decisionmaking within an institution, organization, etc., in which
all members have the equal share to power.[1] In modern
representative democracy, this formal equality is embodied primarily in the right to vote.
1.1.1
Antiquity
Historic origins
Although it is generally believed that the concepts of
democracy and constitution were created in one particular place and time identied as Ancient Athens circa
508 BCi[] there is evidence to suggest that democratic
forms of government, in a broad sense, may have existed
in several areas of the world well before the turn of the
5th century.[2] Within that broad sense it is plausible to
assume that democracy in one form or another arises naturally in any well-bonded group, such as a tribe. This
is tribalism or primitive democracy. A primitive democracy is identied in small communities or villages when
the following take place: face-to-face discussion in the The tablet containing the epic of Gilgamesh.
village council or there is a leader whose decisions are
supported by village elders or other cooperative modes Mesopotamia Thorkild Jacobsen has studied the preof government.[3] Nevertheless, on a larger scale sharper Babylonian Mesopotamia and uses Sumerian epic, myth,
1
2
and historical records to identify what he calls primitive
democracy. By this he means a government in which ultimate power rests with the mass of free male citizens,
although the various functions of government are as yet
little specialised [and] the power structure is loose. In
the early period of Sumer, kings such as Gilgamesh did
not hold the autocratic power which later Mesopotamian
rulers wielded. Rather, major city-states had a council of
elders and a council of young men (likely to be composed of free men bearing arms) that possessed the nal
political authority, and had to be consulted on all major
issues such as war.[5][6]
This pioneering work, while constantly cited, has invoked
little serious discussion and gained little outright acceptance. The criticism from other scholars focuses on the
use of the word democracy, since the same evidence
also can be interpreted convincingly to demonstrate a
power struggle between primitive monarchs and the nobility, a struggle in which the common people act more
as pawns than as the sovereign authority.[7] Jacobsen concedes that the vagueness of the evidence prohibits the
separation between the Mesopotamian democracy from a
primitive oligarchy.[8]
CHAPTER 1. DEMOCRACY
role of the assemblies and thus tout them as democracies; other scholars focus on the upper-class domination
of the leadership and possible control of the assembly
and see an oligarchy or an aristocracy.[14][15] Despite the
obvious power of the assembly, it has not yet been established whether the composition and participation was
truly popular. The rst main obstacle is the lack of evidence describing the popular power of the assembly. This
is reected in the Artha' shastra, an ancient handbook for
monarchs on how to rule eciently. It contains a chapter
on dealing with the sangas, which includes injunctions on
manipulating the noble leaders, yet it does not mention
how to inuence the mass of the citizensa surprising
omission if democratic bodies, not the aristocratic families, actively controlled the republican governments.[16]
Another issue is the persistence of the four-tiered Varna
class system.[14] The duties and privileges on the members of each particular castewhich were rigid enough
to prohibit someone sharing a meal with those of another
ordermight have aected the role members were expected to play in the state, regardless of the formal institutions. The lack of the concept of citizen equality across
caste system boundaries leads many scholars to believe
that the true nature of ganas and sanghas would not be
comparable to that of truly democratic institutions.[15]
India Another claim for early democratic institutions comes from the independent republics of India, Sparta For more details on this topic, see Sparta.
sanghas and ganas, which existed as early as the sixth Ancient Greece, in its early period, was a loose collection
century BC and persisted in some areas until the fourth
century BC. The evidence is scattered and no pure historical source exists for that period. In addition, Diodorus
(a Greek historian writing two centuries after the time of
Alexander the Great's invasion of India), without oering any detail, mentions that independent and democratic
states existed in India.[9] However, modern scholars note
that the word democracy at the third century BC and later
had been degraded and could mean any autonomous state
no matter how oligarchic it was.[10][11]
The main characteristics of the gana seem to be a
monarch, usually called raja, and a deliberative assembly. The assembly met regularly. It discussed all major
state decisions and at least in some states attendance was
open to all free men. It had also full nancial, administrative, and judicial authority. Other ocers, who are
rarely mentioned, obeyed the decisions of the assembly.
The monarch was elected by the gana and apparently he
always belonged to a family of the noble Ksatriya Varna.
The monarch coordinated his activities with the assembly
and in some states along with a council of other nobles.[12]
The Licchavis had a primary governing body of 7,077
rajas, the heads of the most important families. On the
other hand, the Shakyas , koliyas , mouryas , malla , and
Bas-relief of Lycurgus, one of 23 great lawgivers depicted in the
Licchavis, the Gautama Buddha's people, had the assemchamber of the U.S. House of Representatives.
bly open to all men, rich and poor.[13]
Scholars dier over how to describe these governments, of independent city states called poleis. Many of these
and the vague, sporadic quality of the evidence allows poleis were oligarchies.[17] The most prominent Greek
for wide disagreements. Some emphasize the central oligarchy, and the state with which democratic Athens
1.1. HISTORY OF DEMOCRACY
is most often compared, was Sparta. Yet Sparta, in its

rejection of private wealth as a primary social dierentiator, was a peculiar kind of oligarchy[18] and some
scholars note its resemblance to democracy.[19][20][21] In
Spartan government, the political power was divided between four bodies: two Spartan Kings (diarchy), gerousia
(Council of Gerontes (Elders), including the two kings),
the ephors (representatives who oversaw the kings) and
the apella (assembly of Spartans).
tional system, agoge, where all citizens irrespective of

wealth or status had the same education.[21] This was admired almost universally by contemporaries, from historians such as Herodotus and Xenophon to philosophers
such as Plato and Aristotle. In addition, the Spartan
women, unlike elsewhere, enjoyed every kind of luxury and intemperance including elementary rights such
as the right to inheritance, property ownership, and public
education.[28]
The two kings served as the head of the government.

They ruled simultaneously but came from two separate
lines. The dual kingship diluted the eective power of
the executive oce. The kings shared their judicial functions with other members of the gerousia. The members of the gerousia had to be over the age of 60 and
were elected for life. In theory, any Spartan over that
age could stand for election. However, in practice, they
were selected from wealthy, aristocratic families. The
gerousia possessed the crucial power of legislative initiative. The apella, the most democratic element, was the
assembly where Spartans above the age of 30 elected the
members of the gerousia and the ephors, and accepted or
rejected gerousias proposals.[22] Finally, the ve ephors
were chosen in apella to oversee the actions of the kings
and other public ocials and, if necessary, depose them.
They served for one year and could not be re-elected for a
second term. The ephors held great inuence on the formation of foreign policy and acted as the main executive
body of state. Additionally, they had full responsibility
for the Spartan educational system, which was essential
for maintaining the high standards of the Spartan army.
As Aristotle noted, ephors were the most important key
institution of state, but because often they were appointed
from the whole social body it resulted in very poor men
holding oce, with the ensuing possibility that they could
easily be bribed.[23][24]
Overall, the Spartans were remarkably free to criticize

their kings and they were able to depose and exile them.
However, despite these democratic elements in the Spartan constitution, there are two cardinal criticisms, classifying Sparta as an oligarchy. First, individual freedom
was restricted, since as Plutarch writes no man was allowed to live as he wished, but as in a military camp all
were engaged in the public service of their polis. And second, the gerousia eectively maintained the biggest share
of power of the various governmental bodies.[29][30]
The legendary creator of the Spartan system of rule was

the lawgiver Lycurgus. He is associated with the drastic
reforms that were instituted in Sparta after the revolt of
the helots in the second half of the 7th century BCE. In
order to prevent another helot revolt, Lycurgus devised
the highly militarized communal system that made Sparta
unique among the city-states of Greece. All his reforms
were directed towards the three Spartan virtues: equality
(among citizens), military tness, and austerity. It is also
possible that Lycurgus delineated the powers of the two
traditional organs of the Spartan government, the gerousia
and the apella.[25]
The reforms of Lycurgus were written as a list of
rules/laws called Great Rhetra, making it the worlds
rst written constitution.[26] In the following centuries,
Sparta became a military power, and its system of rule
was admired throughout the Greek world for its political stability.[27] In particular, the concept of equality
played an important role in Spartan society. The Spartans referred to themselves as (Homoioi, equals).
Equality was also reected in the Spartan public educa-
The political stability of Sparta also meant that no signicant changes in the constitution were made, but the
oligarchic elements of Sparta became even stronger, especially after the inux of gold and silver from the victories in the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars.
Athens
For more details on this topic, see Athenian democracy.
Athens is regarded as the birthplace of democracy and it is
considered an important reference point of democracy.i[]
Athens emerged in the 7th century BCE, like many other
poleis, with a dominating powerful aristocracy.[31] However, this domination led to exploitation, causing significant economic, political, and social problems. These
problems were exacerbated early in the sixth century and
as the many were enslaved to few, the people rose against
the notables.[32] At the same period in the Greek world,
many traditional aristocracies were disrupted by popular
revolutions, like Sparta in the second half of the 7th century BCE. Spartas constitutional reforms by Lycurgus introduced a hoplite state and showed how inherited governments can be changed and lead to military victory.[33]
After a period of unrest between the rich and the poor,
the Athenians of all classes turned to Solon to act as a
mediator between rival factions, and reached a generally
satisfactory solution to their problems.[34][35]
Solon and the foundations of democracy For more

details on this topic, see Solon.
Solon, an Athenian (Greek) of noble descent but moderate means, was a Lyric poet and later a lawmaker;
Plutarch placed him as one of the Seven Sages of the
ancient world.[35] Solon attempted to satisfy all sides by
alleviating the suering of the poor majority without re-
tocratic archons, and assigned political privileges on the
basis of productive wealth rather than noble birth. Some
of his reforms failed in the short term, yet he is often
credited with having laid the foundations for Athenian
democracy.[38][39]
Democracy under Cleisthenes and Pericles See also:

Cleisthenes, Ephialtes and Pericles
Even though the Solonian reorganization of the consti-
The Pnyx with the speakers platform, the meeting place of the
people of Athens.
tution improved the economic position of the Athenian

lower classes, it did not eliminate the bitter aristocratic
contentions for control of the archonship, the chief exBust of Solon from the National Museum, Naples.
ecutive post. Peisistratus became tyrant of Athens three
times and remained in power until his death in 527 BCE.
moving all the privileges of the rich minority.[36] Solon His sons Hippias and Hipparchus succeeded him.[40]
divided the Athenians into four property classes, with After the fall of tyranny and before the year 508507
dierent rights and duties for each. As the Rhetra did
was over, Cleisthenes proposed a complete reform of the
in the Lycurgian Sparta, Solon formalized the composi- system of government, which later was approved by the
tion and functions of the governmental bodies. Now, all popular Ecclesia.[41] Cleisthenes reorganized the popucitizens were entitled to attend the Ecclesia (Assembly) lation into ten tribes, with the aim to change the basis
and vote. Ecclesia became, in principle, the sovereign of political organization from the family loyalties to pobody, entitled to pass laws and decrees, elect ocials, litical ones,[42] and improve the armys organization.[43]
and hear appeals from the most important decisions of He also introduced the principle of equality of rights
the courts.[35] All but those in the poorest group might for all, isonomia,[41] by expanding access to power to
serve, a year at a time, on a new Boule of 400, which was more citizens.[44] During this period, the word democto prepare business for Ecclesia. The higher governmen- racy (Greek: rule by the people) was
tal posts, archons (magistrates), were reserved for citi- rst used by the Athenians to dene their new system of
zens of the top two income groups. The retired archons government.[45] In the next generation, Athens entered in
became members of the Areopagus (Council of the Hill its Golden Age by becoming a great center of literature
of Ares), and like the Gerousia in Sparta, it was able to and art.[46] The victories in Persian Wars encouraged the
check improper actions of the newly powerful Ecclesia. poorest Athenians (who participated in the military exSolon created a mixed timocratic and democratic system hibitions) to demand a greater say in the running of their
of institutions.[37]
city. In the late 460s, Ephialtes and Pericles presided over
Overall, the reforms of the lawgiver Solon in 594 BC
were devised to avert the political, economic, and moral
decline in archaic Athens and gave Athens its rst comprehensive code of law. The constitutional reforms eliminated enslavement of Athenians by Athenians, established rules for legal redress against over-reaching aris-
a radicalization of power that shifted the balance decisively to the poorest sections of society, by passing laws
which severely limited the powers of the Council of the
Areopagus and allowed thetes (Athenians without wealth)
to occupy public oce.[47] Pericles was distinguished as
its greatest democratic leader, even though he has been
accused of running a political machine. In the follow- with no judges, and they were selected by lot on a daily
ing passage, Thucydides recorded Pericles, in the funeral basis from an annual pool, also chosen by lot. The courts
oration, describing the Athenian system of rule:
had unlimited power to control the other bodies of the
government and its political leaders.[2] Participation by
the citizens selected was mandatory,[51] and a modest nancial compensation was given to citizens whose livelihood was aected by being drafted to oce. The
only ocials chosen by elections, one from each tribe,
were the strategoi (generals), where military knowledge
was required, and the treasurers, who had to be wealthy,
since any funds revealed to have been embezzled were
recovered from a treasurers private fortune. Debate was
open to all present and decisions in all matters of policy
were taken by majority vote in Ecclesia (compare direct
democracy), in which all male citizens could participate
(in some cases with a quorum of 6000). The decisions
taken in Ecclesia were executed by Boule of 500, which
had already approved the agenda for Ecclesia. The Athenian Boule was elected by lot every year[52] and no citizen
could serve more than twice.[53]
Overall, the Athenian democracy was not only direct in
the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also directest in the sense that the people through
the assembly, boule, and courts of law controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens
were involved constantly in the public business.[54] And
even though the rights of the individual (probably) were
not secured by the Athenian constitution in the modern
sense,ii[] the Athenians enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government, but by living in a city that was
not subject to another power and by not being subjects
themselves to the rule of another person.[45]
Birth of political philosophy See also: Socrates,
Plato and Aristotle
A bust of Pericles bearing the inscription "Pericles, son of

Xanthippus, Athenian. Marble, Roman copy after a Greek original from ca. 430 BCE.
The Athenian democracy of Cleisthenes and Pericles was

based on freedom, through the reforms of Solon, and
equality (isonomia), introduced by Cleisthenes and later
expanded by Ephialtes and Pericles. To preserve these
principles, the Athenians used lot for selecting ocials.
Lots rationale was to ensure all citizens were equally
qualied for oce, and to avoid any corruption allotment machines were used.[49] Moreover, in most positions chosen by lot, Athenian citizens could not be selected more than once; this rotation in oce meant that
no-one could build up a power base through staying in a
particular position.[50]
Within the Athenian democratic environment, many

philosophers from all over the Greek world gathered to
develop their theories. Socrates was the rst to raise the
question, further expanded by his pupil Plato, about the
relation/position of an individual within a community.
Aristotle continued the work of his teacher, Plato, and
laid the foundations of political philosophy. The political philosophy created in Athens was, in the words of
Peter Hall, in a form so complete that hardly added anyone of moment to it for over a millennium.[55] Aristotle
systematically analyzed the dierent systems of rule that
the numerous Greek city-states had and categorized them
into three categories based on how many ruled: the many
(democracy/polity), the few (oligarchy/aristocracy), a
single person (tyranny or today autocracy/monarchy).
For Aristotle, the underlying principles of democracy are
reected in his work Politics:
Another important political institution in Athens was the The decline, its critics and revival The Athenian
courts; they were composed of a large number of juries democracy, in its two centuries of life-time, twice voted
against its democratic constitution, both during the crisis at the end of the Pelopponesian War, creating rst the
Four Hundred (in 411 BCE) and second Spartas puppet
rgime of the Thirty Tyrants (in 404 BCE). Both votes
were under manipulation and pressure, but democracy
was recovered in less than a year in both cases. Reforms
following the restoration of democracy after the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants removed most law-making
authority from the Assembly and placed it in randomly selected law-making juries known as nomothetai. Athens
restored again its democratic constitution, after the unication by force of Greece from Phillip II of Macedon
and later Alexander the Great, but it was politically shad- Representation of a sitting of the Roman Senate: Cicero attacks
owed by the Hellenistic empires. Finally after the Roman Catilina, from a 19th-century fresco.
conquest of Greece in 146 BC, Athens was restricted to
matters of local administration.
However, the decline of democracy was not only due to the population, the plebeians continued. The plebs were
external powers, but from its citizens, such as Plato and demanding for denite, written, and secular laws. The
his student Aristotle. Through their inuential works, af- patrician priests, who were the recorders and interpreters
ter the rediscovery of classics during renaissance, Spartas of the statutes, by keeping their records secret used their
political stability was praised,[57][58][59] while the Peri- monopoly against social change. After a long resistance
clean democracy was described as a system of rule, where to the new demands, the Senate in 454 BCE sent a comreport
either the less well-born, the mob (as a collective tyrant), mission of three patricians to Greece to study and [65][66]
[45]
on
the
legislation
of
Solon
and
other
lawmakers.
or the poorer classes were holding power. It was only
centuries afterwards, with the publication of A history When they returned, the Assembly in 451 BCE chose
of Greece by George Grote in 1846, that the Athenian ten men a decemviri to formulate a new code, and
democracy of Pericles started to be viewed positively by gave them supreme governmental power in Rome for two
political thinkers.[60] Over the last two decades, scholars years. This commission, under the supervision of a reshave re-examined the Athenian system of rule as a model olute reactionary, Appius Claudius, transformed the old
of empowering citizens and a post-modern example for customary law of Rome into Twelve Tables and submitted them to the Assembly (which passed them with some
communities and organizations alike.[61]
changes) and they were displayed in the Forum for all who
would and could read. The Twelve Tables recognised certain rights and by the 4th century BCE, the plebs were
Roman Republic
given the right to stand for consulship and other major
oces of the state.
See also: Roman Republic
Even though Rome is classied as a Republic and not a
democracy, its history has helped preserve the concept of
democracy over the centuries. The Romans invented the
concept of classics and many works from Ancient Greece
were preserved.[62] Additionally, the Roman model of
governance inspired many political thinkers over the
centuries,[63] and todays modern (representative) democracies imitate more the Roman than the Greek models.[64]
The Republic See also: History of the Constitution of
the Roman Republic
Rome was a city-state in Italy next to powerful neighbors; Etruscans had built city-states throughout central
Italy since the 13th century BCE and in the south were
Greek colonies. Similar to other city-states, Rome was
ruled by a king. However, social unrest and the pressure
of external threats led in 510 BCE the last king to be deposed by a group of aristocrats led by Lucius Junius Brutus.[65][66] A new constitution was crafted, but the conict
between the ruling families (patricians) and the rest of
The political structure as outlined in the Roman constitution resembled a mixed constitution[67] and its constituent
parts were comparable to those of the Spartan constitution: two consuls, embodying the monarchic form; the
Senate, embodying the aristocratic form; and the people through the assemblies.[68] The consul was the highest ranking ordinary magistrate.[69] Consuls had power
in both civil and military matters. While in the city of
Rome, the consuls were the head of the Roman government and they would preside over the Senate and the assemblies. While abroad, each consul would command an
army. The Senate passed decrees, which were called senatus consultum and were ocial advices to a magistrate.
However, in practice it was dicult for a magistrate to ignore the Senates advice.[69] The focus of the Roman Senate was directed towards foreign policy. Though it technically had no ocial role in the management of military
conict, the Senate ultimately was the force that oversaw
such aairs. Also it managed Romes civil administration. The requirements for becoming a senator included
having at least 100,000 denarii worth of land, being born
of the patrician (noble aristocrats) class, and having held
public oce at least once before. New Senators had to

be approved by the sitting members.[69] The people of
Rome through the assemblies had the nal say regarding
the election of magistrates, the enactment of new laws,
the carrying out of capital punishment, the declaration
of war and peace, and the creation (or dissolution) of alliances. Despite the obvious power the assemblies had,
in practice the assemblies were the least powerful of the
other bodies of government. An assembly was legal only
if summoned by a magistrate[69] and it was restricted from
any legislative initiative or the ability to debate. And even
the candidates for public oce as Livy writes levels were
designed so that no one appeared to be excluded from an
election and yet all of the clout resided with the leading
men.[70] Moreover, the unequal weight of votes was making a rare practice for asking the lowest classes for their
votes.[70][71]
Roman stability, in Polybius assessment, was owing to
the checks each element put on the superiority of any
other: a consul at war, for example, required the cooperation of the Senate and the people if he hoped to secure victory and glory, and could not be indierent to
their wishes. This was not to say that the balance was
in every way even: Polybius observes that the superiority of the Roman to the Carthaginian constitution (another mixed constitution) at the time of the Hannibalic
War was an eect of the latters greater inclination toward democracy than to aristocracy.[72] Moreover, recent
attempts to posit for Rome personal freedom in the Greek
sense eleutheria: living as you like have fallen on stony
ground, since eleutheria (which was an ideology and way
of life in the democratic Athens[73] ) was anathema in the
Roman eyes.[74] Romes core values included order, hierarchy, discipline, and obedience. These values were
enforced with laws regulating the private life of an individual. The laws were applied in particular to the upper
classes, since the upper classes were the source of Roman
moral examples.
Rome became the ruler of a great Mediterranean empire. The new provinces brought wealth to Italy, and fortunes were made through mineral concessions and enormous slave run estates. Slaves were imported to Italy and
wealthy landowners soon began to buy up and displace
the original peasant farmers. By the late 2nd century this
led to renewed conict between the rich and poor and
demands from the latter for reform of constitution. The
background of social unease and the inability of the traditional republican constitutions to adapt to the needs of the
growing empire led to the rise of a series of over-mighty
generals, championing the cause of either the rich or the
poor, in the last century BCE.
Transition to Empire See also: History of the Roman
Empire
Over the next few hundred years, various generals
would bypass or overthrow the Senate for various reasons, mostly to address perceived injustices, either against
A fragment of a bronze equestrian order statue of Augustus,

Roman Emperor, 1st century AD.
themselves or against poorer citizens or soldiers. One of

those generals was Julius Caesar, where he marched on
Rome and took supreme power over the republic. Caesars career was cut short by his assassination at Rome
in 44 BCE by a group of Senators including Marcus Junius Brutus. In the power vacuum that followed Caesars
assassination, his friend and chief lieutenant, Marcus Antonius, and Caesars grandnephew Octavian who also was
the adopted son of Caesar, rose to prominence. Their
combined strength gave the triumvirs absolute power.
However, in 31 BC war between the two broke out. The
nal confrontation occurred on 2 September 31 BCE, at
the naval Battle of Actium where the eet of Octavian
under the command of Agrippa routed Antonys eet.
Thereafter, there was no one left in the Roman Republic who wanted to, or could stand against Octavian, and
the adopted son of Caesar moved to take absolute control.
Octavian left the majority of Republican institutions intact, though he inuenced everything using personal authority and ultimately controlled the nal decisions. Having military might to back up his rule if necessary. By 27
BCE the transition, though subtle, disguised, and relying
on personal power over the power of oces, was complete. In that year, Octavian oered back all his powers
to the Senate, and in a carefully staged way, the Senate refused and titled Octavian Augustus the revered one.
He was always careful to avoid the title of rex king,
and instead took on the titles of princeps rst citizen
and imperator, a title given by Roman troops to their victorious commanders.
Roman Empire and Late Antiquity

The Roman Empire had been born. Once Octavian
named Tiberius as his heir, it was clear to everyone
that even the hope of a restored Republic was dead.
Most likely, by the time Augustus died, no one was old
enough to know a time before an Emperor ruled Rome.
The Roman Republic had been changed into a despotic
rgime, which, underneath a competent and strong Emperor, could achieve military supremacy, economic prosperity, and a genuine peace, but under a weak or incompetent one saw its glory tarnished by cruelty, military defeats, revolts, and civil war.
The Roman Empire was eventually divided between the
Western Roman Empire which fell in 476 AD and the
Eastern Roman Empire (also called the Byzantine Empire) which lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453
AD.
The Germanic tribal thing assemblies described by
Tacitus in his Germania.
The Christian Church well into the 6th century AD
had its bishops elected by popular acclaim.
The collegia of the Roman period: associations of
various social, economic, religious, funerary and
even sportive natures elected ocers yearly, often
directly modeled on the Senate of Rome.
1.1.2
Medieval institutions
Further information: Medieval commune

Most of the procedures used by modern democracies are
very old. Almost all cultures have at some time had their
new leaders approved, or at least accepted, by the people;
and have changed the laws only after consultation with
the assembly of the people or their leaders. Such institutions existed since before the times of the Iliad or of the
Odyssey, and modern democracies are often derived from
or inspired by them, or what remained of them.
Nevertheless, the direct result of these institutions was not
always a democracy. It was often a narrow oligarchy, as
in Venice, or even an absolute monarchy, as in Florence,
in the Renaissance period; but during the medieval period
guild democracies did evolve.
Early institutions included:
continuations of the early Germanic thing:
the Witenagemot (folkmoot) of Early Medieval England, councils of advisors to the
kings of the petty kingdoms and then that of a
unied England before the Norman Conquest.
The Frankish custom of the Mrzfeld or Camp
of Mars.[75]
orgnr the Lawspeaker is teaching the Swedish king Olof

Sktkonung that the power resides with the people, 1018,
Uppsala, by C. Krogh.
Tynwald, on the Isle of Man, is the oldest continuous parliament in the world, which began
in 979, although its roots go further back to
the late 9th century. Tynwald was also the rst
place to oer universal surage in 1893.
The Althing, the parliament of the Icelandic
Commonwealth, founded in 930. It consisted
of the 39, later 55, goar; each owner of a
goar; and each hereditary goi kept a tight
hold on his membership, which could in principle be lent or sold. Thus, for example, when
Burnt Njal's stepson wanted to enter it, Njal
had to persuade the Althing to enlarge itself so
a seat would become available. But as each independent farmer in the country could choose
what goi represented him, the system could
be claimed as an early form of democracy.
The Aling has run nearly continuously to the
present day. The Althing was preceded by less
elaborate "things" (assemblies) all over Northern Europe.[76]
The Thing of all Swedes, which took place annually at Uppsala at the end of February or in
early March. As in Iceland, the lawspeaker
presided over the assemblies, but the Swedish
king functioned as a judge. A famous incident took place circa 1018, when King Olof
Sktkonung wanted to pursue the war against
Norway against the will of the people. orgnr
the Lawspeaker reminded the king in a long

speech that the power resided with the Swedish
people and not with the king. When the king
heard the din of swords beating the shields in
support of orgnrs speech, he gave in. Adam
of Bremen wrote that the people used to obey
the king only when they thought his suggestions seemed better, although in war his power
was absolute.
the Swiss Landsgemeinde.
The tatha system in early medieval Ireland.
Landowners and the masters of a profession or craft
were members of a local assembly, known as a
tath. Each tath met in annual assembly which approved all common policies, declared war or peace
on other tuatha, and accepted the election of a new
king"; normally during the old kings lifetime, as
a tanist. The new king had to be descended within
four generations from a previous king, so this usually became, in practice, a hereditary kingship; although some kingships alternated between lines of
cousins. About 80 to 100 tatha coexisted at any
time throughout Ireland. Each tath controlled a
more or less compact area of land which it could
pretty much defend from cattle-raids, and this was
divided among its members.
9
republics of Novgorod until 1478 and Pskov until
1510.
The elizate system of the Basque Country in which
farmholders of a rural area connected to a particular
church would meet to reach decisions on issues affecting the community and to elect representatives to
the provincial Batzar Nagusiak/Juntos Generales.[80]
The rise of democratic parliaments in England and
Scotland: Magna Carta (1215) limiting the authority of powerholders; rst representative parliament (1265).[81][82] The Magna Carta implicitly supported what became the English writ of habeas corpus, safeguarding individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment with right to appeal. The emergence of petitioning in the 13th century is some of
the earliest evidence of this parliament being used
as a forum to address the general grievances of ordinary people.
1.1.3 Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Historian Jack Weatherford has argued that the ideas

leading to the American Constitution and democracy derived from various indigenous peoples of the Americas including the Iroquois. Weatherford claimed this
democracy was founded between the years 10001450,
The Ibadites of Oman, a minority sect distinct and lasted several hundred years, and that the Amerifrom both Sunni and Shia Muslims, have tradi- can democratic system was continually changed and imtionally chosen their leaders via community-wide proved by the inuence of Native Americans throughout
elections of qualied candidates starting in the 8th North America.[83]
century.[77][78] They were distinguished early on in
the region by their belief that the ruler needed the Temple University professor of anthropology and an auconsent of the ruled.[79] The leader exercised both thority on the culture and history of the Northern Iroquois Elizabeth Tooker has reviewed these claims and
religious and secular rule.[78]
concluded they are myth rather than fact. The idea that
the guilds, of economic, social and religious natures, North American Indians had a democratic culture is sevin the later Middle Ages elected ocers for yearly eral decades old, but not usually expressed within histerms.
torical literature. The relationship between the Iroquois
League and the Constitution is based on a portion of a letThe city-states (republics) of medieval Italy, as ter written by Benjamin Franklin and a speech by the IroVenice and Florence, and similar city-states in quois chief Canasatego in 1744. Tooker concluded that
Switzerland, Flanders and the Hanseatic league had the documents only indicate that some groups of Iroquois
not a modern democratic system but a guild demo- and white settlers realized the advantages of a confederacratic system. The Italian cities in the middle me- tion, and that ultimately there is little evidence to support
dieval period had lobbies war democracies with- the idea that eighteenth century colonists were knowlout institutional guarantee systems (a full developed edgeable regarding the Iroquois system of governance.[84]
balance of powers). During late medieval and renaissance periods, Venice became an oligarchy and What little evidence there is regarding this system indiothers became Signorie. They were, in any case in cates chiefs of dierent tribes were permitted represenlate medieval times, not nearly as democratic as the tation in the Iroquois League council, and this ability to
Athenian-inuenced city-states of Ancient Greece represent the tribe was hereditary. The council itself did
(discussed above), but they served as focal points for not practice representative government, and there were
no elections; deceased chiefs successors were selected
early modern democracy.
by the most senior woman within the hereditary lineage
Veche, Wiec popular assemblies in Slavic coun- in consultation with other women in the clan. Decision
tries. In Poland wiece have developed in 1182 into making occurred through lengthy discussion and decithe Sejm the Polish parliament. The veche was sions were unanimous, with topics discussed being introthe highest legislature and judicial authority in the duced by a single tribe. Tooker concludes that "...there is
10
virtually no evidence that the framers borrowed from the

Iroquois and that the myth that this was the case is the
result of exaggerations and misunderstandings of a claim
made by Iroquois linguist and ethnographer J.N.B. Hewitt
after his death in 1937.[84]
The Aztecs also practiced elections, but the elected ocials elected a supreme speaker, not a ruler.[83]
1.1.4
Rise of democracy in modern national governments
Early Modern Era milestones
War (16421651). Soldiers from the Parliamentarian New Model Army and a faction of Levellers
freely debated rights to political representation during the Putney Debates of 1647. The Levellers
published a newspaper (The Moderate) and pioneered political petitions, pamphleteering and party
colours. Later, the pre-war Royalist (then Cavalier)
and opposing Parliamentarian groupings became the
Tory party and the Whigs in the Parliament.
English Act of Habeas Corpus (1679), safeguarding
individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment
with right to appeal; one of the documents integral
to the constitution of the United Kingdom and the
history of the parliament of the United Kingdom.
William Penn wrote his Frame of Government of
Pennsylvania in 1682. The document gave the
colony a representative legislature and granted liberal freedoms to the colonys citizens.
The election of Augustus II at Wola, outside Warsaw, PolishLithuanian Commonwealth, in 1697. Painted by Bernardo Bellotto.
A bill of rights is enacted by the Parliament of England in 1689.[88] The Bill of Rights 1689 set out the
requirement for regular parliaments, free elections,
rules for freedom of speech in Parliament, and limited the power of the monarch. It ensured (with
the Glorious Revolution of 1688) that, unlike much
of the rest of Europe, royal absolutism would not
prevail.[89][90]
Norman Davies notes that Golden Liberty, the Nobles Democracy (Rzeczpospolita Szlachecka) arose
in the Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Eighteenth and nineteenth century milestones
Commonwealth. This foreshadowed a democracy
1707: The rst Parliament of Great Britain is esof about ten percent of the population of the Comtablished after the merger of the Kingdom of Engmonwealth, consisting of the nobility, who were an
[85]
land
and the Kingdom of Scotland under the Acts of
electorate for the oce of the King.
They obUnion
1707. From around 1721, Robert Walpole,
served Nihil novi of 1505, Pacta conventa and King
regarded
as the rst prime minister of Great Britain,
Henrys Articles (1573). See also: Szlachta history
chaired
cabinet
meetings, appointed all other minisand political privileges, Sejm of the Kingdom of
ters,
and
developed
the doctrine of cabinet solidarPoland and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,
ity.
Organisation and politics of the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth.[86]
1755: The Corsican Republic led by Pasquale Paoli
with the Corsican Constitution
The Virginia House of Burgesses, established in
From the late 1770s: new Constitutions and Bills ex1619, is the rst representative legislative body in
plicitly describing and limiting the authority of powthe New World.
erholders, many based on the English Bill of Rights
(1689). Historian Norman Davies calls the Polish The Mayower Compact, signed in 1620, an agreeLithuanian Commonwealth Constitution of May 3,
ment between the Pilgrims, on forming a govern1791 the rst constitution of its kind in Europe.[91]
ment between themselves, based on majority rule.
Petition of Right (1628) passed by the Parliament
of England. It established, among other things, the
illegality of taxation without parliamentary consent
and of arbitrary imprisonment.[87]
The idea of the political party with factions took
form in Britain around the time of the English Civil
The United States

1776: Virginia Declaration of Rights
United States Constitution ratied in 1788,
created bicameral legislature with members of
the House of Representatives elected by the
People of the several states, and members of
the Senate elected by the state legislatures.
11
with Black people made equal to White people (All men, without distinction of color,
residing in the colonies are French citizens
and will enjoy all the rights assured by the
Constitution).[92] Slavery was re-established
by Napoleon in 1802.
The establishment of universal male surage in France in 1848

was an important milestone in the history of democracy.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen approved
by the National Assembly of France, 26 August 1789.
1791: the United States Bill of Rights ratied.

1790s: First Party System in U.S. involves invention of locally rooted political parties in the
United States; networks of party newspapers;
new canvassing techniques; use of caucus to
select candidates; xed party names; party loyalty; party platform (Jeerson 1799);
1800: peaceful transition between parties
1780s: development of social movements identifying themselves with the term 'democracy': Political clashes between 'aristocrats and 'democrats in
Benelux countries changed the semi-negative meaning of the word 'democracy' in Europe, which was
until then regarded as synonymous with anarchy,
into a much more positive opposite of 'aristocracy'.
17891799: the French Revolution
1791: The Haitian Revolution a successful slave revolution, established a free republic.
The United Kingdom
1807: The Slave Trade Act banned the trade
across the British Empire after which the U.K.
established the West Africa Squadron and enacted international treaties to combat foreign
slave traders.
1832: The passing of the Reform Act, which
gave representation to previously under represented urban areas in the U.K. and extended
the voting franchise to a wider population.
1833: The Slavery Abolition Act was passed,
which took eect across the British Empire
from 1 August 1834.
1848: Universal male surage was denitely established in France in March of that year, in the wake
of the French Revolution of 1848.[93]
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the

Citizen adopted on 26 August 1789 which declared that Men are born and remain free and
equal in rights and proclaimed the universal
character of human rights.
1848: Following the French, the Revolutions of

1848, although in many instances forcefully put
down, did result in democratic constitutions in some
other European countries among them Denmark and
Netherlands.
Universal male surage established for

the election of the National Convention in
September 1792, but revoked by the Directory
in 1795.
1850s: introduction of the secret ballot in Australia;

1872 in UK; 1892 in USA
Slavery abolished in the French colonies by

the National Convention on 4 February 1794,
1853: Black Africans given the vote for the rst time
in Southern Africa, in the British-administered Cape
Province.
12
1870: USA 15th Amendment to the Constitution,

prohibits voting rights discrimination on the basis of
race, colour, or previous condition of slavery.
1879 and 1880: William Ewart Gladstone's
UK Midlothian campaign ushered in the modern
political campaign.
1893: New Zealand is the rst nation to introduce
universal surage by awarding the vote to women
(universal male surage had been in place since
1879).
1905: Persian Constitutional Revolution, rst parliamentary system in middle east.
The secret ballot
Main article: Secret ballot
The three 20th centurty waves of democracy, based on the number of nations 18002003 scoring 8 or higher on Polity IV scale,
another widely used measure of democracy.
The terrible economic impact of the Great Depression

hurt democratic forces in many countries. The 1930s became a decade of dictators in Europe and Latin America.
The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted full U.S. citizenship to Americas indigenous peoples, called Indians
in this Act. (The Fourteenth Amendment guarantees citizenship to persons born in the U.S., but only if subject to
the jurisdiction thereof"; this latter clause excludes certain indigenous peoples.) The act was signed into law by
President Calvin Coolidge on June 2, 1924. The act further enfranchised the rights of peoples resident within the
The two earliest systems used were the Victorian method
boundaries of the United States.
and the South Australian method. Both were introduced
in 1856 to voters in Victoria and South Australia. The
Victorian method involved voters crossing out all the Post World War II
candidates whom he did not approve of. The South
Australian method, which is more similar to what most World War II was ultimately a victory for democracy in
democracies use today, had voters put a mark in the pre- Western Europe, where representative governments were
ferred candidates corresponding box. The Victorian vot- established that reected the general will of their citizens.
ing system also was not completely secret, as it was trace- However, many countries of Central and Eastern Europe
able by a special number.
became undemocratic Soviet satellite states. In SouthThe stone inscriptions in a temple say that ballot elec- ern Europe, a number of right-wing authoritarian dictations were held in South India by a method called Ku- torships (most notably in Spain and Portugal) continued
davolai system. Kudavolai means the ballot sheet of leaf to exist.
The notion of a secret ballot, where one is entitled to the
privacy of their votes, is taken for granted by most today by virtue of the fact that it is simply considered the
norm. However, this practice was highly controversial in
the 19th century; it was widely argued that no man would
want to keep his vote secret unless he was ashamed of it.
that was put secretly in a pot vessel called kudam. The

details are found inscribed on the walls of the village assembly hall. Actually, the once village-assembly hall is
the present temple. The details show that the village had
a secret ballot electoral system and a written Constitution,
prescribing the mode of elections.
20th century waves of democracy
MaxRange data has dened and categorised pthe

level of democracy and political regime type to
all states and months from 1789 to this day and
updating. MaxRange shows a dramatic expansion of democracy, especially from 1989. The
third wave of democracy has been successful and
covered major parts of previous autocratic areas.
MaxRange can show detailed correlations between
success of democracy and many relevant variables,
such as previous democratic history, the transitional phase and selection of institutional political
system. Even though the number of democratic
states has continued to grow since 2006, the share
of weaker electoral democracies has grown significantly. This is the strongest causal factor behind
fragile democracies.[94]
The end of the First World War was a temporary victory

for democracy in Europe, as it was preserved in France
and temporarily extended to Germany. Already in 1906
full modern democratic rights, universal surage for all
citizens was implemented constitutionally in Finland as
well as a proportional representation, open list system.
Likewise, the February Revolution in Russia in 1917
inaugurated a few months of liberal democracy under
Alexander Kerensky until Lenin took over in October. Japan had moved towards democracy during the Taish
13
period during the 1920s, but it was under eective mil- ity moved towards greater liberal democracy in the 1990s
itary rule in the years before and during World War II. and 2000s.
The country adopted a new constitution during the postwar Allied occupation, with initial elections in 1946.
Decolonisation and Civil Rights Movements
World War II also planted seeds of democracy outside
Europe and Japan, as it weakened, with the exception of
the USSR and the United States, all the old colonial powers while strengthening anticolonial sentiment worldwide. Countries highlighted in blue are designated "electoral democraMany restive colonies/possessions were promised subse- cies" in Freedom Houses 2015 survey Freedom in the World,
quent independence in exchange for their support for em- covering the year 2014.[98]
battled colonial powers during the war.
The aftermath of World War II also resulted in the United An analysis by Freedom House shows that there was not
Nations decision to partition the British Mandate into a single liberal democracy with universal surage in the
two states, one Jewish and one Arab. On 14 May 1948 world in 1900, but that in 2000, 120 of the worlds 192
the state of Israel declared independence and thus was nations, or 62% were such democracies. They count 25
born the rst full democracy in the Middle East. Israel is nations, or 13% of the worlds nations with restricted
a representative democracy with a parliamentary system democratic practices in 1900 and 16, or 8% of the
worlds nations today. They counted 19 constitutional
and universal surage.[95][96]
monarchies in 1900, forming 14% of the worlds nations,
India became a Democratic Republic in 1950 after where a constitution limited the powers of the monarch,
achieving independence from Great Britain in 1947. Af- and with some power devolved to elected legislatures, and
ter holding its rst national elections in 1952, India none in the present. Other nations had, and have, various
achieved the status of the worlds largest liberal democ- forms of non-democratic rule.[99] While the specics may
racy with universal surage which it continues to hold be open to debate (for example, New Zealand actually entoday. Most of the former British and French colonies acted universal surage in 1893, but is discounted due to
were independent by 1965 and at least initially demo- a lack of complete sovereignty and certain restrictions on
cratic; those that were formerly part of the British Empire the Mori vote), the numbers are indicative of the expanoften adopted the Westminster parliamentary system.[97] sion of democracy during the twentieth century.
The process of decolonisation created much political upheaval in Africa and parts of Asia, with some countries
experiencing often rapid changes to and from democratic 21st century waves of democracy
and other forms of government.
In the 21st century, democracy movements have been
In the United States of America, the Voting Rights Act of
seen across the world. In the Arab world, an unprece1965 and the Civil Rights Act enforced the 15th Amenddented series of major protests occurred with citizens of
ment. The 24th Amendment ended poll taxing by reEgypt, Tunisia, Bahrain, Yemen, Jordan, Syria and other
moving all tax placed upon voting, which was a techcountries across the MENA region demanding demonique commonly used to restrict the African American
cratic rights. This revolutionary wave was given the
vote. The Voting Rights Act also granted voting rights
term Tunisia Eect, as well as the Arab Spring. The
to all Native Americans, irrespective of their home state.
Palestinian Authority also took action to address demoThe minimum voting age was reduced to 18 by the 26th
cratic rights.
Amendment in 1971.
In Iran, following a highly disputed presidential vote
fraught with corruption, Iranian citizens held a major seLate Cold War and after
ries of protests calling for change and democratic rights
(see: the 20092010 Iranian election protests and the
New waves of democracy swept across Southern Europe 2011 Iranian protests). The 2003 US-led invasion of Iraq
in the 1970s, as a number of right-wing nationalist dic- led to a toppling of Saddam Hussein and a new constitutatorships fell from power. Later, in Central and East- tion with free and open elections, though not necessarily
ern Europe in the late 1980s, the communist states in the democratic rights.
USSR sphere of inuence were also replaced with liberal In Asia, the country of Burma (also known as Myanmar)
democracies.
had long been ruled by a military junta, however in 2011,
Much of Eastern Europe, Latin America, East and South- the government changed to allow certain voting rights and
east Asia, and several Arab, central Asian and African released democracy-leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house
states, and the not-yet-state that is the Palestinian Author- arrest. However, Burma still will not allow Suu Kyi to run
14
for election and still has major human rights problems and
not full democratic rights. In Bhutan, in December 2005,
the 4th King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to that
the rst general elections would be held in 2008, and that
he would abdicate the throne in favor of his eldest son.
Bhutan is currently undergoing further changes to allow
for a constitutional monarchy. In the Maldives protests
and political pressure led to a government reform which
allowed democratic rights and presidential elections in
2008.
Samuel P. Huntington
Thomas Jeerson
Hugo Kotaj
John Locke
Niccol Machiavelli
James Madison
John Stuart Mill
1.1.5
Contemporary trends
Further information: E-democracy
John Stewart
Karl Marx
Simon de Montfort
Under the inuence of the theory of deliberative democracy, there have been several experiments since the start
of the new millennium with what are called deliberative
fora, places (in real life or in cyber space) where citizens
and their representatives assemble to exchange reasons.
One type of deliberative forum is called a minpublic:
a body of randomly chosen or actively selected citizens
that represents the whole population. The use of random selection to form a representative deliberative body
is known as sortition. Examples of this are citizens assemblies and citizens juries. Citizens assemblies have
been used in Canada (2004, 2006) and the Netherlands
(2006) to debate electoral reform, and in Iceland (2009
and 2010) for broader constitutional change.
1.1.6
See also
Documents
Magna Carta of 1215
English Bill of Rights of 1689
Corsican Constitution of 1755 (see Pasquale Paoli)
Swedish Constitution of 1772
United States Constitution of 1789
Polish Constitution of 3 May 1791
Australian Constitution of 1901
Indian Constitution of 1950
People
Edmund Burke
Cornelius Castoriadis
Anders Chydenius
Francis Fukuyama
Thomas Paine
Pasquale Paoli
Cola di Rienzi
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu
Amartya Sen
Alexis de Tocqueville
John Wilkes
1.1.7 Notes
^ i: Literature about the Athenian democracy spans
over centuries with the earliest works being The Republic of Plato and Politics of Aristotle, continuing with
Discourses of Niccol Machiavelli. The latest, listed in
the References section, include works from scholars such
as J. Dunn, J. Ober, T. Buckley, J. Thorley and E. W.
Robinson, who examine the origins and the reasons of
Athens being the rst[19][45][59][100][101][102] to developed
a sophisticated system of rule that we today call democracy. Despite its aws (slavery, no womens rights) it is
often considered the closest to the ideal democracy and
called as classical democracy. It is often compared with
modern (representative) democracies.[103][104]
^ ii: The ancient Greeks did not have a word to use for
rights.[105]
^ iii: The United States of America was and is, a republic, not a direct democracy. A direct democracy can be
dened as a form of government in which the people decide matters directly, with prime example the Athenian
democracy. A democratic republic, is a form of government in which supreme power resides in a body of citizens entitled to vote and is exercised by elected ocers
and representatives responsible to them and governing according to law. The Framers of the Constitution were
fearful of democracy; in the words of James Madison:
15
"[D]emocracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence

and contention: have ever been found incompatible with
personal security or the rights of property: and have in
general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths. [106] Nevertheless, the Framers recognized that the public is required to impose a check to
the government, in Madison words: dependence on the
people is, no doubt, the primary control on the government.[107]
[21] Aristotle, Politics, 1294b
By popular usage, however, the word democracy

came to mean a form of government in which the
government derives its power from the people and is
accountable to them for the use of that power. In this
sense the United States be called a democratic republic.
Many states allow for policy questions to be decided
directly by the people by voting on ballot initiatives or
referendums. (Initiatives originate with, or are initiated by, the people while referendums originate with,
or are referred to the people by, a states legislative body.)
[27] Buckley, 1996, pp. 6585
[22] Pomeroy, 1999, pp. 149153

[23] Buckley, 1996, p. 76
[24] Rhodes 1981, pp. 498502
[25] Lycurgus Encyclopdia Britannica Online
[26] Raaaub 2007, p. 37
[28] Pomeroy, 1999, p. 143

[29] Pomeroy, 1999, p. 152
[30] Raaaub 2007, pp. 401
[31] Pomeroy, 1999, pp. 159164
[32] Raaaud, 2007, p. 50
[33] Raaaud, 2007, p. 51
[34] Pomeroy, 1999, pp. 1645
1.1.8
Footnotes
[1] democracy, n.. OED Online. Oxford University Press.

Retrieved 28 November 2014.
[35] Solon, Encyclopdia Britannica Online

[36] Robinson, 2003, pp. 545, 7698
[37] Raaaud, 2007, pp. 608
[2] Democracy Encyclopdia Britannica Online

[38] Robinson, 2003, p. 76
[3] Political System Encyclopdia Britannica Online
[39] Raaaud, 2007, pp. 6772
[4] Robinson, 1997, pp. 1617
[5] Jacobsen, 1943, pp. 159172
[6] Isakhan, B. (2007). Engaging Primitive Democracy,
Mideast Roots of Collective Governance. Middle East
Policy, 14(3), 97117.
[7] Bailkey, 1967, pp. 12111236
[8] Robinson, 1997, p. 20
[40] Peisistratus Encyclopdia Britannica Online

[41] Cleisthenes Of Athens Encyclopdia Britannica Online
[42] Buckley, 1996, pp. 138140
[43] Raaaud, 2007, p. 77
[44] Raaaud, 2007 pp. 1449
[45] Clarke, 2001, pp. 194201
[9] Diodorus 2.39

[46] Ober, 2008, p. 63
[10] Larsen, 1973, pp. 4546
[47] Raaaub, 2008, p. 140
[11] de Sainte, 2006, pp. 3213
[12] Robinson, 1997, p. 22
[13] Robinson, 1997, p. 23
[14] Bongard-Levin, 1996, pp. 61106
[15] Sharma 1968, pp. 10922
[16] Trautmann T. R., Kautilya and the Arthra' shastra, Leiden
1971
[17] Ostwald 2000, pp. 2125
[48] Thucydides History of the Peloponnesian War, 2.37.23

[49] M. H. Hansen, J. A. Crook, The Athenian democracy in
the age of Demosthenes, University of Oklahoma Press,
1999, ISBN 0-8061-3143-8, Google Books link
[50] L. Carson, B. Martin, Random Selection in Politics, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999, ISBN 0-275-96702-6,
Google Books link
[51] Exception was Boule of 500, where the poor could refuse.
[18] Cartledge 2001, p. xii, 276
[52] Boule (Ancient Greek Council) Encyclopdia Britannica

Online
[19] Dunn, 1994, p. 2
[53] Powell, 2001, pp. 3004
[20] Plato, Laws, 712e-d
[54] Raafaub, 2007, p. 5
16
[55] Hall, Peter (1999). Cities in Civilisation. London: Orion.

p. 24. ISBN 9780753808153.
[56] Aristotle, Politics.1317b (Book 6, Part II)
[57] Plato, Republic
[58] Aristotle, Politics
[59] Seminar Notes by Prof. Paul Cartledge at University of
Cambridge, The Socratics Sparta And Rousseaus Institute of Historical Research
[60] Hansen, (1992), pp. 1430
[83] Weatherford, J. McIver (1988). Indian givers: how the Indians of the Americas transformed the world. New York:
Fawcett Columbine. p. 133. ISBN 0-449-90496-2.
[84] Tooker E (1990). The United States Constitution and
the Iroquois League. In Clifton JA. The Invented Indian:
cultural ctions and government policies. New Brunswick,
N.J., U.S.A: Transaction Publishers. pp. 107128. ISBN
1-56000-745-1.
[85] Professor Norman Davies on the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth the Noble Democracy, which deliberately
wanted to avoid an Emperor
[62] Watson, 2005, p. 285
[86] See for example Chapters 12 in Maciej Janowski, Polish

Liberal Thought Before 1918: Before 1918, Central European University Press, 2004, ISBN 963-9241-18-0
[63] Livy, 2002, p. 34
[87] Charles I and the Petition of Right. UK Parliament.
[64] Watson, 2005, p. 271
[88] Thatcher, Oliver Joseph (ed.) (1907). The library of original sources. University Research Extension. p. 10.
[61] Ober, 1996, pp. 156
[65] Livy, 2002, p. 23

[66] Durant, 1942, p. 23
[89] Rise of Parliament. The National Archives. Retrieved

2010-08-22.
[67] This view was already ancient when Polybius brought it to

bear on Rome (Walbank 2002: 281).
[90] Citizenship 1625-1789. The National Archives. Retrieved 2013-11-17.
[68] Balot, 2009, p. 194
[91] Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford University Press. p. 699. ISBN 0-19-820171-0.
[69] Balot, 2009, p. 216
[92] Center for History and New Media, George Mason University. Decree of the National Convention of 4 February
1794, Abolishing Slavery in all the Colonies. Retrieved
2009-09-26.
[70] Liv 1.43.11

[71] Dion. Ant. Rom. 4.20.5
[72] Polyb. 6.51
[93] French National Assembly. 1848 " Dsormais le bulletin

de vote doit remplacer le fusil "" (in French). Retrieved
2009-09-26.
[73] Balot, 2009, pp. 1645

[74] Balot, 2009, p. 176
[75] Gibbon The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire, chapters XLIX, LII; pp. 1685,1857 Heritage Club
edition (1946). For a recent view, see David Nicolle; Carolingian cavalryman, AD 768987, p. 45 . Intermediate
sources tend to be colored by the Free institutions of our
Germanic ancestors meme.
[76] Burnt Njals Saga, tr. Magnus Magnusson, introduction.
[77] JRC Carter, Tribes in Oman, pg. 103. London: Peninsular
Publishers, 1982. ISBN 0907151027
[78] A Country Study: Oman, chapter 6 Oman Government
and Politics, section: Historical Patterns of Governance.
US Library of Congress, 1993. Retrieved 2006-10-28
[79] Donald Hawley, Oman, pg.
201.
Jubilee edition. Kensington: Stacey International, 1995. ISBN
0905743636
[80] Kasper, M. Baskische Geschichte Primus: 1997
[81] Origins and growth of Parliament.
Archives. Retrieved 2013-11-17.
[94] http://www.hh.se/english/
schoolofeducationhumanitiesandsocialsciences/
research/maxrange.65441985_en.html
[95] Rummel 1997, p. 257. A current list of liberal democracies includes: Andorra, Argentina, ... , Cyprus, ... , Israel,
...
[96] Global Survey 2006: Middle East Progress Amid Global
Gains in Freedom. Freedom House (2005-12-19). Retrieved on 2007-07-01.
[97] How the Westminster Parliamentary System was exported around the World. University of Cambridge. 2
December 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
[98] Freedom in The World 2015 (PDF)
[99] Freedom House. 1999. Democracys Century: A Survey
of Global Political Change in the 20th Century.
[100] Robinson, 1997, pp. 245
The National [101] Thorley, 1996, p. 2
[102] Dunn, 2006, p. 13

[82] Citizen or Subject?". The National Archives. Retrieved
2013-11-17.
[103] Strauss, 1994, p. 32
Keane, J. (2004). Violence and Democracy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54544-7.
[104] Cartledge, 1994, p. 27

[105] Ober, 1996, p. 107
Keyssar, A. (2001). The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02969-8.
[106] The Federalist No. 10

[107] The Federalist No. 51
1.1.9
Lijphart, A. (1999). Patterns of Democracy. Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07893-5.
References
Primary Sources
Aristotle (1912).
Ellis. Wikisource.
17
Politics. translated by William
Diodorus Siculus (1814).

Historical Library.
translated by G. Booth. Wikisource.
Plato.
The Republic. translated by Benjamin
Jowett. Wikisource.
Livy (1905).
From the Founding of the City.
translated by Rev. Canon Roberts. Wikisource.
Prints
Balot, R. K. (2009). A Companion to Greek and Roman Political Thought. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN
1-4051-5143-9.
Bongard-Levin, G. M. (1986). A complex study of
Ancient India. South Asia Books. ISBN 81-2020141-8.
Buckley, T. (1996). Aspects of Greek History 750
323 BC: A Source-based Approach. Routledge.
ISBN 0-415-09958-7.
Cartledge, P. (2003). Spartan reections. University
of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23124-4.
Clarke, P.; Foweraker, J. (2001). Encyclopedia of
Democratic Thought. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0415-19396-6.
Dahl, R.; Shapiro, I.; Cheibub, C. A. (2003). The
Democracy Sourcebook. MIT Press. ISBN 0-26254147-5.
Dunn, J. (1994). Democracy: the unnished journey
508 BC 1993 AD. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-827934-5.
Dunn, J. (2006). Democracy: a history. Atlantic
Monthly Press. ISBN 0-87113-931-6.
Durant, W. (1942). The Story of Civilization. Simon
and Schuster.
Heideking, J.; Henretta, J. A.; Becker, P. (2002).
Republicanism and Liberalism in America and the
German States, 17501850. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-80066-8.
Livy; De Slincourt, A.; Ogilvie, R. M.; Oakley, S.

P. (2002). The early history of Rome: books I-V of
The history of Rome from its foundations. Penguin
Classics. ISBN 0-14-044809-8.
Macpherson, C. B. (1977). The Life and Times of
Liberal Democracy. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-289106-5.
Manglapus, R. S. (1987). Will of the People: Original Democracy in Non-Western Societies. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-25837-6.
Ober,, J.; Hedrick, C. W. (1996). Dmokratia: a
conversation on democracies, ancient and modern.
Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01108-7.
Ober,, J. (2008). Democracy and knowledge: innovation and learning in classical Athens. Princeton
University Press. ISBN 0-691-13347-6.
Ostwald, M. (2000). Oligarchia: The Development
of a Constitutional Form in Ancient Greece. Franz
Steiner Verlag. ISBN 3-515-07680-8.
Pomeroy, S. B.; Burstein, S. M.; Donlan, W.;
Roberts, J. T. (1999). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-509742-4.
Powell, A. (2001). Athens and Sparta: Constructing Greek Political and Social History from 478 BC.
Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26280-1.
Raaaub, K. A.; Ober, J.; Wallace, R. W. (2007).
Origin of Democracy in Ancient Greece. University
of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24562-8.
Robinson, E. W. (1997). The First Democracies:
Early Popular Government Outside Athens. Franz
Steiner Verlag. ISBN 3-515-06951-8.
Robinson, E. W. (2003). Ancient Greek Democracy:
Readings and Sources. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN
0-631-23394-6.
de Sainte, C. G. E. M. (2006). The Class Struggle in
the Ancient Greek World. Cornell University Press.
ISBN 0-8014-1442-3.
Sharma, J. P. (1968). Aspects of Political Ideas and
Institutions in Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass
Publ.
18
Thorley, J. (1996). Athenian Democracy. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-12967-2.
Kaplan, Temma. Democracy: A World History (Oxford University Press, 2014)

Marko, J. (1996). Waves of Democracy. Pine
Forge Press. ISBN 0803990197.
Journals
Bailkey, N. (July 1967). Early Mesopotamian Constitutional Development. American History Review
72 (4): 12111236. doi:10.2307/1847791. JSTOR
1847791.
Putnam, R.; Leonardi, R.; Nanetti, R. Y. (1994).

Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-69103738-8.
Cartledge, P. (Apr 1994). Ancient Greeks and

Modern Britons. History Today 44 (4): 27.
Vanhanen, T. (1984). The Emergence of Democracy: A comparative study of 119 states, 18501979.
Societas Scientiarum Fennica. ISBN 951-653-1229.
Hansen, M. H. (Apr 1992).

The Tradition
of the Athenian Democracy A. D. 1750
1990.
Greece & Rome 39 (1): 1430.
doi:10.1017/S0017383500023950.
JSTOR
643118.
Wood, G. S. (1993). The Radicalism of the American Revolution. Vintage Books. ISBN 0-67973688-3.
Jacobsen, T. (July 1943). Primitive Democracy in

Ancient Mesopotamia. Journal of Near Eastern
1.1.11
Studies 2 (3): 159172. doi:10.1086/370672.
External links
Larsen, J. A. O. (Jan 1973). Demokratia. Classical Philology 68 (1): 4546. doi:10.1086/365921.
The Ocial Website of Democracy Foundation ,

Mumbai - INDIA
Lipset,, S. M. (Mar 1959). Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and
Political Legitimacy. The American Political Science Review 53 (1): 69105. doi:10.2307/1951731.
JSTOR 1951731.
Freedom House
Muhlberger, S.; Paine, P. (Spring 1993). Democracys Place in World History. Journal of World
History 4: 2345. JSTOR 20078545.
Strauss, B. (Apr 1994). American Democracy
Through Ancient Greek Eyes. History Today 44
(4): 32.
History of the Parliament of the United Kingdom,

12162005
Historical Atlas of the Twentieth Century
Waves of democracy often get reversed, Lipset reminds social scientists
1.2 Third Wave Democracy
Rhodes, P. J. (1981). The Selection of Ephors at In political science, Third Wave Democracy, also
Sparta. Historia: Zeitschrift fr Alte Geschichte 30 known as Democracys Third Wave, refers to the third
(4): 498502. JSTOR 4435780.
major surge of democracy in history. The term was
coined by Samuel P. Huntington, a political scientist at
Weingast, B. (Jun 1997). The Political FoundaHarvard University in his article published in the Journal
tions of the Rule of Law and Democracy. The
of Democracy and further expounded in his 1991 book
American Political Science Review 91 (2): 245263.
The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth
doi:10.2307/2952354. JSTOR 2952354.
Century.
1.1.10
Further reading
1.2.1 Background
Charles, T. (2004). Contention and Democracy in

Europe, 16502000. Cambridge University Press. Huntington describes global democratization as coming
in three waves, the rst beginning in the early 19th cenISBN 0-521-53713-4.
tury and the third being a current event.[1]
Corrin, J. P. (2002). Catholic Intellectuals and the
Challenge of Democracy. University of Notre Dame The rst wave of democracy began in the early 19th century when surage was granted to the majority of white
Press. ISBN 0-268-02271-2.
males in the United States ("Jacksonian democracy"). At
Diamond, L.; Plattner, M. (1996). The Global its peak, the rst wave saw 29 democracies in the world.
Resurgence of Democracy. Johns Hopkins Univer- This continued until 1922, when Benito Mussolini rose to
sity Press. ISBN 0-8018-5305-2.
power in Italy. The ebb of the rst wave lasted from 1922
1.3. SUFFRAGE
until 1942, during which the number of democracies in
the world dropped to a mere 12.[1]
19
Come from Latin America?, Armed Forces & Society 30, no. 1 (2003): 87-116
The second wave began following the Allied victory in

World War II, and crested nearly 20 years later in 1962 1.2.4 See also
with 36 recognised democracies in the world. The second
wave ebbed as well at this point, and the total number
Democracy
dropped to 30 democracies between 1962 and the mid Samuel P. Huntington
1970s. But the at line would not last for long, as the
third wave was about to surge in a way no one had ever
seen.[1]
Scholars have noted that the appearance of waves of
democracy largely disappears when womens surage is
taken into account; moreover, some countries change
their positions quite dramatically: Switzerland, which is
typically included as part of the rst wave, did not grant
women the right to vote until 1971.[2]
1.2.2
The Third Wave
The Third wave began in 1974 (Carnation Revolution,

Portugal) and included the historic democratic transitions
in Latin America in the 1980s, Asia Pacic countries
(Philippines, South Korea, and Taiwan) from 1986 to
1988, and Eastern Europe after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Exact tallies of the number of democracies
vary depending on the criteria used for assessment, but
by some measures there are well over 100 democracies in
the world today, a marked increase in just a few decades.
Many of these newer democracies are not fully consolidated, however, meaning that while they have electoral
institutions in place, political democracy remains fragile. Reasons for this fragility include economic instability, continued elite dominance of politics, ongoing military interference in civilian aairs, and others.[3]
1.2.5 Notes
[1] What Is Democracy? - Democracys Third Wave. U.S.

State Department. Retrieved 2007-08-07.
[2] Paxton, Pamela. (2000). Womens Surage in the Measurement of Democracy: Problems of Operationalization. Studies in Comparative International Development
35(3): 92-111
[3] Diamond, Larry. (1996). Is the Third Wave Over?
Journal of Democracy 7(3).
[4] Zagorski, Paul W. (2003). Democratic Breakdown in
Paraguay and Venezuela: The Shape of Things to Come
for Latin America?". Armed Forces & Society 30 (1): 87
116. doi:10.1177/0095327X0303000104.
1.3 Surage
Countries undergoing or having undergone a transition to

democracy during a wave are subject to backsliding. Political scientists and theorists believe that the third wave
has crested and will soon begin to ebb, just as its predecessors did in the rst and second waves.[4] Indeed, in the
period immediately following the onset of the war on terror after the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United
States, some backsliding was evident. How signicant or
lasting that erosion is remains a subject of debate.
Surage universel ddi Ledru-Rollin, Frdric Sorrieu, 1850
Recent events, most prominently the Arab Awakening
or Arab Spring, and also regime changes in Myanmar,
along with democracy movements across several African
and Asian nations, have been hailed by some analysts
as the start of a fourth wave of democratization, though
prospects for genuine democracy in the region remain unclear.
1.2.3
Further reading
Surage, political franchise, or simply franchise is the

right to vote in public, political elections (although the
term is sometimes used for any right to vote).[1][2][3] The
right to run for oce is sometimes called candidate eligibility, and the combination of both rights is sometimes
called full surage.[4] In many languages, the right to vote
is called the active right to vote and the right to run for ofce is called the passive right to vote. In English, these are
sometimes called active surage and passive surage.[5]
Surage is often conceived in terms of elections for

Paul. W. Zagorski, "Democratic Breakdown in representatives. However, surage applies equally to
Paraguay and Venezuela: The Shape of Things to initiatives and referenda. Surage describes not only
20
the legal right to vote, but also the practical question of

whether a question will be put to a vote. The utility of
surage is reduced when important questions are decided
unilaterally by elected or non-elected representatives.
In most democracies, eligible voters can vote in elections
of representatives. Voting on issues by initiative may
be available in some jurisdictions but not others. For
example, while some U.S. states such as California and
Washington have exercised their shared sovereignty to offer citizens the opportunity to write, propose, and vote on
referendums and initiatives, other states have not. Meanwhile, the United States federal government does not offer any initiatives at all. On the other hand, many countries, such as Switzerland, permit initiatives at all levels
of government.
rst country to grant limited universal surage for all

inhabitants over the age of 25. This was followed by
other experiments in the Paris Commune of 1871 and
the island republic of Franceville (1889). In 1893, New
Zealand became the rst major nation to practice universal surage, and the Freedom in the World index lists
New Zealand as the only free country in the world in
1893.[11][12] In 1906, Finland became the second country in the world, and the rst in Europe, to grant universal
surage to its citizens.[13] At this time, however, women
in New Zealand did not have the right to run for oce.
In 1906, Finland became the rst country in the world to
give women full political rights.[14][15]
Womens surage
Surage is granted to qualifying citizens once they have

reached the voting age. What constitutes a qualifying
citizen depends on the governments decision, but most
democracies no longer extend dierent rights to vote on
the basis of sex or race. Resident aliens can vote in some
countries, and other countries make exceptions for citizens of countries they have close links to (e.g., some
members of the Commonwealth of Nations and members
of the European Union).
1.3.1
Etymology
The word surage comes from Latin suragium, meaning vote, political support, and the right to vote.[6][7][8]
The etymology of the Latin word is uncertain, with some
sources citing Latin suragari lend support, vote for
someone, from sub under + fragor crash, din, shouts
(as of approval)", related to frangere to break (related
to fraction). Other sources say that attempts to connect suragium with fragor cannot be taken seriously.[9]
Some etymologists think that it may be related to surago
and may have originally meant an ankle bone or knuckle
bone.[9]
Also, In much older English (the 1600s), to suer someone to do something is to allow him to do it, to not hinder
German election poster from 1919: Equal rights - equal duties!
him.[10]
Main article: Womens surage
1.3.2
Types
Womens surage is the right of women to vote on the

same terms as men. This was the goal of the suragists and the suragettes. Short-lived surage equity was
Main article: Universal surage
drafted into provisions of the State of New Jerseys rst,
1776 Constitution, which extended the Right to Vote to
Where universal surage exists, the right to vote is not unwed female landholders & Black land owners.
restricted by sex, race, social status, education level, or
wealth. It typically does not extend a right to vote to all
IV. That all inhabitants of this Colony, of
residents of a region; distinctions are frequently made in
full age, who are worth fty pounds proclamaregard to citizenship, age, and occasionally mental capaction money, clear estate in the same, and have
ity or criminal convictions.
resided within the county in which they claim a
Universal surage
The short-lived Corsican Republic (17551769) was the
vote for twelve months immediately preceding
1.3. SUFFRAGE
21
the election, shall be entitled to vote for Representatives in Council and Assembly; and also
for all other public ocers, that shall be elected
by the people of the county at large. New Jersey 1776
ten including the right to vote, to stand for election or

to sit in parliament. In the Great Britain and Ireland, Roman Catholics were denied the right to vote from 1728 to
1793, and the right to sit in parliament until 1829. The
anti-Catholic policy was justied on the grounds that the
loyalty of Catholics supposedly lay with the Pope rather
However, the document did not specify an Amendment than the national monarch.
procedure, and the futile provision was subsequently re- In England and Ireland, several Acts practically disenplaced in 1844 by the adoption of the succeeding con- franchised non-Anglicans or non-Protestants by imposing
stitution, which reverted to all white male surage an oath before admission to vote or to run for oce. The
restrictions.[16]
1672 and 1678 Test Acts forbade non-Anglicans to hold
Limited voting rights were gained by some women in
Sweden, Britain, and some western U.S. states in the
1860s. In 1893, the British colony of New Zealand became the rst self-governing nation to extend the right to
vote to all adult women. In 1894 the women of South
Australia achieved the right to both vote and stand for
Parliament. The autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland in
the Russian Empire was the rst European nation to allow
all women to both vote and run for parliament.[17]
Equal surage
public oces, the 1727 Disenfranchising Act took away

Catholics voting rights in Ireland, which were restored
only in 1788. Jews could not even be naturalized. An attempt was made to change this situation, but the Jewish
Naturalization Act 1753 provoked such reactions that it
was repealed the next year. Nonconformists (Methodists
and Presbyterians) were only allowed to run for elections
to the British House of Commons in 1828, Catholics in
1829 (following the Catholic Relief Act 1829), and Jews
in 1858 (with the Emancipation of the Jews in England).
Benjamin Disraeli could only begin his political career in
1837 because he had been converted to Anglicanism at
the age of 12.
Equal surage is sometimes confused with Universal suffrage, although its meaning is the removal of graded In several states in the U.S. after the Declaration of Indedenied voting
votes, where a voter could possess a number of votes in pendence, Jews, Quakers or Catholics were
[20]
rights
and/or
forbidden
to
run
for
oce.
The
Delaware
[18]
accordance with income, wealth or social status.
Constitution of 1776 stated that Every person who shall
be chosen a member of either house, or appointed to any
Census surage
oce or place of trust, before taking his seat, or entering upon the execution of his oce, shall () also make
Also known as censitary surage, the opposite of equal and subscribe the following declaration, to wit: I, A B.
surage, meaning that the votes cast by those eligible to do profess faith in God the Father, and in Jesus Christ
vote are not equal, but are weighed dierently accord- His only Son, and in the Holy Ghost, one God, blessed
ing to the persons rank in the census (e.g., people with for evermore; and I do acknowledge the holy scriptures
high income have more votes than those with a small inof the Old and New Testament to be given by divine inspicome, or a stockholder in a company with more shares ration."[21] This was repealed by article I, section 2 of the
has more votes than someone with fewer shares). Suf- 1792 Constitution: No religious test shall be required
frage may therefore be limited, usually to the propertied as a qualication to any oce, or public trust, under this
classes.
State..[22] The 1778 Constitution of the State of South
Carolina stated that No person shall be eligible to sit in
the house of representatives unless he be of the Protestant
Compulsory surage
religion,[23] the 1777 Constitution of the State of Georgia (art. VI) that The representatives shall be chosen
Main article: Compulsory surage
out of the residents in each county () and they shall be
of the Protestent (sic) religion.[24] In Maryland, voting
Where compulsory surage exists, those who are eligible rights and eligibility were extended to Jews in 1828.[25]
to vote are required by law to do so. Thirty-two countries
In Canada, several religious groups (Mennonites,
currently practice this form of surage.[19]
Hutterites, Doukhobors) were disenfranchised by the
wartime Elections Act of 1917, mainly because they
opposed military service.
This disenfranchisement
1.3.3 Forms of exclusion from surage
ended with the end of the First World War, but was
renewed for Doukhobors from 1934 (Dominion Elections
Religion
Act) to 1955.[26]
In the aftermath of the Reformation it was common in The rst Constitution of modern Romania in 1866 proEuropean countries for people of disfavored religious de- vided in article 7 that only Christians could become Ronominations to be denied civil and political rights, of-
22
manian citizens. Jews native to Romania were declared
stateless persons. In 1879, under pressure of the Berlin
Peace Conference, this article was amended granting
non-Christians the right to become Romanian citizens,
but naturalization was granted on a case-by-case basis
and was subject to Parliamentary approval. An application took over ten years to process. Only in 1923 was
a new constitution adopted, whose article 133 extended
Romanian citizenship to all Jewish residents and equality
of rights to all Romanian citizens.[27]
In the Republic of Maldives, only Muslim citizens
have voting rights and are eligible for parliamentary
elections.[28] On 25 November 2011, the UN human
rights chief called on Maldivian authorities to remove the
discriminatory constitutional provision that requires that
every citizen be a Muslim.[29]
Indirect - nothing in law specically prevents anyone from voting on account of their race, but other
laws or regulations are used to exclude people of
a particular race. In southern states of the United
States of America before the passage of the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of
1965, poll taxes, literacy and other tests were used
to disenfranchise African-Americans.[31][32] Property qualications have tended to disenfranchise a
minority race, particularly if tribally-owned land is
not allowed to be taken into consideration. In some
cases this was an unintended (but usually welcome)
consequence.
Unocial - nothing in law prevents anyone from voting on account of their race, but people of particular
races are intimidated or otherwise prevented from
exercising this right.
Wealth, tax class, social class

In New Zealand the Maori have been enfranchised
Until the nineteenth century, many Western protoeectively since 1865 at the conclusion of the Maori
democracies had property qualications in their electoral
War. Maori still have the choice of voting in a genlaws; e.g. only landowners could vote (because the only
eral (all race) electorate or a solely Maori electorate.
tax for such countries was the property tax), or the voting
rights were weighed according to the amount of taxes paid
(as in the Prussian three-class franchise). Most countries Age
abolished the property qualication for national elections
in the late nineteenth century, but retained it for local gov- Main articles: Voting age and Age of candidacy
ernment elections for several decades. Today these laws
have largely been abolished, although the homeless may
All modern democracies require voters to meet age qualnot be able to register because they lack regular addresses.
ications to vote. Worldwide voting ages are not consisIn the United Kingdom, until the House of Lords Act tent, diering between countries and even within coun1999, peers who were members of the House of Lords tries, usually between 16 and 21 years. Demeny voting
were excluded from voting for the House of Commons would extend voting rights to everyone including children
because they were not commoners. In Britain and some regardless of age. The movement to lower the voting age
other monarchies, the sovereign is ineligible to vote in is known as the Youth rights movement.
parliamentary elections.[30]
Knowledge
Criminality
Many countries restrict the voting rights of convicted

Sometimes the right to vote has been limited to people
criminals. Some countries, and some U.S. states, also
who had achieved a certain level of education or passed
deny the right to vote to those convicted of serious crimes
a certain test, e.g. "literacy tests" in some states of the
even after they are released from prison. In some cases
US.[31]
(e.g. the felony disenfranchisement laws found in many
U.S. states) the denial of the right to vote is automatic
on a felony conviction; in other cases (e.g. France and
Race
Germany) deprivation of the vote is meted out separately,
Various countries, usually countries with a dominant race and often limited to specic crimes such as those against
within a wider population, have historically denied the the electoral system or corruption of public ocials. In
vote to people of particular races, or to all but the domi- the Republic of Ireland, prisoners are allowed the right to
nant race. This has been achieved in a number of ways: vote, following the Hirst v UK (No2) ruling, and this was
granted in 2006. Canada allowed only prisoners serving
Ocial - laws and regulations passed specically a term of less than 2 years the right to vote, but this was
disenfranchising people of particular races (for ex- found unconstitutional in 2002 by the Supreme Court of
ample, the United States of America in the 19th and Canada in Sauv v. Canada (Chief Electoral Ocer), and
most of the 20th centuries, or South Africa under all prisoners were allowed to vote as of the 2004 Canaapartheid).
dian federal election.
1.3. SUFFRAGE
Residency
Under certain electoral systems elections are held within
subnational jurisdictions, preventing persons who would
otherwise be eligible from voting because they do not reside within such a jurisdiction, or because they live in an
area that cannot participate. In the United States, residents of Washington, DC receive no voting representation
in Congress, although they have (de facto) full representation in presidential elections. Residents of Puerto Rico
have neither.
Sometimes citizens become ineligible to vote because
they are no longer resident in their country of citizenship. For example, Australian citizens who have been
outside Australia more than one and less than six years
may excuse themselves from the requirement to vote
in Australian elections while they remain outside Australia (voting in Australia is compulsory for resident
citizens).[33]
In some cases, a certain period of residence in a locality
may required for the right to vote in that location. For
example, in the United Kingdom up to 2001, each 15
February a new electoral register came into eect, based
on registration as of the previous 10 October, with the effect of limiting voting to those resident ve to seventeen
months earlier depending on the timing of the election.
Nationality
23
ference between ordinary naturalization, and grande naturalisation. Only (former) foreigners who had been
granted grande naturalisation were entitled to vote, be
a candidate for parliamentary elections, or be appointed
minister. However, ordinary naturalized citizens could
vote for municipal elections.[34] Ordinary naturalized citizens and citizens who had acquired Belgian nationality
through marriage could vote, but not be candidates for
parliamentary elections in 1976. The concepts of ordinary and grande naturalization were suppressed from the
Constitution in 1991.[35]
In France, the 1889 Nationality Law barred those who
had acquired the French nationality by naturalization or
marriage from voting, eligibility and access to several
public jobs. In 1938 the delay was reduced to 5 years.[36]
These discriminations, as well as others against naturalized citizens, were gradually abolished in 1973 (9 January
1973 law) and 1983.
In Morocco, a former French protectorate, and in
Guinea, a former French colony, naturalized citizens
are prohibited from voting for 5 years after their
naturalization.[37][38]
In the Federated States of Micronesia, one must be
a Micronesian citizen for at least 15 years to run for
parliament.[39]
In Nicaragua, Peru and the Philippines, only citizens by birth are eligible for being elected to the national legislature; naturalized citizens enjoy only voting
rights.[40][41][42]
Main article: Right of foreigners to vote
In Uruguay, naturalized citizens have the right of eligibility to the parliament after 5 years.[43]
In most countries, surage is limited to citizens and, in

many cases, permanent residents of that country. However, some members of supra-national organisations such
as the Commonwealth of Nations and the European
Union have given voting rights to citizens of all countries
within that organisation. Until the mid-twentieth century, many Commonwealth countries gave the vote to all
British citizens in the country, regardless of whether they
were normally resident there. In most cases this was because there was no distinction between British and local
citizenship. Several countries qualied this with restrictions preventing non-white British citizens such as Indians and British Africans from voting. Under European
Union law, citizens of European Union countries can vote
in each others local and European Parliament elections
on the same basis as citizens of the country in question,
but usually not in national elections.
In the United States, the President and Vice President

must be natural-born citizens. All other governmental
oces may be held by any citizen, although citizens may
only run for Congress after an extended period of citizenship (seven years for the House of Representatives and
nine for the Senate).
Naturalization
Function
In France, a 1872 law, rescinded only by a 1945 decree,
prohibited all army personnel from voting.[44]
In the United Kingdom, public servants have to resign before running for an election.[45]
The 1876 Constitution of Texas (article VI, section 1)
stated that The following classes of persons shall not be
allowed to vote in this State, to wit: () FifthAll soldiers, marines and seamen, employed in the service of the
army or navy of the United States..[46]
In many countries with a presidential system of governIn some countries, naturalized citizens do not have the ment a person is forbidden to be a legislator and an ocial
right to vote or to be candidate, either permanently or for of the executive branch at the same time. Such provisions
a determined period.
are found, for example, in Article I of the U.S. ConstituArticle 5 of the 1831 Belgian Constitution made a dif- tion.
24
1.3.4
History around the world
Finland was the rst nation in the world to give all adult
citizens full surage, in other words the right to vote and
to run for oce (in 1906). New Zealand was the rst
country in the world to grant all adult citizens the right to
vote (in 1893), but women did not get the right to run for
the New Zealand legislature until 1919.
Australia
See also: Surage in Australia and Voting rights of
Australian Aboriginals
1884 - Henrietta Dugdale forms the rst Australian

womens surage society in Melbourne.
1894 - South Australian women eligible to vote.[47]
1899 - Western Australian women eligible to
vote.[47]
Canada
1916 - Manitoba becomes the rst province where
women have the right to vote in provincial elections.
1917 - Wartime Elections Act - Gives voting rights
to women with relatives ghting overseas. Voting
rights are stripped from all "enemy aliens" (those
born in enemy countries who arrived in Canada after
1902; see also Ukrainian Canadian internment).[49]
Military Voters Act - gave the vote to all soldiers,
even non-citizens, (with exception of Indian and
Metis veterans)[50] and to females serving as nurses
or clerks for the armed forces, but the votes are not
for specic candidates but simply for or against the
government.
1918 - Women gain full voting rights in federal
elections.[51][52][53]
1919 - Women gain the right to run for federal
oce.[54]
1940 - Quebec becomes the last province where
womens right to vote is recognized.
1902 - The Commonwealth Franchise Act enables

women to vote federally, and in the state of New
South Wales. This also allowed women to run for (see Canadian women during the world wars for more ingovernment, making Australia the rst in the world formation on Canadian surage)
to allow this.
1947 - Racial exclusions against Chinese and Indo 1921 - Edith Cowan elected to the West Australian
Canadians lifted.
Legislative Assembly as member for West Perth, the
1948 - Racial exclusions against Japanese Canadians
rst woman elected to any Australian Parliament.[48]
lifted.[55]
1962 - Aboriginal peoples guaranteed the right to
1955 - Religious exclusions are removed from elecvote in Commonwealth elections
tion laws.
Brazil
1932 - Vote becomes obligatory to all adults over
21 years old. Until then, vote was not obligatory but
only allowed to men and limited by income and occupation.
1955 - Adoption of standardized voting ballots and
identication to mitigate frauds.
1964 - Military regime established. From then on,
presidents were elected by members of the congress,
chosen by regular vote.
1989 - Reestablishment of universal surage for all
citizens over 16 years old. People considered illiterate are not obliged to vote, as people younger than
18 and older than 70 years old. People under the
obligation rule shall le a document to justify their
absence should they not vote.
2000 - Brazil becomes the rst country with full
adoption of electronic ballots in their voting process.
1960 - Right to vote is extended unconditionally to

First Nations people. (Previously they could vote
only by giving up their status as First Nations people; this requirement was removed.)[56]
1960 - Right to vote in advance is extended to all
electors willing to swear they would be absent on
election day.
1965 - First Nations people granted the right to
vote in Alberta provincial elections, starting with the
Alberta general election, 1967[56]
1969 - First Nations people granted the right to
vote in Quebec provincial elections, starting with the
Quebec general election, 1970[56]
1970 - Voting age lowered from 21 to 18.
1982 - Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
guarantees all adult citizens the right to vote.
1988 - Supreme Court of Canada rules mentally ill
patients have the right to vote.[57]
1.3. SUFFRAGE
1993 - Any elector can vote in advance.
2000 - legislation is introduced making it easier for
people of no xed address to vote
2002 - Prisoners given the right to vote in the riding where they were convicted. All adult Canadians
except the Chief and Deputy Electoral Ocers can
now vote in Canada.[58]
25
The right to vote and the right to stand in elections are
not equal. Less than 250,000 of the electorate are eligible to run in the 30 functional constituencies, of which 23
are elected by less than 80,000 of the electorate, and in
the 2008 Legislative Council election 14 members were
elected unopposed from these functional constituencies.
The size of the electorates of some constituencies are less
than 200. Only people who can demonstrate a connection to the sector are eligible to run in a functional constituency.
Finland
The Legislative Council (Amendment) Bill 2012, if

passed, amends the Legislative Council Ordinance to re1906 - Full surage for all citizens adults aged 24 or strict the right to stand in Legislative Council by-elections
older at beginning of voting year.
in geographical constituencies and the District Council
(Second) functional constituency. In addition to people
1921 - Suppression of property-based amount of
who are mentally disabled, bankrupted, or imprisoned,
votes on municipal level; equal vote for everybody.
members who resign their seats will not have the right to
stand within six months time from their resignation. The
1944 - Voting age lowered to 21 years.
bill is currently passing through the committee stage.

1981 - Voting and eligibility rights were granted to
Nordic Passport Union country citizens without residence condition for municipal elections
1991 - Voting and eligibility rights were granted to
[extended to all foreign residents in 1991 with a 2
years residence condition for municipal elections
India
Universal surage for all adult citizens aged 21 or
older was established under Art. 326 of the 1950
Constitution of India . The minimum age was reduced to 18 years by the Constitution (Sixty-rst
Amendment) Act, 1988, with eect from 28 March
1989.
1995 - Residence requirement abolished for EU

residents, in conformity with the European legis- Japan
lation (Law 365/95, conrmed by Electoral Law
Main article: Surage in Japan
714/1998)
1996 - Voting age lowered to 18 years at date of
voting.
1947 - Universal Surage instituted with the establishment of Post-war Constitution.
2000 - Section 14, al. 2 of the 2000 Constitution of

Finland states that "Every Finnish citizen and every
foreigner permanently resident in Finland, having attained eighteen years of age, has the right to vote in New Zealand
municipal elections and municipal referendums, as
provided by an Act. Provisions on the right to oth- Main article: History of voting in New Zealand
erwise participate in municipal government are laid
down by an Act."[59]
1853 - British government passes the New Zealand
Constitution Act 1852, granting limited self rule, inHong Kong
cluding a bicameral parliament to the colony. The
vote was limited to male British subjects aged 21 or
Minimum age to vote was reduced from 21 to 18 years
over who owned or rented sucient property, and
in 1995. According to the Basic Law, the constitution
were not imprisoned for a serious oence. Comof the territory since 1997, stipulates that all permanent
munally owned land was excluded from the property
residents (a status conferred by birth or by seven years of
qualication, thus disenfranchising most Mori (inresidence) have the right to vote. The right of permanent
digenous) men.
residents who have right of abode in other countries to
1860 - Franchise extended to holders of miners listand in election is, however, restricted to 12 functional
constituencies by the Legislative Council Ordinance of
censes who met all voting qualications except that
1997.
of property.
26
1867 - Mori seats established, giving Mori four

reserved seats in the lower house. There was no
property qualication; thus Mori men gained universal surage before other New Zealanders. The
number of seats did not reect the size of the Mori
population, but Mori men who met the property requirement for general electorates were able to vote
in them or in the Mori electorates but not both.
1930 The Womens Enfranchisement Act, 1930

extends the right to vote to all white women over the
age of 21.
1879 - Property requirement abolished.
1936 The Representation of Natives Act, 1936

removes black voters in the Cape Province from
the common voters roll and instead allows them to
elect three Native Representative Members to the
House of Assembly. Four Senators are to be indirectly elected by chiefs and local authorities to represent black South Africans throughout the country.
The act is passed with the necessary two-thirds majority in a joint sitting.
1893 - Women won equal voting rights with men,

making New Zealand the rst nation in the world to
allow adult women to vote.
1969 - Voting age lowered to 20.
1975 - Franchise extended to permanent residents of
New Zealand, regardless of whether they have citizenship.
1996 - Number of Mori seats increased to reect
Mori population.
2010 - Prisoners imprisoned for 1 year or more denied voting rights while serving the sentence.
Poland
1918 - In its rst days of independence in 1918, after
123 years of partition, rights to vote were granted to
both men and women. Eight women were elected to
the Sejm in 1919.
South Africa
1910 The Union of South Africa is established by
the South Africa Act 1909. The House of Assembly is elected by rst-past-the-post voting in singlemember constituencies. The franchise qualications
are the same as those previously existing for elections of the legislatures of the colonies that comprised the Union. In the Transvaal and the Orange
Free State the franchise is limited to white men.
In Natal the franchise is limited to men meeting
property and literacy qualications; it was theoretically colour-blind but in practise nearly all nonwhite men were excluded. The traditional "Cape
Qualied Franchise" of the Cape Province is limited
to men meeting property and literacy qualications
and is colour-blind; nonetheless 85% of voters are
white. The rights of non-white voters in the Cape
Province are protected by an entrenched clause in
the South Africa Act requiring a two-thirds vote in
a joint sitting of both Houses of Parliament.
1931 The Franchise Laws Amendment Act, 1931

removes the property and literacy qualications for
all white men over the age of 21, but they are retained for non-white voters.
1951 The Separate Representation of Voters Act,

1951 is passed by Parliament by an ordinary majority in separate sittings. It purports to remove
coloured voters in the Cape Province from the common voters roll and instead allow them to elect four
Coloured Representative Members to the House
of Assembly.
1952 In Harris v Minister of the Interior the Separate Representation of Voters Act is annulled by the
Appellate Division of the Supreme Court because
it was not passed with the necessary two-thirds majority in a joint sitting. Parliament passes the High
Court of Parliament Act, 1952, purporting to allow
it to reverse this decision, but the Appellate Division
annuls it as well.
1956 By packing the Senate and the Appellate
Division, the government passes the South Africa
Act Amendment Act, 1956, reversing the annulment
of the Separate Representation of Voters Act and
giving it the force of law.
1958 The Electoral Law Amendment Act, 1958
reduces the voting age for white voters from 21 to
18.
1959 The Promotion of Bantu Self-government
Act, 1959 repeals the Representation of Natives Act,
removing all representation of black people in Parliament.
1968 The Separate Representation of Voters
Amendment Act, 1968 repeals the Separate Representation of Voters Act, removing all representation
of coloured people in Parliament.
1969 The rst election of the Coloured Persons
Representative Council (CPRC), which has limited
legislative powers, is held. Every Coloured citizen
over the age of 21 can vote for it, in rst-past-thepost elections in single-member constituencies.
1.3. SUFFRAGE
27
1978 The voting age for the CPRC is reduced United Kingdom was slowly changed over the course of
from 21 to 18.
the 19th and 20th centuries through the use of the Reform
Acts and the Representation of the People Acts, culmi 1981 The rst election of the South African In- nating in universal surage, excluding children and condian Council (SAIC), which has limited legislative victed prisoners.
powers, is held. Every Indian South African citizen
over the age of 18 can vote for it, in rst-past-the Reform Act 1832 - extended voting rights to adult
post elections in single-member constituencies.
males who rented propertied land of a certain value,
so allowing 1 in 7 males in the UK voting rights
1984 The Constitution of 1983 establishes the
Tricameral Parliament. Two new Houses of Parlia Reform Act 1867 - extended the franchise to men
ment are created, the House of Representatives to
in urban areas who met a property qualication, so
represent coloured citizens and the House of Deleincreasing male surage to the United Kingdom
gates to represent Indian citizens. Every coloured
and Indian citizen over the age of 18 can vote in
Representation of the People Act 1884 - adelections for the relevant house. As with the House
dressed imbalances between the boroughs and the
of Assembly, the members are elected by rstcountryside; this brought the voting population to
past-the-post voting in single-member constituen5,500,000, although 40% of males were still disencies. The CPRC and SAIC are abolished.
franchised because of the property qualication.
1994 With the end of apartheid, the Interim Constitution of 1993 abolishes the Tricameral Parliament and all racial discrimination in voting rights. A
new National Assembly is created, and every South
African citizen over the age of 18 has the right to
vote for the assembly. Elections of the assembly are
based on party-list proportional representation. The
right to vote is entrenched in the Bill of Rights.
1999 In August and Another v Electoral Commission and Others the Constitutional Court rules that
prisoners cannot be denied the right to vote without
a law that explicitly does so.
2003 The Electoral Laws Amendment Act, 2003
purports to prohibit convicted prisoners from voting.
2004 In Minister of Home Aairs v NICRO and
Others the Constitutional Court rules that prisoners
cannot be denied the right to vote, and invalidates
the laws that do so.
2009 In Richter v Minister for Home Aairs
and Others the Constitutional Court rules that South
African citizens outside the country cannot be denied the right to vote.
United Kingdom
See also: History of British society and The Parliamentary Franchise in the United Kingdom 1885-1918
King Henry VI of England established in 1432 that only
male owners of property worth at least forty shillings,
a signicant sum, were entitled to vote in a county.
Changes were made to the details of the system, but there
was no major reform until the Reform Act 1832. It was
not until 1918 that all men over 21, and wealthy women
won the right to vote, and it was not until 1928 that all
women over 21 won the right to vote. Surage in the
Between 1885-1918 moves were made by the

surage movement to ensure votes for women.
However, the duration of the First World War
stopped this reform movement. See also The Parliamentary Franchise in the United Kingdom 18851918.
Representation of the People Act 1918 - the consequences of World War I persuaded the government to expand the right to vote, not only for the
many men who fought in the war who were disenfranchised, but also for the women who helped in
the factories and elsewhere as part of the war effort. All men aged 21 and over were given the right
to vote. Property restrictions for voting were lifted
for men. Votes were given to 40% of women, with
property restrictions and limited to those over 30
years old. This increased the electorate from 7.7
million to 21.4 million with women making up 8.5
million of the electorate. Seven percent of the electorate had more than one vote. The rst election
with this system was the United Kingdom general
election, 1918
Representation of the People Act 1928 - this made
womens voting rights equal with men, with voting
possible at 21 with no property restrictions
Representation of the People Act 1948 - the act was
passed to prevent plural voting
Representation of the People Act 1969 - extension
of surage to those 18 and older
The Representation of the People Acts of 1983,
1985 and 2000 further modied voting
Electoral Administration Act 2006 - modied the
ways in which people were able to vote and reduced
the age of standing at a public election from 21 to
18.
28
United States
Timeline of womens surage
Main article: Voting rights in the United States
Voting age
In the United States, surage is determined by the separate states, not federally (Wyoming being the rst state to
instill surage). However, the right to vote is expressly
mentioned in ve Amendments to the U.S. Constitution.
These ve Amendments limit the basis on which the right
to vote may be abridged or denied:
14th Amendment (1868): Regarding apportionment
of Representatives.
Voting rights in the United States

Womens surage organizations
Womens surage publications
Youth surage
Secret ballot
15th Amendment (1870): The right of citizens 1.3.6 References

of the United States to vote shall not be denied or
abridged by the United States or by any State on ac- [1] Houghton Miin Harcourt Publishing Company.
American Heritage Dictionary Entry:
surage.
count of race, color, or previous condition of serviRetrieved 28 July 2015.
tude.
19th Amendment (1920): The right of citizens
of the United States to vote shall not be denied or
abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.
23rd Amendment (1961): provides that residents of
the District of Columbia can vote for the President
and Vice President.
24th Amendment (1964): The right of citizens of
the United States to vote in any primary or other
election for President or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator
or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or
abridged by the United States or any State by reason
of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax.
26th Amendment (1971): The right of citizens of
the United States, who are eighteen years of age or
older, to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the
United States or by any State on account of age.
Majority-Muslim countries
[2] Denition of surage - Collins English Dictionary.

Retrieved 28 July 2015.
[3] surage - denition of surage in English from the Oxford dictionary. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
[4] ">> social sciences >> Womens Surage Movement.
glbtq. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
[5] Deprivation of the Right to Vote ACE Electoral
Knowledge Network. Aceproject.org. Retrieved 21 June
2013.
[6] surage - Dictionary denition and pronunciation - Yahoo! Education. Education.yahoo.com. Retrieved 21
June 2013.
[7] Surage - Denition and More from the Free MerriamWebster Dictionary. Merriam-webster.com. 31 August
2012. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
[8] Online Etymology Dictionary. Etymonline.com. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
[9] LacusCurtius Voting in Ancient Rome Suragium
(Smiths Dictionary, 1875)". Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
Main article: Timeline of rst womens surage in

majority-Muslim countries
[10] Surage - Discussion Forum - A Way with Words - A
Way with Words - Discussion Forum. Retrieved 28 July

2015.
1.3.5
See also
Constituency
Democracy
Direct democracy
[11] Nohlen, Dieter (2001). Elections in Asia and the Pacic:

South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacic. p.14.
Oxford University Press, 2001
[12] A. Kulinski, K. Pawlowski. The Atlantic Community The Titanic of the XXI Century. p.96. WSB-NLU. 2010
List of suragists and suragettes
[13] Ocial Report of Debates. p.113. Council of germany,

9000
The Famous Five (Canada)
[14] Pages - About Parliament. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
1.3. SUFFRAGE
[15] Finland was the rst nation in the world to give all (adult)
citizens full surage, in other words the right to vote and to
run for oce (in 1906). New Zealand was the rst country
in the world to grant all (adult) citizens the right to vote
(in 1893), but women did not get the right to run for the
New Zealand legislature until 1919.
[16] The New Jersey Constitution of 1776 accessdate=200612-17.
[17] Votes for Women - Elections New Zealand Elections.org.
[18] Denition: surage. Websters Dictionary. Retrieved 24
October 2011.
[19] "CIA:The World Factbook. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
[20] Williamson, Chilton (1960), American Surage. From
property to democracy, Princeton University Press
[21] Constitution of Delaware, 1776, The Avalon Project at
Yale Law School, retrieved 7 December 2007
[22] State Constitution (Religious Sections) - Delaware, The
Constitutional Principle: Separation of Church and State],
retrieved 7 December 2007
[23] An Act for establishing the constitution of the State of South
Carolina, 19 March 1778, The Avalon Project at Yale Law
School, retrieved 5 December 2007
[24] Constitution of Georgia, The Avalon Project at Yale Law
School, 5 February 1777, retrieved 7 December 2007
29
[35] Lambert, Pierre-Yves (1999), La participation politique

des allochtones en Belgique - Historique et situation bruxelloise, Academia-Bruylant (coll. Sybidi Papers), Louvainla-Neuve, retrieved 6 December 2007
[36] Patrick Weil, Nationalit franaise (dbat sur la)", dans
Jean-Franois Sirinelli (dir.), Dictionnaire historique de la
vie politique franaise au XXe sicle, Paris, PUF, 1995,
p. 719-721
[37] Nadia Bernoussi, Lvolution du processus lectoral au
Maroc, 22 December 2005 Archived 25 November 2012
at the Wayback Machine
[38] art. 3, al. 3, Loi Organique portant code lectoral
guinen. Ife.org.mx. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
[39] Federated States of Micronesia. Inter-Parliamentary
Union. Retrieved 12 December 2007.
[40] Nicaragua. Inter-Parliamentary Union. Retrieved 12
December 2007.
[41] Peru. Inter-Parliamentary Union. Retrieved 12 December 2007.
[42] Philippines. Inter-Parliamentary Union. Retrieved 12
December 2007.
[43] Uruguay. Inter-Parliamentary Union. Retrieved 12 December 2007.
[25] An Act for the relief of Jews in Maryland, passed 26 February 1825, Archives of Maryland, Volume 3183, Page
1670, 26 February 1825, retrieved 5 December 2007
[44] Plnitude de la Rpublique et extension du surage universel ( Scholar search ) (in French), Assemble nationale
(National Assembly of France), retrieved 5 December
2007
[26] A History of the Vote in Canada, Chapter 3 Modernization,

19201981, Elections Canada, Last Modied: 200779,
retrieved 6 December 2007 Check date values in: |date=
(help)
[45] Fonction publique et mandats lectifs dans l'Union europenne (in French), tudes de lgislation compare, Assemble nationale (National Assembly of France), May
2006, retrieved 5 December 2007
[27] Chronology - From the History Museum of the Romanian

Jews; Hasefer Publishing House, The Romanian Jewish
Community, retrieved 6 December 2007
[46] Constitution of the State of Texas (1876), Tarlton Law Library, The University of Texas School of Law, retrieved
8 December 2007
[28] Maldives. Inter-Parliamentary Union. Retrieved 12 December 2007.
[47] Women and the Right to Vote in Australia. Australian

Electoral Commission. 28 January 2011. Retrieved 21
June 2013.
[29] Ali Naz, UN rights chief calls on Maldives to remove

Muslim-only citizenship provision, Haveeru Online, 25
November 2011
[48] Electoral Milestones for Women. Australian Electoral

Commission. 8 March 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
[30] https://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/
QueenandGovernment/Queenandvoting.aspx
[49] The Famous Five - Timeline. Abheritage.ca. 8 December 2010. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
[31] Transcript of Voting Rights Act (1965) U.S. National

Archives.
[50] Indian Act of Canada S.C. 1938 chap 46 sec

14(2)(i)/Dominion Elections Act S.C.1948 chap
46
[32] The Constitution: The 24th Amendment Time Magazine.

Retrieved 2011-10-24.
[33] Australian Electoral Commission, Voting Overseas
- Frequently Asked Questions, 20 November 2007.
Aec.gov.au. 10 January 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
[34] Delcour, M.C., Trait thorique et pratique du droit lectoral appliqu aux lections communales, Louvain, Ickx
& Geets, 1842, p.16
[51] name="faculty.marianopolis.edu
[52] {{cite
web|url=http://faculty.marianopolis.
edu/c.belanger/QuebecHistory/encyclopedia/
Canada-WomensVote-WomenSuffrage.htm
|title=Canada - Womens Vote - Women Surage
|publisher=Faculty.marianopolis.e
[53] du |date=27 January 1916 |accessdate=21 June 2013}}
30
[54] Canada - Womens Vote - Women Surage. Faculty.marianopolis.edu. 27 January 1916. Retrieved 21
June 2013.
[55] CBC Digital Archives. Archives.cbc.ca. Retrieved 21
June 2013.
[56] Noel Dyck Revised: Tonio Sadik (18 December 1970).
Aboriginal People, Political Organization and Activism.
Thecanadianencyclopedia.com. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
[57] CBC Digital Archives. Archives.cbc.ca. Retrieved 21
June 2013.
[58] Sauv v. Canada (Chief Electoral Ocer)
[59] The Constitution of Finland (PDF). 11 June 1999. Retrieved 10 December 2007.
1.3.7
Bibliography
Neill Atkinson, Adventures in Democracy: A History

of the Vote in New Zealand (Dunedin: University of
Otago Press, 2003).
Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested
History of Democracy in the United States (New
York: Basic Books, 2000). ISBN 0-465-02968-X
U.S. women suragists demonstrating for the right to vote,

February 1913.
In 1893, New Zealand, then a self-governing British

colony, granted adult women the right to vote, and
the self-governing colony of South Australia, now an
Australian state, did the same in 1894, the latter also permitting women to stand for oce. In 1901 several British
colonies became the federal Commonwealth of Australia,
and women acquired the right to vote and stand in federal elections from 1902, but discriminatory restrictions
against Aboriginal women (and men) voting in national
elections were not completely removed until 1962.[4][5][6]
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights: Reports on Voting

(2005) ISBN 978-0-8377-3103-2
The rst European country to introduce womens suf Smallest State in the World, New York Times, 19 frage was the Grand Duchy of Finland, then part of the
Russian Empire, which elected the worlds rst female
June 1896, p 6
members of parliament in the 1907 parliamentary elec A History of the Vote in Canada, Chief Electoral tions. Norway followed, granting full womens surage in
1913. Most European, Asian and African countries did
Ocer of Canada, 2007.
not pass womens surage until after World War I.
Late adopters in Europe were France in 1944, Italy in
1946, Greece in 1952,[7] San Marino in 1959, Monaco in
1962,[8] Andorra in 1970,[9] Switzerland in 1971,[10] and
Surage in Canada
Liechtenstein in 1984.[11] In addition, although women in
Womens surage in Germany19 January 1919 Portugal obtained surage in 1931, this was with stronger
rst surage (active and passive) for women in Ger- restrictions than those of men; full gender equality in voting was only granted in 1976.[8][12]
many
1.3.8
External links
Canada, the United States and a few Latin American nations passed womens surage before World War II while
the vast majority of Latin American nations established
1.4 Womens surage
womens surage in the 1940s (see table in Summary beto give women the
Votes for women redirects here. For the Mark Twain low). The last Latin American country
[13][14]
Paraguay
in
1961.
right
to
vote
was
speech, see Votes for Women (speech).
Womens surage(also known as woman surage Extended political campaigns by women and their supor womans right to vote)[1] is the right of women to porters have generally been necessary to gain legislation
vote and to stand for electoral oce. Limited voting or constitutional amendments for womens surage. In
rights were gained by women in Sweden, Finland, Iceland many countries, limited surage for women was granted
and some western U.S. states in the late 19th century.[2] before universal surage for men; for instance, literate
National and international organizations formed to co- women were granted surage before all men received
ordinate eorts to gain voting rights, especially the it. The United Nations encouraged womens surage in
International Woman Surage Alliance (1904), and also the years following World War II, and the Convention on
worked for equal civil rights for women.[3]
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
1.4. WOMENS SUFFRAGE
31
Women (1979) identies it as a basic right with 188 coun- matrilineal kinship system. Property and descent were
tries currently being parties to this Convention.
passed through the female line. Women elders voted on
hereditary male chiefs and could depose them.
1.4.1
History
Anna II, Abbess of Quedlinburg. In the pre-modern era in some

parts of Europe, abbesses were permitted to participate and vote
in various European national assemblies by virtue of their rank
within the Catholic and Protestant churches.
In young Athenian democracy, often cited as the birthplace of democracy, only men were permitted to vote.
Through subsequent centuries, Europe was generally
ruled by monarchs, though various forms of Parliament
arose at dierent times. The high rank ascribed to
abbesses within the Catholic Church permitted some
women the right to sit and vote at national assemblies
as with various high-ranking abbesses in Medieval Germany, who were ranked among the independent princes
of the empire. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the
same privilege almost into modern times.[15]
The emergence of modern democracy generally began

with male citizens obtaining the right to vote in advance
of female citizens, except in the Kingdom of Hawai'i,
where universal manhood and womens surage was introduced in 1840; however, a constitutional amendment
in 1852 rescinded female voting and put property qualications on male voting.
South Australian suragette Catherine Helen Spence stood for

oce in 1897. In a rst for the modern world, South Australia
granted women the right to stand for Parliament in 1895.
Marie Guyart, a French nun who worked with the First

Nations peoples of Canada during the seventeenth century, wrote in 1654 regarding the surage practices of
Iroquois women, These female chieftains are women
of standing amongst the savages, and they have a deciding vote in the councils. They make decisions there Woman Surage Headquarters, Cleveland, 1913
like the men, and it is they who even delegated the
rst ambassadors to discuss peace.[16] The Iroquois, like In Sweden, conditional womens surage was in eect
many First Nations peoples in North America, had a during the Age of Liberty (17181771).[17] Other pos-
32
sible contenders for rst country to grant female suffrage include the Corsican Republic (1755), the Pitcairn
Islands (1838), the Isle of Man (1881), and Franceville
(1889), but some of these operated only briey as independent states and others were not clearly independent.
In 1756, Lydia Taft became the rst legal woman voter
in colonial America. This occurred under British rule
in the Massachusetts Colony.[18] In a New England town
meeting in Uxbridge, Massachusetts, she voted on at least
three occasions.[19] Unmarried women who owned property could vote in New Jersey from 1776 to 1807.
Eighteen female MPs joined the Turkish Parliament in 1935
In 1881 the Isle of Man, an internally self-governing
dependent territory of the British Crown, enfranchised
women property owners. With this it provided the rst
action for womens surage within the British Isles.[6]
The Pacic colony of Franceville, declaring independence in 1889, became the rst self-governing nation
to adopt universal surage without distinction of sex or
color.[22]
Of currently existing independent countries, New
Zealand was the rst to acknowledge womens right
to vote in 1893 when it was a self-governing British
colony.[23] Unrestricted womens surage in terms of voting rights (women were not initially permitted to stand
for election) was adopted in New Zealand in 1893. Following a successful movement led by Kate Sheppard,
the womens surage bill was adopted weeks before the
general election of that year. The women of the British
protectorate of Cook Islands obtained the same right
soon after and beat New Zealands women to the polls
in 1893.[24]
The self-governing British colony of South Australia enacted universal surage in 1894, also allowing women
to stand for the colonial parliament that year.[25] The
Commonwealth of Australia federated in 1901, with
women voting and standing for oce in some states. The
Australian Federal Parliament extended voting rights to
all adult women for Federal elections from 1902 (with
the exception of Aboriginal women in some states).[26]
In the 1792 elections in Sierra Leone, then a new British The rst European country to introduce womens surage
colony, all heads of household could vote and one-third was the Grand Duchy of Finland in 1906. It was among
were ethnic African women.[20]
reforms passed following the 1905 uprising. As a result of
The female descendants of the Bounty mutineers who the 1907 parliamentary elections, Finlands voters elected
lived on Pitcairn Islands could vote from 1838. This right 19 women as the rst female members of a representative
was transferred after they resettled in 1856 to Norfolk Is- parliament; they took their seats later that year.
land (now an Australian external territory).[6]
In the years before World War I, women in Norway
The seed for the rst Womans Rights Convention in the
United States in Seneca Falls, New York was planted in
1840, when Elizabeth Cady Stanton met Lucretia Mott
at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. The
conference refused to seat Mott and other women delegates from the United States of America because of their
sex. In 1851, Stanton met temperance worker Susan
B. Anthony, and shortly the two would be joined in the
long struggle to secure the vote for women in the United
States. In 1868 Anthony encouraged working women
from the printing and sewing trades in New York, who
were excluded from mens trade unions, to form Workingwomens Associations. As a delegate to the National
Labor Congress in 1868, Anthony persuaded the committee on female labor to call for votes for women and equal
pay for equal work. The men at the conference deleted
the reference to the vote.[21]
(1913) also won the right to vote, as did women in the

remaining Australian states. Denmark granted womens
surage in 1915. Near the end of the war, Canada, Russia, Germany, and Poland also recognized womens right
to vote. Propertied British women over 30 had the vote in
1918, Dutch women in 1919, and American women won
the vote on 26 August 1920 with the passage of the 19th
Amendment. Irish women won the same voting rights as
men in the Irish Free State constitution, 1922. In 1928,
British women won surage on the same terms as men,
that is, for persons 21 years old and older. Surage of
Turkish women introduced in 1930 for local elections and
in 1934 for national elections.
French women gained surage in July 1944 by order of
Charles de Gaulle's government in exile (at that time most
of Franceincluding Pariswas under Nazi occupation;
Paris was liberated the following month).
In the United States, some of the territories or newer Voting rights for women were introduced into
states were the rst to extend surage to women. For international law by the United Nations Human
instance, women in the Wyoming Territory could vote as Rights Commission, whose elected chair was Eleanor
of 1869.

Roosevelt. In 1948 the United Nations adopted the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights; Article 21
stated: "(1) Everyone has the right to take part in the
government of his country, directly or through freely
chosen representatives. (3) The will of the people shall
be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall
be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which
shall be by universal and equal surage and shall be held
by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.
33
cleanliness and community. An opposing theme, Kraditor argues, held that had the same moral standards. They
should be equal in every way and that there was no such
thing as a womans natural role.[32][33]
The United Nations General Assembly adopted the

Convention on the Political Rights of Women, which
went into force in 1954, enshrining the equal rights of
women to vote, hold oce, and access public services as
set out by national laws. One of the most recent jurisdictions to acknowledge womens full right to vote was
Bhutan in 2008 (its rst national elections).[27]
For black women, achieving surage was a way to

counter the disfranchisement of the men of their race.[34]
Despite this discouragement, black suragists continued
to insist on their equal political rights. Starting in the
1890s, African American women began to assert their
political rights aggressively from within their own clubs
and surage societies. If white American women, with
all their natural and acquired advantages, need the ballot,
argued Adele Hunt Logan of Tuskegee, Alabama, how
much more do black Americans, male and female, need
the strong defense of a vote to help secure their right to
life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness?"[34]
1.4.2
1.4.3 References
Surage movements
Dubois,Carol, Dumenil, Lynm (1299). Through

womens eyes, An American History with documents, 456(475).
1.4.4 Summary
See also: Timeline of womens surage
Both women and men denied full enfranchisement
Women cannot vote
1.4.5 By country
Africa
After selling her home, British activist Emmeline Pankhurst travelled constantly, giving speeches throughout Britain and the
United States. One of her most famous speeches, Freedom or
death, was delivered in Connecticut in 1913.
The surage movement was a broad one, encompassing

women and men with a wide range of views. In terms of
diversity, the greatest achievement of the twentieth century woman surage movement was its extremely broad
class base.[28] One major division, especially in Britain,
was between suragists, who sought to create change
constitutionally, and suragettes, led by English political activist Emmeline Pankhurst, who in 1903 formed
the more militant Womens Social and Political Union.[29]
Pankhurst would not be satised with anything but action on the question of womens enfranchisement, with
deeds, not words the organisations motto.[30][31]
Sierra Leone Women won the right to vote in Sierra

Leone in 1930.[60]
South Africa The franchise was extended to white

women 21 years or older by the Womens Enfranchisement Act, 1930. The rst general election at which
women could vote was the 1933 election. At that election Leila Reitz (wife of Deneys Reitz) was elected as
the rst female MP, representing Parktown for the South
African Party. The limited voting rights available to nonwhite men in the Cape Province and Natal (Transvaal and
the Orange Free State practically denied all non-whites
the right to vote, and had also done so to non-Afrikaner
uitlanders when independent in the 1800s) were not extended to women, and were themselves progressively
There was also a diversity of views on a womans place. eliminated between 1936 and 1968.
Suragist themes often included the notions that women The right to vote for the Transkei Legislative Assemwere naturally kinder and more concerned about children bly, established in 1963 for the Transkei bantustan, was
and the elderly. As Kraditor shows, it was often assumed granted to all adult citizens of the Transkei, including
that women voters would have a civilizing eect on poli- women. Similar provision was made for the Legislatics, opposing domestic violence, liquor, and emphasizing tive Assemblies created for other bantustans. All adult
34
coloured citizens were eligible to vote for the Coloured
Persons Representative Council, which was established
in 1968 with limited legislative powers; the council was
however abolished in 1980. Similarly, all adult Indian citizens were eligible to vote for the South African Indian
Council in 1981. In 1984 the Tricameral Parliament was
established, and the right to vote for the House of Representatives and House of Delegates was granted to all adult
Coloured and Indian citizens, respectively.
In 1994 the bantustans and the Tricameral Parliament
were abolished and the right to vote for the National Assembly was granted to all adult citizens.
Southern Rhodesia Southern Rhodesian white
women won the vote in 1919 and Ethel Tawse Jollie
(18751950) was elected to the Southern Rhodesia
legislature 19201928, the rst woman to sit in any
national Commonwealth Parliament outside Westminster. The inux of women settlers from Britain proved
a decisive factor in the 1922 referendum that rejected
annexation by a South Africa increasingly under the
sway of traditionalist Afrikaner Nationalists in favor of
Rhodesian Home Rule or responsible government.[61]
Black Rhodesian males qualied for the vote in 1923
(based only upon property, assets, income, and literacy).
It is unclear when the rst black woman qualied for the
vote.
Asia
Bangladesh Bangladesh was (mostly) the province of
Bengal in India until 1947, then it became part of Pakistan. It became an independent nation in 1971. Women
have had equal surage since 1947, and they have reserved seats in parliament. Bangladesh is notable in
that since 1991, two women, namely Sheikh Hasina and
Begum Khaleda Zia, have served terms as the countrys
Prime Minister continuously. Women have traditionally
played a minimal role in politics beyond the anomaly
of the two leaders; few used to run against men; few
have been ministers. Recently, however, women have
become more active in politics, with several prominent
ministerial posts given to women and women participating in national, district and municipal elections against
men and winning on several occasions. Choudhury and
Hasanuzzaman argue that the strong patriarchal traditions
of Bangladesh explain why women are so reluctant to
stand up in politics.[62]
India The Womens Indian Association (WIA) was
founded in 1917. It sought votes for women and the right
to hold legislative oce on the same basis as men. These
positions were endorsed by the main political groupings,
the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League.[63] British and Indian feminists combined
in 1918 to publish a magazine Stri Dharma that fea-
tured international news from a feminist perspective.[64]
In 1919 in the MontaguChelmsford Reforms, the British
set up provincial legislatures which had the power to
grant womens surage. Madras in 1921 granted votes
to wealthy and educated women, under the same terms
that applied to men. The other provinces followed, but
not the princely states (which did not have votes for men
either).[63] In Bengal province, the provincial assembly
rejected it in 1921 but Southard shows an intense campaign produced victory in 1921. The original idea came
from British suragettes. Success in Bengal depended
on middle class Indian women, who emerged from a fastgrowing urban elite that favoured European fashions and
ideas. The women leaders in Bengal linked their crusade
to a moderate nationalist agenda, by showing how they
could participate more fully in nation-building by having voting power. They carefully avoided attacking traditional gender roles by arguing that traditions could coexist
with political modernization.[65]
Whereas wealthy and educated women in Madras were
granted voting right in 1921 in Punjab the Sikhs granted
women equal voting rights in 1925 irrespective of their
educational qualications or being wealthy or poor. This
happened when the Gurdwara Act of 1925 was approved.
The original draft of the Gurdwara Act sent by the
British to the Sharomani Gurdwara Prabhandak Committee (SGPC) did not include Sikh women, but the Sikhs
inserted the clause without the women having to ask for
it. Equality of women with men is enshrined in the Guru
Granth Sahib, the sacred scripture of the Sikh faith.
In the Government of India Act 1935 the British Raj
set up a system of separate electorates and separate
seats for women. Most womens leaders opposed segregated electorates and demanded adult franchise. In 1931
the Congress promised universal adult franchise when it
came to power. It enacted equal voting rights for both
men and women in 1947.[66]
Indonesia In the rst half of the 20th century,
Indonesia (known until 1945 as Dutch East Indies) was
one of the slowest moving countries to gain womens suffrage. They began their ght in 1905 by introducing municipal councils that included some members elected by
a restricted district. Voting rights only went to males
that could read and write, which excluded many nonEuropean males. At the time, the literacy rate for males
was 11% and for females 2%. The main group who
pressured the Indonesian government for womens suffrage was the Dutch Vereeninging voor Vrouwenkiesrecht (VVV-Womens Surage Association) which was
founded in the Netherlands in 1894. They tried to attract Indonesian membership, but had very limited success because the leaders of the organization had little
skill in relating to even the educated class of the Indonesians. When they eventually did connect somewhat with
women, they failed to sympathize with them and thus
ended up alienating many well-educated Indonesians. In

1918 the colony gained its rst national representative
body, the Volksraad, which still excluded women from
voting. In 1935, the colonial administration used its
power of nomination to appoint a European woman to
the Volksraad. In 1938, the administration introduced
the right of women to be elected to urban representative
institutions, which resulted in some Indonesian and European women entering municipal councils. Eventually,
the law became that only European women and municipal councils could vote, which excluded all other women
and local councils. September 1941 was when this law
was amended and the law extended to women of all races
by the Volksraad. Finally, in November 1941, the right
to vote for municipal councils was granted to all women
on a similar basis to men (with property and educational
qualications).[67]
35
level in 1945.[68]
Kuwait
Main article: Womens surage in Kuwait
When voting was rst introduced in Kuwait in 1985,

Kuwaiti women had the right to vote.[42] The right was
later removed. In May 2005, the Kuwaiti parliament regranted female surage.[69]
Pakistan Pakistan was part of India until 1947, when

it became independent. Women received full surage in
1947. Muslim women leaders from all classes actively
supported the Pakistan movement in the mid-1940s.
Their movement was led by wives and other relatives of
leading politicians. Women were sometimes organized
into large-scale public demonstrations. Before 1947 there
was a tendency for the Muslim women in Punjab to vote
for the Muslim League while their menfolk supported the
Unionist Party. In November 1988, Benazir Bhutto became the rst Muslim woman to be elected as Prime Minister of a Muslim country[70]
There are a lot of women that support Womens Rights. A

very well known woman that supported it is Raden Ajeng
Kartini. She is also famous for her quote, Habis Gelap,
Terbitlah Terang or in English, After Dark, Comes the
Light. It means that after bad days or dark days, there
will always be hope for everything, including the success
of the Womens Surage movement. Raden Ajeng Kartini did succeed. The other women that also fought for
womens rights also succeeded. Raden Ajeng Kartini is
so famous, Indonesians made a special date just for her,
Hari Kartini, or Kartinis Day on 21 April, which is Kar- Philippines Surage for Filipinas was achieved following an all-female, special plebiscite held on 30 April
tinis birthday.
1937. 447,725some ninety percentvoted in favour
of womens surage against 44,307 who voted no. In
Iran In 1963, a referendum overwhelmingly approved compliance with the 1935 Constitution, the National Asby voters gave women the right to vote, a right previously sembly passed a law which extending the right of surage
denied to them under the Iranian Constitution of 1906 to women, which remains to this day.
pursuant to Chapter 2, Article 3.
Israel Women have full surage since Israels indepen- Saudi Arabia In late September 2011, King Abdullah
bin Abdulaziz al-Saud declared that women would be
dence in 1948.
able to vote and run for oce starting in 2015. The
franchise will apply to the municipal councils, which are
the kingdoms only semi-elected bodies. Half of the
seats on municipal councils are elective, and the councils have few powers.[71] The council elections have been
held since 2005 (the rst time they were held before
that was the 1960s).[50][72] The King also declared that
women would be eligible to be appointed to the Shura
Council, an unelected body that issues advisory opinions
on national policy.[73] '"This is great news, said Saudi
writer and womens rights activist Wajeha al-Huwaider.
Womens voices will nally be heard. Now it is time to
remove other barriers like not allowing women to drive
cars and not being able to function, to live a normal life
without male guardians."' Robert Lacey, author of two
Womens Rights meeting in Tokyo, to push for womens surage.
books about the kingdom, said, This is the rst positive, progressive speech out of the government since the
Japan Main article: Womens surage in Japan
Arab Spring.... First the warnings, then the payments,
now the beginnings of solid reform. The king made
Although women were allowed to vote in some prefec- the announcement in a ve-minute speech to the Shura
tures in 1880, womens surage was enacted at a national Council.[50]
36
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka (at that time Ceylon) was one of
the rst Asian countries to allow voting rights to women
over the age of 21 without any restrictions. Since then,
women have enjoyed a signicant presence in the Sri
Lankan political arena. The zenith of this favourable condition to women has been the 1960 July General Elections, in which Ceylon elected the worlds rst woman
Prime Minister, Mrs. Sirimavo Bandaranaike. Her
daughter, Mrs. Chandrika Kumaratunga also became the
Prime Minister later in 1994, and the same year she was
elected as the Executive President of Sri Lanka, making
her the fourth woman in the world to hold the portfolio.
Turkey In Turkey, Atatrk, the founding president of
the republic, led a secularist cultural and legal transformation supporting womens rights including voting and
being elected. Women won the right to vote in municipal elections on March 20, 1930. Womens surage
was achieved for parliamentary elections on December
5, 1934, through a constitutional amendment. Turkish
women, who participated in parliamentary elections for
the rst time on February 8, 1935, obtained 18 seats.
Europe
Jane Brigode, Belgian suragist, around 1910.
Belgium A revision of the constitution in October

1921 (it changed art. 47 of the Constitution of Belgium
of 1831) introduced the general right to vote according to
the one man, one vote principle. Art. 47 allowed widows of World War I to vote at the national level as well.[75]
The introduction of womens surage was already put
onto the agenda at the time, by means of including an article in the constitution that allowed approval of womens
surage by special law (meaning it needed a 2/3 majority
to pass).[76] This happened in March 1948. In Belgium,
voting is compulsory but not enforced.
Czech Republic In the former Bohemia, taxpaying
women and women in learned profession[s]" were allowed to vote by proxy and made eligible to the legislative
body in 1864.[77] Women were guaranteed equal voting
rights by The constitution of the Czechoslovak Republic
in 1920.[78]
Denmark In Denmark, the Danish Womens Society
(DK) debated, and informally supported, womens suffrage from 1884, but it did not support if publicly until in 1887, when it supported the suggestion of the parliamentarian Fredrik Bajer to grant women municipal
Austria It was only after the breakdown of the surage.[79] In 1886, in response to the perceived overHabsburg Monarchy, that Austria would grant the gen- cautious attitude of DK in the question of women suferal, equal, direct and secret right to vote to all citizens, frage, Matilde Bajer founded the Kvindelig Fremskridtsforening (or KF, 1886-1904) to deal exclusively with
regardless of sex, in 1919.[74]
Savka Dabevi-Kuar, Croatian Spring participant; Europes
rst female prime minister
37
the right to surage, both in municipal and national

elections, and it 1887, the Danish women publicly demanded the right for womens surage for the rst time
through the KF. However, as the KF was very much involved with workers rights and pacist activity, the question of womens surage was in fact not given full attention, which led to the establishment of the strictly
womens surage movement Kvindevalgretsforeningen
(1889-1897).[79] In 1890, the KF and the Kvindevalgretsforeningen united with ve womens trade workers
unions to found the De samlede Kvindeforeninger, and
through this form, an active womens surage campaign was arranged through agitation and demonstration.
However, after having been met by compact resistance, 13 of the total of 19 female MPs, who were the rst female
the Danish surage movement almost discontinued with MPs in the world, elected in Finlands parliamentary elections
the dissolution of the De samlede Kvindeforeninger in in 1907.
1893.[79]
In 1898, an umbrella organization, the Danske Kvindeforeningers Valgretsforbund or DKV was founded and
became a part of the International Woman Surage Alliance (IWSA).[79] In 1907, the Landsforbundet for Kvinders Valgret (LKV) was founded by Elna Munch, Johanne
Rambusch and Marie Hjelmer in reply to what they considered to be the much to careful attitude of the Danish
Womens Society. The LKV originated from a local suffrage association in Copenhagen, and like its rival LKV,
it successfully organized other such local associations
nationally.[79]
given to the cities.[77]
France The 21 April 1944 ordinance of the French

Committee of National Liberation, conrmed in October 1944 by the French provisional government, extended
surage to French women.[81][82] The rst elections with
female participation were the municipal elections of 29
April 1945 and the parliamentary elections of 21 October 1945. Indigenous Muslim" women in French Algeria had to wait until a 3 July 1958 decree.[83][84]
Women won the right to vote in municipal elections on

April 20, 1908. However it was not until June 5, 1915
Germany Women were granted the right to vote and
that they were allowed to vote in Rigsdag elections.[80]
be elected in Weimar Germany upon its founding.[85]
Estonia Estonia gained its independence in 1918 with
the Estonian War of Independence. However, the rst
ocial elections were held in 1917. These were the elections of temporary council (i.e. Maapev), which ruled
Estonia from 19171919. Since then, women have had
the right to vote.
Greece In Greece, women over 18 voted for the rst

time in April 1944 for the National Council, a legislative
body set up by the National Liberation Front resistance
movement. Ultimately, women won the legal right to vote
and run for oce on May 28, 1952. The rst woman MP
was Eleni Skoura, who was elected in 1953.
The parliament elections were held in 1920. After the

elections, two women got into the parliament history
teacher Emma Asson and journalist Alma Ostra-Oinas. Italy In Italy, womens surage was not introduced folEstonian parliament is called Riigikogu and during the lowing World War I, but upheld by Socialist and Fascist
First Republic of Estonia it used to have 100 seats.
activists and partly introduced by Benito Mussolini's government in 1925.[86] In April 1945, the provisional government decreed the enfranchisement of women allowFinland The area that in 1809 became Finland was a
ing for the immediate appointment of women to public
group of integral provinces of the Kingdom of Sweden
oce, of which the rst was Elena Fischli Dreher.[87] In
for over 600 years. Thus, women in Finland were allowed
the 1946 election, all Italians simultaneously voted for the
to vote during the Swedish Age of Liberty (17181771),
Constituent Assembly and for a referendum about keepduring which surage was granted to tax-paying female
ing Italy a monarchy or creating a republic instead. Elecmembers of guilds.[17]
tions were not held in the Julian March and South Tyrol
The predecessor state of modern Finland, the Grand Prin- because they were under UN occupation.
cipality of Finland, was part of the Russian Empire from
1809 to 1917 and enjoyed a high degree of autonomy. In
1863, taxpaying women were granted municipal surage Liechtenstein In Liechtenstein, womens surage was
in the country side, and in 1872, the same reform was granted via referendum in 1984.[88]
38
mediately granted women the right to vote and be elected
as of 28 November 1918.[85]
The rst women elected to the Sejm in 1919 were:
Gabriela Balicka, Jadwiga Dziubiska, Irena Kosmowska, Maria Moczydowska, Zoa Moraczewska,
Anna Piasecka, Zoa Sokolnicka,
Franciszka
Wilczkowiakowa.,[91][92]
Portugal Carolina Beatriz ngelo was the rst
Portuguese woman to vote, in 1911, for the Republican
Constitutional Parliament.
In 1931 during the Estado Novo regime, women were alWilhelmina Drucker, a Dutch pioneer for womens rights, is por- lowed to vote for the rst time, but only if they had a high
trayed by Truus Claes in 1917 on the occasion of her seventieth school or university degree, while men had only to be able
to read and write. In 1946 a new electoral law enlarged
birthday.
the possibility of female vote, but still with some dierences regarding men. A law from 1968 claimed to esNetherlands Women were granted the right to vote
tablish equality of political rights for men and women,
in the Netherlands as of 9 August 1919. Prior to that,
but a few electoral rights were reserved for men. After
women had the right to be an elected representative as of
the Carnation Revolution, women were granted full and
29 November 1917.[85]
equal electoral rights in 1976.[8][12]
Russia Despite initial apprehension against enfranchising women for the right to vote for the upcoming Constituent Assembly election, suragists rallied
throughout the year of 1917 for the right to vote. After
much pressure (including a 40,000-strong march on the
Tauride Palace), on July 20, 1917 the Provisional Government enfranchised women with the right to vote.[93]
San Marino San Marino introduced women's surage
in 1959,[8] following the 1957 constitutional crisis known
as Fatti di Rovereta. It was however only in 1973 that
women obtained the right to stand for election.[8]
The rst Norwegian woman casts her vote in the 1910 municipal
election
Norway Liberal politician Gina Krog was the leading campaigner for womens surage in Norway from
the 1880s. She founded the Norwegian Association
for Womens Rights and the National Association for
Womens Surage to promote this cause. Members of
these organisations were politically well-connected and
well organised and in a few years gradually succeeded in
obtaining equal rights for women. Middle class women
won the right to vote in municipal elections in 1901 and
parliamentary elections in 1907. Universal surage for
women in municipal elections was introduced in 1910,
and in 1913 a motion on universal surage for women
was adopted unanimously by the Norwegian parliament
(Stortinget).[89] Norway thus became the rst indepen- Women exercising the right to vote during the Second Spanish
Republic, 5th of November 1933.
dent country to introduce womens surage.[90]
Spain During the Miguel Primo de Rivera regime
Poland Regaining independence in 1918 following the (1923-1930) only women who were considered heads
123-year period of partition and foreign rule, Poland im- of household were allowed to vote in local elections,

but there weren't any on that period. Womens suffrage was ocially adopted in 1931 despite the opposition of Margarita Nelken and Victoria Kent, two female
MPs (both members of the Republican Radical-Socialist
Party), who argued that women in Spain at that moment
lacked social and political education enough to vote responsibly because they would be unduly inuenced by
Catholic priests. During the Franco regime in the organic democracy type of elections called referendums
(Francos regime was dictatorial) women over 21 were allowed to vote without distinction.[94] From 1976, during
the Spanish transition to democracy women fully exercised the right to vote and be elected to oce.
Swedish suragist Signe Bergman, around 1910
39
Sweden During the Age of Liberty (17181771), taxpaying female members of guilds (most often widows),
had been allowed to vote. Furthermore, new tax regulations made the participation of women in the elections
even more extensive from 1743 onward.[17]
The vote was sometimes given through a male representative, which was one of the most prominent reasons cited
by those in opposition to female surage. In 1758 women
were excluded from mayoral and local elections, but continued to vote in national elections. In 1771 womens suffrage was abolished through the new constitution.[17]
In 1862 tax-paying women of legal majority (unmarried women, divorced women and widows) were again
allowed to vote in municipal elections, making Sweden
the rst country in the world to grant women the right to
vote.[77] The right to vote in municipal elections applied
only to people of legal majority, which excluded married
women, as they were juridically under the guardianship
of their husbands. In 1884 the suggestion to grant women
the right to vote in national elections was initially voted
down in Parliament.[95] During the 1880s, the Married
Womans Property Rights Association had a campaign
too encourage the female voters, qualied to vote in accordance with the 1862 law, to use their vote and increase
the participation of women voters in the elections, but
there was yet no public demand to women surage among
women. In 1888, the temperance activist Emilie Rathou
became the rst woman in Sweden to demand the right
for women surage in a public speech.[96] In 1899, a delegation from the Fredrika-Bremer-Frbundet presented
a suggestion of woman surage to prime minister Erik
Gustaf Bostrm. The delegation was headed by Agda
Montelius, accompanied by Gertrud Adelborg, who had
written the demand. This was the rst time the Swedish
womens movement themselves had ocially presented a
demand for surage.
In 1902 the Swedish Society for Woman Surage was
founded. In 1906 the suggestion of womens surage was
voted down in parliament again.[97] In 1909, the right to
vote in municipal elections were extended to include also
married women.[98] The same year, women were granted
eligibility to municipal councils,[98] and in the following
191011 municipal elections, forty women were elected
to dierent municipal councils,[97] Gertrud Mnsson being the rst. In 1914 Emilia Broom became the rst
woman in the legislative assembly.[99]
The right to vote in national elections was not returned to
women until 1919, and was practised again in the election
of 1921, for the rst time in 150 years.[17]
Womens surage demonstration in Gothenburg, June 1918.
After the 1921 election, the rst women were elected to

Swedish Parliament after the surage: Kerstin Hesselgren in the Upper chamber and Nelly Thring (Social
Democrat), Agda stlund (Social Democrat) Elisabeth
Tamm (liberal) and Bertha Wellin (Conservative) in the
Lower chamber. Karin Kock-Lindberg became the rst
female government minister, and in 1958, Ulla Lindstrm
40
became the rst acting Prime Minister.[100]
John Stuart Mill, elected to Parliament in 1865 and an

open advocate of female surage (about to publish The
Subjection of Women), campaigned for an amendment to
Switzerland Main article: Womens surage in the Reform Act to include female surage.[104] Roundly
Switzerland
defeated in an all-male parliament under a Conservative
government, the issue of womens surage came to the
A referendum on womens surage was held on 1 Febru- fore.
ary 1959. The majority of Switzerlands men voted In local government elections, single women ratepayers
against it, but in some French-speaking cantons women received the right to vote in the Municipal Franchise Act
obtained the vote.[101] The rst Swiss woman to hold po- 1869. This right was conrmed in the Local Governlitical oce, Trudy Spth-Schweizer, was elected to the ment Act 1894 and extended to include some married
municipal government of Riehen in 1958.[102]
women.[105][106]
Switzerland was the last Western republic to grant
womens surage; they gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971 after a second referendum that
year.[101] In 1991 following a decision by the Federal
Supreme Court of Switzerland, Appenzell Innerrhoden
became the last Swiss canton to grant women the vote on
local issues.[103]
During the later half of the 19th century, a number of

campaign groups for womens surage in national elections were formed in an attempt to lobby Members of
Parliament and gain support. In 1897, seventeen of these
groups came together to form the National Union of
Womens Surage Societies (NUWSS), who held public
meetings, wrote letters to politicians and published various texts.[107] In 1907 the NUWSS organized its rst large
[107]
This march became known as the Mud
United Kingdom Main article: Womens surage in procession.
March
as
over
3,000
women trudged through the streets
the United Kingdom
of
London
from
Hyde
Park to Exeter Hall to advocate
The campaign for womens surage in the United Kingwomens surage.[108]
In 1903 a number of members of the NUWSS broke away
and, led by Emmeline Pankhurst, formed the Womens
Social and Political Union (WSPU).[109] As the national
media lost interest in the surage campaign, the WSPU
decided it would use other methods to create publicity.
This began in 1905 at a meeting in Manchesters Free
Trade Hall where Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of
Fallodon, a member of the newly elected Liberal government, was speaking.[110] As he was talking, Christabel
Pankhurst and Annie Kenney of the WSPU constantly
shouted out, 'Will the Liberal Government give votes to
women?'.[110] When they refused to cease calling out, police were called to evict them and the two suragettes (as
members of the WSPU became known after this incident) were involved in a struggle which ended with them
being arrested and charged for assault.[111] When they
refused to pay their ne, they were sent to prison for
one week, and three days.[110] The British public were
shocked and took notice at this use of violence to win the
vote for women.
A British cartoon speculating on why imprisoned suragettes refused to eat in prison
dom of Great Britain and Ireland gained momentum

throughout the early part of the 19th century, as women
became increasingly politically active, particularly during
the campaigns to reform surage in the United Kingdom.
After this media success, the WSPUs tactics became increasingly violent. This included an attempt in 1908 to
storm the House of Commons, the arson of David Lloyd
George's country home (despite his support for womens
surage). In 1909 Lady Constance Lytton was imprisoned, but immediately released when her identity was discovered, so in 1910 she disguised herself as a working
class seamstress called Jane Warton and endured inhumane treatment which included force-feeding. In 1913,
suragette Emily Davison protested by interfering with a
horse owned by King George V during the running of the
Epsom Derby; she was trampled and died four days later.
41
The WSPU ceased their militant activities during World extending the franchise to women. On 24 May 1918
War I and agreed to assist with the war eort.[112]
women considered citizens (not Aboriginal women) beThe National Union of Womens Surage Societies, came eligible to vote who were age 21 or older, not alienproperty requirements in provinces where
which had always employed 'constitutional' methods, born and meet
[119]
they
exist.
continued to lobby during the war years, and compromises were worked out between the NUWSS and
the coalition government.[113] On 6 February, the
Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed, enfranchising women over the age of 30 who met minimum
property qualications.[114] About 8.4 million women
gained the vote,[114] not only in Britain but also throughout Ireland, the whole of which was part of the United
Kingdom. In November 1918, the Parliament (Qualication of Women) Act 1918 was passed, allowing women to
be elected into Parliament.[114] The Representation of the
People Act 1928 extended the voting franchise in Great
Britain and Northern Ireland to all women over the age
of 21, granting women the vote on the same terms as
men.[115]
In 1999 Time magazine in naming Emmeline Pankhurst
as one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century, states.."she shaped an idea of women for our time;
she shook society into a new pattern from which there
could be no going back.[116]
North America
Canada Womens political status without the vote was
promoted by the National Council of Women of Canada
from 1894 to 1918. It promoted a vision of transcendent citizenship for women. The ballot was not needed,
for citizenship was to be exercised through personal inuence and moral suasion, through the election of men
with strong moral character, and through raising publicspirited sons. The National Council position was integrated into its nation-building program that sought to uphold Canada as a White settler nation. While the womens
surage movement was important for extending the political rights of White women, it was also authorized
through race-based arguments that linked White womens
enfranchisement to the need to protect the nation from
racial degeneration.[117]
Women had local votes in some provinces, as in Ontario
from 1850, where women owning property (freeholders
and householders) could vote for school trustees.[118] By
1900 other provinces had adopted similar provisions, and
in 1916 Manitoba took the lead in extending womens
surage.[119] Simultaneously suragists gave strong support to the Prohibition movement, especially in Ontario
and the Western provinces.[120][121]
The Wartime Elections Act of 1917 gave the vote to
British women who were war widows or had sons, husbands, fathers, or brothers serving overseas. Unionist
Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden pledged himself during the 1917 campaign to equal surage for women. After his landslide victory, he introduced a bill in 1918 for
Most women of Quebec gained full surage in 1940.[119]

The rst woman elected to Parliament was Agnes
Macphail in Ontario in 1921.[122]
Mexico
See also: Women in Mexico
The liberal Mexican Constitution of 1857 did not bar

women from voting in Mexico or holding oce, but
election laws restricted the surage to males, and
in practice women did not participate nor demand a
part in politics, with framers being indierent to the
issue.[123][124] Years of civil war and the French intervention delayed any consideration of womens role in Mexican political life, but during the Restored Republic and
the Porriato (1876-1911), women began organizing to
expand their civil rights, including surage. Socialist
publications in Mexico began advocating changes in law
and practice as early as 1878. The journal La Internacional articulated a detailed program of reform that
aimed at the emancipation, rehabilitation, and integral
education of women.[125] The era of the Porriato did
not record changes in law regarding the status of women,
but women began entering professions requiring higher
education: law, medicine, and pharmacy (requiring a university degree), but also teaching.[126] Liberalism placed
great importance on secular education, so that the public
school system ranks of the teaching profession expanded
in the late nineteenth century, which beneted females
wishing to teach and education for girls.
The status of women in Mexico became an issue during
the Mexican Revolution, with Francisco I. Madero, the
challenger to the continued presidency of Porrio Diaz
interested in the rights of Mexican women. Madero was
part of a rich estate-owning family in the northern state
of Coahuila, who had attended University of California,
Berkeley briey and traveled in Europe, absorbing liberal
ideas and practices. Maderos wife as well as his female
personal assistant, Soledad Gonzlez, unquestionably
enhanced his interest in womens rights.[126] Gonzlez
was one of the orphans that the Maderos adopted; she
learned typing and stenography, and traveled to Mexico City following Maderos election as president in
1911.[126] Maderos brief presidential term was tumultuous, and with no previous political experience, Madero
was unable to forward the cause of womens surage.
Following his ouster by military coup led by Victoriano
Huerta and Maderos assassination, those taking up
Maderos cause and legacy, the Constitutionalists (named
after the liberal Constitution of 1857) began to discuss
womens rights. Venustiano Carranza, former governor
42
of Coahuila, and following Maderos assassination, the

rst chief of the Constitutionalists. Carranza also had
an inuential female private secretary, Hermila Galindo,
who was a champion of womens rights in Mexico.[126]
In asserting his Carranza promulgated political plan Plan
de Guadalupe in 1914, enumerating in standard Mexican
fashion, his aims as he sought supporters. In the Additions to the Plan de Guadalupe, Carranza made some
important statements that had an impact on families and
the status of women in regards to marriage. In December 1914, Carranza issued a decree that legalized divorce
under certain circumstances.[126] Although the decree did
not lead to womens surage, it eased somewhat restrictions that still existed in the civil even after the nineteenthProgram for Woman Surage Procession, Washington, D.C.,
century liberal Reforma established the States right to
March 3, 1913
regulate marriage as a civil rather than an ecclesiastical
matter.
There was increased advocacy for womens rights in the
late 1910s, with the founding of a new feminist magazine,
Mujer Moderna, which ceased publication in 1919. Mexico saw several international womens rights congresses,
the rst being held in Mrida, Yucatn, in 1916. The
International Congress of Women had some 700 delegates attend, but did not result in lasting changes.[127]
United States Main article: Womens surage in the

United States
Lydia Taft was an early forerunner in Colonial America who was allowed to vote in three New England
town meetings, beginning in 1756, at Uxbridge, Massachusetts.[130] The womens surage movement was
As womens surage made progress in Great Britain and
closely tied to abolitionism, with many surage activists
the United States, in Mexico there was an echo. Cargaining their rst experience as anti-slavery activists.[131]
ranza, who was elected president in 1916, called for a
convention to draft a new Mexican Constitution that in- In June 1848, Gerrit Smith made womens surage a
corporated gains for particular groups, such as the indus- plank in the Liberty Party platform. In July, at the Seneca
trial working class and the peasantry seeking land reform. Falls Convention in upstate New York, activists includIt also incorporated increased restrictions on the Roman ing Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony beCatholic Church in Mexico, an extension of the anticler- gan a seventy-year struggle by women to secure the right
icalism in the Constitution of 1857. The Constitution of to vote. Attendees signed a document known as the
1917 did not explicitly empower womens access to the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments, of which Stanton
was the primary author. Equal rights became the rallyballot.
ing cry of the early movement for womens rights, and
In 1937, Mexican feminists challenged the wording of the
equal rights meant claiming access to all the prevailing
Constitution concerning who is eligible for citizenship
denitions of freedom. In 1850 Lucy Stone organized a
the Constitution did not specify men and women.[128]
larger assembly with a wider focus, the National Womens
Mara del Refugio Garca ran for election as a Sole
Rights Convention in Worcester, Massachusetts. Susan
Front for Womens Rights candidate for her home district,
B. Anthony, a resident of Rochester, New York, joined
Uruapan.[128] Garca won by a huge margin, but was not
the cause in 1852 after reading Stones 1850 speech.
allowed to take her seat because the government would
Stanton, Stone and Anthony were the three leading ghave to amend the Constitution.[128] In response, Garca
ures of this movement in the U.S. during the 19th century:
went on a hunger strike outside President Lzaro Crthe triumvirate of the drive to gain voting rights for
denas residence in Mexico City for 11 days in August
women.[132] Womens surage activists pointed out that
1937.[128] Crdenas responded by promising to change
black people had been granted the franchise and had not
Article 34 in the Constitution that September.[128] By Debeen included in the language of the United States Concember, the amendment had been passed by congress,
stitution's Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments (which
and women were granted full citizenship. However, the
gave people equal protection under the law and the right
vote for women in Mexico was not granted until 1958.[128]
to vote regardless of their race, respectively). This, they
Women gained the right to vote in 1947 for local elec- contended, had been unjust. Early victories were won in
tions and for national elections in 1953 (article 34 of the the territories of Wyoming (1869)[133] and Utah (1870).
Constitution).[129]
John Allen Campbell, the rst Governor of the Wyoming
Territory, approved the rst law in United States history
explicitly granting women the right to vote. The law was
approved on December 10, 1869. This day was later
43
commemorated as Wyoming Day.[134]
chief opponent of their national enfranchisement.[136]

Utah women were disenfranchised by provisions of Another banner on August 14, 1917, referred to "Kaiser
the federal EdmundsTucker Act enacted by the U.S. Wilson and compared the plight of the German people with that of American women. With this manner of
Congress in 1887.
protest, the women were subject to arrests and many were
jailed.[137] On October 17, Alice Paul was sentenced to
seven months and on October 30 began a hunger strike,
but after a few days prison authorities began to force feed
her.[136] After years of opposition, Wilson changed his
position in 1918 to advocate womens surage as a war
measure.[138]
The key vote came on June 4, 1919,[139] when the Senate approved the amendment by 56 to 25 after four hours
of debate, during which Democratic Senators opposed to
the amendment libustered to prevent a roll call until their
absent Senators could be protected by pairs. The Ayes included 36 (82%) Republicans and 20 (54%) Democrats.
The Nays comprised 8 (18%) Republicans and 17 (46%)
Democrats. The Nineteenth Amendment, which prohibited state or federal sex-based restrictions on voting, was
ratied by sucient states in 1920.[140]
Oceania
Kaiser Wilson banner held by a woman who picketed the White

House
The push to grant Utah womens surage was at least partially fueled by the belief that, given the right to vote,
Utah women would dispose of polygamy. It was only after Utah women exercised their surage rights in favor
of polygamy that the U.S. Congress disenfranchised Utah
women.[135]
By the end of the 19th century, Idaho, Utah, and
Wyoming had enfranchised women after eort by the
surage associations at the state level; Colorado notably
enfranchised women by an 1893 referendum.
During the beginning of the 20th century, as womens
surage faced several important federal votes, a portion of the surage movement known as the National
Womans Party led by suragist Alice Paul became the
rst cause to picket outside the White House. Paul and
Lucy Burns led a series of protests against the Wilson Administration in Washington. Wilson ignored the protests
for six months, but on June 20, 1917, as a Russian delegation drove up to the White House, suragists unfurled
a banner which stated: We women of America tell you
that America is not a democracy. Twenty million women
are denied the right to vote. President Wilson is the
Australian womens rights were lampooned in this 1887 Melbourne Punch cartoon: A hypothetical female member foists her
babys care on the House Speaker. South Australian women were
to achieve the vote in 1894.
Australia Main article: Womens surage in Australia

The female descendants of the Bounty mutineers who
44
lived on Pitcairn Islands could vote from 1838, and this in state elections (Queensland, Western Australia, and the
right transferred with their resettlement to Norfolk Island Northern Territory still excluded indigenous women from
(now an Australian external territory) in 1856.[6]
voting rights). Remaining restrictions were abolished in
1962 by the Commonwealth Electoral Act.[141]
Edith Cowan was elected to the West Australian Legislative Assembly in 1921, the rst woman elected
to any Australian Parliament. Dame Enid Lyons, in
the Australian House of Representatives and Senator
Dorothy Tangney became the rst women in the Federal
Parliament in 1943. Lyons went on to be the rst woman
to hold a Cabinet post in the 1949 ministry of Robert
Menzies. Rosemary Follett was elected Chief Minister
of the Australian Capital Territory in 1989, becoming
the rst woman elected to lead a state or territory. By
2010, the people of Australias oldest city, Sydney had female leaders occupying every major political oce above
them, with Clover Moore as Lord Mayor, Kristina Keneally as Premier of New South Wales, Marie Bashir as
Governor of New South Wales, Julia Gillard as Prime
Minister, Quentin Bryce as Governor-General of Australia and Elizabeth II as Queen of Australia.
Cook Islands Main article: Women in the Cook

Islands
Edith Cowan (18611932) was elected to the Western Australian

Legislative Assembly in 1921 and was the rst woman elected
to any Australian Parliament (though women in Australia had
already had the vote for two decades).
Propertied women in the colony of South Australia were

granted the vote in local elections (but not parliamentary elections) in 1861. Henrietta Dugdale formed the
rst Australian womens surage society in Melbourne,
Victoria in 1884. Women became eligible to vote for
the Parliament of South Australia in 1894 and in 1897,
Catherine Helen Spence became the rst female political
candidate for political oce, unsuccessfully standing for
election as a delegate to Federal Convention on Australian
Federation. Western Australia granted voting rights to
women in 1899.[26]
Women in Rarotonga won the right to vote in 1893,

shortly after New Zealand.[142]
New Zealand Main article: Womens surage in New

Zealand
New Zealands Electoral Act of 19 September 1893
made this country of the British Empire the rst in the
world to grant women the right to vote in parliamentary
elections.[6]
Although the Liberal government which passed the bill
generally advocated social and political reform, the electoral bill was only passed because of a combination of
personality issues and political accident. The bill granted
the vote to women of all races. New Zealand women
were denied the right to stand for parliament, however,
until 1920. In 2005 almost a third of the Members
of Parliament elected were female. Women recently
have also occupied powerful and symbolic oces such
as those of Prime Minister (Jenny Shipley and Helen
Clark), Governor-General (Catherine Tizard and Silvia
Cartwright), Chief Justice (Sian Elias), Speaker of the
House of Representatives (Margaret Wilson), and from
3 March 2005 to 23 August 2006, all four of these posts
were held by women, along with Queen Elizabeth as Head
of State.
The rst election for the Parliament of the newly formed

Commonwealth of Australia in 1901 was based on the
electoral provisions of the six pre-existing colonies, so
that women who had the vote and the right to stand for
Parliament at state level had the same rights for the 1901
Australian Federal election. In 1902, the Commonwealth
Parliament passed the Commonwealth Franchise Act,
which enabled all women to vote and stand for election
for the Federal Parliament. Four women stood for election in 1903.[26] The Act did, however, specically exclude 'natives from Commonwealth franchise unless already enrolled in a state. In 1949, the right to vote in federal elections was extended to all Indigenous people who South America
had served in the armed forces, or were enrolled to vote

Argentina Womens surage was granted in 1947,
during the presidency of Juan Domingo Pern.
Brazil Women were granted the right to vote and be

elected in Brazil as of 16 July 1934.[85]
45
Catholicism
The Pope is only elected by the College of Cardinals.[146] Women are not appointed as cardinals, so
women cannot vote for the Pope.[147] The female oces
of Abbess or Mother Superior are elective, the choice being made by the secret votes of the nuns belonging to the
community.[148]
Chile Debate about womens surage in Chile began

in the 1920s.[143] Womens surage in municipal elecHinduism
tions was rst established in 1931 by decree (decreto
con fuerza de ley); voting age for women was set at 25
See also: Women in Hinduism
years.[144][145] In addition, the Chamber of Deputies approved a law on March 9, 1933 establishing womens sufIn both ancient and contemporary history of Hinduism
frage in municipal elections.[144]
women occupying positions of ecclesiastical and spiritual
Women obtained the legal right to vote in parliamentary
authority were relatively rare due to social (laukik) and
and presidential elections in 1949.[143] Womens share
scriptural (shastrik) perception of asceticism and spiritual
among voters increased steadily after 1949, reaching the
leadership as incompatible with female nature.[149] Howsame levels of participation as men in 1970.[143]
ever, textual sources within HIndu tradition that specically forbid asceticism for women are few, and there are
sucient examples of women occupying these roles in
Venezuela After the 1928 Student Protests, women
Hinduism, both in the past and in present.[149]
started participating more actively in politics.
In 1935, womens rights supporters founded the Feminine
Cultural Group (known as 'ACF' from its initials in Span- Islam
ish), with the goal of tackling womens problems. The
group supported womens political and social rights, and
believed it was necessary to involve and inform women
about these issues in order to ensure their personal development. It went on to give seminars, as well as founding
night schools and the House of Laboring Women.
Groups looking to reform the 1936 Civil Code of Conduct in conjunction with the Venezuelan representation to
the Union of American Women called the First Feminine
Venezuelan Congress in 1940. In this congress, delegates
discussed the situation of women in Venezuela and their
demands. Key goals were womens surage and a reform
to the Civil Code of Conduct. Around twelve thousand
signatures were collected and handed to the Venezuelan
Congress, which reformed the Civil Code of Conduct in
1942.
In 1944, groups supporting womens surage, the most
important being Feminine Action, organized around the
country. During 1945, women attained the right to vote
at a municipal level. This was followed by a stronger call
of action. Feminine Action began editing a newspaper
called the Correo Cvico Femenino, to connect, inform
and orientate Venezuelan women in their struggle.
Women voting in Kabul at the rst presidential election (October

2004) in Afghan history
Although women were included in the process of electing the Caliph during the Rashidun Caliphate (632661),
womens rights vary in Islamic countries in the modern
era. The question of womens right to become imams
Finally, after the 1945 Venezuelan Coup d'tat and the (religious leaders) is disputed by many (see Women in
call for a new Constitution, to which women were elected, Islam).
womens surage became a constitutional right in the
country.
Judaism
1.4.6
Womens surage in religions
In Conservative Judaism, Reform Judaism and other Jewish movements women have the right to vote. Since the
46
1970s, more and more Modern Orthodox synagogues and [9] BBC News - Timeline: Andorra. bbc.co.uk.
religious organizations have been granting women the
[10] Bonnie G. Smith, ed. (2008). The Oxford Encyclopedia
rights to vote and to be elected to their governing bodies.
of Women in World History. Oxford University Press. pp.
Women are denied the vote and the ability to be elected
171 vol 1. ISBN 9780195148909.
to positions of authority in most Ultra-Orthodox Jewish
[11] AROUND THE WORLD; Liechtenstein Women Win
communities.[150][151][152]
Right to Vote. The New York Times. 1984-07-02.
1.4.7
See also
Anti-suragism
List of the rst female holders of political oces in
Europe
List of womens rights activists
Open Christmas Letter
[12] BBC. BBC - Radio 4 Womans Hour - Timeline:When

women got the vote. bbc.co.uk.
[13] PARAGUAY: Women Growing in Politics at Pace Set
by Men. ipsnews.net.
[14] Central & South America Women Surage and Beyond. womensurage.org.
[15] Abbess. Original Catholic Encyclopedia. 2010-07-21.
Silent Sentinels
[16] Women Mystics Confront the Modern World (MarieFlorine Bruneau: State University of New York: 1998:
page 106)
Surage Hikes
[17]
Timeline of rst womens surage in majorityMuslim countries

Timeline of womens surage
Timeline of womens rights (other than voting)
Womens work
Woman Surage Parade of 1913
sa Karlsson-Sjgren: Mnnen, kvinnorna och

rstrtten : medborgarskap och representation
17231866 (Men, women and the vote: citizenship and representation 17231866) (in Swedish)
[18] Chapin, Judge Henry (2081). Address Delivered at the

Unitarian Church in Uxbridge; 1864. Worcester, Mass.:
Charles Hamilton Press (Harvard Library; from Google
Books). p. 172. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[19] Uxbridge Breaks Tradition and Makes History: Lydia
Taft by Carol Masiello. The Blackstone Daily. Retrieved
2011-01-21.
[20] Simon Schama, Rough Crossings, (2006), p. 374,
1.4.8
Notes
[1] Teaching With Documents: Woman Surage and the

19th Amendment. National Archives (USA). Retrieved
4 February 2014.
[2] Ellen Carol DuBois (1998). Woman Surage and
Womens Rights. NYU Press. pp. 1746. ISBN
9780814719015.
[3] Allison Sneider, The New Surage History: Voting
Rights in International Perspective, History Compass,
(July 2010) 8#7 pp 692703,
[4] Link text, additional text.
[5] Foundingdocs.gov.au. Foundingdocs.gov.au. Retrieved
2011-01-08.
[6] EC (2005-04-13). Elections.org.nz. Elections.org.nz.
[7] Kerstin Teske: teske@fczb.de. European Database:
Women in Decision-making - Country Report Greece.
db-decision.de.
[8] Seppl, Nina. Women and the Vote in Western Europe
(PDF). idea.int. pp. 3335. Archived (PDF) from the
original on 1 November 2006. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
[21] Web Wizardry - http://www.web-wizardry.com (190603-13). Biography of Susan B. Anthony at. Susanbanthonyhouse.org. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
[22] Wee, Small Republics: A Few Examples of Popular Government, Hawaiian Gazette, November 1, 1895, p1
[23] Colin Campbell Aikman, 'History, Constitutional' in
McLintock, A.H. (ed),An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand,
3 vols, Wellington, NZ:R.E. Owen, Government Printer,
1966, vol 2, pp.6775.
[24] EC (2005-04-13). Elections.org.nz. Elections.org.nz.
[25] Constitution (Female Surage) Act 1895 (SA)". National Archives of Australia. Retrieved 2007-12-10.
[26] AEC.gov.au. AEC.gov.au. 2007-08-09. Retrieved
2011-01-08.
[27] Mian Ridge. ""Bhutan makes it ocial: its a democracy.
''Christian Science Monitor,'' March 25, 2008. Csmonitor.com. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
[28] Dubois, Dumneil 2012, p. 474.
[29] Newstatesman.com. Newstatesman.com. 2008-07-14.
[30] Maroula Joannou, June Purvis (1998) The womens

surage movement: new feminist perspectives p.157.
Manchester University Press, 1998
47
[52] BBC ON THIS DAY - 7 - 1971: Swiss women get the

vote. bbc.co.uk.
[53] Women dominate new Swiss cabinet. BBC News.
[31] Sophia A. Van Wingerden, The womens surage movement in Britain, 1866-1928 (1999) ch 1.
[32] Aileen S. Kraditor, The Ideas of the Woman Surage
Movement: 1890-1920 (1965) ch 3
[33] Christine Bolt, The Womens Movements in the United
States and Britain from the 1790s to the 1920s (2014) pp
133, 235
[34] Dubois, Dumneil 2012, p. 475.
[35] Gregory Hammond, The Womens Surage Movement
and Feminism in Argentina From Roca to Peron (U of New
Mexico Press; 2011)
[36] Simon Vratsian Hayastani Hanrapetutyun (The Republic
of Armenia, Arm.), Yerevan, 1993, p. 292.
[37] Stretton, Pat. Indigenous Australians and the vote.
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[38] Women still denied voting rights. Newstrackindia.com.
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[54] BBC NEWS - Europe - Naked Swiss hikers must cover

up. bbc.co.uk.
[55] Kirk Meighoo (2003). Politics in a 'Half-Made Society':Trinidad and Tobago, 19252001. James Curry, Oxford. p. 11. ISBN 0-85255-873-2.
[56] World surage timeline - Women and the vote - NZHistory, New Zealand history online. nzhistory.net.nz.
[57] United Arab Emirates parliamentary election, 2011
[58] UAEs second election has low turnout. http://www.
realclearworld.com. 2011-09-24. Retrieved 2011-09-27.
[59] The Pope is only elected by the College of Cardinals.[127]
Women are not appointed as cardinals, so women cannot
vote for the Pope.
[60] Denzer, LaRay (27 January 1988). Murray Last, Paul
Richards, Christopher Fyfe, ed. Sierra Leone: 1787
1987 ; Two Centuries of Intellectual Life. Manchester University Press. p. 442. ISBN 978-0719027918.
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[61] See Lowry, 1997
[40] Canada in the Making - Aboriginals: Treaties & Relations. canadiana.ca.
[62] Dilara Choudhury, and Al Masud Hasanuzzaman, Political Decision-Making in Bangladesh and the Role of
Women, Asian Prole, (Feb 1997) 25#1 pp 5369
[41] Loi sur les Droits Electoraux, 1919

[42] Apollo Rwomire (2001). African Women and Children:
Crisis and Response. p. 8.
[43] Khraiche, Dana (4 February 2012). Womens spring: Is
Lebanon ready for a feminist political party?". The Daily
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[44] Elections in Asia and the Pacic: A Data Handbook : Volume I: Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia. Oxford
University Press. 2001. p. 174. ISBN 0191530417.
[45] Summary: Rights to Vote in Romania. impowr.org.
[46] Women voters will have to wait until 2009. Citymayors.com. Retrieved 2011-01-08.
[47] At least 2 years wait. Saudigazette.com.sa. Retrieved
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[48] Logged in as click here to log out (2008-07-29). Hello,
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[49] No votes for women in Saudi municipal elections.
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[50] Alsharif, Asma, UPDATE 2-Saudi king gives women
right to vote, Reuters, September 25, 2011. Retrieved
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[51] Life on 70 cents a day. The Economist. 2008-12-13.
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1937, Indian Historical Review, (Jan 2008) 35#1 pp 128
143
[64] Michelle Elizabeth Tusan, Writing Stri Dharma: international feminism, nationalist politics, and womens press
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[65] Barbara Southard, Colonial Politics and Womens Rights:
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[66] Basu (Jan 2008), 14043
[67] Blackburn, Susan, 'Winning the Vote for Women in Indonesia' Australian Feminist Studies, Volume 14, Number
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[68] The Fusae Ichikawa Memorial Association. Ichikawafusae.or.jp. Archived from the original on 2008-03-05.
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[69] Kuwaiti women win right to vote. BBC News. 200505-17. Retrieved 2011-01-08.
[70] Azra Asghar Ali, Indian Muslim Womens Surage
Campaign: Personal Dilemma and Communal Identity
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[71] In Saudi Arabia, a Quiet Step Forward for Women. The

Atlantic. Oct 26 2011
[90] Womens surage centenary. Ministry of Children,

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[72] Saudi monarch grants kingdoms women right to vote,

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[91] Biblioteka Sejmowa /Parlamentarzyci polscy (The

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[114] Fawcett, Millicent Garrett. The Womens Victoryand
Oce. Library of Congress. 10 December 1869. ReAfter. p. 170. Cambridge University Press
trieved 2007-12-09.
[115] Peter N. Stearns The Oxford encyclopedia of the modern
[134] Today in History. The Library of Congress. Retrieved
world, Volume 7 (Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 160
July 20, 2012.
[116] Emmeline Pankhurst Time 100 People of the Century.
[135] Van Wagenen, Lola: Sister-Wives and Suragists:
Time. She shaped an idea of women for our time; she
Polygamy and the Politics of Woman Surage 1870
shook society into a new pattern from which there could
1896, BYU Studies, 2001.
be no going back .
[117] Anne-Marie. Kinahan, Transcendent Citizenship: Suffrage, the National Council of Women of Canada, and the
Politics of Organized Womanhood, Journal of Canadian
Studies (2008) 42#3 pp 527
[136] James Ciment, Thaddeus Russell (2007). The home

front encyclopedia: United States, Britain, and Canada in
World Wars I and II, Volume 1. p.163. ABC-CLIO,
2007
[118] Frederick Brent Scollie, The Woman Candidate for the [137] Stevens et al., Jailed for Freedom: American Women Win
the Vote, NewSage Press (March 21, 1995).
Ontario Legislative Assembly 19191929, Ontario History, CIV (Autumn 2012), 56, discusses the legal frame- [138] Lemons, J. Stanley (1973). The woman citizen: social
work for election to Ontario school boards and municipal
feminism in the 1920s p.13. University of Virginia Press,
councils.
1973
[119] Susan Jackel. Womens Surage. The Canadian Ency- [139] Our Documents - 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constituclopedia. Retrieved 2014-12-02.
tion: Womens Right to Vote (1920)". ourdocuments.gov.
[120] John H. Thompson, "'The Beginning of Our Regener[140] Surage Wins in Senate; Now Goes to States. The New
ation': The Great War and Western Canadian Reform
York Times. 5 June 1919. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
Movements, Canadian Historical Association Historical
Papers (1972), pp 227245.
[141] AEC.gov.au. AEC.gov.au. Retrieved 2011-01-08.
[121] Paul Voisey, "'The Votes For Women' Movement, Al- [142] Marko, John, 'Margins, Centers, and Democracy: The
berta History (1975) 23#3 pp 1023
Paradigmatic History of Womens Surage' Signs the
Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 2003; 29 (1)
[122] Catherine Cleverdon, The woman surage movement in
Canada: The Start of Liberation, 190020 (2nd ed. 1974) [143] Elecciones, sufragio y democracia en Chile (1810
[123] Ward M. Morton, Woman Surage in Mexico. Gainesville:
University of Florida Press 1962, p. 1.
2012): Voto femenino, Memoria chilena (in Spanish),

retrieved June 30, 2013
[124] Mara Elena Manzanera del Campo, La igualdad de dere- [144] Lpez Crdenas, Patricio (2009), Las administraciones
municipales en la historia de Valdivia (in Spanish), Edichos polticos. Mexico DF: 1953, p. 143.
torial Dokumenta Comunicaciones, p. 32
[125] quoted in Morton, Woman Surage in Mexico, p. 2.
[145] Eltit, Diamela (1994), Crnica del sufragio femenino en
Chile (in Spanish), Servicio Nacional de la Mujer, p. 55
[126] Morton, Woman Surage in Mexico, p. 2.
[127] Morton, Woman Surage in Mexico, p. 3.
[146] How is the Pope elected?". Catholic-Pages.com. 200504-06. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
[128] Rappaport, Helen (2001). Encyclopedia of women social

reformers. Santa Barbara, Calif. [u.a.]: ABC-CLIO. pp. [147] Women and the Priesthood. Catholic.com. Retrieved
2011-09-02.
249250. ISBN 1576071014.
50
[148] Chisholm 1911.

[149] Denton, Lynn Teskey (2004). Steven Collins, ed. Female
ascetics in Hinduism. Albany: State University of New
York Press. ISBN 9780791461792. Retrieved 2 December 2012.
[150] Manhattan, NY Rabbi Keeps O Women from Board
of LES Orthodox Synagogue. VosIzNeias.com. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
[151] JUDGE DISMISSES LAWSUIT AGAINST SYNAGOGUE. The New York Sun. 2004-06-23. Retrieved
2011-09-02.
[152] The Key to Marital Harmony: One Vote Per Couple?".
CrownHeights.info. Retrieved 2011-09-02.
1.4.9
References
Baker, Jean H. Sisters: The Lives of Americas Suffragists. Hill and Wang, New York, 2005. ISBN
0-8090-9528-9.
"Woman surage" in Colliers New Encyclopedia, X
(New York: P.F. Collier & Son Company, 1921),
pp. 403405.
Websters Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary (New
York: Merriam Webster, 1983) ISBN 0-87779511-8
sa Karlsson-Sjgren: Mnnen, kvinnorna och
rstrtten : medborgarskap och representation 1723
1866 (Men, women and the vote: citizenship and
representation 17231866) (in Swedish)
Lowry, D. (1997) 'White womans' country: Ethel

Tawse Jollie and the Making of White Rhodesia,
Journal of Southern African Studies, 23(2), pp.
259281.
Marko, John. Margins, Centers, and Democracy:
The Paradigmatic History of Womens Surage,
Signs (2003) 29#1 pp. 85116 in JSTOR
Mackenzie, Midge, Shoulder to Shoulder: A Documentary (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975). ISBN
0-394-73070-4
Raeburn, Antonia. Militant Suragettes (London:
New English Library, 1973)
Ramirez, Francisco O., Yasemin Soysal, and
Suzanne Shanahan. The Changing Logic of Political Citizenship: Cross-National Acquisition of
Womens Surage Rights, 1890 to 1990, American Sociological Review (1997) 62#5 pp 73545. in
JSTOR
Smith, Goldwin (1875). Female surage. London:
MacMillan and Co.
Stevens, Doris, edited by Carol O'Hare, Jailed for
Freedom: American Women Win the Vote (1920;
Troutdale, OR: NewSage Press, 1995). ISBN 0939165-25-2
Wheeler, Marjorie Spruill, ed., One Woman, One
Vote: Rediscovering the Woman Surage Movement
(Troutdale, OR: NewSage Press, 1995) ISBN 0939165-26-0
Womens Surage, A World Chronology of the 1.4.11 External links

Recognition of Womens Rights to Vote and to Stand
for Election.
Photo Essay on Womens Surage by the International Museum of Women
1.4.10
Further reading
Surage in Canada
DuBois, Ellen Carol. Harriot Stanton Blatch and

the Winning of Woman Surage (New Haven and
London: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0-30006562-0
Inter-Parliamentary Union: Womens Surage
Flexner, Eleanor, Century of Struggle: The Womans

Rights Movement in the United States, enlarged edition with Foreword by Ellen Fitzpatrick (1959,
1975; Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press
of the Harvard University Press, 1996) ISBN 0-67410653-9
UNCG Special Collections and University Archives

selections of American Suragette manuscripts
Kenney, Annie, Memories of a Militant (London:

Edwin Arnold, 1924)
Lloyd, Trevor, Suragettes International: The
Worldwide Campaign for Womens Rights (New
York: American Heritage Press, 1971).
CIA Yearbook: Surage

Press release with respect to Qatar and Yemen
Photographs of U.S. suragettes, marches, and

demonstrations
Ada James papers and correspondence (1915
1918)a digital collection presented by the
University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center.
Ada James (18761952) was a leading a social
reformer, humanitarian, and pacist from Richland
Center, Wisconsin and daughter of state senator
David G. James. The Ada James papers document
1.5. TIMELINE OF WOMENS SUFFRAGE
51
the grass roots organizing and politics required to New Zealand became the rst self-governing country in
promote and guarantee the passage of womens the world in which all women had the right to vote in
surage in Wisconsin and beyond.
parliamentary elections in 1893.[1] In Sweden, conditional womens surage was granted during the age of
Womens surage in Germany19 January liberty between 1718 and 1771 to taxpaying female guild1919rst surage (active and passive) for women members.[2]
in Germany
For other womens rights, see Timeline of womens rights
Suragists vs. Suragettesbrief article outlining (other than voting).
origins of term suragette, usage of term and links
to other sources.
Women in CongressInformation about women
who have served in the U.S. Congress including historical essays that cover surage.
Culture Victoriahistorical images and videos for
the Centenary of Womens Surage
Woman suragist, Mary Ellen Ewing vs the Houston School BoardCollection at the University of
Houston Digital Library.
Gayle Olson-Raymer, The Early Womens Movement, 17-page teaching guide for high school students, Zinn Education Project/Rethinking Schools
Womens Surage and Equal Rights in the Claremont Colleges Digital Library
1.5 Timeline of womens surage
1.5.1 18th century

1718
Sweden: Female taxpaying members of city

guilds are allowed to vote in local elections
(rescinded in 1758) and national elections (rescinded in the new constitution of 1771).[2]
1755
Corsica (rescinded upon annexation by France
in 1769)[3]
1756
U.S. town of Uxbridge, Massachusetts: One
woman, Lydia Taft, is allowed to vote in the
town meeting[4]
1776
U.S. state of New Jersey (rescinded in 1807)
1.5.2 19th century

1838
Pitcairn Island
1856
Norfolk Island
1861
Australian state of South Australia: limited
to property-owning women for local elections;
universal franchise achieved in 1894.
Surage parade, New York City, May 6, 1912.
Womens surage the right of women to vote has

been achieved at various times in countries throughout the
world. In many nations, womens surage was granted
before universal surage, so women and men from certain classes or races were still unable to vote. Some countries granted it to both sexes at the same time.
This timeline lists years when womens surage was enacted. Some countries are listed more than once as the
right was extended to more women according to age, land
ownership, etc. In many cases, the rst voting took place
in a subsequent year.
1862
Sweden: limited to local elections with votes
graded after taxation; universal franchise
achieved in 1919, which went into eect at the
1921 elections.[5]
1863
The Grand Duchy of Finland (part of the Russian Empire from 1809 to 1917): limited to
taxpaying women in the countryside for municipal elections; and in 1872, extended to the
cities.[5]
52
Portrait of an unknown New Zealand suragette, Charles Hemus

Studio Auckland, circa 1880. The sitter wears a white camellia
and has cut o her hair, both symbolic of support for advancing
womens rights.
United States-incorporated Utah Territory: repealed by the Edmunds-Tucker Act in 1887.
1864
Australian state of Victoria, Australia: women
were unintentionally enfranchised by the Electoral Act (1863), and proceeded to vote in
the following years elections. The Act was
amended in 1865 to correct the error.[6]
The former Kingdom of Bohemia: limited to
taxpaying women and women in learned professions who were allowed to vote by proxy
and made eligible for election to the legislative
body in 1864.[5]
1869
United Kingdom: limited to single women
ratepayers for local elections under the Municipal Franchise Act.[7][8] (Partial female suffrage in national elections in 1918; universal
franchise in 1928.)
18691920
United States-incorporated Territory
Wyoming: full surage for women.[9]
1870
Statue of Esther Hobart Morris in front of the Wyoming State

Capitol
of
1881
Self-governing British Crown dependency of
the Isle of Man: limited at rst to women
freeholders and then, a few years later, extended to include women householders.[10]
1884
Canadian province of Ontario: limited to widows and spinsters to vote in municipal elections (later extended to other provinces).[11]
1889
The municipality of
Franceville: universal surage within its short existence.[12] Loses
self-rule within months.
1893
New Zealand: rst self-governing country
in the world in which all women are given
the right to vote in parliamentary elections.
Women were barred from standing for election
until 1919.[13][14]
53
Franchise Act 1902 withdraws any such Aboriginal voting rights for federal elections, providing that, No aboriginal native of Australia
... shall be entitled to have his name placed
on an Electoral Roll unless so entitled under
section forty-one of the Constitution.[17]
Australian state of New South Wales: limited
to non-indigenous women
1903
Australian state of Tasmania: limited to nonindigenous women
1905
Tribute to the Suragettes, Christchurch, New Zealand
British protectorate of the Cook Islands: universal surage.[15]

U.S. state of Colorado: rst state in the union
to enfranchise women by popular vote.[16]
Latvia
1905
Australian state of Queensland: limited to
non-indigenous women
1894
Australian state of South Australia: universal
surage, extending the franchise to all women
(property-owners could vote in local elections
from 1861), the rst in Australia to do so.
United Kingdom: Local Government Act conrms single womens right to vote in local elections and extends this franchise to some married women.[8]
1896
U.S. state of Idaho
1899
Australian state of Western Australia
1.5.3
20th century
1900s
1902
Australia: The Australian Constitution gives
the federal franchise to all persons allowed to
vote for the lower house in each state unless
the Commonwealth Parliament stipulates otherwise. South Australian and Western Australian women can vote in the rst federal election in 1901. During the rst Parliament, the
Commonwealth passes legislation extending
federal franchise to non-Aboriginal women in
all states. Aboriginal women have the vote in
South Australia in 1901. The Commonwealth
First Female Parliamentarians in the world were elected in Finland in 1907.
1906
The Grand Duchy of Finland (part of the
Russian Empire): rst in Europe to grant
women surage and the rst in the world
where women are able stand as candidates at
elections.[18]
New Hebrides: Perhaps inspired by the
Franceville experiment, the Anglo-French
Condominium of the New Hebrides grants
women the right to vote in municipal elections and to serve on elected municipal
councils. (Limited to British, French, and
other colonists, and excluding indigenous
women.)[19]
1908
Denmark: limited to local elections
Australian state of Victoria: limited to nonindigenous women
54
Canadian province of Manitoba
Canadian province of Saskatchewan
Canadian province of Alberta
1917
U.S. State of New York
Azerbaijan Democratic Republic
Armenia
Belarusian Peoples Republic
Estonia
Latvia (as an independent country)
Lithuania
Canadian province of British Columbia
Canadian province of Ontario
Canada: limited to war widows, women serving overseas, and women with family serving
overseas
Poland
The argument over womens rights in Victoria was lampooned in

this Melbourne Punch cartoon of 1887
Russian Republic
Ukrainian Peoples Republic
Uruguay (per Constitution)
1918
1910s
1910
U.S. State of Washington
1911
U.S. State of California
Argentina: a doctor, Julieta Lanteri, sued and
won the right to vote.
1912
U.S. State of Oregon
U.S. State of Kansas
U.S. State of Arizona
1913
U.S. State of Alaska
Norway
1914
U.S. State of Michigan

U.S. State of South Dakota
U.S. State of Oklahoma
Austria
Canada: limited to women over 21, and
not alien-born, and meeting provinciallydetermined property qualications
Canadian province of Nova Scotia
Germany
Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic

United Kingdom (See Representation of the
People Act 1918): limited to women above the
age of 30, compared to 21 for men and 19 for
those who had fought in World War One. Various property qualications remained.
1919
Belgium: limited to voting at municipal level
U.S. State of Montana
Georgia
U.S. State of Nevada
Hungary: full surage granted in 1945
1915
Denmark: full voting rights
Iceland
1916
Luxembourg
Netherlands: right to stand in election granted
in 1917
New Zealand: women have the right to stand
for election into parliament
55
Canadian province of New Brunswick: limited

to voting. Women are given the right to stand
for oce in 1934.
U.S. state of Minnesota
Self-governing British crown colony of
Southern Rhodesia: women now allowed to
vote and stand for election into parliament
United Kingdom: franchise made equal to that

for men by the Representation of the People
Act 1928.
1929
Romania: limited to local elections only, with
restrictions.[20]
Unincorporated U.S. territory of Puerto Rico:
women given the right to vote
1920s
Ecuador: the right of women to vote is written

into the Constitution
1920
Albania
Czechoslovakia
United States: all remaining states by amendment to federal Constitution
1921
Sweden
1922
Irish Free State (now known as the Republic
of Ireland): equal surage granted upon independence from UK. Partial surage granted as
part of UK in 1869 and 1918.
1930s
1930
South Africa (Womens Enfranchisement Act,
1930: limited to white women on the same basis as white men.
Turkey: limited to municipal elections.[21] On
December 5, 1934, women are granted full
universal surage. Turkish women run in
parliamentary elections for the rst time on
February 8, 1935, obtaining 18 seats.
1931
Canadian province of Prince Edward Island
Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
Mexican state of Yucatn: limited to regional

and congressional elections
Chile: limited to municipal level for female

owners of real estate under Legislative Decree
No. 320.
1924
Ecuador: a doctor, Matilde Hidalgo de Prcel,
sues and wins the right to vote
Spain: limited to single women and widows in
local elections. First women mayors.
Portugal: with restrictions following level of

education.
Spain: universal surage
1932
Mongolia: no electoral system in place prior to

this year.
Brazil Berta Lutz
Saint Lucia
Thailand (Siam)
Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic

Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic
1925
Italy: limited to local elections.
Dominion of Newfoundland: limited to
women 25 and older (men can vote at age 21)
1927
Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic
Uruguay: womens surage is broadcast for the
rst time in 1927, in the plebiscite of Cerro
Chato.
1928
Maldives
1934
Chile: limited to municipal level under Law
No. 5,357
Cuba
Portugal: surage is expanded
Mexican state of Tabasco: limited to regional
and congress elections only
1935
British Raj: granted in the same year as suffrage for men and retained by India and Pakistan after independence in 1947.
Burma: women are granted the right to
vote.[14]
56
1937
Kenya
North Korea[26]
Netherlands Dutch East Indies: passive suffrage for European women
Liberia (Americo women only; indigenous

men and women were not enfranchised until
1951)
Philippines
[14]
1938
British Mandate for Palestine
Bolivia
Portugal: expands surage
Bulgaria: limited to mothers only
Romania[22]
Venezuela
Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic

1939
Vietnam
1947
El Salvador[14]
Argentina[27]
Romania: women are granted surage on

equal terms with men with restrictions on both
men and women; in practice the restrictions
aected women more than men.[22][23]
Republic of China (includes Taiwan): with restrictions

Malta
Mexico: limited to municipal level
1940s
Nepal
Pakistan: with independence
1940
Canadian province of Quebec
1941
Singapore
1948
The Universal Declaration of Human
Rights adopted by the UN includes Article
21:
Netherlands Dutch East Indies: limited to European women only.

Panama: with restrictions.
The will of the people shall be the basis

of the authority of government; this will shall
be expressed in periodic and genuine elections
which shall be by universal and equal surage
and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent
free voting procedures.
1942
Dominican Republic
1944
Bermuda:
women.[24]
limited
to
property-holding
[28]
Bulgaria: full rights

Jamaica
Belgium
Israel: Surage granted upon its establishment.
1945
France
South Korea
Indonesia (Dutch East Indies)
Niger
Italy
Surinam (Dutch colony)
[25]
Japan
Senegal
Togo (French Togoland)
Yugoslavia
1946
1949
Chile: right expanded to all elections on January 8 by Law No. 9,292
Netherlands Antilles (Aruba, Bonaire,
Curaao, Sint Maarten, Saba, and Sint
Eustatius)[29]
Cameroon
Peoples Republic of China
Djibouti (French Somaliland)
Costa Rica
Guatemala
Syria
57
Pakistan: rights extended to national level
(previously only literate women could
vote).[30]
1950s
1950
Somalia (British Somaliland)
Barbados
Haiti
1957
India: granted in the same year as mens suffrage
Colombia (by Constitution)[31]

Malaya (now Malaysia)
1951
Antigua and Barbuda
Dominica
Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe)

1958
Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso)
Grenada
Chad
Nepal
Guinea
Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla
Laos
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

1952
United Nations enacts Convention on the
Political Rights of Women
Nigeria (South)
1959
Brunei
Bolivia
Vaud
Cte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)
Neuchtel
Greece
Madagascar (Malagasy Republic)
Lebanon
San Marino
Tanganyika (now Tanzania)
1953
Tunisia
Bhutan
British Guiana (now Guyana)
Mexico: rights extended to all women and for
national elections
1954
British Honduras (now Belize)
Gold Coast (now Ghana)
1955
Cambodia
Ethiopia (and Eritrea, as then a part of
Ethiopia)
1960s
1960
Cyprus: surage granted upon its establishment
Gambia
Geneva
Tonga
1961
Burundi
Honduras
Mauritania
Nicaragua
Malawi
Peru
Paraguay
1956
Dahomey (now Benin)
Comoros
Egypt
Gabon
Rwanda
Sierra Leone
1962
Algeria
Mali (French Sudan)
Australia: universal surage extended to Aboriginal men and women.
Mauritius
Brunei: surage revoked (including men)
58
Monaco
Uganda
Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia)
1970
Andorra
1963
Congo
Equatorial Guinea
Fiji
Iran (See Iranian constitutional referendum,
1963)
Kenya
Morocco
1964
Bahamas
Libya
Papua New Guinea (Territory of Papua and
Territory of New Guinea)
Sudan
1965
Yemen (North Yemen)

1971
Switzerland: on the federal level; introduced
on the Cantonal level from 19581990
1972
Bangladesh: surage granted upon its establishment
1973
Bahrain[34] (Bahrain did not hold elections until 2002)[35]
1974
Jordan
Afghanistan (revoked under Taliban rule

19962001)[32]
Botswana (Bechuanaland)
Lesotho (Basutoland)
1966
1970s
Solomon Islands
1975
Angola
Cape Verde
Basel-Stadt
1967
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Ecuador: womens vote made obligatory, like
that of mens.[33]
Kiribati (Gilbert Islands)
Tuvalu (Ellice Islands)
South Yemen
1968
Basel-Landschaft
Bermuda: universal surage
Nauru
Mozambique
So Tom and Prncipe
Vanuatu (New Hebrides)
1976
Province of East Timor of Indonesia
Portugal (all restrictions were lifted by
Carnation Revolution)[36][37]
1977
Guinea-Bissau
1978
Portugal: claims to have established equality of political rights for men and women, although a few electoral rights were reserved for
men.
Marshall Islands
Swaziland
Palau
Federated States of Micronesia

Nigeria (North)
1.5.5 See also
1980s
1980
Iraq[34]
1984
Liechtenstein
U.S. State of Mississippi:
raties the
Nineteenth Amendment to the United States
Constitution (women in Mississippi have had
the right to vote since 1920)
1985
Kuwait (revoked in 1999; re-granted in
2005)[38]
1986
Central African Republic
1989
Namibia: independence established former
South-West Africa.
1990s
1990
Samoa
Switzerland: the Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden is forced by the Federal Supreme
Court of Switzerland to accept womens suffrage.
1997
Qatar: limited to Qatari municipal elections,
2007.
1.5.4
59
21st century
2003
Oman
2005
Kuwait[39]
2006
United Arab Emirates (initially very limited;
but slightly expanded by 2011)
2015
Saudi Arabia (to be introduced along with
right to run for municipal elections)[40]
Timeline of rst womens surage in majorityMuslim countries

Timeline of womens surage in the United States
Timeline of womens rights (other than voting)
List of the rst female holders of political oce in
Europe
List of womens rights activists
1.5.6 References
[1] 'New Zealand women and the vote', URL: http://www.
nzhistory.net.nz/politics/womens-suffrage, (Ministry for
Culture and Heritage), updated 17 July 2014.
[2] Karlsson-Sjgren, sa. Mnnen, kvinnorna och rstrtten : medborgarskap och representation 17231866 [Men,
women and the vote: citizenship and representation 1723
1866] (in Swedish).
[3] Lucien Felli, La renaissance du Paolisme. M. Bartoli,
Pasquale Paoli, pre de la patrie corse, Albatros, 1974, p.
29. Il est un point o le caractre prcurseur des institutions paolines est particulirement accus, c'est celui du
surage en ce qu'il tait entendu de manire trs large. Il
prvoyait en eet le vote des femmes qui, l'poque, ne
votaient pas en France.
[4] Lydia Chapin Taft Biography Womens Surage by
Frances Stanford | Humanities 360
[5] P. Orman Ray: Woman Surage in Foreign Countries.
The American Political Science Review. Vol. 12, No. 3
(Aug., 1918), pp. 469-474
[6] Women in Parliament Parliament of Victoria. Parliament.vic.gov.au. Retrieved 2013-05-06.
[7] Womens rights. The National Archives. Retrieved 11
February 2015.
[8] Which Act Gave Women the Right to Vote in Britain?".
Synonym. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
[9] Rea, Tom. Right Choice, Wrong Reasons: Wyoming
women win the right to vote. wyohistory.org. Retrieved
26 August 2015.
[10] Myers, Rebecca (28 May 2013). General History of
Womens Surage in Britain. The Independent. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
[11] Canada-WomensVote-WomenSurage.
ulty.marianopolis.edu.
1916-01-27.
2013-05-06.
FacRetrieved
[12] Wee, Small Republics: A Few Examples of Popular Government, Hawaiian Gazette, Nov 1, 1895, p 1
60
[13] 'New Zealand women and the vote', URL: http://www.

nzhistory.net.nz/politics/womens-suffrage, (Ministry for
Culture and Heritage), updated 17-Jul-2014
[35] Darwish, Adel (October 25, 2002). Bahrains women

vote for rst time. The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved May 25, 2010.
[14] Womens Surage
[36] http://www.idea.int/publications/voter_turnout_
weurope/upload/chapter%204.pdf
[15] 'World surage timeline',

URL: http://www.
nzhistory.net.nz/politics/womens-suffrage/
world-suffrage-timeline, (Ministry for Culture and
Heritage), updated 5-Aug-2015
[37] http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/womanshour/timeline/
votes_to_women.shtml
[38] African Women and Children. Apollo Rwormie.
[16] Chapin, Laura (21 August 2010). Colorado Led the Way
on Womens Surage. usnews.com. Retrieved 26 August
2015.
[39] Kuwait grants women right to vote. CNN. May 16,

2005. Retrieved 13 April 2014.
[17] Documenting a Democracy, Museum of Australian

Democracy, retrieved 13 October 2011
[40] Women in Saudi Arabia 'to vote and run in elections".

BBC News (London). September 25, 2011. Retrieved
September 25, 2011.
[18] http://www.aanioikeus.fi/en/articles/strike.htm
[19] Bourdiol, Julien (1908), Condition internationale des
Nouvelles-Hebrides, p 106
[20] Popescu, Camelia. Lupta pentru dreptul de vot feminin
n Romnia interbelic". Historia.ro. Adevrul Holding.
Retrieved 4 January 2014.
[21] This Day in World History: February 6, 1935 Turkey
Holds First Election That Allows Women to Vote. OUP
Blog.
[22] Summary: Rights to Vote in Romania. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
http://www.hist.uu.se/historikermote05/program/
Politik/52_Karlsson_Sjogren.pdf
1.5.7 External links

Google Spreadsheet with mapabove timeline data
has been tabulated and can be viewed on a world
map for any given year.
1.6 Democratization
[23] CONSTITUIA: Romniei din 1938. Retrieved 6 October 2014.

[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
Democratization is the transition to a more democratic political regime. It may be the transition from
The Evolution of Bermudas Franchise. Parliamentary an authoritarian regime to a full democracy, a transiRegistry Bermuda.
tion from an authoritarian political system to a semidemocracy or transition from a semi-authoritarian politi(Italian) Extension to the women of the right to vote
cal system to a democratic political system. The outcome
Womens Surage. Ipu.org. 1997-05-23. Retrieved may be consolidated (as it was for example in the United
2013-05-06.
Kingdom) or democratization may face frequent reversals
(as it has faced for example in Argentina). Dierent patGregory Hammond, The Womens Surage Movement
terns of democratization are often used to explain other
and Feminism in Argentina From Roca to Peron (U of New
political phenomena, such as whether a country goes to a
Mexico Press; 2011)
war or whether its economy grows. Democratization itThe Universal Declaration of Human Rights
self is inuenced by various factors, including economic
development, history, and civil society. The ideal result
http://www.everyculture.com/Ma-Ni/
from democratization is to ensure that the people have the
Netherlands-Antilles.html
right to vote and have a voice in their political system.
[30] Pakistan Ministers. Guide2womenleaders.com. Retrieved 2013-05-06.

[31] http://www.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtual/
linea-de-tiempo/voto-mujer-frente-nacional
1.6.1 Causes of democratization
There is considerable debate about the factors which af[32] Woman Surage Timeline International Winning the fect or ultimately limit democratization. A great many
Vote Around the World. Womenshistory.about.com. things, including economics, culture, and history, have
been cited as impacting on the process. Some of the more
1908-04-25. Retrieved 2013-05-06.
frequently mentioned factors are:
[33] El Voto Feminino en Ecuador, published 6 April 1991,
accessed 1 November 2010. Hoy.com.ec. 2011-10-14.
[34] Womens Surage
Wealth. A higher GDP/capita correlates with

democracy and while some claim the wealthiest
democracies have never been observed to fall into
1.6. DEMOCRATIZATION
authoritarianism, the rise of Hitler and the Nazis
in Weimar Germany would be an obvious counterexample that would render the claim a truism.[1]
There is also the general observation that democracy
was very rare before the industrial revolution. Empirical research thus lead many to believe that economic development either increases chances for a
transition to democracy (modernization theory), or
helps newly established democracies consolidate.[1]
Some campaigners for democracy even believe that
as economic development progresses, democratization will become inevitable. However, the debate about whether democracy is a consequence of
wealth, a cause of it, or both processes are unrelated,
is far from conclusion.[2]
Social equality. Acemoglu and Robinson argued that
the relationship between social equality and democratic transition is complicated: People have less incentive to revolt in an egalitarian society (for example, Singapore), so the likelihood of democratization is lower. In a highly unequal society (for example, South Africa under Apartheid), the redistribution of wealth and power in a democracy would
be so harmful to elites that these would do everything to prevent democratization. Democratization
is more likely to emerge somewhere in the middle,
in the countries, whose elites oer concessions because (1) they consider the threat of a revolution
credible and (2) the cost of the concessions is not too
high.[3] This expectation is in line with the empirical research showing that democracy is more stable
in egalitarian societies.[1]
Culture. It is claimed by some that certain cultures
are simply more conductive to democratic values
than others. This view is likely to be ethnocentric.
Typically, it is Western culture which is cited as
best suited to democracy, with other cultures portrayed as containing values which make democracy
dicult or undesirable. This argument is sometimes used by undemocratic regimes to justify their
failure to implement democratic reforms. Today,
however, there are many non-Western democracies.
Examples include:India,Japan,Indonesia,Namibia,
Botswana, Taiwan and South Korea
Foreign intervention. Democracies have often been
imposed by military intervention, for example in
Japan and Germany after WWII.[4][5] In other cases,
decolonization sometimes facilitated the establishment of democracies that were soon replaced by
authoritarian regimes. For example, in the United
States South after the Civil War, former slaves
were disenfranchised by Jim Crow laws after the
Reconstruction Era of the United States; after many
decades, U.S. democracy was re-established by
civic associations (the African American civil rights
61
movement) and an outside military (the U.S. military).
1.6.2 Transitions
Democracy development has often been slow, violent,
and marked by frequent reversals.[6]
Historical Cases
In Great Britain, the English Civil War (16421651) was
fought between the King and an oligarchic but elected
Parliament.[7] The Protectorate and the English Restoration restored more autocratic rule. The Glorious Revolution in 1688 established a strong Parliament that passed
the Bill of Rights 1689, which is still in eect. It codied certain rights and liberties for individuals and set out
the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections,
rules for freedom of speech in Parliament and limited the
power of the monarch, ensuring that, unlike much of the
rest of Europe, royal absolutism would not prevail.[8][9]
Only with the Representation of the People Act 1884 did
a majority of the males get the vote.
The American Revolution (17651783) created the
United States. In many elds, it was a success ideologically in the sense that a relatively true republic was
established that never had a single dictator, but voting
rights were initially restricted to white male property
owners.[10] Slavery was only abolished with the American
Civil War (18611865) and the Civil Rights given to
African-Americans became achieved in the 1960s.
The French Revolution (1789) briey allowed a wide
franchise. The French Revolutionary Wars and the
Napoleonic Wars lasted for more than twenty years. The
French Directory was more oligarchic. The First French
Empire and the Bourbon Restoration restored more autocratic rule. The Second French Republic had universal male surage but was followed by the Second French
Empire. The Franco-Prussian War (187071) resulted in
the French Third Republic.
The German Empire was created in 1871. It was followed
by the Weimar Republic after World War I. Nazi Germany restored autocratic rule before the defeat in World
War II .
The Kingdom of Italy, after the unication of Italy in
1861, was a constitutional monarchy with the King having considerable powers. Italian fascism created a dictatorship after the World War I. World War II resulted in
the Italian Republic.
The Meiji period, after 1868, started the modernization
of Japan. Limited democratic reforms were introduced.
The Taish period (19121926) saw more reforms. The
beginning of the Shwa period reversed this until the end
of the World War II.
62
history.[14] The rst one brought democracy to Western

Europe and Northern America in the 19th century. It was
According to a study by Freedom House, in 67 countries followed by a rise of dictatorships during the Interwar pewhere dictatorships have fallen since 1972, nonviolent riod. The second wave began after World War II, but lost
civic resistance was a strong inuence over 70 percent of steam between 1962 and the mid-1970s. The latest wave
the time. In these transitions,
began in 1974 and is still ongoing. Democratization of
Latin America and the former Eastern Bloc is part of this
third wave.
changes were catalyzed not through foreign invasion, and only rarely through armed
A very good example of a region which passed through
revolt or voluntary elite-driven reforms, but
all the three waves of democratization is the Middle East.
overwhelmingly by democratic civil society
During the 15th century it was a part of the Ottoman
organizations utilizing nonviolent action and
Empire. In the 19th century, when the empire nally
other forms of civil resistance, such as
collapsed [...] towards the end of the First World War,
strikes, boycotts, civil disobedience, and mass
the Western armies nally moved in and occupied the
protests.[11]
region.[15] This was an act of both European expansion
and state-building in order to democratize the region.
However, what Posusney and Angrist argue is that, the
1.6.3 Indicators of democratization
ethnic divisions [...] are [those that are] complicating the
U.S. eort to democratize Iraq. This raises interesting
One inuential survey in democratization is that of
questions about the role of combined foreign and domesFreedom House, which arose during the Cold War. The
tic factors in the process of democratization. In addiFreedom House, today an institution and a think tank,
tion, Edward Said labels as 'orientalist' the predominantly
stands as one of the most comprehensive freedom meaWestern perception of intrinsic incompatibility between
sures nationally and internationally and by extension a
democratic values and Islam. Moreover, he states that
measure of democratization. Freedom House categorizes
the Middle East and North Africa lack the prerequisites
all countries of the world according to a seven-point value
of democratization.[16]
system with over 200 questions on the survey and multiple survey representatives in various parts of every nation. Fareed Zakaria has examined the security interests benThe total raw points of every country places the country eted from democracy promotion, pointing out the link
in one of three categories: Free, Partly Free, or not Free. between levels of democracy in a country and of terrorist
activity. Though it is accepted that poverty in the Muslim
One study simultaneously examining the relationship beworld has been a leading contributor to the rise of terrortween market economy (measured with one Index of Ecoism, Zakaria has noted that the primary terrorists involved
nomic Freedom), economic development (measured with
in the 9/11 attacks were among the upper and upperGDP/capita), and political freedom (measured with the
middle classes. Zakaria has suggested that the society
Freedom House index) found that high economic freein which Al-Qaeda terrorists lived provided easy money,
dom increases GDP/capita and a high GDP/capita inand therefore there existed little incentive to moderncreases economic freedom. A high GDP/capita also inize economically or politically.[17] With little opportunity
creases political freedom but political freedom did not
to express themselves in the political sphere, scores of
increase GDP/capita. There was no direct relationship
young Arab men were invited to participate[18] through
either way between economic freedom and political freeanother avenue: the culture of Islamic fundamentalism.
dom if keeping GDP/capita constant.[12]
The rise of Islamic fundamentalism and its violent expression on September 11, 2001 illustrates an inherent
need to express oneself politically, and a democratic gov1.6.4 Views on democratization
ernment or one with democratic aspects (such as political
Francis Fukuyama wrote another classic in democratiza- openness) is quite necessary to provide a forum for polittion studies entitled The End of History and the Last Man ical expression.
Since 1972
which spoke of the rise of liberal democracy as the nal

form of human government. However it has been argued
that the expansion of liberal economic reforms has had
mixed eects on democratization. In many ways, it is
argued, democratic institutions have been constrained or
disciplined in order to satisfy international capital markets or to facilitate the global ow of trade.[13]
Larry Pardy observed that governments are motivated by

political power, which is generated by two factors: legitimacy and means. The legitimacy of a democratic government is achieved through the consent of the population
through fair and open elections while its nancial means
are derived from a healthy tax base generated by a vibrant
economy. Economic success is based on a free market
Samuel P. Huntington wrote The Third Wave, partly as economy with the following elements: property rights,
response to Fukuyama, dening a global democratiza- a fair and independent judiciary, security, and the rule
tion trend in the world post WWII. Huntington dened of law. The core elements that support economic freethree waves of democratization that have taken place in dom convey the same basic rights onto individuals. Con-
1.6. DEMOCRATIZATION
63
versely, there can be no rule of law for investors when

governments crack down on political opponents and no
property rights for industry when personal wealth can be
arbitrarily seized.
Domain Name System under ICANN is the least democratic and most centralized part of the Internet, using a
simple model of rst-come-rst-served to the names of
things. Ralph Nader called this corporatization of the
A sustainable democracy has to involve far more than dictionary.
fair and open elections. It rests on a solid foundation
of economic and political freedom that, for Western nations, had to be pried from governments over centuries. Knowledge
It goes back at least to 1215 when King John accepted
limits on his powers and conceded certain rights in the The democratization of knowledge is the spread of
Magna Carta. Then, as now, governments will be moti- knowledge among common people, in contrast to knowlvated to support rights and freedoms only when it directly edge being controlled by elite groups.
impacts the governments ability to maintain and exercise
political power. It does not arise with idealistic notions
of democracy and freedom, implied scal contracts with Design
citizens, exhortations from donor states or pronouncements from international agencies. Fukyama was essen- The trend that products from well-known designers are
tially correct with his assertion regarding the end of his- becoming cheaper and more available to masses of contory - that Western liberal democracy represents the end- sumers. Also, the trend of companies sourcing design
[20]
point of mankinds ideological evolution. It represents decisions from end users.
a mechanism whereby our free market system eciently
allocates resources in our economy while co-existing in
a symbiotic relationship with our democratic system of 1.6.6 See also
government. Our governments are incentivized to protect the economy while the foundations for that economy
Third Wave Democracy
create the conditions for democracy.[19]
Chilean transition to democracy
1.6.5
Democratization in other contexts
Democratisation in Hong Kong
Although democratization is most often thought of in the

context of national or regional politics, the term can also
be applied to:
Democratisation in the Soviet Union
International bodies
Democracy activists
International bodies (e.g. the United Nations) where

there is an ongoing call for reform and altered voting
structures and voting systems.
Corporations
It can also be applied in corporations where the traditional power structure was top-down direction and the
boss-knows-best (even a "Pointy-Haired Boss"); This
is quite dierent from consultation, empowerment (of
lower levels) and a diusion of decision making (power)
throughout the rm, as advocated by workplace democracy movements.
Color revolution
Democracy in the Middle East

Democratic peace theory
Democracy promotion
Good governance
Metapolitefsi
Nation-building
Nonviolent revolution
Portuguese transition to democracy
The Internet
The loose anarchistic structure of the Internet Engineering Task Force and the Internet itself have inspired some
groups to call for more democratization of how domain
names are held, upheld, and lost. They note that the
Spanish transition to democracy

Transitional justice
Transitology
64
1.6.7
References
[1] Przeworski, Adam; et al. (2000). Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World,
1950-1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[2] Traversa, Federico (2014). Income and the stability of
democracy: Pushing beyond the borders of logic to explain a strong correlation?". Constitutional Political Economy, November 2014. doi: 10.1007/s10602-014-9175-x
[3] Acemoglu, Daron; James A. Robinson (2006). Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[4] Therborn, Gran (1977). The rule of capital and the rise
of democracy: Capital and surage (cover title)". New
Left Review. I 103 (The advent of bourgeois democracy):
341.
[5] The Independent
[6] Journal of Democracy
[7] Origins and growth of Parliament.
Archives. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
The National
[8] Constitutionalism: America & Beyond. Bureau of International Information Programs (IIP), U.S. Department
of State. Retrieved 30 October 2014. The earliest, and
perhaps greatest, victory for liberalism was achieved in
England. The rising commercial class that had supported
the Tudor monarchy in the 16th century led the revolutionary battle in the 17th, and succeeded in establishing
the supremacy of Parliament and, eventually, of the House
of Commons. What emerged as the distinctive feature
of modern constitutionalism was not the insistence on the
idea that the king is subject to law (although this concept is
an essential attribute of all constitutionalism). This notion
was already well established in the Middle Ages. What
was distinctive was the establishment of eective means
of political control whereby the rule of law might be enforced. Modern constitutionalism was born with the political requirement that representative government depended
upon the consent of citizen subjects.... However, as can be
seen through provisions in the 1689 Bill of Rights, the English Revolution was fought not just to protect the rights
of property (in the narrow sense) but to establish those
liberties which liberals believed essential to human dignity and moral worth. The rights of man enumerated in
the English Bill of Rights gradually were proclaimed beyond the boundaries of England, notably in the American
Declaration of Independence of 1776 and in the French
Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789.
[9] Rise of Parliament. The National Archives. Retrieved
2010-08-22.
[10] Expansion of Rights and Liberties - The Right of Suffrage. Online Exhibit: The Charters of Freedom. National
Archives. Retrieved April 21, 2015.
[11] Study: Nonviolent Civic Resistance Key Factor in Building Durable Democracies, May 24, 2005
[12] Ken Farr, Richard A. Lord, and J. Larry Wolfenbarger

(1998). Economic Freedom, Political Freedom, and
Economic Well-Being: A Causality Analysis. Cato Journal 18 (2): 247262.
[13] Roberts, Alasdair S.,Empowerment or Discipline?
Two Logics of Governmental Reform (December 23,
2008). Available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1319792
SSRN.com
[14] Huntington, Samuel P. (1991). Democratization in the
Late 20th century. Norman: University of Oklahoma
Press.
[15] Simon, Bromley. Rethinking Middle East Politics: State
Formation and Development. (Polity Press, Cambridge,
1994)
[16] ed by Marsha, Pripstein Posusney and Michele, Penner
Angrist. Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Regimes and
Resistance. (Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., USA, 2005)
[17] Fareed Zakaria, The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad, W.W. Norton & Co., 2007,
138.
[18] Fareed Zakaria, The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad, W.W. Norton & Co., 2007.
[19] Pardy, Larry D. Understanding the Determinants of
Democracy: Opening the Black Box. Amherst, NS: October 2014
[20] Harry (2007). The Democratization of Design
1.6.8 Further reading

Thomas Carothers. Aiding Democracy Abroad: The
Learning Curve. 1999. Washington, DC: Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace.
Josep M. Colomer. Strategic Transitions. 2000.
Baltimore, Md: The Johns Hopkins University
Press.
Daniele Conversi. Demo-skepticism and genocide,
Political Science Review, September 2006, Vol 4, issue 3, pp. 247262
Haerpfer, Christian; Bernhagen, Patrick; Inglehart,
Ronald & Welzel, Christian (2009), Democratization, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN
9780199233021.
Inglehart, Ronald & Welzel, Christian (2005), Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy: The
Human Development Sequence, New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521846950.
Frederic C. Schaer. Democracy in Translation:
Understanding Politics in an Unfamiliar Culture.
1998. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
1.7. REVOLUTIONS OF 1989
65
Fareed Zakaria. The Future of Freedom: Illiberal to the fall of the Berlin Wall, which served as the symDemocracy at Home and Abroad. 2003. New York: bolic gateway to German reunication in 1990.
W.W. Norton.
The Soviet Union was dissolved by the end of 1991, re Christian Welzel. Freedom Rising: Human Empow- sulting in 14 countries (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus,
erment and the Quest for Emancipation. 2013. New Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia,
York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1- Lithuania, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine,
and Uzbekistan) declaring their independence from the
107-66483-8.
Soviet Union in the course of the years 1990-91 and the
Tatu Vanhanen. Democratization: A Comparative bulk of the country being succeeded by Russia in DeAnalysis of 170 Countries. 2003. Routledge. ISBN cember 1991. Communism was abandoned in Albania
and Yugoslavia between 1990 and 1992, the latter coun0415318602
try having split into ve successor states by 1992: Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Slovenia, and the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (later renamed Serbia
and Montenegro, and later still split into two states,
International IDEA
Serbia and Montenegro). Serbia was then further split
with the breakaway of the partially recognized state of
Did the United States Create Democracy in Ger- Kosovo. Czechoslovakia too was dissolved three years
many?
after the end of communist rule, splitting peacefully into
the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1992.[10] The impact
was felt in dozens of Socialist countries. Communism
1.7 Revolutions of 1989
was abandoned in countries such as Cambodia, Ethiopia,
Mongolia, and South Yemen. The collapse of CommuFall of Communism redirects here. For the fall of the nism (and of the Soviet Union) led commentators to declare the end of the Cold War.
Soviet Union, see Dissolution of the Soviet Union.
For the fall of Communism in dierent countries that In the years immediately following 1989, the fall of
were part of the Eastern Bloc, see End of Communism. Apartheid system, the end of Chilean Military Dictatorship, the democratization of Ghana and Suriname, the
The Revolutions of 1989 were part of a revolutionary fall of communist party in Italy and San Marino, and the
wave that resulted in the Fall of Communism in the renewal of the Italian political class were recorded.
Communist states of Central and Eastern Europe and beyond. The period is sometimes called the Autumn of
Nations,[1][2][3][4][5] a play on the term Springtime of
Nations sometimes used to describe the Revolutions of
1848.
The events began in Poland in 1989,[6][7] and continued in
Hungary, East Germany, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and
Romania. One feature common to most of these developments was the extensive use of campaigns of civil
resistance demonstrating popular opposition to the continuation of one-party rule and contributing to the pressure for change.[8] Romania was the only Eastern Bloc
country whose people overthrew its Communist regime
violently;[9] however, in Romania itself and in some other
places, there was some violence inicted by the regime
upon the population. The Tiananmen Square protests of
1989 failed to stimulate major political changes in China.
However, powerful images of courageous deance during that protest helped to spark a precipitation of events
in other parts of the globe. The same day June 4, Solidarity won an overwhelming victory in a partially free
election in Poland leading to the peaceful fall of Communism in that country in the summer of 1989. Hungary
physically dismantled its section of the Iron Curtain leading to a mass exodus of East Germans through Hungary
and destabilizing East Germany. This would lead to mass
demonstrations in cities such as Leipzig and subsequently
During the adoption of varying forms of market economy

there was initially a general decline in living standards.[11]
Political reforms were varied but in only ve countries
were Communist institutions able to keep for themselves
a monopoly on power: China, Cuba, North Korea, Laos,
and Vietnam. Many Communist and Socialist organisations in the West turned their guiding principles over to
social democracy. The European political landscape was
drastically changed, with numerous Eastern Bloc countries joining NATO and stronger European economic and
social integration entailed.
1.7.1 Background
Development of the Communist Bloc
Further information: Eastern Bloc and List of socialist
states
Ideas of Socialism had been gaining momentum among
working class citizens of the world since the 19th century.
These culminated in the early 20th century when several countries and subsequent nations formed their own
Communist Parties. Many of the countries involved had
hierarchical structures with monarchic governments and
aristocratic social structures with an established nobility.
Socialism was economically undesirable within the cir-
66
The fourth congress of the Polish United Workers Party, held in

1963.
In the early stages of World War II Nazi Germany invaded and occupied the countries of Eastern Europe, with
the agreement of the USSR. Germany then turned against
and invaded the USSR: the battles of this Eastern Front
were the largest in history. The USSR perforce became a
member of the Allies. The USSR fought the Germans to
a standstill and nally began driving them back, reaching
Berlin before the end of the war. Nazi ideology was violently opposed to Communism, and The Nazis brutally
suppressed the Communist movements in the occupied
countries. The Communists played a large part in the resistance to the Nazis in these countries. As the Soviets
forced the Germans back, they assumed temporary control of these devastated areas. Earlier in the war in conferences at Tehran and Yalta, the allies had agreed that
central and eastern Europe would be in the Soviet sphere
of political inuence.
After World War II the Soviets brought into power various Communist parties who were loyal to Moscow. The
Soviets retained troops throughout the territories they had
occupied. The Cold War saw these states, bound together by the Warsaw Pact, have continuing tensions with
the capitalist west symbolized by NATO. Mao Zedong
established communism in China in 1949.
Queue waiting to enter a store, a typical view in Poland of 1980s
cles of the ruling classes (which had begun to include industrial business leaders), in the late 19th/early 20th century states; as such, Communist ideology was repressed
its champions suered persecution while the nation on
the whole was discouraged from adopting the mindset.
This had been the practice even in the states which identied as exercising a multi-party system.
During the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, a spontaneous

nationwide anti-authoritarian revolt, the Soviet Union invaded Hungary to assert control. In 1968, the USSR repressed the Prague Spring by organizing the Warsaw Pact
invasion of Czechoslovakia.
Emergence of Solidarity
Main article: Solidarity (Polish trade union)
Labour turmoil in Poland during 1980 had led to the formation of the independent trade union, Solidarity, led by
Lech Wasa, which over time became a political force.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 saw the multi-ethnic SoOn 13 December 1981, Communist leader Wojciech
viets overturn a previously nationalist czarist state. The
Jaruzelski started a crack-down on Solidarity, declaring
Bolsheviks comprised ethnicities of all entities which
martial law in Poland, suspending the union, and temwould compose the Soviet Union throughout its phases.
porarily imprisoning all of its leaders.
During the interwar period, Communism had been on the
rise in many parts of the world (e.g. in the Kingdom
of Yugoslavia, it had grown popular in the urban areas Mikhail Gorbachev
throughout the 1920s). This led to a series of purges in
Main articles: Mikhail Gorbachev, Perestroika, Glasnost
many countries to stie the movement.
Just as Communism had at some stage grown popular and Democratisation in the Soviet Union
throughout the entities of Central and Eastern Europe, its
image had also begun to tarnish at a later time all within
the interwar period. As Socialist activists stepped up
their campaigns against their oppressor regimes, they resorted to violence (including bombings and various other
killings) to achieve their goal: this led large parts of the
previously pro-Communist populace to lose interest in
the ideology. A Communist presence forever remained
in place however, but reduced from its earlier size.
Although several Eastern bloc countries had attempted

some abortive, limited economic and political reform
since the 1950s (Hungarian Revolution of 1956, Prague
Spring of 1968), the ascension of reform-minded Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985 signaled the trend
toward greater liberalization. During the mid-1980s, a
younger generation of Soviet apparatchiks, led by Gorbachev, began advocating fundamental reform in order
67
to reverse years of Brezhnev stagnation. The Soviet

Union was facing a period of severe economic decline
and needed Western technology and credits to make up
for its increasing backwardness. The costs of maintaining its so-called empire the military, KGB, subsidies
to foreign client states further strained the moribund
Soviet economy.
The rst signs of major reform came in 1986 when Gorbachev launched a policy of glasnost (openness) in the
Soviet Union, and emphasized the need for perestroika
(economic restructuring). By the spring of 1989, the Soviet Union had not only experienced lively media debate,
but had also held its rst multi-candidate elections in the
newly established Congress of Peoples Deputies. Though
glasnost advocated openness and political criticism, at the
time, it was only permitted in accordance with the political views of the Communists. The general public in the
Eastern bloc were still threatened by secret police and political repression.
Moscows largest obstacle to improved political and economic relations with the Western powers remained the
Iron Curtain that existed between East and West. As long
as the specter of Soviet military intervention loomed over
Central, South-East and Eastern Europe, it seemed unlikely that Moscow could attract the Western economic
support needed to nance the countrys restructuring.
Gorbachev urged his Central and South-East European
counterparts to imitate perestroika and glasnost in their
own countries. However, while reformists in Hungary
and Poland were emboldened by the force of liberalization spreading from East to West, other Eastern bloc
countries remained openly skeptical and demonstrated
aversion to reform. Past experiences had demonstrated
that although reform in the Soviet Union was manageable,
the pressure for change in Central and South-East Europe had the potential to become uncontrollable. These
regimes owed their creation and continued survival to
Soviet-style authoritarianism, backed by Soviet military
power and subsidies. Believing Gorbachevs reform initiatives would be short-lived, orthodox Communist rulers
like East Germanys Erich Honecker, Bulgarias Todor
Zhivkov, Czechoslovakias Gustv Husk, and Romanias Nicolae Ceauescu obstinately ignored the calls for
change.[12] When your neighbor puts up new wallpaper,
it doesnt mean you have to too, declared one East German politburo member.[13]
1.7.2
Solidaritys impact grows
Main article: Solidarity (Polish trade union)

Throughout the mid-1980s, Solidarity persisted solely as
an underground organization, supported by the Catholic
Church. However, by the late 1980s, Solidarity became
suciently strong to frustrate Jaruzelskis attempts at reform, and nationwide strikes in 1988 forced the government to open a dialogue with Solidarity. On 9 March
1989, both sides agreed to a bicameral legislature called
2021 March 1981, issue of Wieczr Wrocawia (This Evening

in Wrocaw). Blank spaces remain after the government censor pulled articles from page 1 (right, What happened at
Bydgoszcz?") and from the last page (left, Country-wide strike
alert), leaving only their titles. The printersSolidarity-tradeunion members decided to run the newspaper as is, with blank
spaces intact. The bottom of page 1 of this master copy bears the
hand-written Solidarity conrmation of that decision.
the National Assembly. The already existing Sejm would

become the lower house. The Senate would be elected by
the people. Traditionally a ceremonial oce, the presidency was given more powers[14] (Polish Round Table
Agreement).
By 1989, the Soviet Union had repealed the Brezhnev
Doctrine in favor of non-intervention in the internal affairs of its Warsaw Pact allies, termed the Sinatra Doctrine in a joking reference to the Frank Sinatra song "My
Way". Poland became the rst Warsaw Pact state country
to break free of Soviet domination. Taking notice from
Poland, Hungary was next to follow.
1.7.3 National political movements

Tiananmen Square protests of 1989
Main article: Tiananmen Square protests of 1989
New Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping (in oce 13 September 1982 2 November 1987), developed the concept of
Socialism with Chinese characteristics local market economy around 1984, but the policy stalled.[15]
The rst Chinese student demonstrations, which directly
preceded the Beijing protests of 1989, took place in December 1986 in Hefei. The students called for campus
elections, the chance to study abroad and greater availability of western pop culture. Their protests took advantage of the loosening political atmosphere and included
rallies against the slow pace of reform. Chairman Hu
Yaobang, a protg of Deng Xiaoping and a leading advocate of reform, was blamed for the protests and forced to
resign as the CCP General Secretary in January 1987. In
the Anti Bourgeois Liberalization Campaign, Hu would
68
be further denounced.
The Tiananmen Square protests were sparked by the
death of Hu Yaobang on 15 April 1989. By the eve of
Hus state funeral, some 100,000 students had gathered
at Tiananmen square to observe it; however, no leaders
emerged from the Great Hall. The movement lasted for
seven weeks.[16]
Gorbachevs visit to China on 15 May during the protests
brought many foreign news agencies to Beijing, and their
sympathetic portrayals of the protesters helped galvanize
a spirit of liberation among the Central, South-East and
Eastern Europeans who were watching. The Chinese
leadership, particularly Communist Party General Secretary Zhao Ziyang, having begun earlier than the Soviets Solidarity Chairman Lech Wasa (center) with US President
to radically reform the economy, was open to political George H. W. Bush (right) and Barbara Bush (left) in Warsaw,
reform, but not at the cost of a potential return to the dis- July 1989.
order of the Cultural Revolution.
The movement lasted from Hus death on 15 April until
tanks rolled into Tiananmen Square on 4 June 1989. In
Beijing, the military response to the protest by the PRC
government left many civilians in charge of clearing the
square of the dead and severely injured. The exact number of casualties is not known and many dierent estimates exist.
On 7 July 1989 President Mikhail Gorbachev implicitly
renounced the use of force against other Soviet-bloc nations. Speaking to members of the 23-nation Council
of Europe, Mr. Gorbachev made no direct reference to
the so-called Brezhnev Doctrine, under which Moscow
has asserted the right to use force to prevent a Warsaw
Pact member from leaving the Communist fold, but stated
Any interference in domestic aairs and any attempts to
restrict the sovereignty of states friends, allies or any
others are inadmissible.[17]
Poland
Main article: History of Poland (194589) Final years
of communist rule (198090)
A wave of strikes hit Poland in April and May 1988, and
a second wave began on 15 August 1988 when a strike
broke out at the July Manifesto coal mine in JastrzbieZdrj, the workers demanding the re-legalisation of
Solidarity. Over the next few days sixteen other mines
went on strike followed by a number of shipyards, including on 22 August the Gdansk Shipyard famous as
the epicentre of the 1980 industrial unrest that spawned
Solidarity.[18] On 31 August 1988 Lech Walesa, the
leader of Solidarity, was invited to Warsaw by the Communist authorities, who had nally agreed to talks.[19] On
18 January 1989 at a stormy session of the Tenth Plenary Session of the ruling United Workers Party, General Wojciech Jaruzelski, the First Secretary, managed to
get party backing for formal negotiations with Solidarity leading to its future legalisation although this was
achieved only by threatening the resignation of the en-
tire party leadership if thwarted.[20] On 6 February 1989

formal Round Table discussions began in the Hall of
Columns in Warsaw. On 4 April 1989 the historic Round
Table Agreement was signed legalising Solidarity and setting up partly free parliamentary elections to be held on
4 June 1989 (incidentally, the day following the midnight
crackdown on Chinese protesters in Tiananmen Square).
A political earthquake followed. The victory of Solidarity
surpassed all predictions. Solidarity candidates captured
all the seats they were allowed to compete for in the Sejm,
while in the Senate they captured 99 out of the 100 available seats (with the one remaining seat taken by an independent candidate). At the same time, many prominent
Communist candidates failed to gain even the minimum
number of votes required to capture the seats that were
reserved for them.
On 15 August 1989, the Communists two longtime
coalition partners, the United Peoples Party (ZSL) and
the Democratic Party (SD), broke their alliance with
the PZPR and announced their support for Solidarity.
The last Communist Prime Minister of Poland, General
Czeslaw Kiszczak, said he would resign to allow a nonCommunist to form an administration.[21] As Solidarity
was the only other political grouping that could possibly
form a government, it was virtually assured that a Solidarity member would become prime minister. On 19
August 1989, in a stunning watershed moment, Tadeusz
Mazowiecki, an anti-Communist editor, Solidarity supporter, and devout Catholic, was nominated as Prime
Minister of Poland and the Soviet Union voiced no
protest, despite calls from hard-line Romanian dictator
Nicolae Ceauescu for the Warsaw Pact to intervene militarily to save socialism as it had in Prague in 1968.[22]
Five days later, on 24 August 1989, Polands Parliament
ended more than 40 years of one-party rule by making Mazowiecki the countrys rst non-Communist Prime
Minister since the early postwar years. In a tense Parliament, Mazowiecki received 378 votes, with 4 against
and 41 abstentions.[23] On 13 September 1989 a new non-

Communist government was approved by parliament, the
rst of its kind in the Eastern Bloc.[24] On 17 November 1989 the statue of Felix Dzerzhinsky, Polish founder
of the Cheka and symbol of Communist oppression, was
torn down in Bank Square, Warsaw.[25] On 29 December
1989 the Sejm amended the constitution to change the ofcial name of the country from the Peoples Republic of
Poland to the Republic of Poland. The communist Polish United Workers Party dissolved itself on 29 January
1990 and transformed itself into the Social Democracy
of the Republic of Poland.[26]
69
garian Peoples Party, the Endre Bajcsy-Zsilinszky Society, and the Democratic Trade Union of Scientic Workers. At a later stage the League of Free Trade Unions
and the Christian Democratic Peoples Party (KNDP)
were invited.[30] It was at the talks that a number of Hungarys future political leaders emerged, including Lszl
Slyom, Jzsef Antall, Gyrgy Szabad, Pter Tlgyessy
and Viktor Orbn.[31]
On 2 May 1989, the rst visible cracks in the Iron
Curtain appeared when Hungary began dismantling its
240-kilometre (150 mi) long border fence with Austria.[32] This increasingly destabilized the GDR and
Czechoslovakia over the summer and autumn as thousands of their citizens illegally crossed over to the West
through the Hungarian-Austrian border. On 1 June 1989
the Communist Party admitted that former Prime Minister Imre Nagy, hanged for treason for his role in the 1956
Hungarian uprising, was executed illegally after a show
trial.[33] On 16 June 1989 Nagy was given a solemn funeral on Budapests largest square in front of crowds of at
least 100,000, followed by a heros burial.[34]
In 1990, Jaruzelski resigned as Polands president and

was succeeded by Wasa, who won the 1990 presidential elections[26] held in two rounds on 25 November and 9
December. Wasas inauguration as president on 21 December 1990 is thought by many to be the formal end of
the Communist Peoples Republic of Poland and the beginning of the modern Republic of Poland. The Warsaw
Pact was dissolved on 1 July 1991. On 27 October 1991
the rst entirely free Polish parliamentary elections since
1945 took place. This completed Polands transition from
Communist Party rule to a Western-style liberal demo- The Round Table agreement of 18 September encomcratic political system. The last Russian troops left Poland passed six draft laws that covered an overhaul of the
on 18 September 1993.[26]
Constitution, establishment of a Constitutional Court, the
functioning and management of political parties, multiparty elections for National Assembly deputies, the peHungary
nal code and the law on penal procedures (the last two
changes represented an additional separation of the Party
Main article: End of Communism in Hungary (1989)
[35][36]
The electoral system
See also: Removal of Hungarys border fence and from the state apparatus).
was
a
compromise:
about
half
of
the deputies would
Pan-European Picnic
be elected proportionally and half by the majoritarian
system.[37] A weak presidency was also agreed upon, but
Following Polands lead, Hungary was next to switch no consensus was attained on who should elect the presto a non-Communist government. Although Hungary ident (parliament or the people) and when this election
had achieved some lasting economic reforms and lim- should occur (before or after parliamentary elections).
ited political liberalization during the 1980s, major re- On 7 October 1989, the Communist Party at its last
forms only occurred following the replacement of Jnos congress re-established itself as the Hungarian Socialist
Kdr as General Secretary of the Communist Party on Party.[38] In a historic session from 16 to 20 October, the
23 May 1988 with Karoly Grosz.[27] On 24 November parliament adopted legislation providing for multi-party
1988 Mikls Nmeth was appointed Prime Minister. On parliamentary elections and a direct presidential election,
12 January 1989, the Parliament adopted a democracy which took place on March 24, 1990.[39] The legislation
package, which included trade union pluralism; freedom transformed Hungary from a Peoples Republic into the
of association, assembly, and the press; a new electoral Republic of Hungary, guaranteed human and civil rights,
law; and a radical revision of the constitution, among and created an institutional structure that ensured sepaothers.[28] On 29 January 1989, contradicting the ocial ration of powers among the judicial, legislative, and exview of history held for more than 30 years, a member of ecutive branches of government.[40] The Soviet military
the ruling Politburo Imre Pozsgay declared that Hungarys occupation of Hungary, which had persisted since World
1956 rebellion is a popular uprising rather than a foreign- War II, ended on 19 June 1991.
instigated attempt at counterrevolution.[29] Mass demonstrations on 15 March, the National Day, persuaded the
regime to begin negotiations with the emergent nonEast Germany
Communist political forces. Round Table talks began
on 22 April and continued until the Round Table agreement was signed on 18 September. The talks involved Main articles: Die Wende, German reunication and
the Communists (MSzMP) and the newly emerging in- Peaceful Revolution
dependent political forces Fidesz, the Alliance of Free
Democrats (SzDSz), the Hungarian Democratic Forum On 2 May 1989, Hungary started dismantling its barbed
(MDF), the Independent Smallholders Party, the Hun- wire border with Austria, opening a large hole through
70
On 6 and 7 October, Mikhail Gorbachev visited East Germany to mark the 40th anniversary of the German Democratic Republic, and urged the East German leadership to
accept reform. A famous quote of his is rendered in German as Wer zu spt kommt, den bestraft das Leben (He
who is too late is punished by life). However, Honecker remained opposed to internal reform, with his regime even
going so far as forbidding the circulation of Soviet publications that it viewed as subversive. During the parade,
many of the Communist Youth began chanting Help us,
Gorby! Save us, Gorby!" SED ocials in the stands were
baed to see that the youth they believed were to carry
on the regime were rebelling so openly.
In spite of rumours that the Communists were planning
a massacre on 9 October 70,000 citizens demonstrated
in Leipzig that Monday. The authorities on the ground
refused to open re. This victory of the people facing
down the Communists guns encouraged more and more
citizens to take to the streets. The following Monday on
16 October 120,000 people demonstrated on the streets
of Leipzig.
Berlin Wall at the Brandenburg Gate, 10 November 1989
the Iron Curtain to the West that was used by a growing number of East Germans. By the end of September
1989, more than 30,000 East Germans had escaped to
the West before the GDR denied travel to Hungary, leaving the CSSR (Czechoslovakia) as the only neighboring
state where East Germans could escape to. Thousands of
East Germans tried to reach the West by occupying the
West German diplomatic facilities in other Central and
Eastern European capitals, notably the Prague Embassy
and the Hungarian Embassy where thousands camped in
the muddy garden from August to November waiting for
German political reform. The GDR closed the border to
the CSSR on 3 October, thereby isolating itself from all
neighbors. Having been shut o from their last chance
for escape, an increasing number of East Germans participated in the Monday demonstrations in Leipzig on 4,
11, and 18 September, each attracting 1,200 to 1,500
demonstrators; many were arrested and beaten. However,
the people refused to be intimidated. The 25 September
demonstration attracted 8,000 demonstrators.
After the fth successive Monday demonstration in
Leipzig on 2 October attracted 10,000 protesters,
Socialist Unity Party (SED) leader Erich Honecker issued a shoot and kill order to the military.[41] Communists prepared a huge police, militia, Stasi, and workcombat troop presence and there were rumors a Tiananmen Square-style massacre was being planned for the following Mondays demonstration on 9 October.[42]
Erich Honecker had hoped that the Soviets would enter

the GDR, as by the Warsaw Pact, and restore the communist government and suppress the civilian protests. By
1990 the Soviet Government deemed it impractical for
the Soviet Union to continue holding its grasp on the
Eastern Bloc, and so it took a neutral stance regarding the
events happening in East Germany. Faced with this ongoing civil unrest, the SED deposed Honecker on 18 October and replaced him with the number-two man in the
regime, Egon Krenz. However, the demonstrations kept
growing on Monday 23 October the Leipzig protesters
numbered 300,000 and remained as large the following
week. The border to Czechoslovakia was opened again
on 1 November, but the Czechoslovak authorities soon let
all East Germans travel directly to West Germany without further bureaucratic ado, thus lifting their part of the
Iron Curtain on 3 November. On 4 November the authorities decided to authorize a demonstration in Berlin
and were faced with the Alexanderplatz demonstration
where half a million citizens converged on the capital demanding freedom in the biggest protest the GDR ever
witnessed. Unable to stem the ensuing ow of refugees
to the West through Czechoslovakia, the East German
authorities eventually caved in to public pressure by allowing East German citizens to enter West Berlin and
West Germany directly, via existing border points, on
9 November 1989, without having properly briefed the
border guards. Triggered by the erratic words of regime
spokesman Gnter Schabowski in a TV press conference,
stating that the planned changes were in eect immediately, without delay, hundreds of thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity. The guards were
quickly overwhelmed by the growing crowds of people
demanding to be let out into West Berlin. After receiving no feedback from their superiors, the guards, unwilling to use force, relented and opened the gates to West

Berlin. Soon new crossing points were forced open in the
Berlin Wall by the people, and sections of the wall were
literally torn down as this symbol of oppression was overwhelmed. The bewildered guards were unaware of what
was happening, and meekly stood by as the East Germans
took to the wall with hammers and chisels.
The breech of the Berlin Wall destroyed the SED politically and also the careers of Krenz and the politburo. On November 13 GDR Prime Minister Willi Stoph
and his entire cabinet resigned. A new government was
formed under a considerably more liberal Communist,
Hans Modrow. On 1 December the Volkskammer removed the SEDs leading role from the constitution of
the GDR. On 3 December Krenz resigned as leader of
the SED; he resigned as head of state three days later. On
7 December Round Table talks opened between the SED
and other political parties. On 16 December 1989 the
SED was dissolved and refounded as the SED-PDS, abandoning Marxism-Leninism and becoming a mainstream
democratic socialist party.
On 15 January 1990 the Stasis headquarters was stormed
by protesters. Modrow became the de facto leader of
East Germany until free elections were held on 18 March
1990the rst held in that part of Germany since 1933.
The SED, renamed the Party of Democratic Socialism,
was heavily defeated. Lothar de Maizire of the East German Christian Democratic Union became Prime Minister on 4 April 1990 on a platform of speedy reunication
with the West. The two Germanies were reunied on 3
October 1990.
The Kremlins willingness to abandon such a strategically
vital ally marked a dramatic shift by the Soviet superpower and a fundamental paradigm change in international relations, which until 1989 had been dominated by
the East-West divide running through Berlin itself. The
last Russian troops left the territory of the former GDR,
now part of a reunited Federal Republic of Germany on
1 September 1994.
Czechoslovakia
Protests beneath the monument in Prague's Wenceslas Square.
Main article: Velvet Revolution
71
The Velvet Revolution was a non-violent revolution in
Czechoslovakia that saw the overthrow of the Communist
government. On 17 November 1989 (Friday), riot police
suppressed a peaceful student demonstration in Prague,
although controversy continues over whether anyone died
that night. That event sparked a series of popular demonstrations from 19 November to late December. By 20
November the number of peaceful protesters assembled
in Prague had swelled from 200,000 the previous day
to an estimated half-million. Five days later, the Letn
Square held 800,000 protesters.[43] On 24 November,
the entire Communist Party leadership, including general secretary Milo Jake, resigned. A two-hour general
strike, involving all citizens of Czechoslovakia, was successfully held on 27 November.
With the collapse of other Communist governments,
and increasing street protests, the Communist Party of
Czechoslovakia announced on 28 November 1989 that
it would relinquish power and dismantle the single-party
state. Barbed wire and other obstructions were removed
from the border with West Germany and Austria in early
December. On 10 December, President Gustv Husk
appointed the rst largely non-Communist government
in Czechoslovakia since 1948, and resigned. Alexander
Dubek was elected speaker of the federal parliament
on 28 December and Vclav Havel the President of
Czechoslovakia on 29 December 1989. In June 1990
Czechoslovakia held its rst democratic elections since
1946. On 27 June 1991 the last Soviet troops were withdrawn from Czechoslovakia.[44]
Bulgaria
In October and November 1989 demonstrations on ecological issues were staged in Soa, where demands for political reform were also voiced. The demonstrations were
suppressed, but on 10 November 1989 the day after the
Berlin Wall was breached Bulgarias long-serving leader
Todor Zhivkov was ousted by his Politburo. He was succeeded by a considerably more liberal Communist, former foreign minister Petar Mladenov. Moscow apparently approved the leadership change, as Zhivkov had
been opposed to Gorbachevs policies. The new regime
immediately repealed restrictions on free speech and assembly, which led to the rst mass demonstration on 17
November, as well as the formation of anti-communist
movements. Nine of them united as the Union of Democratic Forces (UDF) on 7 December.[45] The UDF was
not satised with Zhivkovs ouster, and demanded additional democratic reforms, most importantly the removal of the constitutionally mandated leading role of the
Bulgarian Communist Party.
Bowing to the inevitable, Mladenov announced on 11
December 1989 that the Communist Party would abandon its monopoly on power, and that multiparty elections
would be held the following year. In February 1990, the
Bulgarian legislature deleted the portion of the constitu-
72
tion about the leading role of the Communist Party.
Eventually, it was decided that a round table on the Polish model would be held in 1990 and elections held by
June 1990. The round table took place from 3 January
to 14 May 1990, at which an agreement was reached on
the transition to democracy. The Communist Party abandoned Marxism-Leninism in April 1990 and renamed itself as the Bulgarian Socialist Party. In June 1990 the rst
free elections since 1931 were held, won by the Bulgarian
Socialist Party.
Romania
Main article: Romanian Revolution
After having survived the Braov Rebellion in 1987,
en masse to the revolution.[46] Army tanks began moving towards the Central Committee building with crowds
swarming alongside them. The rioters forced open the
doors of the Central Committee building in an attempt to
capture Ceauescu and his wife, Elena, coming within a
few meters of the couple. However, they managed to escape via a helicopter waiting for them on the roof of the
building. The revolution resulted in 1,104 deaths. Unlike
its kindred parties in the Warsaw Pact, the PCR simply
melted away; no present-day Romanian party claiming to
be its successor has ever been elected to the legislature
since the change of system.
Although elation followed the ight of the Ceauescus,
uncertainty surrounded their fate. On Christmas Day,
Romanian television showed the Ceauescus facing a
hasty trial, and then undergoing summary execution. An
interim National Salvation Front Council led by Ion Iliescu took over and announced elections for April 1990
the rst free elections held in Romania since 1937. However, they were postponed until 20 May 1990.
1.7.4 Malta Summit
Revolutionaries on the streets during the Romanian Revolution of

1989
Nicolae Ceauescu was re-elected for another ve years

as leader of the Romanian Communist Party (PCR) in
November 1989, signalling that he intended to ride out
the anti-Communist uprisings sweeping the rest of Europe. As Ceauescu prepared to go on a state visit to Iran,
his Securitate ordered the arrest and exile of a local Hungarian Calvinist minister, Lszl Tks, on 16 December,
for sermons oending the regime. Tks was seized, but
only after serious rioting erupted. Timioara was the rst
city to react, on 16 December, and civil unrest continued Mikhail Gorbachev and President George Bush on board the Soviet cruise ship Maxim Gorky, Marsaxlokk Harbour.
for 5 days.
Returning from Iran, Ceauescu ordered a mass rally
in his support outside Communist Party headquarters in
Bucharest on 21 December. However, to his shock, the
crowd booed and jeered him as he spoke. Years of
repressed dissatisfaction boiled to the surface throughout the Romanian populace and even among elements
in Ceauescus own government, and the demonstrations
spread throughout the country.
At rst the security forces obeyed Ceauescus orders to
shoot protesters. However, on the morning of 22 December, the Romanian military suddenly changed sides.
This came after it was announced that defense minister Vasile Milea had committed suicide after being unmasked as a traitor. Believing Milea had actually been
murdered, the rank-and-le soldiers went over virtually
The Malta Summit consisted of a meeting between

U.S. President George H. W. Bush and U.S.S.R. leader
Mikhail Gorbachev, taking place between 23 December 1989, just a few weeks after the fall of the Berlin
Wall, a meeting which contributed to the end of the Cold
War partially as a result of the broader pro-democracy
movement. It was their second meeting following a meeting that included then President Ronald Reagan, in New
York in December 1988. News reports of the time[47] referred to the Malta Summit as the most important since
1945, when British Prime Minister Winston Churchill,
Soviet premier Joseph Stalin and U.S. President Franklin
D. Roosevelt agreed on a post-war plan for Europe at the
Yalta Conference.
1.7.5
73
Election chronology in Central and 1.7.6 Albania and Yugoslavia

Eastern Europe 19891991
Between the spring of 1989 and the spring of 1991 every Communist or former communist Central and Eastern European country, and in the case of the USSR and
Yugoslavia every constituent republic, held competitive
parliamentary elections for the rst time in many decades.
Some elections were only partly free, others fully democratic. The chronology below gives the details of these
historic elections; the date is the rst day of voting as
several elections were spilt over several days for run-o
contests:
Poland 4 June 1989
Turkmenistan 7 January 1990
Uzbekistan 18 February 1990
Lithuania 24 February 1990
Moldova- 25 February 1990
Kyrgyzstan 25 February 1990
Tajikistan 25 February 1990
Belarus 3 March 1990
Russia 4 March 1990
Ukraine 4 March 1990
East Germany 18 March 1990
Estonia 18 March 1990
Latvia 18 March 1990
Hungary 25 March 1990
Kazakhstan 25 March 1990
Slovenia 8 April 1990
Croatia 24 April 1990
Romania 20 May 1990
Armenia 20 May 1990
Czechoslovakia 8 June 1990
Bulgaria 10 June 1990
Azerbaijan 30 September 1990
Georgia 28 October 1990
Macedonia 11 November 1990
Bosnia and Herzegovina 18 November 1990
Serbia 8 December 1990
Montenegro 9 December 1990
Albania 7 April 1991
Breakup of Yugoslavia
Main articles: Breakup of Yugoslavia and Yugoslav Wars
The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not a
part of the Warsaw Pact but pursued its own version of
Communism under Josip Broz Tito. It was a multiethnic state which Tito was able to maintain through a
doctrine of "Brotherhood and unity", but tensions between ethnicities began to escalate with the so-called
Croatian Spring of 197071, a movement for greater
Croatian autonomy, which was suppressed. In 1974
there followed constitutional changes, and the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution devolved some of the federal powers
to the constituent republics and provinces. After Titos
death in 1980 ethnic tensions grew, rst in Albanianmajority SAP Kosovo with the 1981 protests in Kosovo.
In late 1980s Serbian leader Slobodan Miloevi used the
Kosovo crisis to stoke up Serb nationalism and attempt
to consolidate and dominate the country, which alienated
the other ethnic groups.
Parallel to the same process, SR Slovenia witnessed a policy of gradual liberalization since 1984, somewhat similar to the Soviet Perestroika. This provoked tensions
between the League of Communists of Slovenia on one
side, and the central Yugoslav Party and the federal army
on the other side. By the late 1980s, many civil society groups were pushing towards democratization, while
widening the space for cultural plurality. In 1987 and
1988, a series of clashes between the emerging civil society and the Communist regime culminated with the socalled Slovene Spring, a mass movement for democratic
reforms. The Committee for the Defence of Human
Rights was established as the platform of all major nonCommunist political movements. By early 1989, several anti-Communist political parties were already openly
functioning, challenging the hegemony of the Slovenian
Communists. Soon, the Slovenian Communists, pressured by their own civil society, came into conict with
the Serbian Communist leadership.
In January 1990, an extraordinary Congress of the
League of Communists of Yugoslavia was called in order
to settle the disputes among its constituent parties. Faced
with being completely outnumbered, the Slovenian and
Croatian Communists walked out of the Congress on 23
January 1990, thus eectively bringing to an end the Yugoslav Communist Party. Both parties of the two western
republics negotiated free multi-party elections with their
own opposition movements.
On 8 April 1990, the democratic and anti-Yugoslav
DEMOS coalition won the elections in Slovenia, while
on 24 April 1990 the Croatian elections witnessed the
landslide victory of the nationalist Croatian Democratic
Union (HDZ) led by Franjo Tuman. The results were
74
much more balanced in Bosnia and Herzegovina and
Macedonia in November 1990, while the parliamentary
and presidential elections of December 1990 in Serbia
and Montenegro consolidated the power of Miloevi and
his supporters. Free elections on the level of the federation were never carried out.
volts started in Shkodra and spread in other cities. Eventually, the existing regime introduced some liberalization, including measures in 1990 providing for freedom to
travel abroad. Eorts were begun to improve ties with the
outside world. March 1991 electionsthe rst free elections in Albania since 1923, and only the third free elections in the countrys historyleft the former Communists in power, but a general strike and urban opposition
led to the formation of a coalition cabinet including nonCommunists. Albanias former Communists were routed
in elections held in March 1992, amid economic collapse
and social unrest.
The Slovenian and Croatian leaderships started preparing

plans for secession from the federation, while the Serbs of
Croatia organized the so-called Log Revolution, an insurrection that would lead to the creation of the breakaway
region of SAO Krajina. In the Slovenian independence
referendum on 23 December 1990, 88.5% of residents
voted for independence.[48] In the Croatian independence
referendum, on 2 May 1991, 93.24% voted for indepen- 1.7.7
dence.
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
The escalating ethnic and national tensions were exacerbated by the drive for independence and led to the following Yugoslav wars:
War in Slovenia (1991)
Croatian War of Independence (199195)
Bosnian War (199295)
Kosovo War (199899), including the NATO
bombing of Yugoslavia.
In addition, the insurgency in the Preevo Valley (1999
2001) and the insurgency in the Republic of MaceTanks in Moscows Red Square during the 1991 coup attempt
donia (2001) are also often discussed in the same
context.[49][50][51]
Main article: Dissolution of the Soviet Union
Fall of Communism in Albania
On 1 July 1991, the Warsaw Pact was ocially dissolved

at a meeting in Prague. At a summit later that same
Main article: Fall of Communism in Albania
month, Gorbachev and Bush declared a USSoviet strateIn the Socialist Peoples Republic of Albania, Enver gic partnership, decisively marking the end of the Cold
War. President Bush declared that USSoviet cooperation during the 199091 Gulf War had laid the groundwork for a partnership in resolving bilateral and world
problems.
The Fall of Enver Hoxhas Statue in central Tirana
As the Soviet Union rapidly withdrew its forces from

Central and Southeast Europe, the spillover from the
1989 upheavals began reverberating throughout the Soviet Union itself. Agitation for self-determination led
to rst Lithuania, and then Estonia, Latvia and Armenia declaring independence. However, the Soviet central
government demanded the revocation of the declarations
and threatened military action and economic sanctions.
The government even went as far as controversially sending Red Army troops to the streets of the Lithuanian capital, Vilnius, to suppress the separatist movements in January 1991, causing the deaths of 14 people.
Hoxha, who led Albania for four decades, died on 11 Disaection in other Soviet republics, such as Georgia
April 1985. His successor, Ramiz Alia, began to gradu- and Azerbaijan, was countered by promises of greater deally open up the regime from above. In 1989, the rst re- centralization. More open elections led to the election of

candidates opposed to Communist Party rule.
75
viet institutions that hadn't been taken over by Russia had
dissolved. The Soviet Union was ocially disbanded,
breaking up into fteen constituent parts, thereby ending the worlds largest and most inuential Socialist state,
and leaving to China that position. A constitutional crisis
dissolved into violence in Moscow as the Russian Army
was called in to reestablish order.
Glasnost had inadvertently released the long-suppressed

national sentiments of all peoples within the borders of
the multinational Soviet state. These nationalist movements were further strengthened by the rapid deterioration of the Soviet economy, whose ramshackle foundations were exposed with the removal of Communist discipline. Gorbachevs reforms had failed to improve the
economy, with the old Soviet command structure completely breaking down. One by one, the constituent reEstonia, Latvia, Lithuania
publics created their own economic systems and voted to
subordinate Soviet laws to local laws. In 1990, the Communist Party was forced to surrender its seven-decade
monopoly of political power when the Supreme Soviet rescinded the clause in the Soviet Constitution that guaranteed its sole authority to rule. Gorbachevs policies caused
the Communist Party to loose its grip over the media. Details of the Soviet Unions past were quickly being declassied. This caused many to distrust the old system and
push for greater autonomy and independence.
After a referendum conrmed the preservation of the Soviet Union but in a looser form, a group of Soviet hardliners represented by Vice-President Gennadi Yanayev
launched a coup attempting to overthrow Gorbachev in
August 1991. Boris Yeltsin, then president of the Russian
SFSR, rallied the people and much of the army against
the coup and the eort collapsed. Although restored to
power, Gorbachevs authority had been irreparably undermined. In September, the Baltic states were granted
independence. Later that month, Gorbachev resigned as
leader of the Communist Party, and the Supreme Soviet
indenitely suspended all party activities on Soviet soil.
Baltic Way was a human chain of approximately two million

people dedicated to liberating the Baltic Republics from the USSR.
Main article: Singing Revolution
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania implemented democratic

reforms and achieved independence from the Soviet
Over the next three months, one republic after another
Union.
declared independence, mostly out of fear of another
coup. Also during this time, the Soviet government was The Singing Revolution is a commonly used name
rendered impotent as the new Russian government began for events between 1987 and 1991 that led to the
taking over what remained of it, including the Kremlin. restoration of the independence of Estonia, Latvia and
[52][53]
The term was coined by an Estonian
The penultimate step came on 1 December, when vot- Lithuania.
ers in the second most powerful republic, Ukraine, over- activist and artist, Heinz Valk, in an article published
whelmingly voted to secede from the Soviet Union in a a week after the 1011 June 1988 spontaneous mass
referendum. This ended any realistic chance of keep- night-singing demonstrations at the Tallinn Song Festi[54]
Lithuania declared its independence on
ing the Soviet Union together. On 8 December, Yeltsin val Grounds.
met with his counterparts from Ukraine and Belarus and 11 March 1990. On 30 March, Estonia announced the
signed the Belavezha Accords, declaring that the Soviet start of a transitional period to independence, and Latvia
Union had ceased to exist. Gorbachev denounced this as followed suit a few days later. These declarations were
illegal, but he had long since lost any ability to inuence met with force from the Soviet Union in early 1991, in
confrontations known as "The Barricades" in Latvia and
events outside of Moscow.
the January Events in Lithuania. The Baltic states conTwo weeks later, 11 of the remaining 12 republicsall
tended that their incorporation into the Soviet Union had
except Georgiasigned the Alma-Ata Protocol, which
been illegal under both international law and their own
conrmed the Soviet Union had been eectively dislaw, and they were reasserting an independence that still
solved and replaced by a new voluntary association, the
legally existed.
Commonwealth of Independent States. Bowing to the inevitable, Gorbachev resigned as Soviet president on 25 Soon after the launching of the August coup, Estonia and
December, and the Supreme Soviet ratied the Belavezha Latvia declared full independence. By the time the coup
Accords the next day, legally dissolving the Soviet Union was foiled, the USSR was no longer unied enough to
as a political entity. By the end of 1991, the few So- mount a forceful resistance, and it recognized the independence of the Baltic states on 6 September.
76
Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova
troversial, and government corruption became more rife.

After Kocharyan, notably, Serzh Sargsyan ascended to
In Belarus, a new postcommunist leader Alexander power. Sargsyan is often noted as the founder of the
Lukashenko has obtained power. After a short period he Armenian and Karabakh militaries and was, in the past,
increased his power as a result of referenda (199596) defense minister and national security minister.
and has been criticized for repressing political opposition In Azerbaijan the Azerbaijani Popular Front Party won
ever since.
rst elections with the self-described pro-Western, popMoldova Participated in the War of Transnistria between Moldova and Russian-connected forces. Communists came back to power in a 2001 election under
Vladimir Voronin, but faced civil unrest in 2009 over accusations of rigged elections.
Ukraine Ukraine declared its independence in August 1991. Presidencies of former Communists Leonid
Kravchuk and Leonid Kuchma were followed by the
Orange Revolution in 2004, in which Ukrainians elected
Viktor Yushchenko (also former member of CPSU).
Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan
ulist nationalist Elchibey. However, Elchibey planned

to end Moscows advantage in the harvesting of Azeri
oil and build much stronger links with Turkey and Europe, and as a result was overthrown by former Communists in a coup backed by Russia and Iran (which
viewed the new country as a compelling threat, with territorial ambitions within Iranian borders and also being
a strong economic rival).[55] Mutallibov rose to power,
but he was soon destabilized and eventually ousted due
to popular frustration with his perceived incompetence,
corruption and improper handling of the war with Armenia. Azerbaijani KGB and Azerbaijani SSR leader
Heydar Aliyev captured power and remained president
until he transferred the presidency to his son in 2003.
The Nagorno-Karabakh War was fought between Armenia and Azerbaijan, and has largely dened the fates of
both countries. However, unlike Armenia, which remains
a strong Russian ally, Azerbaijan has begun, since Russias 2008 war with Georgia, to foster better relations with
Turkey and other Western nations, while lessening ties
with Russia.[56]
Chechnya
Photos of the 9 April 1989 victims of the Tbilisi Massacre on a

billboard in Tbilisi.
Georgia and the North Caucasus have been marred by

ethnic and sectarian violence since the collapse of the
USSR. In April 1989 the Soviet Army massacred demonstrators in Tbilisi. By November 1989, the Georgian
SSR ocially condemned the Russian invasion in 1921
and continuing genocidal occupation. Democracy activist Zviad Gamsakhurdia served as president from 1991
to 1992. Russia aided break-away republics in wars in
South Ossetia and Abkhazia during the early 1990s, conicts that have periodically reemerged, and Russia has accused Georgia of supporting Chechen rebels during the
Chechen wars. A coup d'tat installed former Communist leader Eduard Shevardnadze as President of Georgia
until the Rose Revolution in 2003.
In Armenia, the independence struggle included violence.
The Nagorno-Karabakh War was fought between Armenia and Azerbaijan. Armenia became increasingly militarized (with the ascendancy of Kocharian, a former
president of Nagorno-Karabakh, often viewed as a milestone), while elections have since been increasingly con-
Chechen women praying in Grozny, December 1994.
In Chechnya, using tactics partly copied from the Baltics,

anti-Communist coalition forces led by former Soviet
general Dzhokhar Dudayev staged a largely bloodless
revolution, and ended up forcing the resignation of the
Communist republican president. Dudayev was elected
in a landslide in the following election and in November 1991 he proclaimed Checheno-Ingushetias independence as the Republic of Ichkeria. Ingushetia voted to
leave the union with Chechnya, and was allowed to do
so (thus it became the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria).
Due to his desire to exclude Moscow from all oil deals,

Yeltsin backed a failed coup against him in 1993. In 1994,
Chechnya, with only marginal recognition (one country:
Georgia, which was revoked soon after the coup landing
Shevardnadze in power), was invaded by Russia, spurring
the First Chechen War. The Chechens, with considerable
assistance from the populations of both former-Soviet
countries and from Sunni Muslim countries repelled this
invasion and a peace treaty was signed in 1997. However, Chechnya became increasingly anarchic, largely due
to the both political and physical destruction of the state
during the invasion, and general Shamil Basaev, having
evaded all control by the central government, conducted
raids into neighboring Dagestan, which Russia used as
pretext for reinvading Ichkeria. Ichkeria was then reincorporated into Russia as Chechnya again, though ghting continues.
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan

and Uzbekistan
77
Post-Soviet conicts
Russia was involved in a number of conicts, including
the Nagorno-Karabakh War, the War of Transnistria, the
19911992 South Ossetia War, the First Chechen War,
the War in Abkhazia (19921993), the OssetianIngush
conict, and the Crimea conict in Ukraine.
1.7.8 Other events

Communist and Socialist countries
See also: List of socialist states
Reforms in the Soviet Union and its allied countries also
saw dramatic changes to Communist and Socialist states
outside of Europe.
Africa
Angola The ruling MPLA government abandoned Marxism-Leninism in 1991 and agreed to
the Bicesse Accords in the same year, however the
Angolan Civil War between the MPLA and the conservative UNITA continued for another decade.
Benin Mathieu Krkou's regime was pressured to
abandon Marxism-Leninism in 1990.
Congo-Brazzaville Denis Sassou Nguesso's
regime was pressured to abandon MarxismLeninism in 1991. The nation had elections in
1992.
A depiction of the Jeltoqsan events on Republic Square in Almaty.
In Kazakhstan, the independence struggle began with the

Jeltoqsan uprising in 1986. Former Communist leader
Nursultan Nazarbayev has been in power since 1990
when he started serving as President of Kazakh SSR.
In Kyrgyzstan, former Communist leader Askar Akayev
retained power until the Tulip Revolution in 2005.
In Tajikistan, former Communist leader Rahmon
Nabiyev retained power, which led to the civil war in
Tajikistan. Emomalii Rahmon has succeeded Nabiyev
and has retained power since 1992.
In Turkmenistan, former Communist leader Saparmurat
Niyazov retained power until his death 2006 and has been
criticized as one of the worlds most totalitarian and repressive leaders, maintaining his own cult of personality.
In Uzbekistan, former Communist leader Islam Karimov
retained power and has been criticized for repressing the
political opposition ever since.
Ethiopia A new constitution was implemented

in 1987 and, following the withdrawal of Soviet
and Cuban assistance, the Communist military junta
Derg led by Mengistu Haile Mariam was defeated by
the rebel EPRDF in the Ethiopian Civil War and ed
in 1991.
Madagascar Socialist President Didier Ratsiraka
was ousted.
Mali Moussa Traor was ousted, Mali adopted a
new constitution and held multi-party elections.
Mozambique The Mozambican Civil War between
the socialist FRELIMO and the RENAMO conservatives was ended via treaty in 1992. FRELIMO
subsequently abandoned socialism and with the support of the U.N., held multiparty elections.
Somalia Rebelling Somalis overthrew Siad Barre's
Communist military junta during the Somali Revolution. Somalia has been in a constant state of civil
war ever since.
78
Tanzania The ruling Chama Cha Mapinduzi party
cut down its Socialist ideology and foreign donors
pressured the government to allow multiparty elections in 1995.
Middle East
Afghanistan Soviet occupation ended and the
Communist government under Mohammad Najibullah fell to the Mujahideen in 1992.
South Yemen Abandoned Marxism-Leninism in
1990; it reunied with the more capitalist North
Yemen that year, though this later led to a civil war.
Syria Syria participated in the Madrid Conference
of 1991 and met its Cold War enemy Israel in peace
negotiations.
Laos Remained Communist under the Lao Peoples Revolutionary Party. Laos was forced to ask
France and Japan for emergency assistance, and also
to ask the World Bank and the Asian Development
Bank for aid. Finally, in 1989, Kaisn visited Beijing to conrm the restoration of friendly relations,
and to secure Chinese aid.
India Indian economic reforms were launched in
1991.
Mongolia The 1990 Democratic Revolution in
Mongolia saw a gradual moved to allow free
multi-party elections and the writing of the new
constitution. The Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party retained its majority in the 1990 elections,
but lost the 1996 elections.
North Korea Kim Il-sung died in 1994, passing
power to his son Kim Jong-il. Unprecedented oods
and the dissolution of the Soviet Union led to the
North Korean famine, which resulted in the deaths
of an estimated 2.5 million to 3 million North Koreans. All references to Marxism-Leninism were replaced by Juche in 1992, thus signifying an apparent
downplaying of the role of Communism in North
Korea.
Vietnam The Communist Party of Vietnam has
undertaken Doi Moi reforms since 1986, liberalizing certain sectors of the economy in a manner similar to China. Vietnam is still a single-party Communist state.
Latin America
Sanjaasrengiin Zorig calms the crowd in Skhbaatar Square

during the 1990 Democratic Revolution in Mongolia
Asia
Burma The 8888 Uprising in 1988 saw the demise
of the Burma Socialist Programme Party, but failed
to bring democracy, although Marxism was abandoned. The country was led by a military government under the State Peace and Development Council until 2011, following 2010 elections viewed by
many Western countries as fraudulent.
Cambodia The Vietnam-supported government,
which had been in power since the fall of the
Khmer Rouge, lost power following UN-sponsored
elections in 1993.
China The Communist Party of China began implementing liberalizing economic reforms during
the late 1970s under Deng Xiaoping. However, the
pro-democracy protests of 1989 were crushed by the
military.
Cuba The end of Soviet subsidies led to the Special

Period. An unsuccessful protest was held in 1994.
Nicaragua Daniel Ortega's Sandinista lost the
multi-party elections in 1990, and the National Opposition Union won.
Other countries
Many Soviet-supported political parties and militant
groups around the world suered from demoralization
and loss of nancing.
Austria The Communist Party of Austria lost its
East German nancing and 250 million euros in assets.
Belgium The Communist Party of Belgium was
divided to two parties in 1989.
Finland The Finnish Peoples Democratic League
was dissolved in 1990 and the bankrupt Communist
Party of Finland collapsed in 1992, and absorbed to
the Left Alliance.

France The collapse of the Eastern Bloc came as
a shock to the French Communist Party. The crisis
is called la mutation.
West Germany The Red Army Faction lost its
long-term supporter, the Stasi, after the Berlin Wall
fell.[57]
Greece The Organisation of Marxist-Leninist
Communists of Greece was dissolved in 1993 and
merged into the Movement for a United Communist
Party of Greece.
Ireland The Communist Party of Ireland declined
signicantly.
Italy The collapse caused the Italian Communist
Party to reform itself, creating two new groups, the
larger Democratic Party of the Left and the smaller
Communist Refoundation Party. The disappearance of the Communist party in part led to profound
changes within the Italian political party system in
19921994.
Japan The Japanese Communist Party issued a
statement titled We welcome the end of a great historical evil of imperialism and hegemonism.
79
the central leadership. Within a few months, several of the Partys regional formations and bureaus
followed suit, permanently formalizing and deepening the schism. See a comprehensive third-party
account of the schism here: <http://pcij.org/imag/
SpecialReport/left.html>
Peru The Shining Path, responsible for killing tens
of thousands people, shrunk in the 1990s.
Sweden The Communist Association of Norrkping was dissolved in 1990 and Kommunistiska
Frbundet Marxist-Leninisterna ceased to function as nationwide party.
The pro-Albanian
Kommunistiska Partiet i Sverige and the Maoist
Communist Workers Party of Sweden were
dissolved in 1993.
The main leftist party,
Vnsterpartiet kommunisterna, VPK (Left Party
Communists), abandoned the Communist part of
its name, and became simply Vnsterpartiet (Left
Party).
Turkey The Communist Labour Party of Turkey
was split.
United Kingdom The Communist Party of Great
Britain was dissolved.
Malaysia The Malayan Communist Party laid

down its arms in 1989, ending the Communist In- Concurrently, many anti-Communist authoritarian states,
surgency War that had lasted decades.
formerly supported by the US, gradually saw a transition
Mexico The Mexican Communist Party and a to democracy.
number of other Communist parties were dissolved
in 1989 and absorbed rst into the Mexican Socialist Party and then into the Party of the Democratic
Revolution.
Netherlands The Communist Party of the Netherlands was dissolved in 1991 and absorbed to the
GreenLeft.
Norway The Communist Party of Norway
changed their pro-Soviet line.
Palestinian Territories The Palestine Liberation
Organization lost one of its most important diplomatic patrons, due to the deterioration of the Soviet Union, and Arafats failing relationship with
Moscow.
Philippines - The Communist Party of the Philippines experienced criticism and the debates that ensued between the leading party cadres resulted to
the expulsion of advocates of left and right opportunism notably forming the so-called rejectionists and rearmist factions. Those who armed
the Maoist orthodoxy was called the Rearmists,
or RA, while those who rejected the document
were called Rejectionists or RJ. In July 1993, the
Komiteng Rehiyon ng Manila-Rizal (KRMR), one
of the Rejectionists, declared its autonomy from
Brazil had the rst democratic presidential election

since 1960 due to reforms started a few years earlier.
Chile The military junta under Augusto Pinochet
was pressured to implement democratic elections,
which saw Chiles democratization in 1990.
El Salvador The Salvadoran Civil War ended in
1992 following the Chapultepec Peace Accords.
The rebel FMLN movement became a legal political party and participated in subsequent elections.
Panama The Manuel Noriega regime was overthrown by the US invasion in 1989 as a result of his
suppression of elections, drug-tracking activities
and the killing of a US serviceman.
Paraguay The dictatorship of Alfredo Stroessner
came to an end when he was deposed in a military
coup d'tat. In 1992, the countrys new constitution
established a democratic system of government.
South Korea The June Democracy Movement's
protests led to the fall of the Chun Doo-hwan government in 1987, and the countrys rst democratic
elections. In 2000, North and South Korea agreed
in principle to work towards peaceful reunication
in the future.
80
South Africa Negotiations were started in 1990

to end the Apartheid system. Nelson Mandela was
elected as the President of South Africa in 1994.
Taiwan The nationalist Kuomintang party that
had ruled under strict martial law since the end of
the Chinese Civil War introduced democratizing reforms.
Sustained Big-Bang (fastest): Estonia, Latvia,

Lithuania, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia
Advance Start/Steady Progress: Croatia, Hungary,
Slovenia
Aborted Big-Bang: Albania, Bulgaria, Macedonia,
Kyrgyzstan, Russia
Gradual Reforms: Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia,

United States Following the end of the Cold War,
Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Tajikistan, Romania
the United States became the worlds main superpower, growing even more in world inuence as a
Limited Reforms (slowest): Belarus, Uzbekistan,
result. The United States ceased to support many
Turkmenistan
of the Right-wing military regimes it had during
the Cold War, pressing for more nations to adopt
The 2004 enlargement of the European Union included
democratic policies.
the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania,
Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. The 2007 enlargement of
the European Union included Romania and Bulgaria, and
1.7.9 Political reforms
Croatia joined the EU in 2013. The same countries have
also become NATO members.
Main article: Decommunization
Chinese economic liberalization started since 1978 have
helped lift millions of people out of poverty, bringing the
Decommunization is a process of overcoming the legapoverty rate down from 53% of the population in the Mao
cies of the Communist state establishments, culture, and
era to 12% in 1981. Dengs economic reforms are still
psychology in the post-Communist states.
being followed by the CPC today and by 2001 the poverty
Decommunization was largely limited or non-existent. rate became only 6% of the population.[63]
Communist parties were not outlawed and their memEconomic liberalization in Vietnam was initiated in 1986,
bers were not brought to trial. Just a few places even
following the Chinese example.
attempted to exclude members of communist secret services from decision-making. In a number of countries the Economic liberalization in India was initiated in 1991.
Communist party simply changed its name and continued Harvard University Professor Richard B. Freeman has
to function.[58]
called the eect of reforms The Great Doubling. He
In several European countries, however, endorsing or attempting to justify crimes committed by Nazi or Communist regimes will be punishable by up to 3 years of
imprisonment.[59]
1.7.10
calculated that the size of the global workforce doubled

from 1.46 billion workers to 2.93 billion workers.[64][65]
An immediate eect was a reduced ratio of capital to labor. In the long, term China, India, and the former Soviet
bloc will save and invest and contribute to the expansion
of the world capital stock.[65]
Economic reforms
State run enterprises in socialist countries had little or no

interest in producing what customers wanted which resulted in shortages of goods and services.[60] In the early
1990s, the general view was that there was no precedent for moving from socialism to capitalism,[61] and
only some elderly individualspeople remembered how a
market economy worked. As result the view that Central, Southeastern and Eastern Europe would stay poor
for decades was common.[62]
There was a temporary fall of output in the ocial
economy and an increase in black market economic
activity.[60] Countries implemented dierent reform programs. One example, generally regarded as successful was the shock therapy Balcerowicz Plan in Poland.
Eventually the ocial economy began to grow.[60]
1.7.11 Ideological continuation of communism

Further information: Decommunization in Russia,
Putinism, Neo-Stalinism and Human rights in Russia
Compared with the eorts of the other former constituents of the Soviet bloc and the Soviet Union,
decommunization in Russia has been restricted to
half-measures, if conducted at all.[66] As of 2008,
nearly half of Russians viewed Stalin positively, and
many supported restoration of his previously dismantled monuments.[67][68] Neo-Stalinist material such as describing Stalins mass murder campaigns as entirely rational has been pushed into Russian textbooks.[69]
In a 2007 paper Oleh Havrylyshyn categorized the speed In 1992, President Yeltsins government invited Vladimir
of reforms in the Soviet Bloc:[61]
Bukovsky to serve as an expert to testify at the CPSU
81
1.7.12 Interpretations
The events caught many by surprise. Predictions of
the Soviet Unions impending demise had been often
dismissed.[72]
Bartlomiej Kaminskis book The Collapse of State Socialism argued that the state Socialist system has a lethal paradox: policy actions designed to improve performance
only accelerate its decay.[73]
By the end of 1989, revolts had spread from one capital to another, ousting the regimes imposed on Central,
South-East and Eastern Europe after World War II. Even
the isolationist Stalinist regime in Albania was unable to
stem the tide. Gorbachevs abrogation of the Brezhnev
Doctrine was perhaps the key factor that enabled the popular uprisings to succeed. Once it became evident that the
feared Red Army would not intervene to crush dissent,
the Central, South-East and Eastern European regimes
were exposed as vulnerable in the face of popular uprisings against the one-party system and power of secret police.
Five double-headed Russian coat-of-arms eagles (below) substituting the former state emblem of the Soviet Union and the
CCCP letters (above) in the facade of the Grand Kremlin Palace
after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Coit D. Blacker wrote in 1990 that the Soviet leadership

appeared to have believed that whatever loss of authority
the Soviet Union might suer in Central and South-East
Europe would be more than oset by a net increase in its
inuence in western Europe.[74] Nevertheless, it is unlikely that Gorbachev ever intended for the complete dismantling of Communism and the Warsaw Pact. Rather,
Gorbachev assumed that the Communist parties of Central and South-East Europe could be reformed in a similar way to the reforms he hoped to achieve in the CPSU.
Just as perestroika was aimed at making the Soviet Union
more ecient economically and politically, Gorbachev
believed that the Comecon and Warsaw Pact could be reformed into more eective entities. However, Alexander
Yakovlev, a close advisor to Gorbachev, would later state
that it would have been absurd to keep the system in
Central and South-East Europe. Yakovlev had come to
the conclusion that the Soviet-dominated Comecon could
not work on non-market principles and that the Warsaw
Pact had no relevance to real life.[13]
trial by Constitutional Court of Russia, where the Communists were suing Yeltsin for banning their party. The
respondents case was that the CPSU itself had been an
unconstitutional organization. To prepare for his testimony, Bukovsky requested and was granted access to a
large number of documents from Soviet archives (then reorganized into TsKhSD). Using a small handheld scanner
and a laptop computer, he managed to secretly scan many
documents (some with high security clearance), including KGB reports to the Central Committee, and smuggle
the les to the West.[70] The event that many expected
would be another Nuremberg Trial and the beginnings
of reconciliation with the Communist past, ended up in 1.7.13 Remembrance
half-measures: while the CPSU was found unconstitutional, the Communists were allowed to form new parties Organizations
in the future. Bukovsky expressed his deep disappointment with this in his writings and interviews: Having
Memorial Memorial is an international historifailed to nish o conclusively the Communist system,
cal and civil rights society that operates in a numwe are now in danger of integrating the resulting monber of post-Soviet states. It focuses on recording
ster into our world. It may not be called Communism
and publicising the Soviet Union's totalitarian asanymore, but it retained many of its dangerous characpect of the past, but also monitors human rights in
teristics... Until the Nuremberg-style tribunal passes its
post-Soviet states at the present time, for example in
judgment on all the crimes committed by Communism,
Chechnya.[75]
it is not dead and the war is not over.[71]
82
Events
German Unity Day in Germany A national holiday
commemorating the anniversary of German reunication in 1990
Statehood Day in Slovenia Commemorates the
countrys declaration of independence from Yugoslavia in 1991.
Independence and Unity Day in Slovenia Commemorates the countrys independence referendum.
Museum of Socialist Art in Bulgaria

Museum of the Occupation of Latvia
Museum of Occupations (Estonia)
Museum of Occupation (Lithuania)
Museum of Genocide Victims in Vilnius, Lithuania
Grtas Park in Lithuania
Day of National Unity in Georgia is a public holiday commemorating victims of the 9 April tragedy
Museum of Victims of Communism in Moldova
National Day in Hungary
Museum of Victims of Occupational Regimes

Prison on Lontskoho in Lviv, Ukraine
Constitution Day in Romania Commemorates the

1991 Romanian Constitution that enshrined the return to democracy after the fall of the Communist
regime.
Museum of Soviet occupation in Kiev, Ukraine
Struggle for Freedom and Democracy Day in the

Slovak Republic
Struggle for Freedom and Democracy Day in the
Czech Republic
Museum of Soviet Occupation in Tbilisi, Georgia

Dawn of Liberty in Kazakhstan A monument dedicated to Jeltoqsan
Global Museum on Communism
Restoration of Independence Day in Latvia Commemorates the 1990 declaration restoring the coun- Other
trys independence.
Places
This list is incomplete; you can help by
expanding it.
Checkpoint Charlie Museum in Berlin, Germany

DDR Museum in Berlin, Germany
Stasi Museum in the old headquarters
Gdask Shipyard in Poland
Museum of Communism, Poland
Museum of Communism, Czech Republic
Memorial to the Victims of Communism in the
Czech Republic
Lennon Wall in the Czech Republic
House of Terror in Hungary
Memento Park in Hungary
Memorial of Rebirth in Romania
Sighet Memorial Museum in the old prison in
Sighetu Marmaiei, Romania
This list is incomplete; you can help by

expanding it.
The Soviet Story An award-winning documentary

lm about the Soviet Union.
The Singing Revolution A documentary lm about
the Singing Revolution.
Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism
A book and a documentary lm based on the book
Lenins Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire
A Pulitzer Prize-awarded book
A Political Tragedy in Six Acts the biography of
dissident Vclav Havel
Right Here, Right Now (Jesus Jones song) An international hit written by Mike Edwards and performed by his rock band Jesus Jones, released in
September 1990
Wind of Change (song) A hit song by the German heavy-metal band Scorpions that celebrates
Perestroyka and the fall of communism in Central
and Eastern Europe
1.7.14
See also
Arab Spring
Atlantic Revolutions
Baltic Tiger
Breakup of Yugoslavia
Carpat Tiger
Chinese democracy movement
Civil resistance
Color revolutions
Commonwealth of Independent States
Enlargement of NATO
Enlargement of the European Union
Euromaidan
History of Solidarity
Jn arnogursk
January Events
JBTZ-trial
Jeans Revolution
Orange Revolution
Overthrow of Slobodan Miloevi
People Power Revolution
Polish Round Table Agreement
Reagan Doctrine
Revolutions of 1820
Revolutions of 1830
Revolutions of 1848
Revolutions of 191723
Rose Revolution
Yugoslav Wars
83
1.7.15 References
[1] Nedelmann, Birgitta; Sztompka, Piotr (1 January 1993).
Sociology in Europe: In Search of Identity. Walter de
Gruyter. pp. 1. ISBN 978-3-11-013845-0.
[2] Bernhard, Michael; Szlajfer, Henryk (1 November 2010).
From the Polish Underground: Selections from Krytyka,
19781993. Penn State Press. pp. 221. ISBN 0-27104427-6.
[3] Luciano, Bernadette (2008). Cinema of Silvio Soldini:
Dream, Image, Voyage. Troubador. pp. 77. ISBN 9781-906510-24-4.
[4] Grofman, Bernard (2001). Political Science as Puzzle Solving. University of Michigan Press. pp. 85. ISBN 0-47208723-1.
[5] Sadurski, Wojciech; Czarnota, Adam; Krygier, Martin
(30 July 2006). Spreading Democracy and the Rule of
Law?: The Impact of EU Enlargemente for the Rule of
Law, Democracy and Constitutionalism in Post-Communist
Legal Orders. Springer. pp. 285. ISBN 978-1-40203842-6.
[6] Antohi, Sorin; Tismneanu, Vladimir, Independence Reborn and the Demons of the Velvet Revolution, Between
Past and Future: The Revolutions of 1989 and Their Aftermath, Central European University Press, p. 85, ISBN
963-9116-71-8.
[7] Boyes, Roger (4 June 2009). World Agenda: 20 years
later, Poland can lead eastern Europe once again. The
Times (UK). Retrieved 4 June 2009.
[8] Roberts, Adam (1991), Civil Resistance in the East European and Soviet Revolutions (PDF), Albert Einstein Institution, ISBN 1-880813-04-1.
[9] Sztompka, Piotr, Preface, Society in Action: the Theory
of Social Becoming, University of Chicago Press, p. x,
ISBN 0-226-78815-6.
[10] Yugoslavia, Constitution, GR: CECL date = 1992-0427, retrieved 2013-08-12.
[11] Vvoj vybranch ukazatel ivotn rovn v esk republice v letech 1993 2008 (PDF). Praha: Odbor analz a
statistiky. Ministerstvo prce a socilnch vc R. 2009.
[12] Romania Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, Country
studies, US: Library of Congress.
[13] Steele, Jonathan (1994), Eternal Russia: Yeltsin, Gorbachev and the Mirage of Democracy, Boston: Faber.
[14] Poland:Major Political Reform Agreed, Facts on File
World News Digest, 24 March 1989. Facts on File News
Services. 6 September 2007
[15] "Market fundamentalism is unpractical, Peoples Daily
(CN: Central Committee of the Communist Party), 3
February 2012, retrieved 13 January 2013.
[16] Zhao, Dingxin (2001), The Power of Tiananmen: StateSociety Relations and the 1989 Beijing Student Movement,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p. 153, ISBN 0226-98260-2.
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[17] Markham, James M. (7 July 1989). Gorbachev spurns

the use of force in Eastern Europe. The New York Times.
[42] Fulbrook, Mary. History of Germany, 19182000: the

divided nation. p. 256.
[18] Walesa 1991, p. 151.
[43] Demonstrace na letne pred 25 lety urychlily kapitulaci

komunistu, Denik (in cz) (CZ).
[19] Walesa 1991, p. 157.

[20] Walesa 1991, p. 174.
[21] Tagliabue, John (15 August 1989). Polands premier offering to yeld to non-Communist. The New York Times.
[22] Apple Jr, R. W. (20 August 1989). A New orbit:
Polands Break Leads Europe And Communism To a
Threshold. The New York Times.
[23] Tagliabue, John (25 August 1989). Opening new era,
Poles pick leader. The New York Times.
[24] Tagliabue, John (13 September 1989). Poles Approve
Solidarity-Led Cabinet. The New York Times.
[25] Across Eastern Europe, Remembering the Curtains
Fall. Wall Street Journal. April 24, 2009.
[44] 20 Years After Soviet Soldiers Left the Czech Republic,

Russians Move In. The Wall Street Journal. June 28,
2011.
[45] History of the UDF (in Bulgarian), BG: SDS
[46] Cornel, Ban (Nov 2012). Sovereign Debt, Austerity, and
Regime Change: The Case of Nicolae Ceausescus Romania. East European Politics & Societies. p. 34. Retrieved
Feb 23, 2015.
[47] 1989: Malta Summit Ends Cold War. News (BBC). Dec
3, 1989. Retrieved Feb 23, 2015.
[48] Slovenian Referendum Brieng No. 3 (PDF), UK: Sussex.
[49] Judah 2011.
[50] Naimark & Case 2003, p. xvii.
[26] Polska. Historia, Internetowa encyklopedia PWN [PWN

Internet Encyklopedia] (in Polish), retrieved 11 July 2005.
[51] Rogel 2004, pp. 9192.
[27] Kamm, Henry (23 May 1988). Hungarian Party replace

Kadar with his premier. The New York Times.
[52] Thomson, Clare (1992). The Singing Revolution: A Political Journey through the Baltic States. London: Joseph.
ISBN 0-7181-3459-1.
[28] Hungary Eases Dissent Curbs. The New York Times. 12

January 1989.
[29] Hungary, in Turnabout, Declares 56 Rebellion a Popular
Uprising. The New York Times. 29 January 1989.
[30] Falk 2003, p. 147.
[31] Bayer, Jzsef (2003), The Process of Political System
Change in Hungary (PDF), Schriftenreihe, Budapest,
HU: Europa Institutes, p. 180.
[32] Stokes, G (1993), The Walls Came Tumbling Down,
Oxford University Press, p. 131.
[33] Hungarian Party Assails Nagys Execution. The New
York Times. 1 June 1989.
[34] Kamm, Henry (17 June 1989). Hungarian Who Led 56
Revolt Is Buried as a Hero. The New York Times.
[53] Ginkel, John (September 2002). Identity Construction

in Latvias Singing Revolution": Why inter-ethnic conict failed to occur. Nationalities Papers 30 (3): 40333.
doi:10.1080/0090599022000011697.
[54] Vogt, Henri, Between Utopia and Disillusionment, p. 26,
ISBN 1-57181-895-2.
[55] Curtis, Glenn E. (1995). Azerbaijan: A Country Study.
[56] Nagorno-Karabakh prole. BBC News. BBC. Retrieved
18 February 2015.
[57] Schmeidel, John. My Enemys Enemy: Twenty Years of
Co-operation between West Germanys Red Army Faction and the GDR Ministry for State Security. Intelligence
and National Security 8, no. 4 (October 1993): 5972.
[58] After Socialism: where hope for individual liberty lies.
Svetozar Pejovich.
[35] Heenan & Lamontagne 1999, p. 13.

[59] Is Holocaust denial against the law? Anne Frank House
[36] De Nevers 2003, p. 130.
[37] Elster, Oe & Preuss 1998, p. 66.
[60] Anders Aslund (1 December 2000). The Myth of Output

Collapse after Communism.
[38] Kamm, Henry (8 October 1989). Communist party in

Hungary votes for radical shift. The New York Times.
[61] Oleh Havrylyshyn (9 November 2007). Fifteen Years of

Transformation in the Post-Communist World (PDF).
[39] Hungary Purges Stalinism From Its Constitution. The

New York Times. 19 October 1989.
[62] The world after 1989: Walls in the mind.

Economist. 5 November 2009.
[40] Hungary legalizes opposition groups. The New York

Times. 20 October 1989.
[63] Fighting Poverty: Findings and Lessons from Chinas Success (World Bank). Retrieved 10 August 2006.
[41] Pritchard, Rosalind MO. Reconstructing education: East

German schools and universities after unication. p. 10.
[64] The Great Doubling: The Challenge of the New Global

Labor Market (PDF). Retrieved 2013-11-16.
The
[65] Richard Freeman (2008). The new global labor market (PDF). University of WisconsinMadison Institute
for Research on Poverty.
[66] Ryavec, Karl W (2003), Russian Bureaucracy: Power and
Pathology, Rowman & Littleeld, p. 13, ISBN 0-84769503-4.
[67] Pozdnyaev, Mikhail, The Glamorous Tyrant: The Cult
of Stalin Experiences a Rebirth, Novye Izvestia (RU).
[68] " 55 ",
[Kavkaz Uzel] (in Russian) (RU),
2012-10-14, retrieved 2013-08-12.
[69] Stalins mass murders were entirely rational says new
Russian textbook praising tyrant, The Daily Mail (UK),
23 April 2010.
[70] Soviet Archives, Info-Russ, JHU.
[71] Glazov, Jamie (1 July 2002), The Cold War and the War
Against Terror, Front Page.
[72] Cummins, Ian (23 December 1995). The Great MeltDown. The Australian.
[73] The Collapse of State Socialism, Foreign Aairs.
[74] Blacker, Coit D (1990), The Collapse of Soviet Power in
Europe, Foreign Aairs.
[75] Memorial website. Memo.ru. Retrieved 2013-10-01.
1.7.16
Further reading
Ash, Timothy Garton (5 November 2009). 1989!".

The New York Review of Books 56 (17).
De Nevers, Rene (2003), Comrades No More: The
Seeds of Change in Eastern Europe, MIT Press,
ISBN 0-262-54129-7.
Elster, Jon; Oe, Claus; Preuss, Ulrich K (1998),
Institutional Design in Post-communist Societies,
Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-47931-2.
85
Lvesque, Jacques (1997). The Enigma of 1989:
The USSR and the Liberation of Eastern Europe.
University of California Press. p. 275. ISBN 9780-520-20631-1.
Naimark, Norman; Case, Holly M. (2003),
Yugoslavia and Its Historians: Understanding the
Balkan Wars of the 1990s, Stanford University
Press, ISBN 0-8047-4594-3, retrieved 22 April
2012
Roberts, Adam (1991). Civil Resistance in the East
European and Soviet Revolutions. Cambridge, MA:
Albert Einstein Institution. ISBN 1-880813-04-1.
Roberts, Adam; Ash, Timothy Garton, eds. (2009).
Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the
Present. Oxford: University Press. ISBN 978-0-19955201-6. Contains chapters on the Soviet Union
(Mark Kramer), Czechoslovakia (Kieran Williams),
Poland (Alexander Smolar), Baltic States (Mark R.
Beissinger), China (Merle Goldman), and East Germany (Charles Maier).
Rogel, Carole (2004), The Breakup of Yugoslavia
and Its Aftermath, Greenwood, ISBN 0-313-323577, retrieved 22 April 2012
Sarotte, Mary Elise (2014). The Collapse: The Accidental Opening of the Berlin Wall. Basic Books.
ISBN 978-0-465-06494-6.
Sebestyen, Victor (2009). Revolution 1989: The
Fall of the Soviet Empire. Phoenix. ISBN 978-07538-2709-3.
Walesa, Lech (1991). The Struggle and the Triumph:
An Autobiography. Arcade. ISBN 1-55970-221-4.
Wilson, James Graham (2014). The Triumph of Improvisation: Gorbachevs Adaptability, Reagans Engagement, and the End of the Cold War. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-5229-5.
Falk, Barbara J (2003), The Dilemmas of Dissidence

in East-Central Europe, Central European University 1.7.17 External links
Press, ISBN 963-9241-39-3.
The History of 1989: The Fall of Communism in
Heenan, Patrick; Lamontagne, Monique (1999),
Eastern Europe, GMU.
The Central and Eastern Europe Handbook, Taylor
Syndrome of Socialism, RU: Narod. Some of aspects
& Francis, ISBN 1-57958-089-0.
of state national economy evolution in the system of
Judah, Tim (17 February 2011), Yugoslavia: 1918
the international economic order.
2003, BBC, retrieved 1 April 2012
A look at the collapse of Eastern European Com Leer, Melvyn P.; Westad, Odd Arne, eds. (2010).
munism two decades later, Dissent.
The Cambridge History of the Cold War. III. End Post-socialist countries, History of the public
ings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-83721-7.
sphere (annotated bibliography), SSRC.
86
Kloss, Oliver (2005), Revolutio ex nihilo? Zur

methodologischen Kritik des soziologischen Modells spontaner Kooperation und zur Erklrung der
Revolution von 1989 in der DDR, in Timmermann,
Heiner, Agenda DDR-Forschung. Ergebnisse, Probleme, Kontroversen, Dokumente und Schriften der
Europischen Akademie Otzenhausen 112, Muenster: LIT, pp. 36379, ISBN 3-8258-6909-1 +
Ergnzender Anhang A F.
Video of the revolutions in 1989
Revolutions footage on YouTube
The realization of the democratic project required that the

leftist opposition restrain its own most radical elements
from provocation, and that the army refrain from intervening in the political process on behalf of Francoist elements within the existing government.
King Juan Carlos began his reign as head of state without
leaving the connes of Francos legal system. As such,
he swore delity to the Principles of the Movimiento Nacional, the sole legal party of the Franco era; took possession of the crown before the Francoist Cortes Generales;
and respected the Ley Orgnica del Estado (Organic Law
of the State) for the appointment of his rst head of government. Only in his speech before the Cortes did he indicate his support for a transformation of the Spanish political system.
1.8 Spanish transition to democ1.8.2 First government of Adolfo Surez

racy
(July 1976 - June 1977)
The Spanish transition to democracy (Spanish: Transicin espaola a la democracia), or simply the Transition (Spanish: La Transicin) refers to the restoration of
democracy in Spain after the death of Francisco Franco
in 1975. The transition began shortly after Francos death
on 20 November 1975, while its completion has been
variously said to be marked by the Spanish Constitution
of 1978, the failure of an attempted coup on 23 February 1981, or the electoral victory of the Spanish Socialist
Workers Party (PSOE) on 28 October 1982. Though
faced with political and economic crises[1] at the time,
the transition to democracy was one of the factors that allowed Spain to join the European Economic Community
and NATO.
1.8.1
Political role of Juan Carlos I
Francisco Franco came to power in 1939 following the

Spanish Civil War and ruled as a dictator until his death in
1975. In 1969, he designated Prince Juan Carlos, grandson of Spains former king, Alfonso XIII, as his ocial
successor. For the next six years, Prince Juan Carlos initially remained in the background during public appearances and seemed ready to follow in Francos footsteps.
Once in power as King of Spain, however, he facilitated
the development of a constitutional monarchy as his father, Don Juan de Borbn, had advocated since 1946.
The transition was an ambitious plan that counted on ample support both within and outside of Spain. Western
governments, headed by the United States, now favored
a Spanish constitutional monarchy, as did many Spanish
and international liberal capitalists.
Nevertheless, the transition proved challenging, as the
spectre of the Civil War (19361939) still haunted Spain.
Francoists on the far right enjoyed considerable support
within the Spanish Army, and people of the left distrusted
a king who owed his position to Franco.
Adolfo Surez in 1981.
Torcuato Fernndez-Miranda, the president of the Council of the Kingdom, obtained Adolfo Surez's placement
on the new list of three candidates for King Juan Carlos to choose to become the new head of government.
The king chose Surez because he felt he could meet the
challenge of the dicult political process that lay ahead:
persuading the Cortes (Spanish parliament), which was
composed of installed Francoist politicians, to disman-
1.8. SPANISH TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY

tle Francos system. In this manner he would formally
act within the Francoist legal system and thus avoid the
prospect of military intervention in the political process.
Surez was appointed as the 138th Prime Minister of
Spain by Juan Carlos on 3 July 1976, a move opposed
by leftists and some centrists given his Francoist history.
As Prime Minister, Surez quickly presented a clear political program based on two points:
The development of a Law for Political Reform that,
once approved by the Cortes and Spanish public in a
referendum, would open the constituent process for
creating a liberal democracy in Spain.
A call for democratic elections in June 1977 to elect
a Cortes charged with drawing up a new democratic
constitution.
87
who had not participated at the beginning of the transition? Surez also had to deal with another delicate issue:
coming to terms with the anti-Francoist opposition.
Relations of the Surez government with the opposition
Surez adopted a series of measured policies to add credibility to his project. In July 1976 he issued a partial political amnesty, freeing 400 prisoners. He extended this
in March 1977, and nally granted a blanket amnesty in
May of the same year. In December 1976 the Tribunal
de Orden Pblico (TOP), a sort of Francoist secret police, was dissolved. In March 1977, the right to strike
was legalized, with the right to unionize being granted
the following month. Also in March a new electoral law
(Ley Electoral) introduced the necessary framework for
Spains electoral system to be brought into accord with
those of other countries that were liberal parliamentary
democracies.
This program was clear and unequivocal, but its realization tested the political capacity of Surez. He had to
convince both the opposition to participate in his plan
and the army to allow the process to run uninterrupted, Through these and other measures of government, Surez
and at the same time needed to bring the situation in the complied with the conditions that the opposition groups
rst demanded in 1974. These opposition forces met in
Basque Country under control.
November 1976 to create a platform of democratic orgaDespite these challenges, Surezs project was carried out nizations.
without delay between July 1976 and June 1977. In this
short period of time Surez had to act on many fronts to Surez had initiated political contact with the opposition
by meeting with Felipe Gonzlez, secretary general of
achieve his aims.
the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE), in August
1976. The positive attitude of the socialist leader gave
further support for Surez to carry forward his political
The Law for Political Reform
project, but everyone clearly perceived that the big probThe draft of the Law for Political Reform (Ley para lem for the political normalization of the country would
la Reforma Poltica) was written by Fernndez-Miranda, be the legalization of the Communist Party of Spain (Parspeaker of the Cortes, who handed it over to the Surez tido Comunista de Espaa, PCE), which had, at the time,
government in July 1976. The project was approved more activists and was more organized than any other
by the Suarez Government in September 1976.[2] To group in the political opposition. However, in a meeting
open the door to parliamentary democracy in Spain, this between Surez and the most important military leaders
legislation could not simply create a new political sys- in September, the ocers strongly declared opposition to
tem by eliminating the obstacles put in place by the the legalization of the PCE.
Franco regime against democracy: it had to liquidate
The PCE, for its part, acted ever more publicly to express
the Francoist system through the Francoist Cortes itself. its opinions. According to the Communists, the Law for
Throughout the month of November the Cortes, under
Political Reform was anti-democratic, and, moreover, the
the able presidency of Fernndez Miranda, debated this elections for the Constituent Cortes should be called by a
law, which it ultimately approved with 425 votes in favor, provisional government that formed part of the political
59 against, and 13 abstentions.
forces of the opposition. The opposition did not show any
The Surez government sought to gain further legitimacy
for the changes through a popular referendum. On 15
December 1976, with a 77.72% participation rate, 94%
of voters indicated their support for the changes. From
this moment, it was possible to begin the electoral process
(the second part of the Surez program), which would
serve to elect the deputies of the Constituent Cortes, the
body that was to be responsible for creating a democratic
constitution.
enthusiasm for the Law for Political Reform. Surez had

to risk even more to involve the opposition forces in his
plan.
In December 1976, the PSOE celebrated its 27th

Congress in Madrid, and began to disassociate itself from
the demands of the PCE, arming that it would participate in the next call for elections for the Constituent
Cortes. At the beginning of 1977, the year of the elections, Surez decided to confront the problem of legalWith this part of his plan fullled, Surez had to resolve izing the PCE. After the public indignation aroused by
a crucial issue: should he include the opposition groups the Massacre of Atocha in January 1977 against trade-
88
unionists and Communists, Surez decided to talk with
PCE secretary general Santiago Carrillo in February.
Carrillos willingness to cooperate without prior demands
and his oer of a social pact for the period after the
elections pushed Surez to take the riskiest step of the
transition: the legalization of the PCE in April 1977.
However, throughout this critical period the government
began a strategy of providing greater institutional space
to the Unin General de Trabajadores (UGT) Socialist union in comparison to the then Communist-oriented
CCOO. The manner in which a unied trade union was
strategically countered is an important feature of the
Spanish transition as it limited radical opposition and created the basis for a fractured industrial relations system.
Relations of the Surez government with the Spanish

army
Adolfo Surez knew well that the "Bnker"a group of
hard-line Francoists led by Jos Antonio Girn and Blas
Piar, using the newspapers El Alczar and Arriba as
their mouthpieces had close contacts with ocials in
the army and exercised inuence over important sectors
of the military. These forces could constitute an insurmountable obstacle if they brought about military intervention against political reform.
Resurgence of terrorist activity
Main article: Neofascist terrorism in Spain
The Basque Country remained, for the better part of this
period, in a state of political turbulence. Surez granted a
multi-stage amnesty for numerous Basque political prisoners, but the confrontations continued between local police and protesters. ETA, which in the middle of 1976
seemed open to a limited truce after Francos death, resumed armed confrontation again in October. 1978
1980 would be ETAs three deadliest years ever.[3] But
it was between December 1976 and January 1977 when
a series of attacks brought about a situation of high tension in Spain.
The Maoist GRAPO (Grupos de Resistencia Antifascista
Primero de Octubre) began its armed struggle by bombing
public locations, and then continued with the kidnapping
of two important gures of the regime: the President of
the Council of the State Jos Mara de Oriol, and General
Villaescusa, President of the Superior Council of the Military Justice. From the right, during these kidnappings,
members of the neo-fascist Alianza Apostlica Anticomunista murdered six members of the PCE, ve of them labor lawyers, in an oce on Atocha Street in Madrid in
January 1977.
In the midst of these provocations, Surez convened his

rst meeting with a signicant number of opposition
leaders, who published a condemnation of terrorism and
gave their support to Surezs actions. During this turbulent time, the Bnker capitalized on the instability and
To resolve the issue, Surez intended to support himself
declared that the country was on the brink of chaos.
with a liberal group within the military, centered on General Dez Alegra. Surez decided to give the members Despite the increased violence by the ETA and GRAPO,
of this group the positions of authority with the most re- elections for the Constituent Cortes were carried out in
sponsibility. The most notable personality of this faction June 1977.
within the army was General Manuel Gutirrez Mellado.
But in July 1976, the Vice President for Defense Aairs
was General Fernando de Santiago, a member of a hard- 1.8.3 First elections and the draft of the
Constitution
line group within the army. De Santiago had shown his
restlessness before, during the rst amnesty in July 1976.
He had opposed the law granting the right to unionize. The elections that were held on June 15, 1977, conrmed
Surez dismissed Fernando de Santiago and nominated the existence of four important political forces at the nainstead Gutirrez Mellado. This confrontation with Gen- tional level. The votes broke down in the following maneral de Santiago caused a large part of the army to oppose ner:
Surez, opposition that further intensied when the PCE
Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD, Unin de
was legalized.
Centro Democrtico): 34.61%
Meanwhile, Gutirrez Mellado promoted ocials who
supported political reform and removed those comman Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE, Partido
ders of security forces (Polica Armada and the Guardia
Socialista Obrero Espaol): 29.27%
Civil) who seemed to support preserving the Francoist
Communist Party of Spain (PCE, Partido Comunista
regime.
de Espaa): 9.38%
Surez wanted to demonstrate to the army that the polit Popular Alliance (AP, Alianza Popular): 8.33%[4]
ical normalization of the country meant neither anarchy
nor revolution. In this, he counted on the cooperation of
Santiago Carrillo, but he could in no way count on the With the success of the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV,
Partido Nacionalista Vasco) and the Democratic Pact for
cooperation of terrorist groups.
1.8. SPANISH TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY
89
transition to democracy and lacked a further clear agenda.
Many UCD members were fairly conservative and did not
want further change. For example, a bill to legalize divorce caused much dissension inside the UCD, in spite of
being supported by the majority of the populace . The
UCD coalition fell apart.
The clashes among the several factions inside the party
eroded Surezs authority and his role as leader. The tension exploded in 1981: Surez resigned as the head of
government, and Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo was appointed,
rst to lead the new cabinet and later to the presidency
of the UCD; social democrats led by Francisco Fernndez Ordez defected from the coalition, later joining
the PSOE, while Christian democrats left to form the
Peoples Democratic Party.
Political posters in an exhibition celebrating 20 years of the Spanish Constitution of 1978.
While the democratic normalization had succeeded in

convincing ETA (pm), the political-military faction of
ETA, to abandon arms and enter parliamentary politics,
Catalonia (PDC, Pacte Democrtic per Catalunya) in their it did not stop the continuation of terrorist attacks by
respective regions, nationalist parties also began to show ETA (m) (ETA Military"; later simply ETA), and, to
a lesser extent, by GRAPO. Meanwhile, restlessness in
their political strength in these elections.
various sections of the armed forces created fear of an
impending military coup. The attempted coup known as
23-F, in which Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Tejero led an
occupation by a group of Guardia Civil of the Congress of
Deputies on the afternoon of 23 February 1981 failed, but
demonstrated the existence of insurrectionary elements
within the army.
1.8.5 The PSOE in government
More political posters in the same exhibition.
Calvo Sotelo dissolved parliament and called elections

for October 1982. In the 1979 election the UCD had
achieved a plurality, but in 1982 it suered a spectacular defeat. The elections gave an absolute majority to the
PSOE, which had already spent many years preparing its
image of an alternative government.
The Constituent Cortes (elected Spanish parliament) began to draft a constitution in the middle of 1977. In 1978
the Moncloa Pact was passed: an agreement amongst
politicians, political parties, and trade unions to plan
how to operate the economy during the transition.[5] The
Spanish Constitution of 1978 went on to be approved in
a referendum on December 6, 1978.
At the 28th Congress of the PSOE (May 1979),

secretary-general Felipe Gonzlez resigned rather than
ally with the strong revolutionary elements that seemed
to dominate the party. A special congress was called that
September, and realigned the party along more moderate
lines, renouncing Marxism and allowing Gonzlez to take
charge once more.
1.8.4
Throughout 1982, the PSOE conrmed its moderate orientation and brought in the social democrats who had just
broken from the UCD.
Governments of the UCD
The UCD received a plurality, but not an absolute majority, in both the June 1977 and March 1979 elections.
To exercise power, the UCD had to form parliamentary
coalitions with other political parties.
The government spent much of its time from 1979 working to hold together the many factions within the party
itself, as well as their coalitions. In 1980, the Surez government had for the most part accomplished its goals of
Winning an absolute majority in parliament in two consecutive elections (1982 and 1986), and exactly half the
seats in 1989, allowed the PSOE to legislate and govern
without establishing pacts with the other parliamentary
political forces. In this way, the PSOE could make laws
to achieve the goals of its political program, "el cambio"
(the change). At the same time, the PSOE led many
local and regional administrations. This comfortable po-
90
litical majority allowed the PSOE to give the country a 1.8.9 External links
long period of tranquility and stability, after the intense
LOC Country Studies-Spain Post-Franco Era
years of the transition.
1.8.6
See also
1977 Massacre of Atocha

Greece transition to democracy (Metapolitefsi)
Chilean transition to democracy
Portuguese transition to democracy
Spanish 1977 Amnesty Law
Spanish society after the democratic transition
Voices of the Transition - A Political History of

Spain, 1975-1982
Spain: Dictatorship to Democracy and After, 1975
2007
The economy during the transition
1.9 Portuguese
democracy
transition
to
Turno pacico
Portugal's experience with democracy before the

Carnation Revolution of 1974 had not been particularly
successful. Its First Republic lasted only sixteen years,
1.8.7 References
from 1910 to 1926. Under the republic, parliamentary
[1] AFTER FRANCO'S DEATH, SPAIN RETURNED TO institutions worked poorly and were soon discredited.
TURMOIL by Serge Schmemann, The New York Times, Political corruption and economic mismanagement were
February 24, 1981
widespread. The 28 May 1926 coup d'tat ended the
[2] Historia de un Cambio. Ayuntamiento de Drcal. First Republic and ushered in rst the Ditadura Nacional
and then the "Estado Novo" (New State) period.
Archived from the original on 28 September 2007.
[3] Acciones Terroristas: Vctimas Policiales de ETA. La
Guardia Civil.
[4] Appendix A: Table 2. Selected Election Results for the
Congress of Deputies, 1977-86. Country Studies: Spain.
Library of Congress.
1.9.1 Background: the Salazar-Caetano

era
Main article: Estado Novo (Portugal)
[5] Gonzalo Garland study case Spain: from Transition to modern times http://openmultimedia.ie.edu/
OpenProducts/caso_espana_i/caso_espana_i/pdf/pdf_
casoespana.pdf
The republic was replaced by a military dictatorship that

promised order, authority, and discipline. The military
regime abolished political parties, took steps against the
small but vocal Marxist groups, and did away with republican institutions. In 1928 it invited University of Coim1.8.8 Bibliography
bra professor Antnio de Oliveira Salazar to serve as min Josep M. Colomer. Game Theory and the Transition ister of nance. In 1932 he became Prime Minister. That
to Democracy. The Spanish Model, Edward Elgar, year marked the beginning of his regime, the New State
(Estado Novo).
1995.
Under Salazar (193268), Portugal became, at least formally, a corporative state. The new constitution of 1933
embodied the corporatist theory, under which government was to be formed of economic entities organized
according to their function, rather than by individual repRichard Gunther ed. Politics, Society, and Democ- resentation. Employers were to form one group, labor
racy: The Case of Spain. Boulder, Co.: Westview. another, and they and other groups were to deal with one
Paul Preston. The Triumph of Democracy in Spain. another through their representative organizations.
London: Routledge, 2001.
In reality, however, Salazar headed an autocratic dictatorJavier Tusell. Spain: From Dictatorship to Democ- ship with the help of an ecient secret police - the PIDE.
Strict censorship was introduced, the politically suspect
racy. London: Blackwell, 2007.
were monitored, and the regimes opponents were jailed,
Historia de un Cambio (in Spanish). Retrieved on sent into exile, and occasionally killed.
August 24, 2006.
Portugal drifted and oundered under this repressive
Gonzalo Garland. Spain: from Transition to modern regime for several decades. Economic conditions imtimes, Instituto de Empresa, 2010.
proved slightly in the 1950s, when Salazar instituted the
Daniele Conversi. 'The smooth transition: Spains

1978 Constitution and the nationalities question',
National Identities, vol. 4, no 3, November 2002,
pp. 223244
1.9. PORTUGUESE TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY
91
rst of two ve-year economic plans. These plans stimu- be commissioned at the same rank as military academy
lated some growth, and living standards began to rise.
graduates. Caetanos Portuguese Government had begun the program (which included several other reforms)
in order to increase the number of ocials employed
1960s and the Colonial War
against the African insurgencies, and at the same time cut
down military costs to alleviate an already overburdened
The 1960s, however, were crisis years for Portugal.
government budget.
Guerrilla movements emerged in the Portuguese African
overseas territories of Angola, Mozambique and Guinea
that aimed at liberating those territories from the last 1.9.2 Spnola and revolution
colonial empire. Fighting three guerrilla movements for
more than a decade proved to be enormously draining for A key catalytic event in the process toward revolution
a small, poor country in terms of labour and nancial re- was the publication in 1973 General Antnio de Spnola's
sources. At the same time, social changes brought about book, Portugal and the Future, which criticized the conby urbanization, emigration, the growth of the working duct of the war and oered a far-ranging program for
class, and the emergence of a sizeable middle class put Portugals recovery. The generals work sent shock waves
new pressures on the political system to liberalize. In- through the political establishment in Lisbon. As the
stead, Salazar increased repression, and the regime be- rst major and public challenge to the regime by a highcame even more rigid and ossied.
ranking gure from within the system, Spnolas experience in the African campaigns gave his opinions added
weight. The book was widely seena correct assessment
as it turned outas the opening salvo in Spnolas ambiWhen Salazar was incapacitated in an accident in 1968, tious campaign to become president.
the Council of State, a high-level advisory body created by the constitution of 1933, chose Marcello Cae1974 coup
tano (196874) to succeed him. Caetano, though a
Salazar protg, tried to modernize and liberalize the old
On April 25, 1974, a group of younger ocers belongSalazar system. He was opposed, however, by a group
ing to an underground organization, the Armed Forces
widely referred to as the bunker, the old Salazarists.
Movement (Movimento das Foras Armadas MFA),
These included the countrys president, Admiral Amrico
overthrew the Caetano regime, and Spnola emerged as
Toms, the senior ocers of the armed forces, and the
at least the titular head of the new government. The coup
heads of some of the countrys largest nancial groups.
succeeded in hours with virtually no bloodshed. Caetano
The bunker was powerful enough that any fundamental
and other high-ranking ocials of the old regime were
change would certainly have led to Caetanos immediate
arrested and exiled, many to Brazil. The military seized
overthrow.
control of all important installations.
As Caetano promised reform but fell into indecision, the
Spnola regarded the militarys action as a simple military
sense began to grow among all groupsthe armed forces,
coup d'tat aimed at reorganizing the political structure
the opposition and liberals within the regimethat only a
with himself as the head, a renovao (renovation) in his
revolution could produce the changes that Portugal sorely
words. Within days, however, it became clear that the
needed. Contributing to this feeling were a number of
coup had released long pent-up frustrations when thougrowing tensions on the political and social scene.
sands, and then tens of thousands of Portuguese poured
into the streets celebrating the downfall of the regime and
demanding further change. The coercive apparatus of
Economic pressure
the dictatorshipsecret police, Republican Guard, oThe continuing economic drain caused by the military cial party, censorshipwas overwhelmed and abolished.
campaigns in Africa was exacerbated by the rst great oil Workers began taking over shops from owners, peasants
shock of 1973. Politically, the desire for democracy, or seized private lands, low-level employees took over hosat least a greater opening up of the political system, was pitals from doctors and administrators, and government
increasing. Social tensions mounted, as well, because of oces were occupied by workers who sacked the old
the slow pace of change and the absence of opportunities management and demanded a thorough housecleaning.
for advancement.
Very early on, the demonstrations began to be manipSalazar incapacitated
The decisive ingredient in these tensions was dissension within the military itself, long a bulwark of the
regime. Younger military academy graduates resented a
program introduced by Caetano whereby militia ocers
who completed a brief training program and had served
in the overseas territories defensive campaigns, could
ulated by organized political elements, principally the

PCP and other groups farther to the left. Radical labor and peasant leaders emerged from the underground
where they had been operating for many years. Mrio
Soares, the leader of the Socialist Party of Portugal (Partido Socialista PS) and lvaro Cunhal, head of the
92
Portuguese Communist Party (Partido Comunista Por- of the PS, PCP, and PPD.
tugus PCP) returned from exile to Portugal within In the next year, Portuguese politics moved steadily leftdays of the revolt and received heroes welcomes.
ward. The PCP was highly successful in placing its memWho actually ruled Portugal during this revolutionary pe- bers in many national and local political and administrariod was not always clear, and various bodies vied for tive oces, and it was consolidating its hold on the coundominance. Spnola became the rst interim president trys labor unions. The MFA came ever more under the
of the new regime in May 1974, and he chose the rst control of its radical wing, and some of its members came
of six provisional governments that were to govern the under the inuence of the PCP. In addition, smaller, more
country until two years later when the rst constitutional radical left-wing groups joined with the PCP in staging
government was formed. Headed by a prime minister, huge demonstrations that brought about the increasing
the moderate civilian Adelino da Palma Carlos, the gov- adoption of leftist policies, including nationalizations of
ernment consisted of the moderate Peoples Democratic private companies.
Party (Partido Popular Democrtico PPD), the PS, the An attempted coup by Spnola in early March 1975 failed,
PCP, ve independents, and one military ocer.
and he ed the country. In response to this attack from the
Beneath this formal structure, several other groups
wielded considerable power. In the rst weeks of the
revolution, a key group was the National Salvation Junta
(Junta de Salvao Nacional), composed entirely of highranking, politically moderate military ocers. Working
alongside it was a seven-member coordinating committee made up of politically radical junior ocers who had
managed the coup. By the end of May 1974, these two
bodies worked together with other members in the Council of State, the nations highest governing body.
right, radical elements of the military abolished the Junta

of National Salvation and formed the Council of the Revolution as the countrys most powerful governing body.
The council was made responsible to a 240-member radical military parliament, the Assembly of the Armed
Forces. A fourth provisional government was formed,
more radical than its predecessor, and was headed by
Gonalves, with eight military ocers and members of
the PS, PCP, PPD, and Portuguese Democratic Movement (Movimento Democrtico Portugus MDP), a
Gradually, however, the MFA emerged as the most pow- party close to the PCP.
erful single group in Portugal as it overruled Spnola in The new government began a wave of nationalizations of
several major decisions. Members of the MFA formed banks and large businesses. Because the banks were often
the Continental Operations Command (Comando Opera- holding companies, the government came after a time to
cional do Continente COPCON) composed of 5,000 own almost all the countrys newspapers, insurance comelite troops with Major (later Brigadier General) Otelo panies, hotels, construction companies and many other
Saraiva de Carvalho as its commander. Known univer- kinds of businesses, so that its share of the countrys gross
sally by his unusual rst name Otelo, Carvalho had di- national product amounted to 70%.
rected the April 25 coup. Because the regular police
withdrew from the public sector during the time of revolutionary turmoil and the military was somewhat divided, 1.9.3 The transition to civilian rule
COPCON became the most important force for order in
the country and was rmly under the control of radical
Elections were held on April 25, 1975, for the Constituent
left-wing ocers.
Assembly to draft a constitution. The PS won nearly
Spnola formed a second provisional government in mid- 38% the vote, while the PPD took 26.4%. The PCP,
July with army Colonel (later General) Vasco Gonalves which opposed the elections because its leadership exas prime minister and eight military ocers along with pected to do poorly, won less than 13% of the vote. A
members of the PS, PCP, and PPD. Spnola chose democratic right-wing party, the Democratic and Social
Gonalves because he was a moderate, but he was to Centre (Partido do Centro Democrtico e Social CDS),
move increasingly to the left as he headed four provisional came in fourth with less than 8%. Despite the fact that the
governments between July 1974 and September 1975. elections took place in a period of revolutionary ferment,
Spnolas position further weakened when he was obliged most Portuguese voted for middle-class parties committo consent to the independence of Portugals African ted to pluralistic democracy.
colonies, rather than achieving the federal solution he had
Many Portuguese regarded the elections as a sign that
outlined in his book. Guinea-Bissau gained independence
democracy was being eectively established. In addition,
in early September, and talks were underway on the libmost members of the military welcomed the beginning of
eration of the other colonies. Spnola attempted to seize
a transition to civilian democracy. Some elements of the
full power in late September but was blocked by COPMFA, however, had opposed the elections, agreeing to
CON and resigned from oce. His replacement was the
them only after working out an agreement with political
moderate General Francisco da Costa Gomes. Gonalves
parties that the MFAs policies would be carried out reformed a third provisional government with heavy MFA
gardless of election results.
membership, nine military ocers in all, and members
Following the elections came the hot summer of 1975
1.9. PORTUGUESE TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY
93
when the revolution made itself felt in the countryside.

Landless agricultural laborers in the south seized the
large farms on which they worked. Many estates in the
Alentejo were conscatedover 10,000 square kilometres in alland transformed into collective farms. In
the north, where most farms were small and owned by
those who worked them, such actions did not occur. The
norths small farmers, conservative property-owners, violently repulsed the attempts of radical elements and the
PCP to collectivize their land. Some farmers formed
right-wing organizations in defense of private landownership, a reversal of the regions early welcoming of the
revolution.
Evolving political stability did not reect the country as

a whole, which was on the verge of anarchy. Even the
command structure of the military broke down. Political
parties to the right of the PCP became more condent
and increasingly fought for order, as did many in the military. The granting of independence to Mozambique in
September 1975, and to Angola in November meant that
the colonial wars were ended. The attainment of peace,
the main aim of the military during all these months of
political upheaval, was thus achieved, and the military
could begin the transition to civilian rule. The polling
results of the April 1975 constituent assembly elections
legitimized the popular support given to the parties that
Other revolutionary actions were met with hostility, as could manage and welcome this transition.
well. In mid-July, the PS and the PPD withdrew from the A coup by reactionary military units in November 1975,
fourth provisional government to protest antidemocratic events which are referred to as the 25 de Novembro,
actions by radical military and leftist political forces. marked the decline of leftist inuence in Portugal. On
The PS newspaper Repblica had been closed by radi- November 25, under the pretense of a left-wing takeover
cal workers, causing a storm of protest both domestically of a radio station, Colonel Antnio dos Santos Ramalho
and abroad. The PS and other democratic parties were Eanes declared a state of emergency and sent loyal comalso faced with a potentially lethal threat to the new free- mandos to seize the city of Lisbon. Revolutionary units
dom posed by the PCPs open contempt for parliamentary within Lisbon were quickly surrounded and forced to surdemocracy and its dominance in Portugals main trade render; about 200 leftists were arrested, and COPCON
union, Intersindical, or as it came to be known in 1977, was abolished. The peoples ability to institute revoluthe General Confederation of the Portuguese Workers tionary goals had diminished without the support of the
National Intersindical (Confederao Geral dos Trabal- military, and people returned to their jobs and daily rouhadores Portugueses Intersindical Nacional (CGTP- tines after eighteen months of political and social turmoil.
IN)).
A degree of compromise among competing political viThe United States and many West European countries expressed considerable alarm at the prospect of a MarxistLeninist takeover in a NATO country. United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger told PS leader Soares that
he would probably be the "Alexander Kerensky of Portugal. The result of these concerns was an inux of foreign
nancial aid into Portugal to shore up groups committed
to pluralist parliamentary democracy.
By the time of the hot summer of 1975, several currents could be seen within the MFA. A moderate group,
the Group of Nine, issued a manifesto in August that
advocated nonaligned socialism along the lines of Scandinavian social democracy. Another group published a
manifesto that criticized both the Group of Nine and
those who had drawn close to the PCP and singled out
Prime Minister Gonalves for his links to the communists. These dierences of opinion signaled the end of
the fth provisional government, in power only a month,
under Gonalves in early September. Gonalves was subsequently expelled from the Council of the Revolution as
this body became more moderate. The sixth provisional
government was formed, headed by Admiral Jos Baptista Pinheiro de Azevedo; it included the leader of the
Group of Nine and members of the PS, the PPD, and
PCP. This government, which was to remain in power
until July 1976, when the rst constitutional government
was formed, was pledged to adhere to the policies advocated by MFA moderates.
sions of how the new state should be organized was

reached, and the countrys new Constitution was proclaimed on April 2, 1976, paving the way to the termination of the provisional governments and of the Ongoing Revolutionary Process. Several weeks later, on April
25, elections for the new Parliament, the Assembly of the
Republic, were held.
These elections could be said to be the denitive end
of a period of revolution. Moderate democratic parties
received most of the vote. Revolutionary achievements
were not discarded, however. The constitution pledged
the country to realize socialism. Furthermore, the constitution declared the extensive nationalizations and land
seizures of 1975 irreversible. The military supported
these commitments through a pact with the main political parties that guaranteed its guardian rights over the
new democracy for four more years.
1.9.4 Consolidation of democracy

After the adoption of the countrys new Constitution in
1976, the rst elections for the new parliament, the Assembly of the Republic, were won by the PS. It took
36.7% of the vote, compared with the 25.2% for the
PPD, 16.7% for the CDS, and 15.2% for the PCP. Elections for the presidency were held in June and won easily by General Antnio Ramalho Eanes, who enjoyed the
backing of parties to the right of the communists, the PS,
94
the PPD, and the CDS.
someone other than Eanes in the presidential elections of

Although the PS did not have a majority in the Assem- December 1980.
bly of the Republic, Eanes allowed it to form the rst Portuguese voters approved of the movement to the right,
constitutional government with Soares as prime minis- and in the parliamentary elections the AD coalition inter. It governed from July 23, 1976, to January 30, 1978. creased the number of its seats to 134, while the PS held
A second government, formed from a coalition with the steady at 74 seats and the PCP lost 6 seats for a total of 41.
CDS, lasted from January to August 1978 and was also The ADs win was not complete, however, because Presiled by Soares. The PS governments faced enormous eco- dent Eanes was easily reelected in December. In contrast
nomic and social problems such as runaway ination, high to the election of 1976, when Eanes was supported by the
unemployment, falling wages, and an enormous inux PS and parties to its right, he was backed in 1980 by the
of Portuguese settlers from Africa. Failure to x the PS, the PCP, and other left-wing parties. Voters admired
economy, even after adopting a painful austerity program Eanes for his integrity and obvious devotion to democimposed by the International Monetary Fund, ultimately racy. His election, however, made constitutional change
forced the PS to relinquish power. However, the PS could less certain because the AD did not have by itself the rebe seen as having been successful in that it governed Por- quired two-thirds majority. The AD also suered a seritugal democratically for two years and helped thereby to ous loss when its dynamic leader, S Carneiro, died in a
consolidate the new political system. After the collapse plane crash just two days before the presidential election.
of the PS-CDS coalition government in July 1978, Pres- His successor was Francisco Pinto Balsemo, the founder
ident Eanes formed a number of caretaker governments and editor of the Expresso newspaper.
in the hope that they would rule until the parliamentary The AD coalition remained in power until mid-1983,
elections mandated by the constitution could be held in forming two governments with Balsemo as prime minis1980. There were, therefore, three short-lived govern- ter. In combination with the PS, which also desired funments appointed by President Eanes. These were led by damental changes in the political system, the AD was able
Prime Minister Alfredo Nobre da Costa from August 28, to revise the constitution. Amendments were passed that
to November 21, 1978; Carlos Mota Pinto from Novem- enhanced the power of the prime minister and the Asber 21, 1978, to July 31, 1979; and Maria de Lourdes sembly of the Republic at the expense of the President.
Pintasilgo (Portugals rst woman prime minister) from The role of the military in the running of the country was
July 31, 1979, to January 3, 1980.
ended with the abolition of the Council of the Revolution.
The weakness of these governments and the failure of the
PS and the PPD, now renamed the Social Democrat Party
(Partido Social Democrata PSD), to form a coalition
government forced President Eanes to call for interim
elections to be held in December 1979. Francisco S
Carneiro, the dynamic leader of the PSD and a erce personal rival of Soares, put together a coalition of his own
PSD along with the CDS, the Popular Monarchist Party
(Partido Popular Monrquico PPM), and another
small party to form the Democratic Alliance (Aliana
Democrtica AD). The AD downplayed its intentions
to revise the constitution to reverse the nationalizations
and land seizures of the mid-1970s and advocated a moderate economic policy. The coalition won 45.2% of the
vote in the elections, or 128 seats, for a majority of 3 in
the 250-seat assembly. The PS, which had also formed
an electoral coalition with several small left-wing groups,
suered a drubbing and won only 27.4%, a large drop
compared with 1976 results. The PCP, in coalition with
another left-wing party, gained slightly.
Francisco S Carneiro became prime minister in January
1980, and the tenor of parliamentary politics moved to
the right as the government attempted to undo some of
the revolutions radical reforms. The powers conferred on
the presidency by the constitution of 1976 enabled President Eanes to block the ADs centrist economic policies.
For this reason, the AD concentrated on winning enough
seats in the October 1980 elections to reach a two-thirds
majority to eect constitutional change and on electing
The Constitutional reform was promulgated in September 1982. The Council of the Revolution was replaced
with two consultative bodies, linked to the oce of the
President. One of these, the Higher Council of National
Defense, was limited to commenting on military matters.
The other, the Council of State, was broadly representative of the entire country and did not have the power to
prevent government and parliamentary actions by declaring them unconstitutional. The constitutional reform also
created a Constitutional Court to review the constitutionality of legislation. Because ten of its thirteen judges were
chosen by the Assembly of the Republic, it was under parliamentary control. Another important change reduced
the presidents power by restricting presidential ability to
dismiss the government, dissolve parliament, or veto legislation. Also, the ideological tone of the Constitution
was toned down, and several references to the goal of establishing a socialist order were softened or eliminated.
Although the AD government had achieved its main objective of amending the constitution, the countrys economic problems worsened, and the coalition gradually
lost popular support. Balsemo also tired of the constant
political skirmishing needed to hold the AD together and
resigned in December 1982. Unable to choose a successor, the AD broke apart. Parliamentary elections in April
1983 gave the PS a stunning victory that increased its parliamentary seats to 101. After long negotiations, the PS
joined with the PSD to form a governing coalition, the
Central Block (Bloco Central), with Soares as prime min-
1.10. VELVET REVOLUTION

ister.
The Central Bloc government was fragile from its beginning and lasted only two years. Faced with serious and
worsening economic problems, the government had to
adopt an unpopular austerity policy. Administrative and
personality diculties made relations within the government tense and resulted in bitter parliamentary maneuvers. Overshadowing these diculties was the upcoming
presidential election in early 1986. Soares made clear
his ambition to succeed Eanes, who, according to the
constitution, was not allowed to seek a third consecutive
term. A split within the PSD over its presidential candidate ended the coalition government in June 1985.
95
in 1986 enlivened the countrys economy and began to
bring an unaccustomed prosperity to Portuguese wage
earners. Condent therefore that his party could win
in parliamentary elections, Cavaco Silva maneuvered his
political opponents into passing a vote of censure against
his government in April 1987. Instead of asking for a new
government composed of a variety of parties on the left,
President Soares called for elections in July.
Cavaco Silva had judged the political situation correctly.
The PSD won just over 50% of the vote, which gave it an
absolute majority in the parliament, the rst single-party
majority since the restoration of democracy in 1974. The
strong mandate would enable Cavaco Silva to put forward a more clearly dened program and perhaps govern
more eectively than his predecessors. The emergence
of a single-party government supported by a parliamentary majority was for many observers the coming of age
of Portuguese democracy.
In new assembly elections held in October 1985, the PS,

blamed by the public for the countrys severe economic
problems, such as a 10% fall in wages since 1983, suffered serious losses and lost almost half its seats in the
Assembly of the Republic. The PCPs electoral coalition lost six seats; the PSD won thirteen more seats because of new leadership; and the CDS lost almost a third
1.9.5 See also
of its seats. The big winner was a party formed by supporters of President Eanes, the Democratic Renovation
Spanish transition to democracy - which occurred
Party (Partido Renovador Democrtico PRD), which,
along a similar time period
although only months old, won nearly 18% of the vote and
forty-ve seats. The partys victory stemmed from the
Metapolitefsi
high regard Portuguese voters had for President Eanes.
No party emerged from the October 1985 elections with

1.9.6 References
anything even close to an absolute majority. Hence, the
198587 period was unstable politically. The new head
This article incorporates public domain material
of the PSD, economist Anbal Cavaco Silva, as prime
from websites or documents of the Library of
minister headed a minority PSD government that manCongress Country Studies.
aged to survive for only seventeen months. Its success
was attributed partly to support from the PRD, which as
a young party wished to establish itself, although it was a
motion of censure presented by this party in the spring 1.10 Velvet Revolution
of 1987 that eventually brought the government down.
Cavaco Silva also beneted from the internal dissension
of other parties.
The presidential election of 1986 did not yield a winner in
the rst round. The candidate of the CDS and the PSD,
Diogo Freitas do Amaral, won 46.3% of the vote compared with 25.4% for Mrio Soares. Diogo Freitas do
Amaral, the candidate of a united right, proted from the
lefts mounting of three candidates. In the two-candidate
runo election in mid-February, Soares won with 51.3%
of the vote, getting the support of most left-wing voters.
The PCP supported him as the lesser of two evils, even
though Soares repeatedly reminded voters that he, perhaps more than anyone else, had prevented the commuVclav Havel honoring the deaths of those who took part in the
nists from coming to power in the mid-1970s.
Cavaco Silva came to have full control of his party, the
PSD. As prime minister, he governed boldly and pushed,
through his inuence in the parliament, for a liberalization of the economy. He was fortunate in that external economic trends and the infusion of funds from the
European Community after Portugal became a member
Prague protest.
The Velvet Revolution (Czech: sametov revoluce)

or Gentle Revolution (Slovak: nen revolcia) was
a non-violent transition of power in what was then
Czechoslovakia. The period of upheaval and transition
took place from November 17 to December 29, 1989.
96
came the ambassador to the United States.[4] The term
was used internationally to describe the revolution, although the Czechs also used the term internally. After
the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, Slovakia used
the term Gentle Revolution, the term that Slovaks used for
the revolution from the beginning. The Czech Republic
continues to refer to the event as the Velvet Revolution.
1.10.1 Prior to the revolution
Non-violent protesters face armed policemen, holding grenades

and automatic weapons
Popular demonstrations against the one-party government of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia combined students and older dissidents. The end result was
the end of 41 years of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia,
and the subsequent conversion to a parliamentary republic.[1]
On November 17, 1989 (International Students Day),
riot police suppressed a student demonstration in
Prague.[2] That event sparked a series of demonstrations
from November 19 to late December. By November
20, the number of protesters assembled in Prague had
grown from 200,000 the previous day to an estimated
500,000. A two-hour general strike involving all citizens of Czechoslovakia was held on November 27. On
November 24, the entire top leadership of the Communist
Party, including General Secretary Milo Jake, resigned.
In response to the collapse of other Warsaw Pact governments and the increasing street protests, the Communist
Party of Czechoslovakia announced on November 28 that
it would relinquish power and dismantle the single-party
state. Two days later, the legislature formally deleted
the sections of the Constitution giving the Communists a
monopoly of power. Barbed wire and other obstructions
were removed from the border with West Germany and
Austria in early December. On December 10, President
Gustv Husk appointed the rst largely non-communist
government in Czechoslovakia since 1948, and resigned.
Alexander Dubek was elected speaker of the federal parliament on December 28 and Vclav Havel the President
of Czechoslovakia on December 29, 1989.
The Communist Party began its rule on February 25,

1948. No ocial opposition parties operated thereafter.
Dissidents (notably Charter 77) published home-made
periodicals (samizdat), but they faced persecution by the
secret police. Thus, the general public did not openly
support the dissidents for fear of dismissal from work
or school. A writer or lmmaker could have his/her
books or lms banned for a negative attitude towards
the socialist regime. This blacklisting included children
of former entrepreneurs or non-Communist politicians,
having family members living in the West, having supported Alexander Dubek during the Prague Spring, opposing Soviet military occupation, promoting religion,
boycotting (rigged) parliamentary elections or signing
Charter 77 or associating with those who did. These rules
were easy to enforce, as all schools, media and businesses
belonged to the state. They were under direct supervision
and often were used as accusatory weapons against rivals.
The nature of blacklisting changed gradually after the introduction of Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of Glasnost
(openness) and Perestroika (restructuring) in 1985. The
Czechoslovak Communist leadership verbally supported
Perestroika, but made few changes. Speaking about
the Prague Spring of 1968 was taboo. The rst antigovernment demonstrations occurred in 1988 (the Candle
Demonstration, for example) and 1989, but these were
dispersed and participants were repressed by the police.
By the late 1980s, discontent with living standards and
economic inadequacy gave way to popular support for
economic reform. Citizens began to challenge the system
more openly. By 1989, citizens who had been complacent were willing to openly express their discontent with
the regime. Numerous important gures as well as common workers signed petitions in support of Vclav Havel
during his 1989 imprisonment. Reform-minded attitudes
were also reected by the many individuals who signed a
petition that circulated in the summer of 1989 calling for
the end of censorship and the beginning of drastic political reform.[5]
The immediate impetus for the revolution came from

developments in neighbouring countries and in the
Czechoslovak capital. Since August, East German citiIn June 1990, Czechoslovakia held its rst democratic zens had occupied the West German Embassy in Prague
elections since 1946.
and demanded exile to West Germany. In the days folThe term Velvet Revolution was coined by Rita Kl- lowing November 3, thousands of East Germans left
mov, the dissidents English translator[3] who later be- Prague by train to West Germany. On November 9, the

Berlin Wall fell, removing the need for the detour.
By November 16, many of Czechoslovakias neighbours
were beginning to shed authoritarian rule. The citizens
of Czechoslovakia watched these events on TV through
both foreign and domestic signals. The Soviet Union also
supported a change in the ruling elite of Czechoslovakia,
although it did not anticipate the overthrow of the Communist regime.
1.10.2
Chronology
November 16
97
and express their opinions. By 16:00, about 15,000 people had joined the demonstration. They walked (per the
strategy of founders of STUHA movement, Ji Dienstbier and imon Pnek) to Karel Hynek Mcha's grave
at Vyehrad Cemetery and after the ocial end of
the march continue into downtown Prague,[7] carrying
banners and chanting anti-Communist slogans. At about
19:30, the demonstrators were stopped by a cordon of riot
police at Nrodn Street. They had blocked all escape
routes and attack the students. Once all the protesters
dispersed, one of the participants secret police agent
Ludvk Zifk is lying on the street. Zifk did not
pretend to be dead, he had been overcome by emotion.
Policemen carried his motionless body to an ambulance.
The atmosphere of fear and hopelessness gave birth to the
hoax about the dead student. This hoax was made up by
Drahomra Drask, while she awaited treatment later after she was hurt during the riot. Drask worked at the
college and shared her hoax with several people next day,
including the wife of journalist Petr Uhl, the correspondent of Radio Free Europe. This incident mobilised the
people and triggered the revolution. That same evening,
students and theatre actors agree to go on strike.
On the eve of International Students Day (the 50th anniversary death of Jan Opletal, a Czech student who was
killed by the Nazis), Slovak high school and university
students organized a peaceful demonstration in the center of Bratislava. The Communist Party of Slovakia had
expected trouble, and the mere fact that the demonstration was organised was viewed as a problem by the Party.
Armed forces were put on alert before the demonstration.
In the end, however, the students moved through the city
peacefully and sent a delegation to the Slovak Ministry of
Education to discuss their demands.
November 18
Two students visited Prime Minister Ladislav Adamec

at his private residence and described to him what had
happened on Nrodn Street. The strike at the Realistic
Theatre was declared and other theatres quickly followed.
The theatres opened their stages only for public discussions. At the initiative of students from the Academy of
Performing Arts in Prague, the students in Prague went
on strike. This strike was joined by university students
throughout Czechoslovakia. Theatre employees and actors in Prague supported the strike. Instead of going
on stage, actors read a proclamation by the students and
artists to the audience, that called for a general strike on
November 27. Home-made posters and proclamations
were posted. As all media (radio, TV, newspapers) were
strictly controlled by the Communist Party (see Mass media in Communist Czechoslovakia), this was the only way
to spread the message. In the evening, Radio Free EuMemorial of the student demonstrations of November 17, in rope reported that a student (named as Martin md) was
killed by the police during the previous days demonstraPrague
tion. Although the report was false, it heightened the feelcitizens to overNew movements led by Vclav Havel surfaced, invok- ing of crisis, and persuaded some hesitant
[6]
come
their
fear
and
join
the
protests.
ing the idea of a united society where the state would
politically restructure.[6] The Socialist Union of Youth
(SSM/SZM, proxy of Communist Party of Czechoslo- November 19
vakia) organized a mass demonstration to commemorate
International Students Day and the ftieth anniversary of Theatres in Bratislava, Brno, Ostrava and other towns
the murder of students by the Nazi government.[6]
went on strike. Members of artistic and literary assoNovember 17
Most members of SSM had privately been in opposition to the Communist leadership, but had been afraid
of speaking up for fear of persecution. This demonstration gave average students an opportunity to join others
ciations as well as organizations and institutions joined

the strike. Members of a civic initiative met with the
Prime Minister, who tells them that he had twice been
prohibited from resigning his post and that change re-
98
St. Wenceslas Monument
Memorial of the Velvet revolution in Bratislava (Nmestie SNP)
students demands. However, he is outvoted in a special cabinet meeting the same day. The government, in
an ocial statement, makes no concessions. Civic Forum adds a demand: the abolition of the ruling position
of the Communist Party from the Constitution. NonCommunist newspapers publish information that contradicts the Communist interpretation. The rst mass
demonstration in Prague (100,000 people) and the rst
demonstrations in Bratislava occur.
quires mass demonstrations like those in East Germany

(some 250,000 students). He asks them to keep the number of casualties during the expected changes to a minimum. About 500 Slovak artists, scientists and leaders
met at the Art Forum (Umeleck beseda) in Bratislava at
17:00. They denounced the attack against the students in
Prague on November 17 and form the Public Against Violence, which would become the leading force behind the November 21
opposition movement in Slovakia. Its founding members
included Milan Kako, Jn Budaj and others.
Actors and members of the audience in a Prague theatre,
together with Vclav Havel and other prominent members of Charter 77 and other dissident organizations, established the Civic Forum (Obansk frum an equivalent of the Slovak Public Against Violence for the territory of the Czech Republic) as a mass popular movement
for reforms, at 22:00. They called for the dismissal of top
ocials responsible for the violence, and an independent
investigation of the incident and the release of all political
prisoners. College students went on strike. On television,
government ocials called for peace and a return to the
citys normal business. On television, an interview with
Martin md is broadcast to persuade the public that nobody had been killed; the quality of the recording is low
and rumors continue. It would take several more days
to conrm that nobody had been killed and, by then, the
revolution had gained further momentum.
The leaders of the Democratic Initiative presented several demands: 1) the resignation of the government, effective November 25; 2) the formation of a temporary
government composed of noncompromised members of
the current government.[8]
November 20
Students and theatres go on permanent strike. Police
stop a demonstration from continuing toward Prague Castle, which would have inltrated the striking theatres.[6]
Civic Forum representatives negotiate unocially with
Adamec without Havel. Adamec is sympathetic to the
People on the Wenceslas Square in Prague
The rst ocial meeting of the Civic Forum with the

Prime Minister takes place. The Prime Minister agrees
to personally guarantee that no violence would be used
against the people; however he would protect socialism,
about which no discussion is possible.[6] An organized
mass demonstration takes place in Wenceslas Square in
central Prague (demonstrations recur there throughout
the following days). Actors and students travel to factories inside and outside Prague to gain support for their
colleagues in other cities.
A mass demonstration erupts in Hviezdoslav Square in
downtown Bratislava (in the following days, it moves to
the Square of the Slovak National Uprising). The students present demands and ask the people to participate in the general strike planned for Monday, November 27. A separate demonstration demands the release
of the political prisoner Jn arnogursk (later Prime
99
November 22
Civic Forum announces a two-hour general strike for
Monday November 27. The rst live reports from the
demonstration in Wenceslas Square appear on Federal
Television (and are quickly cut o, after one of the participants denounced the present government in favor of
Alexander Dubek). Striking students force the representatives of the Slovak government and of the Communist
Party of Slovakia to participate in a dialogue, in which
the ocial representatives are immediately put on the defensive. Employees of the Slovak section of the Federal
Television require the leaders of the Federal Television to
provide true information on the events in the country; otherwise they would initiate a strike of TV employees. Uncensored live reports from demonstrations in Bratislava
begin.
November 23
A statue of Saint Adalbert of Prague with a streamer and banners
Minister of Slovakia) in front of the Palace of Justice. Alexander Dubek addresses this demonstration
his rst appearance during the Velvet Revolution. As a
result, arnogursk is released on November 23. Further
demonstrations follow in all major cities of Czechoslovakia.
Cardinal Frantiek Tomek, the Catholic primate of the
Bohemian lands, declares his support for the students and
issues a declaration criticizing the current governments
policies. For the rst time during the Velvet Revolution,
the radical demand to abolish the article of the Constitution establishing the leading role of the Communist Party is expressed by ubomr Feldek at a meeting
of Public Against Violence.
Evening news shows factory workers heckling Miroslav

tpn, the Prague Communist Secretary. The military
inform the Communist leadership of its readiness to act
(ultimately, it was never used against demonstrators). The
military and the Ministry of Defense were preparing for
actions against the opposition. Immediately after the
meeting, however, the Minister of Defense delivers a TV
address, in which he says that the army would never undertake action against the people and calls for an end to
demonstrations.
November 24
The entire Presidium, including General Secretary Milo
Jake, resigns. Karel Urbnek, a more moderate Communist, is named General Secretary. Federal Television
shows pictures from November 17 for the rst time and
presents the rst television address of Vclav Havel, dealing mostly with the planned general strike.[9] Czechoslovak TV and Radio announce that they will join the general strike. A discussion with representatives of the opposition is broadcast by the Slovak section of Federal
Television.[10] Opposition is represented by Jn Budaj,
Fedor Gl and Vladimr Ondru. Communists are represented by tefan Chudoba (director of Bratislava automotive company), Peter Weiss (secretary of the Institute
of Marx-Leninism of the Communist party of Slovakia)
and the director of Steelworks Kosice. It was the rst free
discussion on Czechoslovak television since its beginning.
As a result, the editorial sta of Slovak newspapers start
to join the opposition.
In the evening, Milo Jake, the chairman of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, gives a special address on
Federal Television. He says that order must be preserved,
that socialism is the only alternative for Czechoslovakia
and criticizes protest groups. Government ocials, especially the Head of the Communist Party Milo Jake, keep
their hard-line position. During the night, they had summoned 4,000 members of the "Peoples Militias" (Lidov November 25
milice, a paramilitary organization subordinated directly
to the Communist Party) to Prague to crush the protests, The new Communist leadership holds a press conference. It includes Miroslav tpn, while excluding
but call them o.
100
disrupt the political order and thereby establish itself as
the legitimate voice of the nation in negotiations with the
state.[6] The civic movements mobilize support for the
general strike.[8]
November 29
The Federal Assembly deletes the provision in the constitution referring to the leading role of the Communist
Party, ocially ending Communist rule in Czechoslovakia.
November 25, people ow from the Prague cathedral (where

ended a mass in honour of canonization of Agnes of Bohemia)
and from the metro station Hradansk to Letn Plain.
December 10
President Gustv Husk swears in the rst government in

41 years that is not dominated by the Communist Party.
Ladislav Adamec and does not address demonstrators
He resigns shortly afterward.
demands. Later that day, tpn resigns as Prague Secretary. The number of participants in the regular antigovernment demonstration in Prague-Letn reach an es- 1.10.3 Aftermath
timated 800,000 people. Demonstrations in Bratislava
peak at around 100,000 participants.
November 26
Prime Minister Adamec met with Havel for the rst time.
The editorial sta of Slovakias Pravda, the central newspaper of the Communist Party of Slovakia, join the opposition.
November 27
To the general secretary a general strike!!!" An appeal with

portrait of Milo Jake who abdicated on November 24
A successful two-hour general strike led by the civic

movements strengthens what were at rst a set of moderate demands into cries for a new government.[8] It took
place throughout the country between 12:00 and 14:00,
supported by a reported 75% of the population. The Ministry of Culture releases anti-Communist literature for
public checkouts in libraries, eectively ending decades
of censorship. Civic Forum demonstrates its capacity to
21st Anniversary of the Velvet Revolution - Fmr President Vclav

Havel (right, with owers) at the Memorial at Nrodn Street in
Prague
The victory of the revolution was topped o by the election of rebel playwright and human rights activist Vclav
Havel as President of Czechoslovakia on December 29,
1989. Free elections held in June 1990 legitimized this
government and set the stage for addressing the remnants
of the Communist partys power and the legacy of the
Communist period. The main threat to political stability
and the success of Czechoslovakias shift to democracy
appeared likely to come from ethnic conicts between

the Czechs and the Slovaks, which resurfaced in the postCommunist period.[11] However, there was a general consensus to move toward a market economy, so in early
1990, the President and his top economic advisors decided to liberalize prices, push de-monopolization and
privatize the economy. The outcome of the transition to
democracy and a market economy would depend on the
extent to which developments outside the country facilitated or hindered the process of change.[12]
1.10.4
Open questions
Conspiracy theorists tried to portray the revolution as a

plot by the StB, KGB, reformists among party members
or Mikhail Gorbachev. According to these theories, the
Communist Party only transformed its power into other,
less visible forms and still controls society. Belief in such
theories has decreased, but well-known individuals such
as KGB defector Anatoliy Golitsyn and Czech dissident
(and former friend of Havel) Petr Cibulka still contend
that the 1989 Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia was
staged by the Communist StB secret police.
The most contentious points were:
It is not clear to what extent events were spontaneous
or orchestrated by the secret police. For example, the incident with the dead student was staged
by secret police provocateur Ludvk Zifk and assisted by other secret agents (those who took him to
the hospital and initially disseminated the rumor).
Zifk is currently a chairman of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, a non-parliamentary
group aiming to restore a Communist regime, with
popular support below 1%, and rejects all inquiries
relating to his role in the revolution.
101
1.10.5 External factors

The events of November 1989 conrmed that outside factors were signicant catalysts for the downfall of Communism in Czechoslovakia. Therefore, the transformations in Poland and Hungary and the collapse of the
regime in East Germany, both of which could be traced
to the new attitude of the Soviets toward East Europe,
encouraged Czechs and Slovaks to take to the streets to
win their freedom. However, national factors, including
the economic and political crisis and the actions of groups
and individuals working towards a transformation, destabilized support for the system.[12]
1.10.6 Pace of change

The states reaction to the strikes demonstrated that while
global isolation produced pressures for political, social,
and economic change, the events that followed could not
be predetermined. Hardly anyone thought that the state
could collapse so quickly. Striking students and theaters
did not seem likely to intimidate a state that was able to
repress any sort of demonstration. This popular phase
of the revolution, was followed by victories made possible by the Civic Forums successful mobilization for the
general strike on November 27, which established its legitimacy to speak for the nation in negotiations with the
state.[6] The mass demonstrations that followed November 17 led to the resignation of the Party leadership of
Milos Jakes, the removal of the Party from its leading
role and the creation of the non-Communist government.
Supporters of the revolution had to take instant responsibility for running the government, in addition to establishing essential reforms in political organization and values,
economic structure and policies and foreign policy.[14]
The Army and Peoples Militia were ready to attack

the demonstrators, but did not receive orders to do 1.10.7 Jingled keys
so.
Secret police carried out surveillance on the leaders One element of the demonstrations of the Velvet Revoluof the revolution and had the ability to arrest them. tion was the jingling of keys to signify support. The praca double meaningit symbolized the unlocking
However, they did not do so and let the revolution tice had [15][16]
and was the demonstrators way of telling
of
doors
proceed.
the Communists, Goodbye, its time to go home.[3]
A Soviet military advisor was present in the conA commemorative 2 Euro coin was issued by Slovakia
trol center of the police force, which attacked the
on November 17, 2009, to mark the twentieth anniverdemonstrators on November 17. Supposedly, he did
sary. The coin depicts a bell with a key adjoining
not intervene, but his role is unclear.
the clapper.[17] Ursula K. Le Guin wrote a short story,
Unlocking the Air, in which the jingling of keys played
The character and consequences of the events were par- a central role in the liberation of a ctional country called
tially addressed by Miroslav Dolejsi in his Analysa 17 of Orsinia.
17 November 1989 outlined the broader context.[13]
Explanations include a possible split between dierent factions of the Communist leadership (namely, re- 1.10.8 See also
form Communists anxious to replace those afraid of any
Civic Forum and Public Against Violence (political
change), the collapse of communism elsewhere and the
movements that played major role in the revolution)
absence of the military power of the Soviet Union.
102
Civil resistance
Dissolution of Czechoslovakia (peaceful dissolution
of Czechoslovakia few years later)
[15] Havel at Columbia:

The Velvet Revolution.
Havel.columbia.edu. Retrieved 2013-01-19.
Eastern Bloc emigration and defection

Orange Revolution
[16] Today, at exactly noon in Prague, people ooded into

the streets around Wenceslas Square, the central shopping
thoroughfare, rattling key chains and tinkling tiny bells.
The jingling of keys, acts symbolizing the opening of hitherto locked doors, has become a common gesture in the
wave of demonstrations.... On Jungmanova Square, Mr.
Havel himself stood beaming broadly on the balcony of a
building.... He lustily jingled a bunch of keys. John Tagliabue, Upheaval in the East; From All Czechoslovakia, a
Joyful Noise, The New York Times, Dec. 12, 1989.
People Power Revolution

Revolutions of 1989
Rose Revolution
1.10.9
References
[1] RPs History Online - Velvet

Archiv.radio.cz. Retrieved 2013-01-19.
[14] Wolchik, Sharon L. Czechoslovakias Velvet Revolution. 1990. Current History. 89:413-416,435-437. Retrieved March 11, 2009 (h)
Revolution.
[2] Velvet Revolution in Prague Czechoslovakia. Praguelife.com. Retrieved 2013-11-24.

[3] Sebetsyen, Victor (2009). Revolution 1989: The Fall of
the Soviet Empire. New York City: Pantheon Books.
ISBN 0-375-42532-2.
[4] Nelson, Lars-Erik. New Czechoslovakian Leaders Are As
Stunned As Their People. New York Daily News, 199002-21.
[17] Slovakia 2009 2 Euro Comm.- New image. Ibiblio.org.

Notes
Kukral, Michael Andrew. Prague 1989: Theater of
Revolution. New York: Columbia University Press.
1997. ISBN 0-88033-369-3.
[5] Wolchik, Sharon L. Czechoslovakias Velvet Revolution. 1990. Current History. 89:413-416,435-437. Retrieved March 11, 2009
Glenn, John K. Competing Challengers and Contested Outcomes to State Breakdown: The Velvet
Revolution in Czechoslovakia. September 1999.
Social Forces. 78:187-211. Retrieved March 11,
2009.
[6] Glenn, John K. Competing Challengers and Contested

Outcomes to State Breakdown: The Velvet Revolution
in Czechoslovakia. September 1999. Social Forces.
78:187-211. Retrieved March 11, 2009.
Holy, Ladislav (1996). The Little Czech and The

Great Czech Nation: National identity and the postcommunist transformation of society. Cambridge,
Great Britain: Cambride University Press.
[7] Sametov revoluce - trasa demonstrace: TOTALITA.

Totalita.cz. Retrieved 2013-11-24.
Shepherd, Robin H.E. (2000). Czechoslovakia The

Velvet Revolution and Beyond. New York, NY: St.
Martins Press, Inc..
[8] Shepherd, Robin H.E. (2000). Czechoslovakia The Velvet Revolution and Beyond. New York, NY: St. Martins
Press, Inc.
[9] Prv vysielanie zberov zo 17.
novembra 1989
on YouTube Federal Television showed pictures from
November 17 for the rst time transmitted one week later
on Nov 24.
[10] Stanislav Hber: Ako vzniklo prv tdio dialg How
the rst Studio Dialogue was created, Slovak v exile,
17.11.2004
[11] Holy, Ladislav (1996). The Little Czech and The Great
Czech Nation: National identity and the post-communist
transformation of society. Cambridge, Great Britain:
Cambride University Press.
[12] Wolchik, Sharon L. Czechoslovakias Velvet Revolution. 1990. Current History. 89:413-416,435-437. Retrieved March 11, 2009.
[13] Dolejsi Analysis-1. Jrnyquist.com. Retrieved 2013-1124.
Wolchik, Sharon L. Czechoslovakias Velvet Revolution. 1990. Current History. 89:413-416,435437. Retrieved March 11, 2009.

Kukral, Michael Andrew. Prague 1989: Theater of
Revolution. New York: Columbia University Press.
1997. ISBN 0-88033-369-3.
Timothy Garton Ash, We the People: The Revolution
of 89, Witnessed in Warsaw, Budapest, Berlin and
Prague (Cambridge, 1990).
Marek Benda, Martin Benda, Martin Klma, Pavel
Dobrovsk, Monika Pajerov, and imon Pnek,
Studenti psali revoluci (Students wrote the revolution
-in Czech). Prague: Univerzum, 1990. ISBN 8085207-02-8.
1.11. CHILEAN TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY

Tauchen, Jaromr - Schelle, Karel etc.: The Process of Democratization of Law in the Czech Republic
(19892009). Rincon (USA), The American Institute for Central European Legal Studies 2009. 204
pp. ISBN 978-0-615-31580-5.
Williams, Kieran, 'Civil Resistance in Czechoslovakia: From Soviet Invasion to Velvet Revolution,
196889,' in Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton
Ash (eds.), Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The
Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the
Present. Oxford & New York: Oxford University
Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-19-955201-6.
1.10.11
External links
103
Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin served from 1990
to 1994 and was succeeded by another Christian Democrat, Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle (son of Frei-Montalva),
leading the same coalition, for a 6-year term. Ricardo
Lagos Escobar of the Socialist Party and the Party for
Democracy led the Concertacion to a narrower victory
in the 2000 presidential elections. His term ended on
March 11, 2006, when Michelle Bachelet, of the Socialist
Party, took oce.[1] Center-right investor and businessman Sebastin Piera, of the National Renewal, assumed
the presidency on March 11, 2010, after Bachelets term
expired.
1.11.1 1988 plebiscite and reform of the

Constitution
Velvet Revolution on web project of Institute of

Contemporary History, Prague Detailed documen- Passed under tight military control in 1980, the Chilean
tation, textual and visual, of the Velvet Revolution constitution's legal dispositions were designed to lead to
the convocation of all citizens to a plebiscite during which
partly in English.
the Chilean people would ratify a candidate, proposed by
The Velvet Philosophical Revolution, City Journal, the Chief of Sta of the Chilean Armed Forces and by the
Winter 2010
General Director of the Carabineros, the national police
force, and who would become the President of Chile for
Velvet Revolution on totalita.cz Detailed day-to-day
an eight-year term. In 1980, this meant that the Chilean
history with key documents quoted (in Czech lanpeople were supposed to approve Augusto Pinochet's canguage only). Shortened version was used as a source
didacy, assuring him popular legitimacy and the sanction
for Chronology above.
of a vote. Should the people refuse the junta' chosen can Velvet Revolution on Prague-life A shortened ver- didate, the military would relinquish political control to
the civilians, convoking the following year presidential
sion of the Velvet Revolution.
and parliamentary democratic elections, and thus putting
In the footsteps of November 17 - Czech.cz
an end to the military government. In 1987, Pinochets
government passed a law allowing the creation of political
After the Velvet, the Existential Revolution? diparties and another law allowing the opening of national
alogue between Vclav Havel and Adam Michnik,
registers of voters. If the majority of the people voted
English, salon.eu.sk, November 2008
yes to Pinochets plebiscite, he would have remained in
The Velvet Oratorio An oratorio based on the events power for the next eight years, but Congress would have
been elected and installed on March 11, 1990, as in fact
of the Velvet Revolution
happened.
Velvet Revolution Diary English translation of an
authentic diary of a student participating in the revTouch only one of my men, and forget
olution plus scans of US articles from that time
about the rule of law.
Augusto Pinochet, 1989[2]
1.11 Chilean transition to democracy

The Chilean transition to democracy began when a
Constitution establishing a transition itinerary was approved in a plebiscite. From 11 March 1981 to 11 March
1990, several organic constitutional laws were approved
leading to the nal restoration of democracy. After the
1988 plebiscite, the 1980 Constitution, still in force today, was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the constitution, create more seats in the senate, diminish the role of the National Security Council
and equalize the number of civilian and military members (four members each).
Context and causes of Pinochets decision to follow

the Constitution
Among various causes to Pinochets decision to resume
this procedure, the situation in the Soviet Union, where
Mikhail Gorbachev had initiated the glasnost and the
perestroika democratic reforms, which would nally lead
to the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and to the ocial
end of the Cold War, is clearly an important factor. The
Cold War had important consequences in South America, considered by the United States to be a full part of
the Western Bloc, called "free world", in contrast with the
Eastern Bloc, a division born with the end of World War
104
II and the Yalta Conference. Following the 1959 Cuban
Revolution and the local implementation in several countries of Che Guevara's foco theory, the US waged a war
in South America against the "Communists subversives,
leading to support in Chile of the right-wing, which would
culminate with Pinochets coup in 1973 in Chile. In a few
years, all of South America was covered by similar military dictatorships, called juntas. In Paraguay, Alfredo
Stroessner was in power since 1954; in Brazil, left-wing
President Joo Goulart was overthrown by a military coup
in 1964; in Bolivia, General Hugo Banzer overthrew leftist General Juan Jos Torres in 1971; in Uruguay, considered the Switzerland of South America, Juan Mara
Bordaberry seized power in the June 27, 1973 coup. A
"Dirty War" was waged all over the continent, culminating with Operation Condor, an agreement between security services of the Southern Cone and other South
American countries to repress and assassinate political
opponents. Militaries also took power in Argentina in
1976, and then supported the 1980 Cocaine Coup of
Luis Garca Meza Tejada in Bolivia, before training the
Contras in Nicaragua where the Sandinista National Liberation Front, headed by Daniel Ortega, had taken power
in 1979, as well as militaries in Guatemala and in El
Salvador. In the 1980s, however, the situation progressively evolved in the world as in South America, despite a
renewal of the Cold War from 1979 to 1985, the year during which Gorbatchev replaced Konstantin Chernenko as
leader of the USSR.
Another alleged reason of Pinochets decision to call for
elections was the April 1987 visit of Pope John Paul
II to Chile, during which he visited Santiago, Via del
Mar, Valparaso, Temuco, Punta Arenas, Puerto Montt
and Antofagasta. Before the pontis pilgrimage to Latin
America, during a meeting with reporters, he criticized
Pinochets regime as dictatorial. In the words of the
New York Times, he was using unusually strong language to criticize Pinochet and told the journalists that
the Church in Chile must not only pray, but actively
ght for the restoration of democracy in Chile.[3] During his 1987 Chilean visit, the Polish pope asked Chiles
31 Catholic bishops to campaign for free elections in
the country.[4] According to George Weigel, he held a
meeting with Pinochet during which they treated of the
theme of the return to democracy. John Paul II would
have allegedly pushed Pinochet to accept a democratic
opening of the regime, and would even have called for
his resignation.[5] In 2007, Cardinal Stanisaw Dziwisz,
Pope John Paul IIs secretary, conrmed that, during his
visit with Pinochet, the Pope asked him to step down and
transfer power over to civilian authorities.[6] During his
visit to Chile, John Paul II supported the Vicariate of
Solidarity, the Church-led pro-democracy, anti-Pinochet
organization. John Paul II visited the Vicariate of Solidaritys oces, spoke with its workers, and called upon
them to continue their work, emphasizing that the Gospel
consistently urges respect for human rights.[7] Some have
erroneously accused John Paul II of arming Pinochets
regime by appearing with the Chilean ruler in his balcony. However, Cardinal Roberto Tucci, the organizer of
John Paul IIs pilgrimages revealed that Pinochet tricked
the ponti by telling him he would take him to his living
room, while in reality he took him to his balcony. Tucci
claims that the ponti was furious.[8]
Whatever the case, political advertisement was legalized
on September 5, 1987, and became a key element of the
campaign for the NO to the referendum, which countered the ocial campaign which presaged a return to a
Popular Unity government in case of a defeat of Pinochet.
Finally, the NO to Pinochet won with 55.99% of the
votes, against 44.01% of the votes. Thus presidential and
legislative elections were called for the next year.
Furthermore, in July 1989, a constitutional referendum
took place after long negotiations between the government and the opposition. If approved, 54 constitutional
reforms were to be implemented, among which the reform of the way that the Constitution itself could be reformed, the restriction of state of emergency dispositions,
the armation of political pluralism, the strengthening of
constitutional rights as well as of the democratic principle and participation to the political life. All parties in the
political spectrum supported the reforms, with the exception of the small right-wing Avanzada Nacional and other
minor parties, and the reforms were passed with 91.25%
of the vote
1.11.2 Aylwin administration

Representing the Concertacin coalition which supported
the return to democracy, gathering the Christian Democrat Party (PDC), the Socialist Party (PS), the Party
for Democracy (PPD) and the Social Democrat Radical Party (PRSD), Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin
won a sweeping victory in the rst democratic elections, in December 1989, since the 1970 election won by
Salvador Allende. Patricio Aylwin had gathered around
him 3,850,023 votes (55.17%), while the center-right
supermarket tycoon Francisco Javier Errzuriz Talavera, who represented the UCCP party, managed to take
15.05% of the vote, which had as main eects to lower
right-wing candidate Hernn Bchi's score to 29.40%
(approximately 2 millions votes, almost half than Patricio Aylwin).
The Concertacin coalition would dominate Chilean politics for the next two decades, with its most recent victory
being the 2006 election of Socialist candidate Michelle
Bachelet. It established in February 1991 the National
Commission for Truth and Reconciliation, which released in February 1991 the Rettig Report on human
rights violations during Augusto Pinochets dictatorship.
This report, contested by human rights NGOs and associations of political prisoners, counted 2,279 cases of
"disappearances" which could be proved and registered.
Of course, the very nature of disappearances made such

investigations very dicult, while many victims were still
intimidated by the authorities, and did not dare go to the
local police center register themselves on lists, since the
police ocers were the same as during the dictatorship.
The same problem arose, several years later, for the
Valech Report, released in 2004 and which counted almost 30,000 victims of torture, among testimonies from
35,000 persons. However, the Rettig Report did list
important detention and torture centers, such as the
Esmeralda ship, the Vctor Jara Stadium, Villa Grimaldi,
etc. The registering of victims of the dictatorship, and
then, in the 2000s, trials of military personnel guilty of
human rights violations, would dominate the struggle for
the recognition of crimes committed during the dictatorship by human rights NGOs and associations of political
prisoners, whom many resided in exile.
Beside implementing the Rettig Commission, Aylwins
government established a Comisin Especial de Pueblos
indgenas (Special Commission of Indigenous People),
whose report provided the intellectual framework of the
Indigenous Law (ley indgena) or law n 19 253, promulgated on September 28, 1993,[9] which recognized
in particular the Mapuche people as inherent part of the
Chilean nation. Other indigenous people ocially recognized included Aymaras, Atacameas, Collas, Quechuas,
Rapa-Nui, Ymanas and Kawashkars. Despite this state
proclamation of indigenous rights, conicts brought by
land-occupations and Mapuches claims led to state repression and the use of the anti-terrorist law against Mapuche activists, a law voted by the military junta.
1.11.3
Frei Ruiz-Tagle administration
Main article: Chilean presidential election, 1993
105
who presented himself as an independent (6%); ecologist Manfred Max-Neef (5.55%), representative of the
Left-Wing Democratic Alternative (which gathered the
Communist Party (PCC), MAPU (part of the Popular
Unity coalition of Allende) and the Christian Left Party);
Eugenio Pizarro Poblete (less than 5%); and nally
Cristin Reitze Campos of the left-wing Humanist Party
(1.1%).
On 28 May 1993, the Boinazo took place, during which
paratroopers surrounded the Chilean Army headquarters located close-by to the Palacio de la Moneda.[10]
The motive of the military uprising was the opening of
investigations concerning the Pinocheques, or checks
received by Pinochet for a total amount of $3 million in the frame of kickbacks from an arms deal.[11]
But, unnoticed at the time, a few days before, Jorge
Schaulsohn, President of the Chamber of Deputies, had
also denounced irregularities during arms trade committed by the Chilean Army through the intermediary of the
FAMAE (Factories and Arsenals of the Army of Chile)
much later connected to the Gerardo Huber case, who
was assassinated the year before.[11]
Frei Ruiz-Tagle nally won the election in the rst turn,
held in December 1993, with an absolute majority of almost 58%, and more than 4 millions votes against Arturo Allesandri who gathered around 1,700 000 votes
(24.4%). Eduardo Frei took oce in March 1994 and
presided for a 6-year term, until 2000. During his term,
it was not possible to judge any military for his role during the dictatorship, while large sectors of the Chilean
society remained Pinochetista.
1.11.4 Arrest and trial of Pinochet and Lagos administration
Further information: Augusto Pinochets arrest and trial

Preparing for the 1993 election, the Concertacin held and Chilean presidential election, 1999-2000
primaries in May 1993, opposing on its left-wing Ricardo Following an agreement between Pinochet and Andrs
Lagos (PPD) to Christian-Democrat Eduardo Frei RuizTagle, (PDC), the son of former President Eduardo Frei
Montalva (19111982, President from 1964 to 1970).
Eduardo Frei won these primaries by a large majority of
63%.
The right-wing, grouped in the Alliance for Chile, also
held primaries opposing Sebastin Piera (National Renewal, RN, the largest right-wing party at the time), who
had supported the NO during the 1988 plebiscite on
the return to civilian rule, to Arturo Alessandri Besa, former member of the National Party (PN, opposed to Eduardo Frei in the 1970 presidential election) and currently
representant of the Independent Democrat Union (UDI).
Alessandri won those, and thus represented the Alliance Pinochet funeral.
for Chile against the Concertacin.
Others candidates included Jos Piera, former Minister Zaldvar Larran, president of the Senate, the latter voted
in the early 1980s who had implemented the law grant- to abolish the date of 11 September as a National Holiday
ing property of copper to the Chilean Armed Forces, which celebrated the 1973 coup. Supporters of Pinochet
106
had blocked until then any such attempt.[12] The same
year, Pinochet traveled to London for an operation. Once
there, he was arrested on the orders of Spanish judge
Baltasar Garzn, provoking worldwide attention, not only
because of the history of Chile and South America, but
also because this was one of the rst arrest of a dictator
based on the universal jurisdiction principle. Pinochet
tried to defend himself by referring to the State Immunity Act of 1978, an argument rejected by British judicial
system. However, UK Home Secretary Jack Straw took
the responsibility to release him on medical grounds, and
refused to extradite him to Spain. Pinochet returned to
Chile in March 2000. Upon descending the plane on his
wheelchair, he quickly stood up and saluted the cheering
crowd of supporters, including an army band playing his
favorite military march tunes, which was awaiting him at
the airport in Santiago. President Ricardo Lagos, who
had just been sworn in on March 11, said the retired generals televised arrival had damaged the image of Chile,
while thousands demonstrated against him.[13]
Representing the Concertacin coalition for democracy,
Ricardo Lagos had won the election just a few months
before, by a very tight score of less than 200,000 votes
(51.32%) against Joaqun Lavn (less than 49%), who
represented the right-wing Alliance for Chile. None of
the six candidates had obtained an absolute majority on
the rst turn held on December 12, 1999. Lagos was
sworn in March 11, 2000, for a 6-year term.
In June 2000, the Congress voted a new law which
granted anonymity to members of the armed forces who
provide information on the desaparecidos.[14]
In 2002 Chile signed an association agreement with the
European Union (comprising FTA, political and cultural
agreements), in 2003, an extensive free trade agreement
with the United States, and in 2004 with South Korea,
expecting a boom in import and export of local produce
and becoming a regional trade-hub.
Meanwhile, the trials concerning human rights violations
during the dictatorship continued. Pinochet was stripped
of his parliamentary immunity in August 2000 by the
Supreme Court, and indicted by judge Juan Guzmn
Tapia. Tapia had ordered in 1999 the arrest of ve military men, including General Pedro Espinoza Bravo of the
DINA, for their role in the Caravan of Death following
the 11 September coup. Arguing that the bodies of the
"disappeared" were still missing, he made jurisprudence
which had as eect to lift any prescription on the crimes
committed by the military. Pinochets trial continued until his death on December 10, 2006, with an alternance
(badword) of indictments for specic cases, lifting of immunities by the Supreme Court or to the contrary immunity from prosecution, with his health a main argument
for, or against, his prosecution. The Supreme Court afrmed in March 2005 Pinochets immunity concerning
the 1974 assassination of General Carlos Prats in Buenos
Aires, which had taken place in the frame of Operation
Condor. However, he was deemed t to stand trial for
Operation Colombo, during which 119 political opponents were disappeared in Argentina. The Chilean justice also lifted his immunity on the Villa Grimaldi case,
a detention and torture center in the outskirts of Santiago. Pinochet, who still beneted from a reputation of
righteousness from his supporters, lost legitimacy when
he was put under house arrest on tax fraud and passport forgery, following the publication by the US Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of a report concerning the Riggs Bank in July 2004. The report
was a consequence of investigations on nancial fundings of the September 11, 2001 attacks in the US. The
bank controlled between USD $4 million and $8 million
of Pinochets assets, who lived in Santiago in a modest
house, dissimulating his wealth. According to the report,
Riggs participated in money laundering for Pinochet, setting up oshore shell corporations (referring to Pinochet
as only a former public ocial), and hiding his accounts from regulatory agencies. Related to Pinochets
and his family secret bank accounts in United States and
in Carabs islands, this tax fraud ling for an amount of
27 million dollars shocked the conservative sectors who
still supported him. Ninety percent of these funds would
have been raised between 1990 and 1998, when Pinochet
was chief of the Chilean armies, and would essentially
have come from weapons trac (when purchasing Belgian 'Mirage' air-ghters in 1994, Dutch 'Lopard' tanks,
Swiss 'Mowag' tanks or by illegal sales of weapons to
Croatia, in the middle of the Balkans war.) His wife,
Luca Hiriart, and his son, Marco Antonio Pinochet, were
also sued for complicity. For the fourth time in seven
years, Pinochet was indicted by the Chilean justice.[15]
The Chilean authorities took control in August 2005 of
the Colonia Dignidad concentration camp, directed by
ex-Nazi Paul Schfer.
President Ricardo Lagos signed in 2005 the Trans-Pacic
Strategic Economic Partnership free trade agreement
with Brunei, New Zealand and Singapore. This P4 agreement has entered into force in May 2006. All country
members are part of the Asia-Pacic Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum.
2005 reform of the 1980 Constitution

Over 50 reforms to Pinochets Constitution were approved in 2005, which eliminated some of the remaining
undemocratic areas of the text, such as the existence of
non-elected Senators (institutional senators, or senators
for life) and the inability of the President to remove the
Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. These reforms led the President to controversially declare Chiles
transition to democracy as complete. However, the antiterrorist measures of it remained in force, and have been
used against the Mapuches. Furthermore, the military
still received money from the copper industry.
1.11.5
Bachelet administration
107
1.11.7 Second Bachelet administration
In 2006, the Concertacin again won the presidential elec- 1.11.8 See also
tion: Michelle Bachelet, Chiles rst woman president,
2006 student protests in Chile
beat Sebastin Piera (Alliance for Chile), with more
than 53% of the votes. Bachelets rst political crisis oc Transition to democracy
curred with massive student protests, who were demanding free bus fare and the waiving of the university ad No (2012 lm) a lm about the 1988 referendum
missions test (PSU) fee, while the longer term demands
included: the abolition of the Organic Constitutional Law
on Teaching (LOCE), the end to municipalization of sub- 1.11.9 References
sidized education, a reform to the Full-time School Day
policy (JEC) and a quality education for all. The protests [1] Background note. Department of State.
peaked on May 30, 2006 when 790,000 students adhered
to strikes and marches throughout the country, becom- [2] Educacin para la Ciudadana: Democracia, capitalismo
y estado de derecho (in Spanish). Ediciones Akal. 2007.
ing Chiles largest student demonstration of the past three
p. 204. Retrieved 2015-06-08.
[16]
decades.
The 20062007 Chilean corruption scandals are a series
of events in which the Chilean governing Concertacin
has been under investigations of corruption.
In June 2007, General Ral Iturriaga, the former deputy
director of the DINA, condemned to a ve-year sentence for the abduction of Luis Dagoberto San Martin in
1974, rebelled from the Chilean justice and entered clandestinity. He was nally caught and detained in August
2007.[17]
[3] Pope, on Latin Trip, Attacks Pinochet Regime New York

Times, April 1, 1987
[4] Pope Tells Chiles Bishops To Press for Free Elections;
Ponti Joins Pinochet on Palace Balcony The Washington
Post, April 3, 1987
[5] Heraldo Munoz, The Dictators Shadow: Life under Augusto Pinochet, p. 183, Basic Books (2008), ISBN
0465002501
[6] George Weigel, Biografa de Juan Pablo II - Testigo de
The CUT trade-union federation called for demonstraEsperanza, Editorial Plaza & Jans (2003), ISBN 84-01tions in August 2007. These went on during the night,
01304-6
and at least 670 people were arrested (including journalists and a mayor,[18] and 33 carabineros injured.[19] The [7] Timmerman, Jacobo Chile: Death in the South, p. 114,
Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1987 ISBN 978-0-517-02902-2
protest were aimed against Bachelets government free
market policies. The Socialist Senator Alejandro Navarro
[8] Dlaczego Jan Pawe II wyszed z Pinochetem na balkon
was injured by the police during the demonstrations,[20]
Gazeta Wyborcza, December 24, 2009
although it later emerged that he had hit and kicked police and is currently under investigation by the Senate [9] LEY N 19.253 - LEY INDGENA (Spanish)
Ethics Committee.[21] Senators from the opposition have
requested that Navarro and other congressmen which par- [10] Chile: Illicit Croatia Arms Sale Case in Final Stage, The
Santiago Times, 4 September 2007 (English)
ticipated in the protest be removed from Congress for
violating the constitutional article which bans congress- [11] El verdadero objetivo del boinazo de Pinochet, Diario
men from participating demonstrations which violate the
Siete, 25 September 2005 (Spanish)
peace.[22]
According to the correspondent of the BBC, Horacio
Brum, about three million workers, roughly half the
workforce, earn the minimum wage of $260 (130)
a month.[20] Arturo Martnez, general secretary of the
CUT, requested explanations from the government, and
accused it of having stirred up the tension.[23] Politicians
from the center-right Alianza and even from the governing center-left Concertacin have in turn criticized the
CUT for the violence of the protest.
1.11.6
Piera administration
See also: 201113 Chilean student protests
[12] Chile abolishes coup holiday, BBC News, August 20, 1998
[13] Thousands march against Pinochet, BBC, March 4, 2000
[14] Soldier conrms Chile stadium killings, BBC, 27 June
2000 (English)
[15] U.S. sends back Pinochet daughter, CNN, January 28,
2006
[16] Manuel Riesco, Is Pinochet dead?", New Left Review
n47, SeptemberOctober 2007 (English and Spanish)
[17] Claudia Lagos and Patrick J. McDonneln Pinochet-era
general is caught, Los Angeles Times, August 3, 2007 (English)
[18] Arontements violents lors des manifestations antiBachelet, RFI, 30 August 2007 (French)
108
[19] Ultimo balance cifra en 670 los detenidos en jornada de

protesta, Radio Cooperativa, 30 August 2007 (Spanish)
[20] Clashes erupt at Chilean protests, BBC, 30 August 2007
(English)
[21] R. Vergara and P. Lazaeta, Navarro admite que golpe
dos veces la mano del carabinero, El Mercurio, 5 Septiember 2007
[22] Hernn Cisternas, Alianza analiza pedir inhabilidad de
Navarro, Aguil y Enrquez-Ominami, El Mercurio 31
August 2007
could neither be maintained by force forever nor overthrown by the opposition without considerable suering,
eventually led both sides to the negotiating table.
Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith

Main article: Mahlabatini Declaration
[23] Arturo Martnez acus al Gobierno de generar clima de

violencia, Radio Cooperativa, 30 August 2007 (Spanish)
On 4 January 1974, Harry Schwarz, leader of the liberalreformist wing of the United Party, met with Gatsha (later
Mangosuthu) Buthelezi, Chief Executive Councillor of
the black homeland of KwaZulu, and signed a ve-point
plan for racial peace in South Africa, which came to be
known as the Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith.
1.11.10
Signers of the Mahlabatini Declaration
External links
Democratic Transition in Chile from the Dean Peter

Krogh Foreign Aairs Digital Archives
1.12 Negotiations to end apartheid

in South Africa
The apartheid system in South Africa was ended through
a series of negotiations between 1990 and 1993 and
through unilateral steps by the de Klerk government. Harry Schwarz
These negotiations took place between the governing
National Party, the African National Congress, and a
wide variety of other political organisations. Negotiations took place against a backdrop of political violence
in the country, including allegations of a state-sponsored
third force destabilising the country. The negotiations resulted in South Africas rst multi-racial election, which
was won by the African National Congress.
Gatsha Buthelezi
1.12.1
Background
Main article: South Africa under apartheid

Apartheid was a system of racial discrimination and
segregation in South African government. It was formalised in 1948, forming a framework for political
and economic dominance by the white population and
severely restricting the political rights of the black majority.
The declaration stated that the situation of South Africa

in the world scene as well as internal community relations requires, in our view, an acceptance of certain fundamental concepts for the economic, social and constitutional development of our country. The declarations
purpose was to provide a blueprint for government of
South Africa for racial peace in South Africa. It called
for negotiations involving all peoples, in order to draw up
constitutional proposals stressing opportunity for all with
a Bill of Rights to safeguard these rights. It suggested
that the federal concept was the appropriate framework
for such changes to take place. It also armed that political change must take place through non-violent means.[1]
Between 1960 and 1990, the African National Congress

and other mainly black opposition political organisations
were banned. As the National Party cracked down on
black opposition to apartheid, most leaders of ANC and The declaration was the rst of such agreements by acother opposition organisations were either imprisoned or knowledged black and white political leaders in South
went into exile.
Africa that armed to these principles. The commitHowever, increasing local and international pressure on ment to the peaceful pursuit of political change was dethe government, as well as the realisation that apartheid clared at a time when neither the National Party nor the
1.12. NEGOTIATIONS TO END APARTHEID IN SOUTH AFRICA

African National Congress were looking to peaceful solutions or dialogue. The declaration was heralded by the
English speaking press as a breakthrough in race relations
in South Africa. Shortly after it was issued, the declaration was endorsed by several chief ministers of the
black homelands, including Cedric Phatudi (Lebowa),
Lucas Mangope (Bophuthatswana) and Hudson Nisanwisi (Gazankulu).[2] Despite considerable support from
black leaders, the English speaking press and liberal gures such as Alan Paton, the declaration saw staunch opposition from the National Party, the Afrikaans press and
the conservative wing of Harry Schwarzs United Party.[3]
109
strategic management circlesbut rather to gauge public

opinion about a movement away from the previous security posture of confrontation and repression to a new
posture based on engagement and accommodation.[4]
Unbanning of opposition organisations and the release of Mandela
When F.W. de Klerk became President in 1989, he was

able to build on the previous secret negotiations with the
imprisoned Mandela. The rst signicant steps towards
formal negotiations took place in February 1990 when,
Early contact
in his speech at the opening of Parliament, de Klerk announced the unbanning of the African National Congress
The very rst meetings between the South African Gov(ANC) and other banned organisations, and the release
ernment and Nelson Mandela were driven by the National
of ANC leader Nelson Mandela after 27 years in prison.
Intelligence Service (NIS) under the leadership of Niel
Barnard and his Deputy Director General, Mike Louw.
These meetings were secret in nature and were designed
to develop an understanding about whether there were
1.12.2 Initial negotiations
sucient common grounds for future peace talks. As
these meetings evolved, a level of trust developed between the key actors (Barnard, Louw, and Mandela).[4] Groote Schuur Minute
To facilitate future talks while preserving secrecy needed
to protect the process, Barnard arranged for Mandela to The negotiations began with a meeting between the
be moved o Robben Island to Pollsmoor Prison in 1982. African National Congress and the South African governThis provided Mandela with more comfortable lodgings, ment on 4 May 1990 at the presidential residence, Groote
but also gave easier access in a way that could not be com- Schuur.
promised. Barnard therefore brokered an initial agreement in principle about what became known as talks
about talks. It was at this stage that the process was elevated from a secret engagement to a more public engagement.
The rst less-tentative meeting between Mandela and the
National Party government came while P. W. Botha was
State President. In November 1985, Minister Kobie Coetsee met Mandela in the hospital while Mandela was
being treated for prostate surgery. Over the next four
F.W. de Klerk
years, a series of tentative meetings took place, laying
the groundwork for further contact and future negotiations, but little real progress was made, and the meetings
remained secret until several years later.[5]
As the secret talks bore fruit and the political engagement
started to take place, the National Intelligence Service
withdrew from centre stage in the process, and moved to
a new phase of operational support work. This new phase
was designed to test public opinion about a negotiated solution. Central to this planning was an initiative that became known in Security Force circles as the Dakar Safari,
which saw a number of prominent Afrikaner opinionmakers engage with the African National Congress in
Dakar, Senegal and Leverkusen, Germany at events organized by the Institute for a Democratic Alternative for
South Africa.[6] The operational objective of this meeting was not to understand the opinions of the actors
themselvesthat was very well known at this stage within
Nelson Mandela
This resulted in the Groote Schuur Minute, a commitment
between the two parties towards the resolution of the existing climate of violence and intimidation as well as the
removal of practical obstacles to negotiation including
immunity from prosecution for returning exiles and the
release of political prisoners.[7]
110
Pretoria Minute
1.12.4 CODESA II and the breakdown of

negotiations
On 6 August 1990 the South African government and the

African National Congress extended the consensus to inCODESA II (the second plenary session) took place in
clude several new points. This Pretoria Minute included
May 1992. In June 1992, the Boipatong massacre took
the suspension of the armed struggle by the ANC and its
place, with 45 residents of Boipatong killed by mainlymilitary wing Umkhonto we Sizwe.[7]
Zulu hostel dwellers. Mandela accused De Klerks
government of complicity in the attack and withdrew
the ANC from the negotiations, leading to the end of
National Peace Accord
CODESA II.[12][13][14]
The National Peace Accord of 14 September 1991 was
a critical step toward formal negotiations. It was signed
by representatives of twenty-seven political organisations
and national and homeland governments, and prepared
the way for the CODESA negotiations.[8]
1.12.3
The ANC instead took to the streets with a programme

of "rolling mass action", which met with tragedy in the
Bisho massacre in September 1992, when the army of
the nominally independent "homeland" of Ciskei opened
re on protest marchers, killing 29. This brought a new
urgency to the search for a political settlement.[14][15]
CODESA I
The Convention for a Democratic South Africa

(CODESA), under the chairmanship of the judges
Michael Corbett, Petrus Shabort and Ismail Mahomed,
began with a plenary session on 20 December 1991,
almost two years after the unbanning of political parties
and the release of Nelson Mandela. The rst session
lasted a few days, and working groups were appointed
to deal with specic issues. These working groups
continued their negotiations over the next month. The
negotiations took place at the World Trade Centre in
Kempton Park.[9]
CODESA participants
Nineteen groups were represented at CODESA, including the South African government, the National Party, the
African National Congress, the Inkatha Freedom Party,
the Democratic Party, the South African Communist
Party, the South African Indian Congress, the Coloured
Labour Party, the Indian National Peoples Party and Solidarity Party, and the leaders of the nominally independent bantustans of Transkei, Ciskei, Bophuthatswana and
Venda.[10]
1.12.5 Resumption of negotiations

During the negotiations, De Klerks government pushed
for a two-phase transition with an appointed transitional
government with a rotating presidency. The ANC pushed
instead for a transition in a single stage to majority rule.
Other sticking points included minority rights, decisions
on a unitary or federal state, property rights, and indemnity from prosecution for politically motivated crimes.
Following the collapse of CODESA II, bilateral negotiations between the ANC and the NP became the main
negotiation channel. Two key negotiators were Cyril
Ramaphosa of the ANC, and Roelf Meyer of the National
Party, who formed a close friendship.[10]
It was Joe Slovo, leader of the South African Communist
Party, who in 1992 proposed the breakthrough sunset
clause for a coalition government for the ve years following a democratic election, including guarantees and
concessions to all sides.[16]
In the course of the negotiating and reshaping process,

the government under De Klerk also had detainees released who were classied as political prisoners at that
The right-wing white Conservative Party and the left- time. Among those released in 1992 were convicts facing
wing Pan Africanist Congress boycotted CODESA. capital punishment such as Barend Strydom and Robert
Inkatha Freedom Party leader Mangosuthu Buthelezi per- McBride from opposite ends of the political spectrum.
sonally didn't participate because his demands for additional delegations of the homeland KwaZulu and the Zulu
king Goodwill Zwelithini were declined. The IFP was
therefore represented by Frank Mdlalose at CODESA.
Record of understanding
In the period between CODESA I and CODESA II in
early 1992, the National Party lost three by-elections
to the Conservative Party. De Klerk announced that a
whites only referendum would be held on the issue of
reforms and negotiation. The result was a landslide victory for the yes side, with over 68% of the voters voting
for a continuation of the reforms and negotiations.[11]
On 26 September 1992 the government and the ANC

agreed on a Record of Understanding. This dealt with a
constitutional assembly, an interim government, political
prisoners, hostels, dangerous weapons and mass action
and restarted the negotiation process after the failure of
CODESA.[17]
1.12. NEGOTIATIONS TO END APARTHEID IN SOUTH AFRICA
111
Multiparty Negotiating Forum
The election held on 27 April 1994 resulted in the ANC

winning 62% of the vote, and Nelson Mandela becoming
On 1 April 1993 the Multiparty Negotiating Forum president, with De Klerk and Thabo Mbeki as deputies.
(MPNF) gathered for the rst time. In contrast to The National Party, with 20% of the vote, joined the
[20]
CODESA, the white right (the Conservative Party and the ANC in a Government of National Unity.
Afrikaner Volksunie), the Pan Africanist Congress, the
KwaZulu homeland government and delegations of traditional leaders initially participated in the Multiparty Aftermath
Negotiating Forum.[18]
Transitional politics continued after the election, with a
Following the Record of Understanding, the two main ne- new constitution nally agreed in 1995, and the Truth and
gotiating parties, the ANC and the NP, agreed to reach Reconciliation Commission dealing with politically mobilateral consensus on issues before taking them to the tivated crimes committed during the apartheid era.
other parties in the forum. This put considerable pressure on the other parties to agree with the consensus or
be left behind.[10] In protest at the perceived sidelining 1.12.7 References
of the mainly-Zulu Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP), Mangosuthu Buthelezi took the IFP out of the MPNF and [1] Mitchell, Thomas (2002). Indispensable traitors: liberal
parties in settler conicts. Praeger. ISBN 0-313-31774-7.
formed the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG;
later renamed the Freedom Alliance) together with tra[2] http://www.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/cis/omalley/
ditional leaders, homeland leaders and white right-wing
OMalleyWeb/dat/SAIRR%20Survey%201974.pdf
groups. A period of brinkmanship followed, with the IFP
remaining out of the negotiations until within days of the [3] http://www.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/cis/omalley/
election on 27 April 1994. Buthelezi was convinced to
OMalleyWeb/dat/SAIRR%20Survey%201975.pdf
give up the boycott of the elections, after Mandela offered the Zulu king, Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu, [4] Anthony Turton (2010). Shaking Hands with Billy. Durban: South Africa: Just Done Productions. ISBN 978-1a guarantee of special status of the Zulu monarchy, and
92031-558-0. OL 22656001M.
to Buthelezi, the promise that foreign mediators would
examine Inkathas claims to more autonomy in the Zulu [5] Sparks, Allister (1994). Tomorrow is Another Country:
area. This was managed with the help of a foreign team
the inside story of South Africas Negotiated Revolution.
led by former U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger
Sandton: Struik. ISBN 978-1-87501-511-5.
and former British Foreign Secretary Lord Carrington.
On 10 April 1993, the assassination of Chris Hani, leader
of the SACP and a senior ANC leader, by white rightwingers again brought the country to the brink of disaster, but ultimately proved a turning point, after which
the main parties pushed for a settlement with increased
determination.[19] The assassination of Hani sometimes
is considered as an event which led to a shift of power in
favour of the ANC because of Nelson Mandelas handling
of the situation.
[6] Heribert Adam; Kogila Moodley (1 January 1993). The

Opening of the Apartheid Mind: Options for the New South
Africa. University of California Press. pp. 8. ISBN 9780-520-08199-4. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
[7] Minutes and Accords between the ANC and the South
African Government, May 1990 - February 1991.
African National Congress. Archived from the original
on 2006-09-24. Retrieved 2006-12-19.
[8] National Peace Accord. 14 September 1991. Archived
from the original on 2007-07-14. Retrieved 2007-04-28.
The negotiations were dramatically interrupted in June

1993 when the right-wing Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweg- [9]
ing stormed the World Trade Centre in Kempton Park,
breaking through the glass front of the building with an
armoured car and briey taking over the negotiations
[10]
chamber.[19]
Country Studies: South Africa, Towards Democracy.

Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress.
The CODESA Negotiations. SA History Online. Retrieved 2007-12-03.
The MPNF ratied the interim Constitution in the early

hours of the morning of 18 November 1993. Thereafter, [11] 1992: South Africa votes for change. BBC. 18 March
1992. Retrieved 2007-04-28.
a Transitional Executive Council oversaw the run-up to a
[18]
democratic election.
[12] Boipatong Massacre. ANC. 18 June 1992. Archived
from the original on 14 May 2001. Retrieved 2007-0428.
1.12.6
Elections
Main article: South African general election, 1994
[13] Truth Commission - Special Report. SABC. Archived

from the original on 29 June 2014. Retrieved 29 June
2014. Forty-ve people died and 27 others were seriously
injured on 17 June 1992
112
[14] Smith, Janet (14 June 2012). The Boipatong massacre:

20 years on. The Star. Archived from the original on 28
September 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2014.
[15] Mandela, Nelson (1994). Long Walk to Freedom.
[16] Cilliers, Jakkie (1998). From Pariah to Partner - Bophuthatswana, the NPKF, and the SANDF. African Security Review 7 (4). Retrieved 2006-12-19.
1.13.2 Economic reforms

In May 1985, Gorbachev gave a speech in Leningrad in
which he admitted the slowing down of the economic development and inadequate living standards. This was the
rst time in Soviet history that a Soviet leader had done
so.
The program was furthered at the 27th Congress of the

Communist Party in Gorbachevs report to the congress,
[17] Record of Understanding. African National Congress. in which he spoke about perestroika, "uskoreniye",
Archived from the original on 2006-10-12. Retrieved "human factor", "glasnost", and expansion of the
2006-12-19.
khozraschyot" (commercialization).
[18] The history of the Constitution. Constitutional Court of
South Africa. Retrieved 2007-04-28.
[19] Turning Points in History Book 6: Negotiation, Transition and Freedom. Retrieved 2007-12-03.
[20] The 1994 Elections. U.S. Department of the Army. Retrieved 2007-04-28.
1.13 Perestroika
For other uses, see Perestroika (disambiguation).
Perestroika
(Russian:
;
IPA:
[prstrojk])[1] was a political movement for reformation within the Communist Party of the Soviet
Union during the 1980s (1986), widely associated
with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and his glasnost
(meaning openness) policy reform. The literal meaning of perestroika is "restructuring", referring to
the restructuring of the Soviet political and economic
system.
Perestroika is sometimes argued to be the cause of the
dissolution of the Soviet Union, the revolutions of 1989
in Eastern Europe, and the end of the Cold War.[2]
1.13.1
Summary
Perestroika allowed more independent actions from various ministries and introduced some market-like reforms.
The goal of the perestroika, however, was not to end
the command economy but rather to make socialism
work more eciently to better meet the needs of Soviet
consumers.[3] The process of implementing perestroika
arguably exacerbated already existing political, social,
and economic tensions within the Soviet Union and no
doubt helped to further nationalism in the constituent republics. Perestroika and resistance to it are often cited
as major catalysts leading to the dissolution of the Soviet
Union.
During the initial period (198587) of Mikhail Gorbachevs time in power, he talked about modifying central
planning but did not make any truly fundamental changes
(uskoreniye; acceleration). Gorbachev and his team of
economic advisors then introduced more fundamental reforms, which became known as perestroika (economic restructuring).
At the June 1987 plenary session of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU),
Gorbachev presented his basic theses, which laid the
political foundation of economic reform for the remainder of the existence of the Soviet Union.
In July 1987, the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union
passed the Law on State Enterprise. The law stipulated
that state enterprises were free to determine output levels
based on demand from consumers and other enterprises.
Enterprises had to fulll state orders, but they could dispose of the remaining output as they saw t. However, at
the same time the state still held control over the means of
production for these enterprises, thus limiting their ability
to enact full-cost accountability. Enterprises bought input
from suppliers at negotiated contract prices. Under the
law, enterprises became self-nancing; that is, they had to
cover expenses (wages, taxes, supplies, and debt service)
through revenues. No longer was the government to rescue unprotable enterprises that could face bankruptcy.
Finally, the law shifted control over the enterprise operations from ministries to elected workers collectives.
Gosplan's (Russian: ; Gosudarstvenniy komitet po planirovaniyu;
State Committee for Planning) responsibilities were to
supply general guidelines and national investment priorities, not to formulate detailed production plans.
The Law on Cooperatives, enacted in May 1988,[4] was
perhaps the most radical of the economic reforms during
the early part of the Gorbachev era. For the rst time
since Vladimir Lenin's New Economic Policy was abolished in 1928, the law permitted private ownership of
businesses in the services, manufacturing, and foreigntrade sectors. The law initially imposed high taxes and
employment restrictions, but it later revised these to avoid
discouraging private-sector activity. Under this provision, cooperative restaurants, shops, and manufacturers
became part of the Soviet scene.
1.13. PERESTROIKA
113
the breakdown in traditional supply-demand relationships
without contributing to the formation of new ones. Thus,
instead of streamlining the system, Gorbachevs decentralisation caused new production bottlenecks.
1.13.3 Comparison with China
Perestroika postage stamp, 1988
Gorbachev brought perestroika to the Soviet Unions

foreign economic sector with measures that Soviet
economists considered bold at that time. His program
virtually eliminated the monopoly that the Ministry of
Foreign Trade had once held on most trade operations.
It permitted the ministries of the various industrial and
agricultural branches to conduct foreign trade in sectors
under their responsibility rather than having to operate
indirectly through the bureaucracy of trade ministry organizations. In addition, regional and local organizations
and individual state enterprises were permitted to conduct foreign trade. This change was an attempt to redress
a major imperfection in the Soviet foreign trade regime:
the lack of contact between Soviet end users and suppliers
and their foreign partners.
Perestroika and Deng Xiaoping's economic reforms have

similar origins but very dierent eects on their respective countries economies. Both eorts occurred in
large communist countries attempting to modernize their
economies, but while Chinas GDP has grown consistently since the late 1980s (albeit from a much lower
level), national GDP in the USSR and in many of its successor states fell precipitously throughout the 1990s.[5]
Gorbachevs reforms were gradulist and maintained many
of the macroeconomic aspects of the command economy
(including price controls, inconvertibility of the ruble, exclusion of private property ownership, and the government monopoly over most means of production).
Reform was largely focused on industry and on cooperatives, and a limited role was given to the development of
foreign investment and international trade. Factory managers were expected to meet state demands for goods, but
to nd their own funding. Perestroika reforms went far
enough to create new bottlenecks in the Soviet economy
The most signicant of Gorbachevs reforms in the for- but arguably did not go far enough to eectively streameign economic sector allowed foreigners to invest in the line it.
Soviet Union in the form of joint ventures with Soviet Chinese economic reform was, by contrast, a bottom-up
ministries, state enterprises, and cooperatives. The origi- attempt at reform, focusing on light industry and agrinal version of the Soviet Joint Venture Law, which went culture (namely allowing peasants to sell produce grown
into eect in June 1987, limited foreign shares of a Soviet on private holdings at market prices). Economic reforms
venture to 49 percent and required that Soviet citizens were fostered through the development of "Special Ecooccupy the positions of chairman and general manager. nomic Zones", designed for export and to attract foreign
After potential Western partners complained, the gov- investment, municipally managed Township and Village
ernment revised the regulations to allow majority foreign
Enterprises and a dual pricing system leading to the
ownership and control. Under the terms of the Joint Ven- steady phasing out of state-dictated prices.[6] Greater latture Law, the Soviet partner supplied labor, infrastrucitude was given to managers of state-owned factories,
ture, and a potentially large domestic market. The foreign while capital was made available to them through a repartner supplied capital, technology, entrepreneurial exformed banking system and through scal policies (in
pertise, and in many cases, products and services of world contrast to the scal anarchy and fall in revenue expericompetitive quality.
enced by the Soviet government during perestroika). PerGorbachevs economic changes did not do much to restart estroika was expected to lead to results such as market
the countrys sluggish economy in the late 1980s. The re- pricing and privately sold produce, but the Union disforms decentralised things to some extent, although price solved before advanced stages were reached.
controls remained, as did the rubles inconvertibility and Another fundamental dierence is that where perestroika
most government controls over the means of production. was accompanied by greater political freedoms under
By 1990 the government had virtually lost control over
economic conditions. Government spending increased
sharply as an increasing number of unprotable enterprises required state support and consumer price subsidies
continued. Tax revenues declined because republic and
local governments withheld tax revenues from the central
government under the growing spirit of regional autonomy. The elimination of central control over production
decisions, especially in the consumer goods sector, led to
Gorbachevs glasnost policies, Chinese economic reform

has been accompanied by continued authoritarian rule
and a suppression of political dissidents, most notably at
Tiananmen Square. Gorbachev acknowledges this dierence but has always maintained that it was unavoidable
and that perestroika would have been doomed to defeat
and revanchism by the nomenklatura without glasnost,
because conditions in the Soviet Union were not identical to those in China.[7] Gorbachev had lived through the
114
era in which the attempted reforms by Khrushchev, limited as they were, were rolled back under Brezhnev and
other prototalitarian conservatives, and he could clearly
see that the same could happen again without glasnost
to allow broad oppositional pressure against the nomenklatura. Gorbachev cited a line from a 1986 newspaper
article that he felt encapsulated this reality: The apparatus broke Khrushchevs neck and the same thing will
happen now.[8]
factors. This resulted in a conict of ideologies by the end

of the 1920s in the areas of science and education in the
Soviet educational system. Russian individuals came up
with new ideologies: Everything that was progressive,
was considered to be a proletariat way of thinking, and
everything reactionary were deemed as capitalist ideas
and were in need of re-instatement, or even worse, deletion. At the time, there were no human values that rose
above those of class boundaries. It was as simple as a
Another dierence is that Soviet Union faced strong se- community being either our people or our enemies;
the same also went for individuals.
cession threats from their ethnic regions and a primacy
challenge by the RSFSR. Gorbachevs extension of re- Before teachers were trained for the job, they were taught
gional autonomy removed the suppression from existing the history of ideas from both progressive and reacethnic/regional tension, while Dengs reforms did not al- tionary thinkers points of view. The information that
ter the tight grip of the central government on any au- was learned by these teachers was believed to be the
tonomous regions. The Soviet Unions dual nature, part most progressive and scientically based. But of
supranational union of republics and part unitary state, course there is also a less successful side to this type of edplayed a part in the diculty of controlling the pace of ucational teaching: a turn on the situation occurred with
restructuring, especially once the new Russian Commu- the introduction of computers. By this time, any ideas
nist Party was formed and posed a challenge to the pri- that were present during the perestroika were shaved
macy of the CPSU. Gorbachev described this process as down. That led to the beginning of self-criticism of Soa parade of sovereignties and identied it as the fac- viet education by educationalists, which further lead to
tor that most undermined the gradualism of restructuring newspaper articles and journals describing: never had
and the preservation of the Union. This caused a situa- there been a worse thing than Soviet education.
tion in the USSR whose closest analog would be if English
sovereignty undermined that of the United Kingdom at a
time when the entire UK society and economy was un- 1.13.5 Perestroika and glasnost
der signicant stress and reform, or if North China had
a party and state emerge as a challenge to the CCP and On 27 January 1987 a meeting of the central committee
PRC during Dengs reforms.
members occurred. The CPSU has Gorbachev present
his criticism that justifying his policies of perestroika and
glasnost are the only solutions to the problems of the Soviet Union.
1.13.4 Education after perestroika
Over Gorbachevs time in power, perestroika and glasnost were his most important goals. Economic, social,
and political aspects of the Soviet Union have been partly
implemented due to these two elements which heighten
his seriousness of pushing towards his current objective.
Also, Gorbachevs vigorous campaign for perestroika and
glasnost motivated him to move from Moscow to Vladivostok in order to propose his revolutionary changes in
This approach was used due to its simplicity and ease of the Soviet society.
enforcement. The task of dierentiating a friend from One of the nal important measures taken on the continua foe was a remarkably easy thing to do, only in accor- ation of the movement was a report that was at the central
dance to the touchstone of class aliation.[9] The only committee meeting of the CPSU titled On Reorganizaway to control people of these two conicting mindsets tion and the Partys Personnel Policy.[10] This report was
were exile, connement in a labour camp or physical ex- in such high demand in Prague and Berlin that many peotermination. According to Stalin, peasants of this time ple could not get a copy. One eect was the sudden dehad been liquidated.
mand for Russian dictionaries in order to understand the
Civilians of Russia didnt see these deaths as just phys- content of Gorbachevs report.
ical, they also saw them as the death of an idea or new
ideology. This destruction of ideas lead to the belief that
achievements, artworks or unpublished writings were all 1.13.6 Womens activism in Russia during
perestroika
intellectual signicances that were simply deleted from
the face of the earth. This death penalty was the result of
a refusal to conform to the stated ideal of proletarian cul- Women in the USSR were considerably knowledgeable
ture, science, painting and education as well as with other and skilled. Womens activism, due to the prominent poIn the 70 years preceding perestroika, Russian individuals were categorized by scientic and cultural approaches.
It was believed that the thought process of a person was
peculiar to one of two dierent classes: the bourgeoisie
or the proletariats. This categorization system did not apply to everyone, of course, but the general population belonged to either one or the other mindset.
1.13. PERESTROIKA
sition of women in Soviet society, played a key part in the
speed at which perestroika aected the USSR.
115
Democratisation in the Soviet Union
500 Days
Gender equality was granted as early as 1918. In the
later years, organizations focused on the implementation
Predictions of the dissolution of the Soviet Union
of women into public life. They were allowed to teach,
work and manage boarding schools and orphan homes for
Revolutions of 1989
abandoned children.[11] In the following years, the Soviet Womens Committee was established and had broadened its network across the country. This committee focused upon assisting women to nd employment and de- 1.13.8 References
fending the Soviet Union. During the rst years of perestroika, the womens councils were granted independence [1] Professor Gerhard Rempel, Department of History, Western New England College, (1996-02-02). Gorbachev and
and varying levels of political signicance. Not all of the
Perestroika. Mars.wnec.edu. Archived from the original
womens councils survived the post-perestroika years, but
on August 28, 2008. Retrieved 2010-03-31.
others managed to pull through, independently leading
themselves forward which signies the success of the [2] Katrina vanden Heuvel & Stephen F. Cohen. (November
council.
16, 2009). Gorbachev on 1989. Thenation.com.
Although there are claims that women were increasingly
able to voice their concerns and diculties of gender in- [3] Mikhail Gorbachev, Perestroika (New York: Harper
Collins, 1987), quoted in Mark Kishlansky, ed., Sources
equality or all of female organizations placed most emof the West: Readings in Western Civilization, 4th ed.,
phasis on gender equality , but in reality its highly unvol. 2 (New York: Longman, 2001), p. 322.
likely, since gender equality question was newer popular in Russia and especially in Soviet Union, which has [4] Brooks, Karen M. (1988). The Law on Cooperatives,
huge number of female-biased laws(harsher punishment
Retail Food Prices, and the Farm Financial Crisis in the
for men for similar crimes committed by women, alU.S.S.R. (PDF). University of Minnesota. Department of
imony for women only, military conscription for males,
Agricultural and Applied Economics. Retrieved on 14
August 2009.
anti-"parasite laws for men only, etc.) some of which
survives today.[12][13][14] The activism of women may be
broken down into two general sections: one of which [5] IMF World Economic Outlook Database April 2006.
International Monetary Fund. 2003-04-29. Retrieved
were during perestroika (19851991) and the other be2010-03-31.
ing post-perestroika: 19911993. During the rst stage,
the number or councils expanded in numbers rapidly, that
[6] Susan L. Shirk in The Political Logic of Economic Reform
by the end of the event, there were a total of 300 registers
in China, University of California, Berkeley and Los Anwomens organizations in Russia. Until this day, ve of
geles, 1993. ISBN 0-520-07706-7.
these organizations have international status, two of them
have a national status and as many as fourteen have a re- [7] Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeevich (1996), Memoirs, Doupublican status.
bleday, pp. 494495, ISBN 9780385480192.
Throughout these dierent councils, a vast array of activities was established to enhance the amount and types of [8] Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeevich (1996), Memoirs, Doubleday, p. 188, ISBN 9780385480192.
information a woman can learn in the Soviet Union. For
example, the activities ranged from economic focus like
[9] Nikandrov, N. D. (1995). Russian education after perproviding services, running small businesses and trainestroika: The search for new values. Retrieved from
ing to more general employment jobs like political lobhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/3445145
bying and raising womens advocacy. It is important to
note that some female political leaders like Larisa Bogo- [10] Gidadhubli, R. G. (1987, May 02). Perestroika and
raz, Valeria Novodvorskaya and Elena Bonner all estabglasnost. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/
lished their power with the assistance of these organiza4376986
tions(even though they were the leaders of these dissident
[11] Issraelyan, Y. (1995).
Womens activism in rusorganizations in the Soviet times).
1.13.7
See also
sia: losses and gains 1989-1993. Retrieved from

http://citationmachine.net/index2.php?reqstyleid=2&
mode=form&reqsrcid=APAWebPage
History of the Soviet Union (198291)
[12] Online shrine on anti-male discrimination in USSR
Uskoreniye
[13] Russian Russian Community of the Professional Lowers
Glasnost
[14] Femenism in USSR
116
1.13.9
Further reading
Golitsyn, Anatoliy (1984). The Perestroia Deception

[The Worlds Slide towards The Second October Revolution]. London & New York: Edward Harle.
Abalkin, Leonid Ivanovich (1986). Kursom uskoreniya [The strategy of acceleration]. Moscow: Politizdat.
Cohen, Stephen F.; Katrina Vanden Heuvel (1989).
Voices of Glasnost: Interviews With Gorbachevs Reformers. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-39330735-2.
Goldman, Marshall I. (1992). Perestroika. In
David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of
Economics (1st ed.). Library of Economics and Liberty. OCLC 317650570, 50016270 and 163149563
Gorbachev, Mikhail (1988). Perestroika: New
Thinking for Our Country and the World. Harper
& Row. ISBN 0-06-091528-5.
Jha, Prem Shankar (2003). The Perilous Road to the
Market: The Political Economy of Reform in Russia,
India and China. Pluto Press. ISBN 0-7453-18517.
1.13.10
External links
Mikhail Gorbachev on perestroika

Chris Harman & Andy Zebrowski. Glasnost before the storm (Summer 1988)
Yakovlev on perestroika
The Economic Collapse of the Soviet Union
Perestroika TM in Ukraine
Chapter 2
Human rights
2.1 History of human rights
Although belief in the sanctity of human life has ancient
precedents in many religions of the world the idea of
human rights, that is the notion that a human being has
a set of inviolable rights simply on grounds of being human began during the era of renaissance humanism in
the early modern period. The European wars of religion and the civil wars of seventeenth-century England
gave rise to the philosophy of liberalism and belief in human rights became a central concern of European intellectual culture during the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment. The idea of human rights lay at the core of the
American and French Revolutions which inaugurated an
era of democratic revolution throughout the nineteenth
century paving the way for the advent of universal suffrage. The world wars of the twentieth century led to the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
The post-war era saw human rights movements for special interest groups such as feminism and the civil rights
of African-Americans. The human rights of members of
the Soviet bloc emerged in the 1970s along with workers
rights in the West. The movement quickly jelled as social
activism and political rhetoric in many nations put it high
on the world agenda.[1] By the 21st century, Moyn has
argued, the human rights movement expanded beyond its
original anti-totalitarianism to include numerous causes
involving humanitarianism and social and economic de- An inscription of the Code of Hammurabi.
velopment in the Developing World.[2]
Some notions of righteousness present in ancient law and
religion is sometimes retrospectively included under the
term human rights. While Enlightenment philosophers
suggest a secular social contract between the rulers and
the ruled, ancient traditions derived similar conclusions
from notions of divine law, and, in Hellenistic philosophy,
natural law.
example of reform. Professor Norman Yoee wrote that

after Igor M. Diakono most interpreters consider that
Urukagina, himself not of the ruling dynasty at Lagash,
was no reformer at all. Indeed, by attempting to curb
the encroachment of a secular authority at the expense of
temple prerogatives, he was, if a modern term must be
applied, a reactionary.[3] Author Marilyn French wrote
that the discovery of penalties for adultery for women
2.1.1 Ancient World
but not for men represents the rst written evidence of
the degradation of women.[3][4] The oldest legal codex
Ancient Near East
extant today is the Neo-Sumerian Code of Ur-Nammu
(ca. 2050 BC). Several other sets of laws were also isThe reforms of Urukagina of Lagash, the earliest known sued in Mesopotamia, including the Code of Hammurabi
legal code (c. 2350 BC), is often thought to be an early (ca. 1780 BC), one of the most famous examples of this
117
118
type of document. It shows rules, and punishments if
those rules are broken, on a variety of matters, including
womens rights, mens rights, childrens rights and slave
rights.
Antiquity
CHAPTER 2. HUMAN RIGHTS

size the importance of tolerance in public policy by the
government. The slaughter or capture of prisoners of war
was also condemned by Ashoka.[12] Some sources claim
that slavery was also non-existent in ancient India.[13]
Others state, however, that slavery existed in ancient India, where it is recorded in the Sanskrit Laws of Manu of
the 1st century BC.[14]
Further information: The Golden Rule, Cyrus Cylinder

and Edicts of Ashoka
Some historians suggest that the Achaemenid Persian Early Islamic Caliphate
Main articles: Islamic ethics and Early reforms under
Islam
Further information: Constitution of Medina and Sharia
The Cyrus Cylinder of Cyrus the Great, founder of the

Achaemenid Persian Empire
Historians generally agree that Muhammad preached

against what he saw as the social evils of his day,[15]
and that Islamic social reforms in areas such as social
security, family structure, slavery, and the rights of
women and ethnic minorities were intended to improve on what was present in existing Arab society
at the time.[16][17][18][19][20][21] For example, according
to Bernard Lewis, Islam from the rst denounced
aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a
formula of the career open to the talents.[16] John Esposito sees Muhammad as a reformer who condemned
practices of the pagan Arabs such as female infanticide,
exploitation of the poor, usury, murder, false contracts,
and theft.[22] Bernard Lewis believes that the egalitarian
nature of Islam represented a very considerable advance
on the practice of both the Greco-Roman and the ancient
Persian world.[16] Muhammed also incorporated Arabic
and Mosaic laws and customs of the time into his divine
revelations.[23]
Empire of ancient Iran established unprecedented principles of human rights in the 6th century BC under
Cyrus the Great. After his conquest of Babylon in 539
BC, the king issued the Cyrus cylinder, discovered in
1879 and seen by some today as the rst human rights
document.[5][6][7] The cylinder has been linked by some
commentators to the decrees of Cyrus recorded in the
Books of Chronicles, Nehemiah, and Ezra, which state
that Cyrus allowed (at least some of) the Jews to return
to their homeland from their Babylonian Captivity.
The Constitution of Medina, also known as the Charter
In opposition to the above viewpoint, the interpretation of Medina, was drafted by Muhammad in 622. It constiof the Cylinder as a "charter of human rights has been tuted a formal agreement between Muhammad and all of
dismissed by other historians and characterized by some the signicant tribes and families of Yathrib (later known
[24][25]
others as political propaganda devised by the Pahlavi as Medina), including Muslims, Jews, and pagans.
regime.[8] The German historian Josef Wiesehfer argues The document was drawn up with the explicit concern of
that the image of Cyrus as a champion of the UN human bringing to an end the bitter inter tribal ghting between
rights policy ... is just as much a phantom as the humane the clans of the Aws (Aus) and Khazraj within Medina.
and enlightened Shah of Persia,[9] while historian Elton To this eect it instituted a number of rights and responsiL. Daniel has described such an interpretation as rather bilities for the Muslim, Jewish and pagan communities of
anachronistic" and tendentious.[10] The cylinder now lies Medina bringing them within the fold of one community[26]
in the British Museum, and a replica is kept at the United the Ummah. The Constitution established the security
of the community, freedom of religion, the role of MedNations Headquarters.
ina as a haram or sacred place (barring all violence and
Many thinkers point to the concept of citizenship begin- weapons), the security of women, stable tribal relations
ning in the early poleis of ancient Greece, where all free within Medina, a tax system for supporting the commucitizens had the right to speak and vote in the political nity in time of conict, parameters for exogenous politassembly.[11]
ical alliances, a system for granting protection of indiThe Twelve Tables Law established the principle Privi- viduals, a judicial system for resolving disputes, and also
legia ne irroganto, which literally means privileges shall regulated the paying of blood-wite (the payment between
families or tribes for the slaying of an individual in lieu
not be imposed.
A declaration for religious tolerance on an egalitarian ba- of lex talionis).
sis can be found in the Edicts of Ashoka, which empha- Muhammad made it the responsibility of the Islamic gov-
2.1. HISTORY OF HUMAN RIGHTS

ernment to provide food and clothing, on a reasonable
basis, to captives, regardless of their religion. If the prisoners were in the custody of a person, then the responsibility was on the individual.[27] Lewis states that Islam
brought two major changes to ancient slavery which were
to have far-reaching consequences. One of these was
the presumption of freedom; the other, the ban on the
enslavement of free persons except in strictly dened circumstances, Lewis continues. The position of the Arabian slave was enormously improved": the Arabian slave
was now no longer merely a chattel but was also a human
being with a certain religious and hence a social status and
with certain quasi-legal rights.[28]
Esposito states that reforms in womens rights aected
marriage, divorce and inheritance.[22] Women were not
accorded with such legal status in other cultures, including the West, until centuries later.[29] The Oxford Dictionary of Islam states that the general improvement of
the status of Arab women included prohibition of female
infanticide and recognizing womens full personhood.[30]
The dowry, previously regarded as a bride-price paid
to the father, became a nuptial gift retained by the wife
as part of her personal property.[22][31] Under Islamic
law, marriage was no longer viewed as a status but
rather as a "contract", in which the womans consent
was imperative.[22][30][31] Women were given inheritance rights in a patriarchal society that had previously
restricted inheritance to male relatives.[22] Annemarie
Schimmel states that compared to the pre-Islamic position of women, Islamic legislation meant an enormous
progress; the woman has the right, at least according
to the letter of the law, to administer the wealth she
has brought into the family or has earned by her own
work.[32] William Montgomery Watt states that Muhammad, in the historical context of his time, can be seen as
a gure who testied on behalf of womens rights and
improved things considerably. Watt explains: At the
time Islam began, the conditions of women were terrible
- they had no right to own property, were supposed to be
the property of the man, and if the man died everything
went to his sons. Muhammad, however, by instituting
rights of property ownership, inheritance, education and
divorce, gave women certain basic safeguards.[33] Haddad and Esposito state that Muhammad granted women
rights and privileges in the sphere of family life, marriage, education, and economic endeavors, rights that
help improve womens status in society.[34] However,
other writers have argued that women before Islam were
more liberated drawing most often on the rst marriage of
Muhammad and that of Muhammads parents, but also on
other points such as worship of female idols at Mecca.[35]
Sociologist Robert Bellah (Beyond belief) argues that Islam in its 7th-century origins was, for its time and place,
remarkably modern...in the high degree of commitment,
involvement, and participation expected from the rankand-le members of the community. This is because, he
argues, that Islam emphasized the equality of all Mus-
119
lims, where leadership positions were open to all. Dale
Eickelman writes that Bellah suggests the early Islamic
community placed a particular value on individuals, as
opposed to collective or group responsibility.[36]
Middle Ages
Further information: Magna Carta
Magna Carta is an English charter originally issued in
The Magna Carta was written in 1215.
1215 which inuenced the development of the common

law and many later constitutional documents, such as the
United States Constitution and the Bill of Rights.[37]
Magna Carta was originally written because of disagreements amongst Pope Innocent III, King John and the English barons about the rights of the King. Magna Carta required the King to renounce certain rights, respect certain
legal procedures and accept that his will could be bound
by the law. It explicitly protected certain rights of the
Kings subjects, whether free or fettered most notably
the writ of habeas corpus, allowing appeal against unlawful imprisonment.
For modern times, the most enduring legacy of Magna
Carta is considered the right of habeas corpus. This right
arises from what are now known as clauses 36, 38, 39,
and 40 of the 1215 Magna Carta. The Magna Carta also
included the right to due process:
2.1.2 Modern human rights movement

Main article: Human rights
Age of Discovery, early modern period and Age of

Enlightenment
The conquest of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries by Spain, during the Age of Discovery, resulted in
vigorous debate about human rights in Colonial Spanish
America.[38] This led to the issuance of the Laws of Burgos by Ferdinand the Catholic on behalf of his daughter,
120

of fundamental rights and freedoms. The later United
States Declaration of Independence includes concepts of
natural rights and famously states that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with
certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. Similarly, the French
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen denes a set
of individual and collective rights of the people. These
are, in the document, held to be universal not only to
French citizens but to all men without exception.
19th century to World War I
U.S. Declaration of Independence ratied by the Continental

Congress on July 4, 1776
Joanna of Castile. Fray Antonio de Montesinos, a Friar

of the Dominican Order at the Island of Hispaniola, delivered a sermon on December 21, 1511, which was attended by Bartolom de las Casas. It is believed that reports from the Dominicans in Hispaniola motivated the
Spanish Crown to act. The sermon, known as the Christmas Sermon, gave way to further debates from 155051 between Las Casas and Juan Gins de Seplveda at
Valladolid. Among the provisions of the Laws of Burgos
were child labor; womens rights; wages; suitable accommodations; and rest/vacation, among others.
Several 17th- and 18th-century European philosophers,
most notably John Locke, developed the concept of
natural rights, the notion that people are naturally free
and equal.[39][40] Though Locke believed natural rights
were derived from divinity since humans were creations
of God, his ideas were important in the development of
the modern notion of rights. Lockean natural rights did
not rely on citizenship nor any law of the state, nor were
they necessarily limited to one particular ethnic, cultural
or religious group. Around the same time, in 1689, the
English Bill of Rights was created.
In the 1700s, the novel became a popular form of entertainment. Popular novels, such as Julie, or the New
Heloise by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Pamela; or, Virtue
Rewarded by Samuel Richardson, laid a foundation for
popular acceptance of human rights by making readers
empathize with characters unlike themselves.[41][42]
Two major revolutions occurred during the 18th century
in the United States (1776) and in France (1789). The
Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 sets up a number
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen approved

by the National Assembly of France, August 26, 1789
Philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill and

Hegel expanded on the theme of universality during the
18th and 19th centuries.
In 1831 William Lloyd Garrison wrote in a newspaper
called The Liberator that he was trying to enlist his readers in the great cause of human rights[43] so the term
human rights probably came into use sometime between
Paines The Rights of Man and Garrisons publication.
In 1849, a contemporary, Henry David Thoreau, wrote
about human rights in his treatise On the Duty of Civil Disobedience which was later inuential on human rights and
civil rights thinkers. United States Supreme Court Justice
David Davis, in his 1867 opinion for Ex parte Milligan,
wrote: By the protection of the law, human rights are secured; withdraw that protection and they are at the mercy
of wicked rulers or the clamor of an excited people.[44]
121
Many groups and movements have managed to achieve

profound social changes over the course of the 20th century in the name of human rights. In Western Europe
and North America, labour unions brought about laws
granting workers the right to strike, establishing minimum work conditions and forbidding or regulating child
labour. The womens rights movement succeeded in gaining for many women the right to vote. National liberation movements in many countries succeeded in driving out colonial powers. One of the most inuential was
Mahatma Gandhi's movement to free his native India
from British rule. Movements by long-oppressed racial
and religious minorities succeeded in many parts of the
world, among them the civil rights movement, and more
recent diverse identity politics movements, on behalf of Original Geneva Convention in 1864
women and minorities in the United States.
The foundation of the International Committee of the
Red Cross, the 1864 Lieber Code and the rst of the
Geneva Conventions in 1864 laid the foundations of
international humanitarian law, to be further developed
following the two World Wars.
First
Geneva Convention
Hague Convention II
Between World War I and World War II

The League of Nations was established in 1919 at the
negotiations over the Treaty of Versailles following the
end of World War I. The Leagues goals included disarmament, preventing war through collective security,
settling disputes between countries through negotiation,
diplomacy and improving global welfare. Enshrined in
its Charter was a mandate to promote many of the rights
which were later included in the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights.
The League of Nations had mandates to support many
of the former colonies of the Western European colonial
powers during their transition from colony to independent
state.
Established as an agency of the League of Nations, and
now part of United Nations, the International Labour Organization also had a mandate to promote and safeguard
certain of the rights later included in the UDHR:
Progression of Geneva Conventions from 1864 to 1949
rst attempt to dene laws of war. Despite rst being

framed before World War II, the conventions were revised as a result of World War II and readopted by the
international community in 1949.
The Geneva Conventions are:
The Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the
Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces
in the Field was adopted in 1864. It was signicantly revised and replaced by the 1906 version,[45]
the 1929 version, and later the First Geneva Convention of 1949.[46]
After World War II
The Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of

the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked
Members of Armed Forces at Sea was adopted in
1906.[47] It was signicantly revised and replaced
by the Second Geneva Convention of 1949.
Rights in War and the Geneva Conventions Main

articles: International humanitarian law and Geneva
Conventions
See also: Prisoner rights in Islam
The Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of

Prisoners of War was adopted in 1929. It was signicantly revised and replaced by the Third Geneva
Convention of 1949.
The Fourth Geneva Convention relative to the ProThe Geneva Conventions came into being between 1864
tection of Civilian Persons in Time of War was
and 1949 as a result of eorts by Henry Dunant, the
adopted in 1949.
founder of the International Committee of the Red Cross.
The conventions safeguard the human rights of individuals involved in conict, and follow on from the 1899 and In addition, there are three additional amendment proto1907 Hague Conventions, the international communitys cols to the Geneva Convention:
122
Protocol I (1977): Protocol Additional to the
Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International
Armed Conicts.
Protocol II (1977): Protocol Additional to the
Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and
relating to the Protection of Victims of NonInternational Armed Conicts.
Protocol III (2005): Protocol Additional to the
Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem.

1947. The members of the Commission did not immediately agree on the form of such a bill of rights, and
whether, or how, it should be enforced. The Commission proceeded to frame the UDHR and accompanying
treaties, but the UDHR quickly became the priority.[50]
Canadian law professor John Humphrey and French
lawyer Rene Cassin were responsible for much of the
cross-national research and the structure of the document
respectively, where the articles of the declaration were interpretative of the general principle of the preamble. The
document was structured by Cassin to include the basic
principles of dignity, liberty, equality and brotherhood in
the rst two articles, followed successively by rights pertaining to individuals; rights of individuals in relation to
each other and to groups; spiritual, public and political
rights; and economic, social and cultural rights. The nal three articles place, according to Cassin, rights in the
context of limits, duties and the social and political order
in which they are to be realized.[50] Humphrey and Cassin
intended the rights in the UDHR to be legally enforceable
through some means, as is reected in the third clause of
the preamble:[50]
All four conventions were last revised and ratied in

1949, based on previous revisions and partly on some of
the 1907 Hague Conventions. Later, conferences have
added provisions prohibiting certain methods of warfare
and addressing issues of civil wars. Nearly all 200 countries of the world are signatory nations, in that they have
ratied these conventions. The International Committee
of the Red Cross is the controlling body of the Geneva
Some of the UDHR was researched and written by a
conventions.
committee of international experts on human rights, including representatives from all continents and all maUniversal Declaration of Human Rights Main arti- jor religions, and drawing on consultation with leaders
such as Mahatma Gandhi.[51] The inclusion of both civil
cle: Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and political rights and economic, social and cultural
rights[50][52] was predicated on the assumption that basic
human rights are indivisible and that the dierent types
of rights listed are inextricably linked. Though this principle was not opposed by any member states at the time
of adoption (the declaration was adopted unanimously,
with the abstention of the Soviet bloc, Apartheid South
Africa and Saudi Arabia), this principle was later subject
to signicant challenges.[52]
It is not a treaty...[In the future, it] may well become the international Magna Carta.[48] Eleanor Roosevelt with the Spanish
text of the Universal Declaration in 1949
(UDHR) is a non-binding declaration adopted by the

United Nations General Assembly[49] in 1948, partly in
response to the barbarism of World War II. The UDHR
urges member nations to promote a number of human,
civil, economic and social rights, asserting these rights
are part of the foundation of freedom, justice and peace
in the world.
Later Histories We have already found a high degree

of personal liberty, and we are now struggling to enhance
equality of opportunity. Our commitment to human
rights must be absolute, our laws fair, our natural beauty
preserved; the powerful must not persecute the weak, and
human dignity must be enhanced.
Jimmy Carter Inaugural Address.[53]
According to historian Samuel Moyn the next major landmark in human rights happened in the 1970s.[54] Human right was included in point VII of Helsinki Accords,
which was signed in 1975 by thirty-ve states, including
The UDHR was framed by members of the Human the USA, Canada, and all European states except Albania
Rights Commission, with Eleanor Roosevelt as Chair, and Andorra.
who began to discuss an International Bill of Rights in During his inaugural speech in 1977, the 39th President

of United States Jimmy Carter made human rights a pillar
of United States foreign policy.[55] Human rights advocacy organization Amnesty International later won Nobel
Peace Prize also in 1977.[56] Carter, who was instrumental in Camp David accord peace treaty would himself
later won Nobel Peace Prize in 2002 for his decades of
untiring eort to nd peaceful solutions to international
conicts, to advance democracy and human rights, and to
promote economic and social development.[57]
123
[14] Slave-owning societies, Encyclopdia Britannica

[15] Alexander (1998), p.452
[16] Lewis (1998)
[17] Watt (1974), p.234
[18] Robinson (2004) p.21
[19] Haddad, Esposito (1998), p. 98
[20] Akhl ", Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
2.1.3
See also
[21] Joseph, Najmabadi (2007). Chapter: p.293. Gallagher,

Nancy. Infanticide and Abandonment of Female Children
The Laws of Burgos: 500 Years of Human Rights

[22] Esposito (2005) p. 79
from the Law Library of Congress blog
Al-Risalah al-Huquq
2.1.4
Notes
[1] Samuel Moyn, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History

(Harvard University Press, 2010)
[2] Scott McLemee, The Last Utopia Inside Higher Education Dec. 8, 2010 online
[3] Yoee, Norman (2005). Myths of the Archaic State: Evolution of the Earliest Cities, States, and Civilizations. Cambridge University Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0521521567.
[4] French, Marilyn (2007). From Eve to Dawn, A History of
Women in the World, Volume 1: Origins from Prehistory to
the First Millennium v. 1. Feminist Press, City University
of New York. p. 100. ISBN 978-1558615656.
[5] The First Global Statement of the Inherent Dignity and
Equality. United Nations. Retrieved 2010-09-13.
[6] Lauren, Paul Gordon (2003). Philosophical Visions: Human Nature, Natural Law, and Natural Rights. The
Evolution of International Human Rights: Visions Seen.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 08122-1854-X.
[7] Robertson, Arthur Henry; Merrills, J. G. (1996). Human
rights in the world : an introduction to the study of the international protection of human rights. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-4923-1.
[8] Kuhrt (1983), pp. 8397
[9] Wiesehfer (1999), pp. 5568
[10] Daniel, p. 39
[11] Shelton, Dinah. An Introduction to the History of International Human Rights Law. ssrn.com. George Washington University Law School. Retrieved 10 April 2015.
[12] Amartya Sen (1997)
[13] Arrian, Indica, This also is remarkable in India, that all
Indians are free, and no Indian at all is a slave. In this the
Indians agree with the Lacedaemonians. Yet the Lacedaemonians have Helots for slaves, who perform the duties of
slaves; but the Indians have no slaves at all, much less is
any Indian a whore.
[23] Ahmed I. (1996). WESTERN AND MUSLIM PERCEPTIONS OF UNIVERSAL HUMAN RIGHTS.
Afrika Focus.
[24] See:
Firestone (1999) p. 118;
Muhammad, Encyclopedia of Islam Online
[25] Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B. Serjeant The
Constitution of Medina. Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964) p.4.
[26] R. B. Serjeant, The Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib
Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: Analysis and translation
of the documents comprised in the so-called Constitution
of Medina. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African
Studies, University of London, Vol. 41, No. 1. 1978),
page 4.
[27] Maududi (1967), Introduction of Ad-Dahr, Period of
revelation, pg. 159
[28] Lewis (1994) chapter 1
[29] Jones, Lindsay. p.6224
[30] Esposito (2004), p. 339
[31] Khadduri (1978)
[32] Schimmel (1992) p.65
[33] Maan, McIntosh (1999)
[34] Haddad, Esposito (1998) p.163
[35] Turner, Brian S. Islam (ISBN 041512347X). Routledge:
2003, p77-78.
[36] McAulie (2005) vol. 5, pp. 66-76. Social Sciences and
the Quran
[37] Hazeltine, H. D. (1917). The Inuence of Magna Carta
on American Constitutional Development. In Malden,
Henry Elliot. Magna Carta commemoration essays. BiblioBazaar. ISBN 978-1116447477.
[38] http://blogs.loc.gov/law/2012/12/
the-laws-of-burgos-500-years-of-human-rights/
[39] Lockes Political Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy)
124
[40] Lockes Political Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia of

Philosophy)
[41] Hunt, Lynn (2008). Inventing Human Rights: A History.
W. W. Norton & Company.
Strasbourg. He used the term at least as early as November 1977.[1] Vasaks theories have primarily taken root in
European law.
His divisions follow the three watchwords of the French

Revolution: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. The three gen[42] Slaughter, Joseph R. (2007). Human Rights, Inc.:The
erations are reected in some of the rubrics of the Charter
World Novel, Narrative Form, and International Law.
of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The
Fordham University Press.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights includes rights
[43] Mayer (2000) p. 110
that are thought of as second generation as well as rst
generation ones, but it does not make the distinction in
[44] "Ex Parte Milligan, 71 U.S. 2, 119. (full text)" (PDF).
itself (the rights listed are not in specic order).
December 1866. Archived from the original (PDF) on
2008-03-07. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
[45] Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the
Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field. Geneva, 6 July
1906. International Committee of the Red Cross. Retrieved July 20, 2013.
[46]
[47]
[48]
[49]
[50]
2.2.1 First-generation human rights
First-generation human rights, often called blue rights,

deal essentially with liberty and participation in politi1949 Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the cal life. They are fundamentally civil and political in
Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in nature: They serve negatively to protect the individual
the Field
from excesses of the state. First-generation rights include, among other things, the right to life, equality beDavid P. Forsythe (June 17, 2007). The International
Committee of the Red Cross: A Neutral Humanitarian Ac- fore the law, freedom of speech, the right to a fair trial,
freedom of religion and voting rights. They were piotor. Routledge. p. 43. ISBN 0-415-34151-5.
neered by the United States Bill of Rights and in France
Eleanor Roosevelt: Address to the United Nations General by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Assembly 10 December 1948 in Paris, France
in the 18th century, although some of these rights and the
right to due process date back to the Magna Carta of 1215
(A/RES/217, 1948-12-10 at Palais de Chaillot, Paris)
and the Rights of Englishmen, which were expressed in
Glendon, Mary Ann (July 2004). The Rule of Law in The the English Bill of Rights in 1689.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Northwestern

University Journal of International Human Rights 2 (5).
[51] Glendon (2001)
[52] Ball, Olivia; Gready, Paul (2006) p.34 No-nonsense
Guide to Human Rights. New Internationalist Publications Ltd
[53] Carter, Jimmy (January 20, 1977). Jimmy Carter Inaugural Address
They were enshrined at the global level and given status

in international law rst by Articles 3 to 21 of the 1948
Universal Declaration of Human Rights and later in the
1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
In Europe, they were enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights in 1953.
2.2.2 Second-generation human rights
[54] Moyn, Samuel (August 30 September 6, 2010).

Human Rights in History. The Nation.
Second-generation human rights are related to equality

and began to be recognized by governments after World
[55] Moyn, Samuel (2010). The Last Utopia: Human Rights in War II. They are fundamentally economic, social and culHistory. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-04872-5.
tural in nature. They guarantee dierent members of
ISBN 9780674048720.
the citizenry equal conditions and treatment. Secondary
[56] The Nobel Peace Prize 1977 - Amnesty International. rights would include a right to be employed in just and
The Nobel Foundation.
favorable condition, rights to food, housing and health
care, as well as social security and unemployment bene[57] The Nobel Peace Prize 2002 - Jimmy Carter. The Nobel
ts. Like rst-generation rights, they were also covered by
Foundation. December 14, 2002.
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and further
embodied in Articles 22 to 28 of the Universal Declaration, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social,
2.2 Three generations of human and Cultural Rights.
rights
In the United States of America, President Franklin D.

Roosevelt proposed a Second Bill of Rights, covering
The division of human rights into three generations much the same grounds, during his State of the Union Adwas initially proposed in 1979 by the Czech jurist Karel dress on January 11, 1944. Today, many nations, states,
Vasak at the International Institute of Human Rights in or groups of nations have developed legally binding decla-
2.2. THREE GENERATIONS OF HUMAN RIGHTS
125
rations guaranteeing comprehensive sets of human rights, rights. For example, the Hungarian Parliamentary Come.g. the European Social Charter.
missioner for Future Generations,[9] the Parliament of
Some states have enacted some of these economic rights, Finlands Committee for the Future, and the erstwhile
e.g., New York State has enshrined the right to a free Commission for Future Generations in the Knesset in Iseducation,[2][3] as well as the right to organize and to rael.
bargain collectively,[4] and workers compensation,[5] in Some international organizations have oces for safeits constitutional law.
guarding such rights. An example is the High ComThese rights are sometimes referred to as "red" rights. missioner on National Minorities of the Organization for
They impose upon the government the duty to respect and Security and Co-operation in Europe. The Directoratepromote and fulll them, but this depends on the avail- General for the Environment of the European Commisability of resources. The duty is imposed on the state be- sion has as its mission protecting, preserving and imcause it controls its own resources. No one has the direct proving the environment for present and future generaright to housing and right to education. (In South Africa, tions, and promoting sustainable development.
for instance, the right is not, per se, to housing, but rather A few jurisdictions have enacted provisions for
to have access to adequate housing,[6] realised on a pro- environmental protection, e.g. New Yorks forever
gressive basis.[7] )
wild constitutional article,[10] which is enforceable by
The duty of government is in the realization of these pos- action of the New York State Attorney General or by
any citizen Ex rel with the consent of the Appellate
itive rights.
Division.[11]
2.2.3
Third-generation human rights

2.2.4 Commentary
Third-generation human rights are those rights that go

beyond the mere civil and social, as expressed in many
progressive documents of international law, including the
1972 Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, and other
pieces of generally aspirational "soft law. Because of
the present-day tilting toward national sovereignty and the
preponderance of would-be oender nations, these rights
have been hard to enact in legally binding documents.
Maurice Cranston argued that scarcity means that supposed second-generation and third-generation rights are
not really rights at all.[12] If one person has a right, others have a duty to respect that right, but governments lack
the resources necessary to fulll the duties implied by citizens supposed second- and third-generation rights.
Dr. Charles Kesler, a professor of government at

Claremont McKenna College and senior fellow of the
Claremont Institute, has argued that second- and thirdThe term third-generation human rights remains largely generation human rights serve as an attempt to cloak pounocial, just as the also-used moniker of "green" rights, litical goals, which the majority may well agree are good
and thus houses an extremely broad spectrum of rights, things in and of themselves, in the language of rights,
including:
and thus grant those political goals inappropriate connotations. In his opinion, calling socio-economic goods
rights inherently creates a related concept of "duties,
Group and collective rights
so that other citizens have to be coerced by the govern Right to self-determination
ment to give things to other people in order to fulll
these new rights. He also has stated that, in the US, the
Right to economic and social development
new rights create a nationalization of political decisionmaking at the federal level in violation of federalism.[13]
Right to a healthy environment
In his book Soft Despotism, Democracys Drift, Dr. Paul
Rahe, the Charles O. Lee and Louise K. Lee Chair in
Right to natural resources
Western Heritage at Hillsdale College, wrote that focus Right to communicate and communication rights
ing on equality-based rights leads to a subordination to
the initial civil rights to an ever-expanding government,
Right to participation in cultural heritage
which would be too incompetent to provide for its citizens correctly and would merely seek to subordinate more
Rights to intergenerational equity and sustainability
rights.[14]
African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights ensures
many of those; right to self-determination, right to development, right to natural resource and right to satisfactory environment.[8] Some countries also have constitutional mechanisms for safeguarding third-generation
19th century philosopher Frederic Bastiat summarized

the conict between these negative and positive rights by
saying:
Economist F. A. Hayek has argued that the second generation concept of "social justice" cannot have any practical
126
political meaning:
New York University School of Law professor of law
Jeremy Waldron has written in response to critics of the
second-generation rights:
In any case, the argument from rstgeneration to second-generation rights was
never supposed to be a matter of conceptual
analysis. It was rather this: if one is really concerned to secure civil or political liberty for a
person, that commitment should be accompanied by a further concern about the conditions
of the persons life that make it possible for
him to enjoy and exercise that liberty. Why
on earth would it be worth ghting for this persons liberty (say, his liberty to choose between
A and B) if he were left in a situation in which
the choice between A and B meant nothing to
him, or in which his choosing one rather than
the other would have no impact on his life?"[17]
[5] N.Y. Const. ART. I, 18, found at New York State Assembly website. Retrieved February 23, 2012.
[6] Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, s
26(1).
[7] s s 26(2).
[8] African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, Article
20, 21, 22 and 24
[9] Notes: Hungarian Parliamentary Commissioner for Future Generations
[10] N.Y. Const. ART XIV, 1. Found at New York State
Assembly website. Retrieved February 23, 2012.
[11] N.Y. Const. ART XIV, 5. Found at New York State
Assembly website. Retrieved February 23, 2012.
[12] Cranston, Maurice. Human Rights: Real and Supposed,
in Political Theory and the Rights of Man, edited by D. D.
Raphael (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1967),
pp. 43-51.
[13] Charles Kesler on the Grand Liberal Project.
Hungarian socialist and political economist Karl Polanyi

Uncommon Knowledge. May 28, 2009. Retrieved
January 5, 2010.
made the antithetical argument to Hayek in the book
The Great Transformation. Polanyi wrote that an un[14] Soft Despotism with Paul Rahe. Uncommon Knowlcontrolled free market would lead to repressive economic
edge. November 19, 2009. Retrieved January 5, 2010.
concentration and then to a co-opting of democratic gov[18]
[15] Bastiat, Frdric (1995, originally written 1850).
ernance that degrades civil rights.
Selected Essays on Political Economy. Irvington-on-
World Conference on Human Rights opposed the distincHudson, NY: The Foundation for Economic Education,
tion between civil and political rights (negative rights) and
Inc. Retrieved 2009-01-20. Check date values in: |date=
economic, social and cultural rights (positive rights) that
(help); |chapter= ignored (help)
resulted the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action proclaiming that all human rights are universal, in- [16] Hazlett, Thomas W. (July 1992). The Road from Serfdom: Forseeing the Fall. Reason. Retrieved January 4,
divisible, interdependent and interrelated.[19]
2010.
2.2.5
See also
Two Concepts of Liberty: a lecture by Isaiah Berlin

which distinguished between positive and negative
liberty.
Human security
2.2.6
Notes
[1] Karel Vasak, Human Rights: A Thirty-Year Struggle: the

Sustained Eorts to give Force of law to the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, UNESCO Courier 30:11,
Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientic, and Cultural Organization, November 1977.
[2] N.Y. Const. ART. XI, 1, found at New York State Assembly website. Retrieved February 23, 2012.
[17] Jeremy Waldron, 1993. Liberal Rights: Collected Papers,

page 7, 198191. ISBN 0-521-43617-6
[18] Karl Polanyi (2001). The Great Transformation. Beacon
Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-5643-1.
[19] Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, Part I para
5

Indivisibility and interdependence of economic, social, cultural, civil and political rights, UN GA resolution, 1986
2.3 Civil and political rights
[3] Campaign for Fiscal Equity, Inc. v. State, 86 N.Y.2d 307

(1995). Case brief found at Cornell Law School website.
Retrieved February 23, 2012.
Civil rights redirects here. For other uses, see Civil

rights (disambiguation).
[4] N.Y. Const. ART. I, 17, found at New York State Assembly website. Retrieved February 23, 2012.
Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect

individuals' freedom from infringement by governments,
2.3. CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

social organizations and private individuals, and which
ensure ones ability to participate in the civil and political life of the society and state without discrimination or
repression.
127
This process culminated in the Roman Catholic Relief
Act 1829 which restored the civil rights of Catholics.
In the 1860s, Americans adapted this usage to newly

freed blacks. Congress enacted civil rights acts in 1866,
Civil rights include the ensuring of peoples physical and 1871, 1875, 1957, 1960, 1964, 1968, and 1991.
mental integrity, life and safety; protection from discrimination on grounds such as race, gender, national
origin, colour, sexual orientation, ethnicity, religion, or 2.3.2 Protection of rights
disability;[1][2][3] and individual rights such as privacy,
the freedoms of thought and conscience, speech and T.H. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the rst
expression, religion, the press, assembly and movement. to be recognized and codied, followed later by political rights and still later by social rights. In many counPolitical rights include natural justice (procedural fair- tries, they are constitutional rights and are included in
ness) in law, such as the rights of the accused, includ- a bill of rights or similar document. They are also deing the right to a fair trial; due process; the right to seek ned in international human rights instruments, such as
redress or a legal remedy; and rights of participation in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the
civil society and politics such as freedom of association, 1967 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
the right to assemble, the right to petition, the right of
Civil and political rights need not be codied to be proself-defense, and the right to vote.
tected, although most democracies worldwide do have
Civil and political rights form the original and main part formal written guarantees of civil and political rights.
of international human rights.[4] They comprise the rst Civil rights are considered to be natural rights. Thomas
portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Jeerson wrote in his A Summary View of the Rights of
Rights (with economic, social and cultural rights compris- British America that a free people [claim] their rights as
ing the second portion). The theory of three generations derived from the laws of nature, and not as the gift of
of human rights considers this group of rights to be rst- their chief magistrate.
generation rights, and the theory of negative and positive
The question of to whom civil and political rights apply
rights considers them to be generally negative rights.
is a subject of controversy. In many countries, citizens
have greater protections against infringement of rights
than non-citizens; at the same time, civil and political
2.3.1 History
rights are generally considered to be universal rights that
apply to all persons.
The phrase civil rights is a translation of Latin ius civis
(rights of a citizen). Roman citizens could be either free
(libertas) or servile (servitus), but they all had rights in 2.3.3 Other rights
law.[5] After the Edict of Milan in 313, these rights included the freedom of religion.[6] Roman legal doctrine Custom also plays a role. Implied or unenumerated rights
was lost during the Middle Ages, but claims of univer- are rights that courts may nd to exist even though not exsal rights could still be made based on religious doctrine. pressly guaranteed by written law or custom; one example
According to the leaders of Ketts Rebellion (1549), all is the right to privacy in the United States, and the Ninth
bond men may be made free, for God made all free with Amendment explicitly shows that there are other rights
his precious blood-shedding.[7]
that are also protected.
In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir The United States Declaration of Independence states that
Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citi- people have unalienable rights including Life, Liberty
zenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically en- and the pursuit of Happiness. It is considered by some
joyed such rights. The Parliament of England adopted that the sole purpose of government is the protection of
the English Bill of Rights in 1689. The Virginia Decla- life, liberty and property.[8] The right to self-defense is
ration of Rights, by George Mason and James Madison, embodied in the 2nd Amendment right to bear arms.
was adopted in 1776. The Virginia declaration is the diliberty arm rights
rect ancestor and model for the U.S. Bill of Rights (1789). Ideas of self-ownership and cognitive
to choose the food one eats,[9][10][11] the medicine one
In early 19th century Britain, the phrase civil rights takes,[12][13][14] the habit one indulges.[15][16][17]
most commonly referred to the issue of legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons support for the British civil rights movement was divided, 2.3.4 Civil rights movements
many more well-known politicians supported the discrimination towards Catholics. Independent MPs (such Main article: Movements for civil rights
as Lewis Eves and Matthew Mountford) applied pressure Civil rights guarantee equal protection under the law.
for Catholic emancipation on the larger political parties. When civil and political rights are not guaranteed to all as
128

Worldwide, several political movements for equality before the law occurred between approximately 1950 and
1980. These movements had a legal and constitutional
aspect, and resulted in much law-making at both national
and international levels. They also had an activist side,
particularly in situations where violations of rights were
widespread. Movements with the proclaimed aim of securing observance of civil and political rights included:
the 1950s and 1960s Civil Rights Movement in the
United States, where rights of black citizens had
been violated;
the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association,
formed in 1967 following failures in this province
of the United Kingdom to respect the Catholic minoritys rights; and
movements in many Communist countries, such as
Charter 77 in Czechoslovakia.
Most civil rights movements relied on the technique of

civil resistance, using nonviolent methods to achieve their
Savka Dabevi-Kuar, Croatian Spring participant; Europes aims.[24] In some countries, struggles for civil rights were
rst female prime minister
accompanied, or followed, by civil unrest and even armed
rebellion. While civil rights movements over the last sixty
years have resulted in an extension of civil and political
rights, the process was long and tenuous in many counpart of equal protection of laws, or when such guarantees tries, and many of these movements did not achieve or
exist on paper but are not respected in practice, opposi- fully achieve their objectives.
tion, legal action and even social unrest may ensue.
Some historians suggest that New Orleans was the cradle
of the civil rights movement in the United States, due to
the earliest eorts of Creoles to integrate the military en
masse.[18] W.C.C. Claiborne, appointed by Thomas Jefferson to be governor of the Territory of Orleans, formally accepted delivery of the French colony on December 20, 1803. Free men of color had been members of the
militia for decades under both Spanish and French control
of the colony of Louisiana. They volunteered their services and pledged their loyalty to Claiborne and to their
newly adopted country.[19]
2.3.5 Problems and analysis

Questions about civil and political rights have frequently
emerged. For example, to what extent should the government intervene to protect individuals from infringement
on their rights by other individuals, or from corporations
e.g., in what way should employment discrimination
in the private sector be dealt with?
Political theory deals with civil and political rights.

Robert Nozick and John Rawls expressed competing viBut in early 1804, the new U.S. administration in New sions in Nozicks Anarchy, State, and Utopia and Rawls A
Orleans, under Governor Claiborne, was faced with a Theory of Justice. Other inuential authors in the area indilemma previously unknown in the United States, i.e., clude Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld and Jean Edward Smith.
the integration of the military by incorporating entire
units of previously established colored militia.[20] See,
2.3.6 First-generation rights
e.g., the February 20, 1804 letter to Claiborne from Secretary of War Henry Dearborn that it would be prudent First-generation rights, often called blue rights, deal esnot to increase the Corps, but to diminish, if it could be sentially with liberty and participation in political life.
done without giving oense. [21]
They are fundamentally civil and political in nature, as
Civil Rights movements in the United States gathered
steam by 1848 with such documents as the Declaration of
Sentiment.[22] Consciously modeled after the Declaration
of Independence, the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments became the founding document of the American
womens movement, and it was adopted at the Seneca
Falls Convention, July 19 and 20, 1848.[23]
well as strongly individualistic: They serve negatively to

protect the individual from excesses of the state. Firstgeneration rights include, among other things, freedom
of speech, the right to a fair trial, (in some countries)
the right to keep and bear arms, freedom of religion and
voting rights. They were pioneered in the United States
by the Bill of Rights and in France by the Declaration of
2.3. CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS
129
the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in the 18th century,

although some of these rights and the right to due process
date back to the Magna Carta of 1215 and the Rights of
Englishmen, which were expressed in the English Bill of
Rights in 1689.
[5] Mears, T. Lambert, Analysis of M. Ortolans Institutes of

Justinian, Including the History and, p. 75.
They were enshrined at the global level and given status

in international law rst by Articles 3 to 21 of the 1948
Universal Declaration of Human Rights and later in the
1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
In Europe, they were enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights in 1953.
[7] Human Rights: 1500-1760 - Background.

alarchives.gov.uk. Retrieved 2012-02-11.
2.3.7
See also
[6] Fahlbusch, Erwin and Georey William Bromiley, The

encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 4, p. 703.
Nation-
[8] House Bill 4

[9] Mark Nugent (July 23, 2013). The Fight for Food Rights
(Review of Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Food Rights:
The Escalating Battle Over Who Decides What We Eat by
David Gumpert)". The American Conservative. Retrieved
September 15, 2013.
Calculating Visions: Kennedy, Johnson, and Civil

Rights (book)
[10] Robert Book (March 23, 2012). The Real Broccoli Mandate. Forbes. Retrieved September 15, 2013.
Civil death
[11] Meredith Bragg & Nick Gillspie (June 21, 2013).

Cheese Lovers Fight Idiotic FDA Ban on Mimolette
Cheese!". Reason. Retrieved September 15, 2013.
Civil liberties
Civil liberties in the United Kingdom
Civil resistance
Civil society
Constitutional economics
Division of powers
Flex Your Rights
Justice
List of civil rights leaders
Non-aggression principle
Police power
Proactive policing
Public interest
Rule According to Higher Law
Rule of law
Three generations of human rights
Marion C. Bascom
2.3.8
References
[1] The Civil Rights act of 1964, ourdocuments.gov

[2] Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, accessboard.gov
[12] Jessica Flanigan (July 26, 2012). Three arguments

against prescription requirements (PDF). Journal of
Medical Ethics. Retrieved September 14, 2013.
[13] Kerry Howley (August 1, 2005). Self-Medicating
in Burma: Pharmaceutical freedom in an outpost of
tyranny. Reason. Retrieved September 14, 2013.
[14] Daniel Schorn (February 11, 2009). Prisoner Of Pain.
60 Minutes. Retrieved September 15, 2013.
[15] Emily Dufton (Mar 28, 2012). The War on Drugs:
Should It Be Your Right to Use Narcotics?". The Atlantic.
Retrieved September 13, 2013.
[16] Doug Bandow (2012). From Fighting the Drug War to
Protecting the Right to Use Drugs - Recognizing a Forgotten Liberty. Towards a Worldwide Index of Human
Freedom (PDF). Chapter 10. Fraser Institute. pp. 253
280.
[17] Thomas Szasz (1992). Our Right to Drugs: The Case for
a Free Market. Praeger.
[18] Eaton, Fernin. Louisianas Free People of ColorDigitization Grant-letter in support. Retrieved June 7,
2013.
[19] Carter, Clarence (1940). The Territorial Papers of the
United States, Vol. IX, The Territory of Orleans. p. 174.
[20] Eaton, Fernin. 1811 Slave Uprising, etc. Salon
Publique, Pitot House, November 7, 2011. Retrieved June
7, 2013.
[3] Summary of LGBT civil rights protections, by state, at

Lambda Legal, lambdalegal.org
[21] Rowland, Dunbar (1917). Ocial Letter Books of W.C.C.

Claiborne, 1801-1816 2. Mississippi Dept. of Archives
& History. pp. 5455.
[4] A useful survey is Paul Sieghart, The Lawful Rights of

Mankind: An Introduction to the International Legal Code
of Human Rights, Oxford University Press, 1985.
[22] Signatures to the Seneca Falls Convention 'Declaration

of Sentiments". American History Online, Facts On File,
Inc.
130
[23] Cullen-DuPont, Kathryn. Declaration of Rights and Sentiments. Encyclopedia of Womens History in America,
Second Edition. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2000.
American History Online. Facts On File, Inc.
Covenants, which complete the International Bill of Human Rights. In 1976, after the Covenants had been ratied by a sucient number of individual nations, the Bill
took on the force of international law.[2]
[24] Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash (eds.), Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent
Action from Gandhi to the Present, Oxford University
Press, 2009. Includes chapters by specialists on the various movements.
2.4.1 History
2.3.9
External links
Precursors
Main article: History of human rights
During World War II, the Allies adopted the Four Free Civil Rights entry by Andrew Altman in the Stanford domsfreedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
from fear, and freedom from wantas their basic war
aims. The United Nations Charter rearmed faith in
Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom
fundamental human rights, and dignity and worth of the
Struggle ~ an online multimedia encyclopedia prehuman person and committed all member states to prosented by the King Institute at Stanford University,
mote universal respect for, and observance of, human
includes information on over 1000 civil rights moverights and fundamental freedoms for all without distincment gures, events and organizations
tion as to race, sex, language, or religion.[3]
Encyclopdia Britannica: Article on Civil Rights When the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany became
apparent after the war, the consensus within the world
Movement
community was that the United Nations Charter did not
The History Channel: Civil Rights Movement
suciently dene the rights to which it referred.[4][5] A
universal declaration that specied the rights of individu Civil Rights: Beyond Black & White - slideshow by als was necessary to give eect to the Charters provisions
Life magazine
on human rights.[6]
Civil Rights in America: Connections to a Movement
Creation and drafting
Civil rights during the Eisenhower Administration,
Main article: Drafting of the Universal Declaration of
Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Human Rights
The Declaration was commissioned in 1946 and was
drafted over two years by the Commission on Human
Rights. The Commission consisted of 18 members from
various nationalities and political backgrounds. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights Drafting Committee
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General was chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, who was known for her
human rights advocacy.
Assembly on 10 December 1948 at the Palais de Chaillot,
Paris. The Declaration arose directly from the experience Canadian John Peters Humphrey was called upon by the
of the Second World War and represents the rst global United Nations Secretary-General to work on the project
expression of rights to which all human beings are inher- and became the Declarations principal drafter.[7] At the
ently entitled. The full text is published by the United time, Humphrey was newly appointed as Director of the
Nations on its website.[1]
Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Sec[8]
The Declaration consists of thirty articles which have retariat. The Commission on Human Rights, a standing
been elaborated in subsequent international treaties, re- body of the United Nations, was constituted to undertake
was initially conceived as an
gional human rights instruments, national constitutions, the work of preparing what[9]
International
Bill
of
Rights.
and other laws. The International Bill of Human Rights
2.4 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
consists of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,

the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights and its two Optional Protocols. In
1966, the General Assembly adopted the two detailed
British representatives were extremely frustrated that the

proposal had moral but no legal obligation.[10] (It was not
until 1976 that the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights came into force, giving a legal status to
most of the Declaration.)
2.4. UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
131
The membership of the Commission was designed to

be broadly representative of the global community,
served by representatives from the following countries:
Australia, Belgium, Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, Chile, Republic of China, Egypt, France, India, Iran,
Lebanon, Panama, Philippines, United Kingdom, United
States, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Uruguay, and
Yugoslavia.[9] Well-known members of the Commission
included Eleanor Roosevelt of the United States (who was
the Chairperson), Ren Cassin of France, Charles Malik
of Lebanon, P. C. Chang of the Republic of China,[11]
and Hansa Mehta of India.[12] Humphrey provided the
initial draft which became the working text of the Commission.
Brazil
The draft was further discussed by the Commission on

human rights, the Economic and Social Council, the
Third Committee of the General Assembly before being
put to vote. During these discussions many amendments
and propositions were made by UN Member States.[13]
Dominican Republic
According to Allan Carlson in Globalizing Family Values, the Declarations pro-family phrases were the result of the Christian Democratic movements inuence on
Cassin and Malik.[14]
El Salvador
Adoption
Burma
Canada
Chile
China
Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba
Denmark
Ecuador
Egypt
Ethiopia
France
Greece
Guatemala
On 10 December 1948, the Universal Declaration was

adopted by the General Assembly by a vote of 48 in favor, none against, and eight abstentions (the Soviet Union,
Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Peoples Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Peoples Republic of Poland, Union
of South Africa, Czechoslovakia, and the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia).[15][16] Honduras and Yemenboth members of UN at the timefailed to vote or abstain.[17]
South Africas position can be seen as an attempt to protect its system of apartheid, which clearly violated any
number of articles in the Declaration.[15] The Saudi Arabian delegations abstention was prompted primarily by
two of the Declarations articles: Article 18, which states
that everyone has the right to change his religion or belief"; and Article 16, on equal marriage rights.[15] The six
communist nations abstentions centered around the view
that the Declaration did not go far enough in condemning
fascism and Nazism.[18] Eleanor Roosevelt attributed the
abstention of the Soviet bloc nations to Article 13, which
provided the right of citizens to leave their countries.[19]
Haiti
The following countries voted in favor of the

Declaration:[20]
Norway
Iceland
India
Iran
Iraq
Lebanon
Liberia
Luxembourg
Mexico
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Pakistan
Afghanistan
Panama
Argentina
Paraguay
Australia
Peru
Belgium
Philippines
Bolivia
Siam
132
Sweden
Syria
Turkey
United Kingdom
United States
Uruguay
Venezuela
The adoption of the Universal Declaration is a signicant international commemoration marked each year on
10 December, and is known as Human Rights Day or International Human Rights Day. The commemoration is
observed by individuals, community and religious groups,
human rights organizations, parliaments, governments,
and the United Nations. Decadal commemorations are
often accompanied by campaigns to promote awareness
of the Declaration and human rights. 2008 marked the
60th anniversary of the Declaration, and was accompanied by year-long activities around the theme Dignity
and justice for all of us.[24]
Despite the central role played by the Canadian John

Peters Humphrey, the Canadian Government at rst 2.4.4 Signicance and legal eect
abstained from voting on the Declarations draft, but
later voted in favor of the nal draft in the General Signicance
Assembly.[21]
2.4.2
Structure
The underlying structure of the Universal Declaration

was introduced in its second draft, which was prepared
by Ren Cassin. Cassin worked from a rst draft, which
was prepared by John Peters Humphrey. The structure
was inuenced by the Code Napolon, including a preamble and introductory general principles.[22]
Cassin compared the Declaration to the portico of a
Greek temple, with a foundation, steps, four columns,
and a pediment. Articles 1 and 2 are the foundation
blocks, with their principles of dignity, liberty, equality, and brotherhood. The seven paragraphs of the
preamblesetting out the reasons for the Declaration
represent the steps. The main body of the Declaration
forms the four columns. The rst column (articles 3
11) constitutes rights of the individual such as the right
to life and the prohibition of slavery. Articles 6 through
11 refer to the fundamental legality of human rights with
specic remedies cited for their defense when violated.
The second column (articles 1217) constitutes the rights
of the individual in civil and political society (including
such things as Freedom of movement). The third column (articles 1821) is concerned with spiritual, public,
and political freedoms such as freedom of association,
thought, conscience, and religion. The fourth column
(articles 2227) sets out social, economic, and cultural
rights. In Cassins model, the last three articles of the
Declaration provide the pediment which binds the structure together. These articles are concerned with the duty
of the individual to society and the prohibition of use of
rights in contravention of the purposes of the United Nations Organisation.[23]
2.4.3
International Human Rights Day
Main article: Human Rights Day
The Guinness Book of Records describes the Declaration as the worlds Most Translated Document.[25] In
its preamble, governments commit themselves and their
people to progressive measures which secure the universal and eective recognition and observance of the human rights set out in the Declaration. Eleanor Roosevelt
supported the adoption of the Declaration as a declaration rather than as a treaty because she believed that it
would have the same kind of inuence on global society as the United States Declaration of Independence had
within the United States. In this, she proved to be correct.
Even though it is not legally binding, the Declaration has
been adopted in or has inuenced most national constitutions since 1948. It has also served as the foundation for a
growing number of national laws, international laws, and
treaties, as well as for a growing number of regional, sub
national, and national institutions protecting and promoting human rights.
Legal eect
While not a treaty itself, the Declaration was explicitly
adopted for the purpose of dening the meaning of the
words "fundamental freedoms" and human rights appearing in the United Nations Charter, which is binding on all member states. For this reason, the Universal Declaration is a fundamental constitutive document of the United Nations. In addition, many international lawyers[26] believe that the Declaration forms
part of customary international law[27] and is a powerful tool in applying diplomatic and moral pressure
to governments that violate any of its articles. The
1968 United Nations International Conference on Human Rights advised that the Declaration constitutes an
obligation for the members of the international community to all persons. The Declaration has served
as the foundation for two binding UN human rights
covenants: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights. The principles of the Dec-
133
laration are elaborated in international treaties such as These include Irene Oh, Abdulaziz Sachedina, Riat
the International Convention on the Elimination of All Hassan, and Faisal Kutty. Hassan has argued:
Forms of Racial Discrimination, the International Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against
What needs to be pointed out to those who
Women, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of
uphold the Universal Declaration of Human
the Child, the United Nations Convention Against TorRights to be the highest, or sole, model, of a
ture, and many more. The Declaration continues to be
charter of equality and liberty for all human bewidely cited by governments, academics, advocates, and
ings, is that given the Western origin and orienconstitutional courts, and by individuals who appeal to its
tation of this Declaration, the universality of
principles for the protection of their recognised human
the assumptions on which it is based is at the
rights.
very least problematic and subject to questioning. Furthermore, the alleged incompatibility between the concept of human rights and
2.4.5 Reaction
religion in general, or particular religions such
as Islam, needs to be examined in an unbiased
Praise
way.[35]
The Universal Declaration has received praise from a
number of notable people. The Lebanese philosopher
and diplomat Charles Malik called it an international
document of the rst order of importance,[28] while
Eleanor Rooseveltrst chairwoman of the Commission
on Human Rights (CHR) that drafted the Declaration
stated that it may well become the international Magna
Carta of all men everywhere.[29] In a speech on 5 October 1995, Pope John Paul II called the Declaration one
of the highest expressions of the human conscience of
our time.[30] In a statement on 10 December 2003 on
behalf of the European Union, Marcello Spatafora said
that the Declaration placed human rights at the centre
of the framework of principles and obligations shaping
relations within the international community.
Irene Oh argues that one solution is to approach the issue from the perspective of comparative (descriptive)
ethics.[36]
Kutty writes: A strong argument can be made that the

current formulation of international human rights constitutes a cultural structure in which western society nds itself easily at home ... It is important to acknowledge and
appreciate that other societies may have equally valid alternative conceptions of human rights.[37] On the other
hand, others have written that some of these cultural arguments can go so far as to undermine the very nature
of human freedom and choice, the protection of which
is the purpose of the UN declaration. For example, typical versions of Sharia law forbid Muslims from leaving
Islam under the penalty of capital punishment. Islamic
legal scholar Faisal Kutty argues that existing blasphemy
laws in Muslim countries are actually un-Islamic and are
Criticism
a legacy of colonial rule.[38] Mohsen Haredy, an Islamic
Islamic countries However, in 1948, Saudi Arabia scholar, states that Muslim countries have their own views
abstained from the ratication vote on the Declaration, of Sharia and blasphemies are the internal issues of those
claiming that it violated Sharia law.[31] Pakistanwhich countries.[39]
had signed the declarationdisagreed and critiqued the Ironically, a number of Islamic countries that as of 2014
Saudi position.[32] In 1982, the Iranian representative to are among the most resistant to UN intervention in dothe United Nations, Said Rajaie-Khorassani, said that the mestic aairs, played an invaluable role in the creation
Declaration was a secular understanding of the Judeo- of the Declaration, with countries such as Syria and
Christian tradition which could not be implemented by Egypt having been strong proponents of the universalMuslims without conict with Sharia.[33] On 30 June ity of human rights and the right of countries to self2000, members of the Organisation of the Islamic Con- determination.[40]
ference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation)
ocially resolved to support the Cairo Declaration on
Human Rights in Islam,[34] an alternative document that The Right to Refuse to Kill Groups such as
says people have freedom and right to a dignied life in Amnesty International[41] and War Resisters Internaaccordance with the Islamic Shari'ah, without any dis- tional[42] have advocated for The Right to Refuse to Kill
crimination on grounds of race, colour, language, sex, to be added to the Universal Declaration. War Resisters
religious belief, political aliation, social status or other International has stated that the right to conscientious obconsiderations. Turkeya secular state with an over- jection to military service is primarily derived frombut
whelmingly Muslim populationsigned the Declaration not yet explicit inArticle 18 of the UDHR: the right to
in 1948.
freedom of thought, conscience, and religion.[42]
A number of scholars in dierent elds have expressed Steps have been taken within the United Nations to make
concerns with the Declarations alleged Western bias. this right more explicit, but to date (2015) those
134
steps have been limited to less signicant United Nations documents. Sean MacBrideAssistant SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations and Nobel Peace Prize
laureatehas said: To the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights one more might,
with relevance, be added. It is 'The Right to Refuse to
Kill'.[43]
Universalism and the Universal Declaration of Human

Rights. It works to provide disaster relief and promote
human rights and social justice around the world.
Quaker United Nations Oce and American Friends
Service Committee
The Quaker United Nations Oce and the American

Friends Service Committee work on many human rights
issues, including improving education on the Universal
During the lead up to the World Conference on Hu- Declaration of Human Rights. They have developed a
man Rights held in 1993, ministers from Asian states Curriculum to help introduce High School students to the
adopted the Bangkok Declaration, rearming their gov- Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[49][50]
ernments commitment to the principles of the United
Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They stated their view of the interdepen- American Library Association
dence and indivisibility of human rights and stressed the
need for universality, objectivity, and non-selectivity of In 1997, the council of the American Library Association
19 from the Universal Declarahuman rights. However, at the same time, they empha- (ALA) endorsed Article
[51]
tion
of
Human
Rights.
Along with Article 19, Article
sized the principles of sovereignty and non-interference,
18
and
20
are
also
fundamentally
tied to the ALA Unicalling for greater emphasis on economic, social, and culversal
Right
to
Free
Expression
and
the Library Bill of
tural rightsin particular, the right to economic develop[52]
Rights.
Censorship,
the
invasion
of
privacy, and interment over civil and political rights. The Bangkok Declaference
of
opinions
are
human
rights
violations
according
ration is considered to be a landmark expression of the
to
the
ALA.
Asian values perspective, which oers an extended critique of human rights universalism.[44]
Bangkok Declaration
2.4.7 See also

2.4.6
Organizations promoting the UDHR
International Federation for Human Rights
Human rights
History of human rights
The International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH)
Timeline of young peoples rights in the United

is nonpartisan, nonsectarian, and independent of any govKingdom
ernment, and its core mandate is to promote respect for all
in the United States
the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, So- Non-binding agreements
cial and Cultural Rights.[45][46]
Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam (1990)
Amnesty International
Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action

(1993)
In 1988, director Stephen R. Johnson and 41 international

United Nations Millennium Declaration (2000)
animators, musicians, and producers created a 20-minute
video for Amnesty International to celebrate the 40th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration. The video was to
International human rights law
bring to life the Declarations 30 articles.[47]
Amnesty International celebrated Human Rights Day and
the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration all over
the world by organizing the Fire Up!" event.[48]
Fourth Geneva Convention (1949)

European Convention on Human Rights (1952)
Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (1954)
Unitarian Universalist Service Committee

The Unitarian Universalist Service Committee (UUSC)
is a non-prot, nonsectarian organization whose work
around the world is guided by the values of Unitarian
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of

Racial Discrimination (1969)
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(1976)
135
International Covenant on Economic, Social and 2.4.9

Cultural Rights (1976)
References
[1] The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. un.org.
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1981)

Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990)
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European
Union (2000)
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2007)
Thinkers inuencing the Declaration
[2] Williams 1981. This is the rst book edition of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, with a foreword by
Jimmy Carter.
[3] United Nations Charter, preamble and article 55.
United Nations. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
[4] Cataclysm and World Response in Drafting and Adoption
: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, udhr.org.
[5] UDHR50: Didn't Nazi tyranny end all hope for protecting human rights in the modern world?". Udhr.org. 199808-28. Retrieved 2012-07-07.
Jacques Maritain
[6] UDHR History of human rights. Universalrights.net.

John Peters Humphrey
[7] Morsink 1999, p. 5
Tommy Douglas
[8] Morsink 1999, p. 133
John Sankey, 1st Viscount Sankey
[9] Morsink 1999, p. 4
Wu Teh Yao
Peng Chun Chang
Other
Slavery in the United States

in Russia
Slavery in international law

Slave Trade Acts
Human rights in China (PRC)
Command responsibility
Declaration on Great Apes, an as-yet unsuccessful
eort to extend some human rights to great apes.
"Consent of the governed"
Racial equality proposal (1919)
The Farewell Sermon (632 CE)
Youth for Human Rights International
2.4.8
Notes and references
Notes
[1] Included John Peters Humphrey (Canada), Ren Cassin
(France), P. C. Chang (Republic of China), Charles Malik
(Lebanon), Hansa Mehta (India) and Eleanor Roosevelt
(United States); see Creation and drafting section above.
[10] Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Final authorized

text. The British Library. September 1952. Retrieved 16
August 2015.
[11] The Declaration was drafted during the Chinese Civil
War. P.C. Chang was appointed as a representative by
the Republic of China, then the recognised government
of China, but which was driven from mainland China and
now administers only Taiwan and nearby islands ().
[12] http://www.un.int/india/india%20&%20un/
humanrights.pdf
[13] Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Research Guides. United Nations. Dag Hammarskjld Library. Retrieved 2015-04-17.
[14] Carlson, Allan: Globalizing Family Values, 12 January
2004.
[15] CCNMTL. default. Center for New Media Teaching and
Learning (CCNMTL). Columbia University. Retrieved
2013-07-12. External link in |work= (help)
[16] UNAC. Questions and answers about the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. United Nations Association in
Canada (UNAC). p. Who are the signatories of the Declaration?". Archived from the original on 2012-09-12.
[17] Jost Mller-Neuhof (2008-12-10). Menschenrechte:
Die mchtigste Idee der Welt. Der Tagesspiegel (in German). Retrieved 2013-07-12.
[18] Peter Danchin. The Universal Declaration of Human
Rights: Drafting History - 10. Plenary Session of the
Third General Assembly Session. Retrieved 2015-0225.
[19] Glendon 2001, pp. 16970
[20] Yearbook of the United Nations 19481949 p 535
(PDF). Retrieved 24 July 2014.
136
[21] Schabas, William (1998). Canada and the Adoption of

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (PDF). McGill
Law Journal 43: 403.
[22] Glendon 2002, pp. 6264.
[23] Glendon 2002, Chapter 10.
[24] The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: 1948
2008. United Nations. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
[25] Universal Declaration of Human Rights. United Nations Oce of the High Commissioner for Human rights.
[26] Humphrey JP, The Universal Declaration of Human
Rights: Its History, Impact and Juridical Character, in
Ramcharan BG (ed), Human Rights: Thirty Years After the Universal Declaration (1979) pp. 2l, 37; Sohn 1,
The Human Rights Law of the Charter (1977) 12 Texas
Int LJ 129, 133; McDougal MS, Lasswell H and Chen I,
Human Rights and World Public Order (1980) pp. 273
274, 325327; D'Amato A, International Law: Process
and Prospect( 1986) pp. 123147.
[41] Out of the margins: the right to conscientious objection to military service in Europe: An announcement of
Amnesty Internationals forthcoming campaign and briefing for the UN Commission on Human Rights, 31 March
1997. Amnesty International.
[42] A Conscientious Objectors Guide to the UN Human
Rights System, Parts 1, 2 & 3, Background Information
on International Law for COs, Standards which recognise
the right to conscientious objection, War Resisters International.
[43] Sean MacBride, The Imperatives of Survival, Nobel Lecture, 12 December 1974, The Nobel Foundation Ofcial website of the Nobel Foundation. (English index
page; hyperlink to Swedish site.) From Nobel Lectures
in Peace 19711980.
[44] Final Declaration Of The Regional Meeting For Asia Of
The World Conference On Human Rights. Law.hku.hk.
[27] Oce of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.

Digital record of the UDHR. United Nations.
[45] Contribution to the EU Multi-stakeholder Forum on CSR

(Corporate Social Responsibility), 10 February 2009; accessed on 9 November 2009
[28] Statement by Charles Malik as Representative of

Lebanon to the Third Committee of the UN General Assembly on the Universal Declaration. 6 November 1948.
Archived from the original on 28 September 2008.
[46] Information Partners, web site of the UNHCR, last updated 25 February 2010, 16:08 GMT (web retrieval 25
February 2010, 18:11 GMT)
[29] Michael E. Eidenmuller (1948-12-09). Eleanor Roosevelt: Address to the United Nations General Assembly.
Americanrhetoric.com. Retrieved 2012-07-07.
[30] John Paul II, Address to the U.N., October 2, 1979 and
October 5, 1995. Vatican.va. Retrieved 2012-07-07.
[31] Nisrine Abiad (2008). Sharia, Muslim states and international human rights treaty obligations: a comparative
study. BIICL. pp. 6065. ISBN 978-1-905221-41-7.
[47] UDHR lm. Amnesty International. Retrieved 201307-19.

[48] Fire Up!". Amnesty International. Retrieved 2013-0719.
[49] UNHCR Partners. UNHCR. Retrieved 11 November
2014.
[32] Price 1999, p. 163
[50] AFSC Universal Declaration of Human Rights web

page. American Friends Service Committee. Retrieved
11 November 2014.
[33] Littman, D (FebruaryMarch 1999). Universal Human

Rights and Human Rights in Islam. Midstream. Archived
from the original on 2006-05-12.
[51] Resolution on IFLA, Human Rights and Freedom of Expression. ala.org.
[34] Resolution No 60/27-P. Organisation of the Islamic

Conference. 2000-06-27. Retrieved 2011-06-02.
[52] The Universal Right to Free Expression:". ala.org.
[35] Are Human Rights Compatible with Islam?". religiousconsultation.org. Retrieved 2012-11-12.
Sources
[36] The Rights of God. Georgetown University Press, 2007.

[37] Non-Western Societies Have Inuenced Human Rights.
in Jacqueline Langwith (ed.), Opposing Viewpoints: Human Rights, Gale/Greenhaven Press: Chicago, 2007.
[38] Why Blasphemy Laws Are Actually Anti-Islamic. The
Hungton Post.
[39] Why Should Blasphemy Be Punishable at All?". onislam.net.
[40] Professor Susan Waltz: Universal Rights Group, Syria
calls for greater UN intervention in domestic human rights
situations.
Glendon, Mary Ann (2002). A world made new:

Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights. Random House. ISBN 978-0-37576046-4.
Hashmi, Sohail H. (2002). Islamic political ethics:
civil society, pluralism, and conict. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11310-4.
Morsink, Johannes (1999). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: origins, drafting, and intent. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780-8122-1747-6.
2.5. VIRGINIA DECLARATION OF RIGHTS

Price, Daniel E. (1999). Islamic political culture,
democracy, and human rights: a comparative study.
Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-27596187-9.
137
DHpedia: Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The Laws of Burgos: 500 Years of Human Rights
from the Law Library of Congress blog.
Williams, Paul; United Nations General Assembly

(1981). The International bill of human rights. En- Audiovisual materials
twhistle Books. ISBN 978-0-934558-07-5.
Librivox: Human-read audio recordings in several
Languages
Further reading
Text, Audio, and Video excerpt of Eleanor Roosevelts Address to the United Nations on the Uni Feldman, Jean-Philippe. Hayeks Critique Of The
versal Declaration of Human Rights
Universal Declaration Of Human Rights. Journal
des Economistes et des Etudes Humaines, Volume 9,
Animated presentation of the Universal DeclaraIssue 4 (December 1999): 1145-6396.
tion of Human Rights by Amnesty International on
YouTube (in English duration 20 minutes and 23
Nurser, John. For All Peoples and All Nations.
seconds).
Christian Churches and Human Rights.. (Geneva:
WCC Publications, 2005).
Audio: Statement by Charles Malik as Representa Universal Declaration of Human Rights pages at
tive of Lebanon to the Third Committee of the UN
Columbia University (Centre for the Study of HuGeneral Assembly on the Universal Declaration, 6
man Rights), including article by article commenNovember 1948
tary, video interviews, discussion of meaning, draft UN Department of Public Information introduction
ing and history.
to the drafters of the Declaration
Introductory note by Antnio Augusto Canado
Audiovisual material on the Universal Declaration
Trindade and procedural history on the Univerof Human Rights in the Historic Archives of the
sal Declaration of Human Rights in the Historic
United Nations Audiovisual Library of International
Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library
Law
of International Law
2.4.10
External links
2.5 Virginia Declaration of Rights
Text of the UDHR
The Virginia Declaration of Rights is a document

drafted in 1776 to proclaim the inherent rights of men,
including the right to reform or abolish inadequate
Resource Guide on the Universal Declaration of Hugovernment.[2] It inuenced a number of later documents,
man Rights at the UN Library, Geneva.
including the United States Declaration of Independence
Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human (1776), the United States Bill of Rights (1789), and the
Rights - documents and meetings records - United French Revolution's Declaration of the Rights of Man and
of the Citizen (1789).
Nations Dag Hammarskjld Library
Ocial translations of the UDHR
Questions and answers about the Universal Declaration

2.5.1
Drafting and adoption
Text, Audio, and Video excerpt of Eleanor RooThe Declaration was adopted unanimously by the Fifth
sevelts Address to the United Nations on the UniVirginia Convention at Williamsburg, Virginia on June
versal Declaration of Human Rights
12, 1776 as a separate document from the Constitution of
Virginia which was later adopted on June 29, 1776.[3] In
UDHR Education
1830, the Declaration of Rights was incorporated within
Revista Envo A Declaration of Human Rights For the Virginia State Constitution as Article I, but even bethe 21st Century
fore that Virginias Declaration of Rights stated that it was
[4]
Introductory note by Antnio Augusto Canado '"the basis and foundation of government in Virginia.
Trindade and procedural history note on the Uni- A slightly updated version may still be seen in Virginias
versal Declaration of Human Rights in the Historic Constitution, making it legally in eect to this day.
Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library Ten articles were initially drafted by George Mason circa
May 2026, 1776; three other articles were added in
of International Law
138

safety, the Declaration both describes a view of Government as the servant of the people, and enumerates its separation of powers into the administration, legislature, and
judiciary. Thus, the document is unusual in that it not
only prescribes legal rights, but it also describes moral
principles upon which a government should be run.[9]
2.5.2 Contents
Articles 1-3 address the subject of rights and the relationship between government and the governed. Article
1 states that all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights of which . . .
they cannot deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the
enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring
and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety, a statement later made internationally
famous in the rst paragraph of the U.S. Declaration of
Independence, as we hold these truths to be self-evident,
that all men are created equal, and are endowed by their
Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these
are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
George Mason was the principal author of the Virginia Declaration of Rights.
committee, seen in the original draft in the handwriting of

Thomas Ludwell Lee, but the author is unknown. James
Madison later proposed liberalizing the article on religious freedom, but the larger Virginia Convention made
further changes. It was later amended by Committee and
the entire Convention, including the addition of a section on the right to uniform government (Section 14). [5]
Patrick Henry persuaded the Convention to delete a section that would have prohibited bills of attainder, arguing
that ordinary laws could be ineective against some terrifying oenders.[6] Edmund Pendleton proposed the line
when they enter into a state of society which allowed
slave holders to support the declaration of universal rights
which would be understood not to apply to slaves as they
were not part of civil society.[7]
Mason based his initial draft on the rights of citizens
described in earlier works such as the English Bill of
Rights (1689), and the writings of John Locke and the
Declaration can be considered the rst modern Constitutional protection of individual rights for citizens of North
America. It rejected the notion of privileged political
classes or hereditary oces such as the members of Parliament and House of Lords described in the English Bill
of Rights.
The Declaration consists of sixteen articles on the subject
of which rights pertain to [the people of Virginia]...as
the basis and foundation of Government.[8] In addition
to arming the inherent nature of rights to life, liberty, property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and
Articles 2 and 3 note the revolutionary concept that all

power is vested in, and consequently derived from, the
people...[10] and that whenever any government shall be
found inadequate or contrary to these purposes, a majority of the community hath an indubitable, unalienable,
and indefeasible right to reform, alter or abolish it, in such
manner as shall be judged most conducive to the public
weal. This latter concept eectively asserted the right of
the people of Virginia to revolt against the British Empire.
Article 4 asserts the equality of all citizens, rejecting
the notion of privileged political classes or hereditary ofces - another criticism of British institutions such as the
House of Lords and the privileges of the peerage: no
set of men, are entitled to exclusive or separate emoluments or privileges from the community, but in consideration of public services; which, not being descendible,
neither ought the oces of magistrate, legislator, or judge
be hereditary.
Articles 5 and 6 recommend the principles of separation
of powers and free elections, frequent, certain, and
regular[11] of executives and legislators: That the legislative and executive powers of the state should be separate and distinct from the judicative; and, that the members of the two rst...should, at xed periods, be reduced
to a private station, return into that body from which they
were originally taken...by frequent, certain, and regular
elections.[11]
Articles 7-16 propose restrictions on the powers of the
government, declaring the government should not have
the power of suspending or executing laws, without consent of the representatives of the people";[12] establishing the legal rights to be confronted with the accusers
and witnesses, to call for evidence in his favor, and to
2.5. VIRGINIA DECLARATION OF RIGHTS

a speedy trial by an impartial jury of his vicinage, and
to prevent a citizen from being compelled to give evidence against himself.[13] protections against "cruel and
unusual punishments",[14] baseless search and seizure,[15]
and the guarantees of a trial by jury,[16] freedom of the
press,[17] freedom of religion (all men are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion),[18] and the proper,
natural, and safe defence of a free state rested in a well
regulated militia composed of the body of the people,
trained to arms, that standing armies in time of peace,
should be avoided as dangerous to liberty;[19] Article 8
protects a person against being deprived of his liberty
except by the law of the land" which later evolved into the
due process clause in the federal Bill of Rights.[17] Article
12 is the rst ever codication of the right to a free press
and was an important precursor to the First Amendment
to the United States Constitution.[20]
2.5.3
Text
The following is the complete text of the Virginia Declaration of Rights:

A DECLARATION OF RIGHTS made by
the representatives of the good people of Virginia, assembled in full and free convention
which rights do pertain to them and their posterity, as the basis and foundation of government .
Section 1. That all men are by nature
equally free and independent and have certain
inherent rights, of which, when they enter into
a state of society, they cannot, by any compact,
deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the
enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means
of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.
Section 2. That all power is vested in, and
consequently derived from, the people; that
magistrates are their trustees and servants and
at all times amenable to them.
Section 3. That government is, or ought
to be, instituted for the common benet, protection, and security of the people, nation, or
community; of all the various modes and forms
of government, that is best which is capable of
producing the greatest degree of happiness and
safety and is most eectually secured against
the danger of maladministration. And that,
when any government shall be found inadequate or contrary to these purposes, a majority
of the community has an indubitable, inalienable, and indefeasible right to reform, alter, or
abolish it, in such manner as shall be judged
most conducive to the public weal.
Section 4. That no man, or set of men, is
entitled to exclusive or separate emoluments or
139
privileges from the community, but in consideration of public services; which, nor being descendible, neither ought the oces of magistrate, legislator, or judge to be hereditary.
Section 5. That the legislative and executive powers of the state should be separate and
distinct from the judiciary; and that the members of the two rst may be restrained from oppression, by feeling and participating the burdens of the people, they should, at xed periods, be reduced to a private station, return
into that body from which they were originally
taken, and the vacancies be supplied by frequent, certain, and regular elections, in which
all, or any part, of the former members, to be
again eligible, or ineligible, as the laws shall direct.
Section 6. That elections of members to
serve as representatives of the people, in assembly ought to be free; and that all men, having sucient evidence of permanent common
interest with, and attachment to, the community, have the right of surage and cannot be
taxed or deprived of their property for public
uses without their own consent or that of their
representatives so elected, nor bound by any
law to which they have not, in like manner, assented for the public good.
Section 7. That all power of suspending
laws, or the execution of laws, by any authority, without consent of the representatives of
the people, is injurious to their rights and ought
not to be exercised.
Section 8. That in all capital or criminal
prosecutions a man has a right to demand the
cause and nature of his accusation, to be confronted with the accusers and witnesses, to call
for evidence in his favor, and to a speedy trial
by an impartial jury of twelve men of his vicinage, without whose unanimous consent he
cannot be found guilty; nor can he be compelled to give evidence against himself; that no
man be deprived of his liberty except by the
law of the land or the judgment of his peers.
Section 9. That excessive bail ought not to
be required, nor excessive nes imposed, nor
cruel and unusual punishments inicted.
Section 10.
That general warrants,
whereby an ocer or messenger may be commanded to search suspected places without evidence of a fact committed, or to seize any person or persons not named, or whose oense is
not particularly described and supported by evidence, are grievous and oppressive and ought
not to be granted.
Section 11. That in controversies respecting property, and in suits between man and
man, the ancient trial by jury is preferable to
140

any other and ought to be held sacred.
Section 12. That the freedom of the press
is one of the great bulwarks of liberty, and
can never be restrained but by despotic governments.
Section 13. That a well-regulated militia,
composed of the body of the people, trained to
arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defense
of a free state; that standing armies, in time of
peace, should be avoided as dangerous to liberty; and that in all cases the military should be
under strict subordination to, and governed by,
the civil power.
Section 14. That the people have a right
to uniform government; and, therefore, that no
government separate from or independent of
the government of Virginia ought to be erected
or established within the limits thereof.
Section 15. That no free government, or
the blessings of liberty, can be preserved to any
people but by a rm adherence to justice, moderation, temperance, frugality, and virtue and
by frequent recurrence to fundamental principles.
Section 16. That religion, or the duty
which we owe to our Creator, and the manner
of discharging it, can be directed only by reason and conviction, not by force or violence;
and therefore all men are equally entitled to the
free exercise of religion, according to the dictates of conscience; and that it is the mutual
duty of all to practise Christian forbearance,
love, and charity toward each other. Written
by George Mason, and adopted by the Virginia
Constitutional Convention on June 12, 1776.
2.5.5 Quotations derived from the Declaration

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men
are created equal, that they are endowed by their
Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among
these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from
the consent of the governed United States Declaration of Independence (July 1776)
Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.
Social distinctions can be founded only on the common utility. Declaration of the Rights of Man
and of the Citizen (1789)
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep
and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. (although the
Virginia Declaration makes no reference to a right
to keep or bear arms) Second Amendment to
the United States Constitution (December 1791)
2.5.6 Notes
[21]
2.5.4
of Secession before the American Civil War. The delegates to the Wheeling Convention argued that under the
Declaration of Rights, any change in the form of government had to be approved by a referendum. Since the Secession Convention had not been convened by a referendum, the western counties argued that all of its acts were
void. This set in motion the chain of events that ultimately
led the western counties to break o as the separate state
of West Virginia.
Inuence
The Virginia Declaration of Rights heavily inuenced

later documents. Thomas Jeerson is thought to have
drawn on it when he drafted the United States Declaration of Independence in the same month (June 1776).
James Madison was also inuenced by the Declaration
while drafting the Bill of Rights (introduced September
1789, ratied 1791), as was the Marquis de Lafayette in
voting the French Revolution's Declaration of the Rights
of Man and of the Citizen (1789).
The importance of the Virginia Declaration of Rights is
that it was the rst constitutional protection of individual
rights, rather than protecting only members of Parliament
or consisting of simple laws that can be changed as easily
as passed.
Virginias western counties cited the Declaration of
Rights as a justication for rejecting the states Ordinance
[1] Top Treasures Exhibit Object Focus.

Congress. Retrieved 13 September 2011.
Library of
[2] The Virginia Declaration of Rights; Article 3. Retrieved

1 May 2015.
[3] Virginia Gazette, Purdie, July 05, 1776 supplement, page
1.
[4] Pittman, R. "The Virginia Declaration of Rights; Its Place
in History" (1955).
[5] Rutland, Robert, editor, The Papers of George Mason
(1970), vol. 1 pp. 274-289
[6] Randolph, Edmund. History of Virginia, page 255 (Virginia Historical Society 1970).
[7] We Hold These Truths . . . And Other Words That Made
America, Paul Aron, Colonial Willamsburg and Rowman
and Littleeld Publishers, 2008
[8] Preamble, Virginia Declaration of Rights.
2.6. DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN AND OF THE CITIZEN
141
[9] Lieberman, Jethro (1987). The Enduring Constitution: A

Bicentennial Perspective. West Publishing Co. p. 28.
ISBN 0-314-32025-3.
[10] Article 2
[11] Article 5
[12] Article 7
[13] Article 8
[14] Article 9
[15] Article 10
[16] Article 11
[17] Article 12
[18] Article 16
[19] Article 13
[20] Mellen, Roger P. The Origins of a Free Press in Prerevolutionary Virginis, pp. 254-263 (2009).
[21] George Mason (June 12, 1776). The Virginia Declaration of Rights. Retrieved June 6, 2013.
2.5.7
External links
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789

is a fundamental document of the French Revolution and in the
history of human rights.
Virginia Declaration of Rights (George Masons

Draft, 2026 May 1776)
valid at all times and in every place, pertaining to human
Virginia Declaration of Rights (Committee Draft, nature itself. It became the basis for a nation of free individuals protected equally by law. It is included in the
27 May 1776)
preamble of the constitutions of both the Fourth French
Virginia Declaration of Rights (Final Draft, 12 June Republic (1946) and Fifth Republic (1958) and is still
1776)
current. Inspired in part by the American Revolution,
and also by the Enlightenment philosophers, the Decla Shaping the Constitution: Virginia Declaration of ration was a core statement of the values of the French
Rights, from the Library of Virginia and the Library revolution and had a major impact on the development
of Congress
of liberty and democracy in Europe and worldwide.[3]
2.6 Declaration of the Rights of

Man and of the Citizen
Not to be confused with Declaration of the
Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793, a second
and lengthier declaration, written in 1793 but
never formally adopted.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the
Citizen (French: Dclaration des droits de l'homme et
du citoyen), passed by Frances National Constituent Assembly in August 1789, is a fundamental document of
the French Revolution and in the history of human and
civil rights.[1] The Declaration was directly inuenced
by Thomas Jeerson, working with General Lafayette,
who introduced it.[2] Inuenced also by the doctrine of
"natural right", the rights of man are held to be universal:
The declaration, together with the American Declaration

of Independence, Constitution, and Bill of Rights, inspired the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of
Human Rights for a large part.[4]
2.6.1 History
The inspiration and content of the document emerged
largely from the ideals of the American Revolution.[5]
The key drafts were prepared by Lafayette, working at
times with his close friend Thomas Jeerson,[6][7] who
drew heavily upon The Virginia Declaration of Rights,
drafted in May 1776 by George Mason (which was based
in part on the English Bill of Rights 1689), as well as Jeffersons own drafts for the American Declaration of Independence. In August 1789, Honor Mirabeau played a
central role in conceptualizing and drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.[8]
142
The last article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man

and the Citizen was adopted on 26 August 1789 by the
National Constituent Assembly, during the period of the
French Revolution, as the rst step toward writing a constitution for France. Inspired by the Enlightenment, the
original version of the Declaration was discussed by the
representatives on the basis of a 24 article draft proposed by the sixth bureau,[9][10] led by Jrme Champion de Cic. The draft was later modied during the
debates. A second and lengthier declaration, known as
the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793,
was written in 1793 but never formally adopted.[11]
2.6.2
life. According to this theory, the role of government is to

recognize and secure these rights. Furthermore, government should be carried on by elected representatives.[16]
At the time of writing, the rights contained in the declaration were only awarded to men. Furthermore, the
declaration was a statement of vision rather than reality.
The declaration was not deeply rooted in either the practice of the West or even France at the time. The declaration emerged in the late 18th century out of war and
revolution. It encountered opposition as democracy and
individual rights were frequently regarded as synonymous
with anarchy and subversion. The declaration embodies
ideals and aspirations towards which France pledged to
[18]
Philosophical and theoretical context struggle in the future.
The concepts in the Declaration come from the philosophical and political duties of the Enlightenment, such
as individualism, the general will, the social contract as
theorized by the French philosopher Rousseau, and the
separation of powers espoused by the Baron de Montesquieu. As can be seen in the texts, the French declaration is heavily inuenced by the political philosophy of the Enlightenment, by Enlightenment principles
of human rights, and by the U.S. Declaration of Independence which preceded it (4 July 1776). Thomas
Jeersonthe primary author of the U.S. Declaration of
Independencewas at the time in France as a U.S. diplomat, and worked closely with Lafayette in designing a bill
of rights for France. In the ratication by the states of the
U.S. Constitution in 1788, critics had demanded a written Bill of Rights. In response, James Madison's proposal
for a U.S. Bill of Rights was introduced in New York on 8
June 1789, 11 weeks before the French declaration. Considering the 6 to 8 weeks it took news to cross the Atlantic,
it is possible that the French knew of the American text.
But, as Lafebvre notes, both texts emerged from the same
shared intellectual heritage.[12] The same people took part
in shaping both documents; Lafayette admired Jeerson,
and Jeerson in turn found Lafayette useful, writing in
1787 that Lafayette was a most valuable auxiliary to me.
His zeal is unbounded, & his weight with those in power,
great.[13] Historian Iain McLean concludes that Jeerson worked hard to inuence the French Declaration and
that Lafayette was the ideal tool for Jeersons interests as they broadened from American trade to French
politics.[14][15]
2.6.3 Substance
The Declaration is introduced by a preamble describing the fundamental characteristics of the rights which
are qualied as being natural, unalienable and sacred
and consisting of simple and incontestable principles on
which citizens could base their demands. In the second
article, the natural and imprescriptible rights of man
are dened as liberty, property, security and resistance
to oppression". It called for the destruction of aristocratic
privileges by proclaiming an end to feudalism and to exemptions from taxation, freedom and equal rights for all
human beings (referred to as Men), and access to public oce based on talent. The monarchy was restricted,
and all citizens were to have the right to take part in the
legislative process. Freedom of speech and press were
declared, and arbitrary arrests outlawed.[19]
The Declaration also asserted the principles of popular
sovereignty, in contrast to the divine right of kings that
characterized the French monarchy, and social equality
among citizens, All the citizens, being equal in the eyes
of the law, are equally admissible to all public dignities,
places, and employments, according to their capacity and
without distinction other than that of their virtues and of
their talents, eliminating the special rights of the nobility
and clergy.
Articles:
Article I - Men are born and remain free and equal in

rights. Social distinctions can be founded only on the
The declaration is in the spirit of secular natural law, common good.
which does not base itself on religious doctrine or authority, in contrast with traditional natural law theory, which Article II - The goal of any political association is the
conservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of
does.[16]
man. These rights are liberty, property, safety and resisThe declaration denes a single set of individual and col- tance against oppression.
lective rights for all men. Inuenced by the doctrine of
natural rights, these rights are held to be universal and Article III - The principle of any sovereignty resides esvalid in all times and places. For example, Men are born sentially in the Nation. No body, no individual can exert
and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions authority which does not emanate expressly from it.
may be founded only upon the general good.[17] They Article IV - Liberty consists of doing anything which
have certain natural rights to property, to liberty, and to does not harm others: thus, the exercise of the natu-
143
ral rights of each man has only those borders which as- tion, and duration.
sure other members of the society the enjoyment of these Article XV - The society has the right of requesting acsame rights. These borders can be determined only by the count from any public agent of its administration.
law.
Article XVI - Any society in which the guarantee of
Article V - The law has the right to forbid only actions
rights is not assured, nor the separation of powers deterharmful to society. Anything which is not forbidden by mined, has no Constitution.
the law cannot be impeded, and no one can be constrained
Article XVII - Property being an inviolable and sacred
to do what it does not order.
right, no one can be deprived of private usage, if it is
Article VI - The law is the expression of the general not when the public necessity, legally noted, evidently rewill. All the citizens have the right of contributing per- quires it, and under the condition of a just and prior insonally or through their representatives to its formation. demnity.
It must be the same for all, either that it protects, or that
it punishes. All the citizens, being equal in its eyes, are
equally admissible to all public dignities, places and employments, according to their capacity and without dis- Active and passive citizenship
tinction other than that of their virtues and of their talWhile the French Revolution provided rights to a larger
ents.
portion of the population, there remained a distinction
Article VII - No man can be accused, arrested nor debetween those who obtained the political rights in the
tained but in the cases determined by the law, and acDeclaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and those
cording to the forms which it has prescribed. Those who
who did not. Those who were deemed to hold these politsolicit, dispatch, carry out or cause to be carried out arbiical rights were called active citizens. Active citizenship
trary orders, must be punished; but any citizen called or
was granted to men who were French, at least 25 years
seized under the terms of the law must obey at once; he
old, paid taxes equal to three days work, and could not be
renders himself culpable by resistance.
dened as servants (Thouret).[20] This meant that at the
Article VIII - The law should establish only penalties that time of the Declaration only male property owners held
are strictly and evidently necessary, and no one can be these rights.[21] The deputies in the National Assembly
punished but under a law established and promulgated be- believed that only those who held tangible interests in the
fore the oense and legally applied.
nation could make informed political decisions.[22] This
Article IX - Any man being presumed innocent until he distinction directly aects articles 6, 12, 14, and 15 of
is declared culpable, if it is judged indispensible to arrest the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen as each
him, any rigor which would not be necessary for the se- of these rights is related to the right to vote and to particcuring of his person must be severely reprimanded by the ipate actively in the government. With the decree of 29
October 1789, the term active citizen became embedded
law.
in French politics.[23]
Article X - No one may be disturbed for his opinions,
even religious ones, provided that their manifestation does The concept of passive citizens was created to encompass those populations that had been excluded from ponot trouble the public order established by the law.
litical rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and
Article XI - The free communication of thoughts and of Citizen. Because of the requirements set down for acopinions is one of the most precious rights of man: any tive citizens, the vote was granted to approximately 4.3
citizen thus may speak, write, print freely, except to re- million Frenchmen.[23] out of a population of around
spond to the abuse of this liberty, in the cases determined 29 million.[24] These omitted groups included women,
by the law.
slaves, children, and foreigners. As these measures were
Article XII - The guarantee of the rights of man and of voted upon by the General Assembly, they limited the
the citizen necessitates a public force: this force is thus rights of certain groups of citizens while implementinstituted for the advantage of all and not for the particular ing the democratic process of the new French Republic
(17921804).[22] This legislation, passed in 1789, was
utility of those in whom it is trusted.
amended by the creators of the Constitution of 1795 in orArticle XIII - For the maintenance of the public force der to eliminate the label of active citizen.[25] The power
and for the expenditures of administration, a common to vote was then, however, to be granted solely to subcontribution is indispensable; it must be equally dis- stantial property owners.[25]
tributed between all the citizens, according to their ability
Tensions arose between active and passive citizens
to pay.
throughout the Revolution. This happened when pasArticle XIV - Each citizen has the right to ascertain, by sive citizens started to call for more rights, or when they
himself or through his representatives, the need for a pub- openly refused to listen to the ideals set forth by active
lic tax, to consent to it freely, to know the uses to which citizens. This cartoon clearly demonstrates the dierence
it is put, and of determining the proportion, basis, collec- that existed between the active and passive citizens along
144
with the tensions associated with such dierences.[26] In

the cartoon, a passive citizen is holding a spade and a
wealthy landowning active citizen is ordering the passive
citizens to go to work. The act appears condescending
to the passive citizen and it revisits the reasons why the
French Revolution began in the rst place.
and has been described by Camille Naish as almost a

parody... of the original document. The rst article of
the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
proclaims that Men are born and remain free and equal
in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility. The rst article of Declaration of the Rights
Women, in particular, were strong passive citizens who of Woman and the Female Citizen replied: Woman is
played a signicant role in the Revolution. Olympe de born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility.
Gouges penned her Declaration of the Rights of Woman
and the Female Citizen in 1791 and drew attention to the De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under
need for gender equality.[27] By supporting the ideals of French law women were fully punishable, yet denied
the French Revolution and wishing to expand them to equal rights, declaring Women have the right to mount
women, she represented herself as a revolutionary citi- the scaold, they must also have the right to mount the
zen. Madame Roland also established herself as an inu- speakers rostrum.[34]
ential gure throughout the Revolution. She saw women
of the French Revolution as holding three roles; inciting
revolutionary action, formulating policy, and informing Slavery
others of revolutionary events.[28] By working with men,
as opposed to working separate from men, she may have The declaration did not revoke the institution of slavbeen able to further the ght of revolutionary women. ery, as lobbied for by Jacques-Pierre Brissots Les Amis
As players in the French Revolution, women occupied des Noirs and defended by the group of colonial planters
a signicant role in the civic sphere by forming social called the[35]Club Massiac because they met at the Htel
movements and participating in popular clubs, allowing Massiac. Despite the lack of explicit mention of slavthem societal inuence, despite their lack of direct polit- ery in the Declaration, slave uprisings in Saint-Domingue
in the Haitian Revolution took inspiration from its words,
ical inuence.[29]
as discussed in C. L. R. James' history of the Haitian Revolution, The Black Jacobins.[36]
Womens rights
Deplorable conditions for the thousands of slaves in SaintDomingue, the most protable slave colony in the world,
The Declaration recognized many rights as belonging to
led to the uprisings which would be known as the rst
citizens (who could only be male). This was despite the
successful slave revolt in the New World. Slavery in the
fact that after The March on Versailles on 5 October
French colonies was abolished by the Convention domi1789, women presented the Womens Petition to the Nanated by the Jacobins in 1794. However, Napoleon reintional Assembly in which they proposed a decree givstated it in 1802. In 1804, the colony of Saint-Domingue
ing women equal rights.[30] In 1790, Nicolas de Conbecame an independent state, the Republic of Haiti.
dorcet and Etta Palm d'Aelders unsuccessfully called on
the National Assembly to extend civil and political rights
to women.[31] Condorcet declared that he who votes
2.6.4 Legacy
against the right of another, whatever the religion, color,
or sex of that other, has henceforth abjured his own.[32]
The Declaration has also inuenced and inspired rightsThe French Revolution did not lead to a recognition of
based liberal democracy throughout the world. It was
womens rights and this prompted Olympe de Gouges to
translated as soon as 17931794 by Colombian Antonio
publish the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the
Nario, who published it despite the Inquisition and was
Female Citizen in September 1791.[33]
sentenced to be imprisoned for ten years for doing so. In
The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female 2003, the document was listed on UNESCOs Memory
Citizen is modelled on the Declaration of the Rights of of the World register.
Man and of the Citizen and is ironic in formulation and
exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had
Constitution of the French Fifth Republic
been devoted to equality. It states that:
This revolution will only take eect when
all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights they have
lost in society.
Main article: Constitution of the French Fifth Republic
According to the preamble of the Constitution of the

French Fifth Republic (adopted on 4 October 1958, and
the current constitution), the principles set forth in the
The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Declaration have constitutional value. Many laws and
Citizen follows the seventeen articles of the Declaration regulations have been cancelled because they did not
of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point comply with those principles as interpreted by the Conseil
145
Constitutionnel (Constitutional Council of France) or

by the Conseil d'tat (Council of State).
[7] Susan Dunn, Sister Revolutions: French Lightning, American Light (1999) pp 143-45
Taxation legislation or practices that seem to make

some unwarranted dierence between citizens are
struck down as unconstitutional.
[8] Keith Baker, The Idea of a Declaration of Rights in

Dale Van Kley, ed. The French Idea of Freedom: The
Old Regime and the Declaration of Rights of 1789 (1997)
pp 154-96.
Suggestions of positive discrimination on ethnic

grounds are rejected because they infringe on the
principle of equality, since they would establish categories of people that would, by birth, enjoy greater
rights.
2.6.5
See also
Human rights in France

Universality
Other early declarations of rights
[9] The original draft is an annex to the 12 August report

(Archives parlementaires, 1,e srie, tome VIII, dbats du
12 aot 1789, p. 431).
[10] Archives parlementaires, 1e srie, tome VIII, dbats du 19
aot 1789, p. 459.
[11] Gregory Fremont-Barnes, ed. (2007). Encyclopedia of
the Age of Political Revolutions and New Ideologies, 17601815. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 159 vol 1.
[12] Lefebvre. The Coming of the French Revolution. pp. 212
13.
[13] Francis D. Cogliano, ed. (2011). A Companion to Thomas
Jeerson. John Wiley & Sons. p. 127.
[14] Cogliano, ed. A Companion to Thomas Jeerson. p. 127.
Magna Carta (England, 1215)

Statute of Kalisz (Poland, 1264)
Henrician Articles and Pacta Conventa (Poland,
1573)
Bill of Rights (England, 1689)

Claim of Right (Scotland, 1689)
Virginia Declaration of Rights (United States, 1776)
Bill of Rights (United States, 1789)
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of
Franchimont (modern-day Belgium, 1789)
2.6.6
Notes
[15] Iain McLean, Thomas Jeerson, John Adams, and the

Dclaration des Droits de lHomme et du Citoyen in The
future of liberal democracy: Thomas Jeerson and the
contemporary world (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) online
[16] Merryman, John Henry; Rogelip Perez-Perdomo (2007).
The civil law tradition: an introduction to the legal system
of Europe and Latin America. Stanford University Press.
p. 16. ISBN 9780804755696.
[17] First Article, Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the
Citizen.
[18] Lauren, Paul Gordon (2003). The evolution of international human rights: visions seen. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 32. ISBN 9780812218541.
[19] Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2008). Western Civilization: 1300
to 1815. Wadsworth Publishing. p. 580. ISBN 978-0495-50289-0.
[1] The French title is sometimes translated as Declaration

of Human and Civic Rights.
[20] Thouret 1789, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/282/
[2] Gregory Fremont-Barnes (2007). Encyclopedia of the Age

of Political Revolutions and New Ideologies, 1760-1815.
Greenwood. p. 190.
[22] Popkin 2006, p. 46.
[3] Kopstein Kopstein (2000). Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order. Cambridge UP. p. 72.
[24] Social Causes of the Revolution
[4] Douglas K. Stevenson (1987), American Life and Institutions, Stuttgart (Germany), p.34
[26] Active/Passive
revolution/d/75/.
[5] Georges Lefebvre (2005). The Coming of the French Revolution. Princeton UP. p. 212.
[27] De Gouges, Declaration of the Rights of Women, 1791.
[6] George Athan Billias, ed. (2009). American Constitutionalism Heard Round the World, 1776-1989: A Global Perspective. NYU Press. p. 92.
[29] Levy and Applewhite 2002, pp. 31920, 324.
[21] Censer and Hunt 2001, p. 55.
[23] Doyle 1989, p. 124.
[25] Doyle 1989, p. 420.

Citizen,
http://chnm.gmu.edu/
[28] Dalton 2001, p. 1.
[30] https://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/629/
146
[31] Williams, Helen Maria; Neil Fraistat; Susan Sniader

Lanser; David Brookshire (2001). Letters written in
France. Broadview Press Ltd. p. 246. ISBN 978-155111-255-8.
[32] Lauren, Paul Gordon (2003). The evolution of international human rights. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp.
1820. ISBN 978-0-8122-1854-1.
[33] Naish, Camille (1991). Death comes to the maiden: Sex
and Execution, 14311933. Routledge. p. 136. ISBN
978-0-415-05585-7.
[34] Naish, Camille (1991). Death comes to the maiden: Sex
and Execution, 14311933. Routledge. p. 137. ISBN
978-0-415-05585-7.
[35] The club of reactionary colonial proprietors meeting since
July 1789 were opposed to representation in the Assemble of Frances overseas dominions, for fear that this
would expose delicate colonial issues to the hazards of
debate in the Assembly, as Robin Blackburn expressed
it (Blackburn, The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776
1848 [1988:174f]); see also the speech of Jean-Baptiste
Belley
[36] Cf. Heinrich August Winkler (2012), Geschichte des
Westens. Von den Anfngen in der Antike bis zum 20.
Jahrhundert, Third Edition, Munich (Germany), p. 386
2.6.7
References
Jack Censer and Lynn Hunt, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, University
Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001.
Stphane Rials, ed, La dclaration des droits de

l'homme et du citoyen, Hachette, Paris, 1988, ISBN
2-01-014671-9.
Claude-Albert Colliard, La dclaration des droits de
l'homme et du citoyen de 1789, La Documentation
franaise, Paris, 1990, ISBN 2-11-002329-5.
Grard Conac, Marc Debene, Grard Teboul, eds,
La Dclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de
1789; histoire, analyse et commentaires, Economica,
Paris, 1993, ISBN 978-2-7178-2483-4.
Realino Marra, La giustizia penale nei princpi
del 1789, Materiali per una storia della cultura
giuridica, XXXI2, 2001, 35364.

Blackburn, Robin (October 2006) Haiti, Slavery,
and the Age of the Democratic Revolution The
William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, Vol. 63,
No. 4, Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, pp. 64374.
Dittrich, Horst, actor and translator (2012).
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
translated into Austrian bertragen, edited by
ARBOS Company for Music and Theatre, ISBN
978-3-9503173-2-9, ARBOS-Edition & 2012
Susan Dalton, Gender and the Shifting Ground

of Revolutionary Politics: The Case of Madame
Roland, Canadian Journal of History, 36, no. 2
(2001): 25983.
Kates, Gary and Hufton, Olwen. (1998) In Search

of Counter-Revolutionary Women. The French
Revolution: Recent Debates and New Controversies.
London: Routledge
William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French

Revolution, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
McLean, Iain. Thomas Jeerson, John Adams,

and the Dclaration des Droits de lHomme et
du Citoyen in The Future of Liberal Democracy:
Thomas Jeerson and the Contemporary World
(Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) online
Darline Levy and Harriet Applewhite, A Political

Revolution for Women? The Case of Paris, In The
French Revolution: conicting interpretations. 5th
ed. Malabar, Fla.: Krieger Pub. Co., 2002. 317
46.
Jeremy Popkin, A History of Modern France, Upper
Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006.
Active Citizen/Passive Citizen, Liberty, Equality,
Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution (accessed 30 October 2011).
Other languages
Smith, George H. (2008). Declaration of the

Rights of Man and of the Citizen. In Hamowy,
Ronald. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 115
7. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151.
OCLC 750831024.
Wallerstein, Immanuel (2003). Citizens all? Citizens some! The making of the citizen. Comparative Studies in Society and History 45, (4): 650
Giorgio Del Vecchio, La dclaration des droits de

l'homme et du citoyen dans la Rvolution franaise: 2.6.9 External links
contributions lhistoire de la civilisation europenne,
Works related to Declaration of the Rights of Man
Librairie gnrale de droit et de jurisprudence,
and of the Citizen at Wikisource
Paris,1968.
2.7. FOUR FREEDOMS

Jacques-Guillaume Thouret, Report on the Basis of
Political Eligibility (29 September 1789), Liberty,
Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, accessed 26 October 2011.
147
3. Freedom from want
4. Freedom from fear
Roosevelt delivered his speech 11 months before the

Olympe de Gouges, Declaration of the Rights of United States declared war on Japan, December 8, 1941.
Woman, 1791, College of Staten Island Library (ac- The State of the Union speech before Congress was
cessed 30 October 2011). <link is broken>
largely about the national security of the United States and
Social Causes of the Revolution. Liberty, Equal- the threat to other democracies from world war that was
ity, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, ac- being waged across the continents in the eastern hemisphere. In the speech, he made a break with the tradition
cessed 26 October 2011.
of United States non-interventionism that had long been
Dclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen held in the United States. He outlined the U.S. role in
de 1789. Conseil constitutionnel (in French). Re- helping allies already engaged in warfare.
trieved 14 May 2012.
In that context, he summarized the values of democracy
Dclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen behind the bipartisan consensus on international involvede 1789. Lgifrance (in French). Retrieved 14 May ment that existed at the time. A famous quote from the
speech prefaces those values: As men do not live by
2012.
bread alone, they do not ght by armaments alone. In the
Dclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen second half of the speech, he lists the benets of democde 1789. Ministre de la Justice et des Liberts : racy, which includes economic opportunity, employment,
TEXTES & RFORMES (in French). Retrieved 14 social security, and the promise of adequate health care.
May 2012.
The rst two freedoms, of speech and religion, are protected by the First Amendment in the United States Con Declaration of human and civic rights of 26 August
stitution. His inclusion of the latter two freedoms went
1789 (PDF). Conseil constitutionnel. Retrieved 14
beyond the traditional Constitutional values protected by
May 2012.
the U.S. Bill of Rights. Roosevelt endorsed a broader
human right to economic security and anticipated what
would become known decades later as the "human secu2.7 Four Freedoms
rity" paradigm in social science and economic development. He also included the freedom from fear against
This article is about Franklin D. Roosevelts themes. For national aggression before the idea of a United Nations
other uses, see Four Freedoms (disambiguation).
for this protection was envisioned or discussed by world
The Four Freedoms were goals articulated by United leaders and allied nations.
2.7.1 Historical context

With the end of World War I (191418), the United
States adopted a policy of isolationism and noninterventionism, having refused to endorse the Versailles
Treaty (1919) or formally enter the League of Nations.[1]
Many Americans remembered the horrors of the Great
War and, believing that their involvement in WWI had
been a mistake, were adamantly against continued intervention in European aairs.[2] With the Neutrality Acts
established after 1935, U.S. law banned the sale of armaEngraving of the Four Freedoms at the Franklin Delano Roo- ments to countries that were at war and placed restrictions
sevelt Memorial in Washington, D.C.
on travel with belligerent vessels.[3]
States President Franklin D. Roosevelt on January 6,
1941. In an address known as the Four Freedoms speech
(technically the 1941 State of the Union address), he
proposed four fundamental freedoms that people everywhere in the world ought to enjoy:
1. Freedom of speech
2. Freedom of worship
When World War II began in 1939 with Germanys invasion of Poland, the United States was still committed
to its non-interventionist ideals. Though Roosevelt, and
a large segment of the population, supported the Allied
cause, neutrality laws and a very strong isolationist element within Congress ensured that no substantial support
could be given. With the revision of the Neutrality Act
in 1939, Roosevelt adopted a methods-short-of-war policy whereby supplies and armaments could be given to
148
European Allies, provided no declaration of war could be

made and no troops committed.[4] By December 1940,
Europe was largely at the mercy of Adolf Hitler and Germanys Nazi regime. With Germanys defeat of France
in June 1940, Britain stood virtually alone against the
military alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan. Winston
Churchill, as Prime Minister of Britain, called for Roosevelt and the United States to supply them with armaments in order to continue with the war eort.
The 1939 New York Worlds Fair had celebrated Four
Freedoms - religion, speech, press and assembly - and
commissioned Leo Friedlander to create sculptures representing them. Mayor of New York City Fiorello La
Guardia described the resulting statues the heart of the
fair. Later Roosevelt would declare his own Four Essential Freedoms and call on Walter Russell to create a
Four Freedoms Monument that was eventually dedicated
at Madison Square Garden in New York City.[5]
2.7.2
inhabitantseverywhere in the world.

The fourth is freedom from fearwhich,
translated into world terms, means a worldwide reduction of armaments to such a point
and in such a thorough fashion that no nation
will be in a position to commit an act of physical aggression against any neighboranywhere
in the world.
That is no vision of a distant millennium.
It is a denite basis for a kind of world attainable in our own time and generation. That kind
of world is the very antithesis of the so-called
new order of tyranny which the dictators seek
to create with the crash of a bomb.Franklin
D. Roosevelt, excerpted from the State of the
Union Address to the Congress, January 6,
1941
Declarations
The Four Freedoms Speech was given on January 6,

1941. Roosevelts hope was to provide a rationale for why
the United States should abandon the isolationist policies
that emerged from WWI. In the address, Roosevelt critiqued Isolationism, saying: No realistic American can
expect from a dictators peace international generosity,
or return of true independence, or world disarmament,
or freedom of expression, or freedom of religionor even
good business. Such a peace would bring no security for The four freedoms ag or "United Nations Honor Flag" ca.
us or for our neighbors. Those, who would give up essen- 19431948
tial liberty to purchase a little temporary safety, deserve
neither liberty nor safety.[6]
The declaration of the Four Freedoms as a justication
The speech coincided with the introduction of the Lend- for war would resonate through the remainder of the war,
[2]
Lease Bill, which promoted Roosevelts plan to become and for decades longer as a frame of remembrance.
the arsenal of democracy[7] and support the Allies The Freedoms became the staple of Americas war aims,
(mainly the British) with much-needed supplies.[8] Fur- and the center of all attempts to rally public support for
thermore, the speech established what would become the the war. With the creation of the Oce of War Inforideological basis for Americas involvement in WWII, all mation (1942), as well as the famous paintings of Norframed in terms of individual rights and liberties that are man Rockwell, the Freedoms were advertised as values central to American life and examples of American
the hallmark of American politics.[2]
exceptionalism.[9]
The speech delivered by President Roosevelt incorporated the following text, known as the Four Freedoms":
2.7.3 Opposition
In the future days, which we seek to make
secure, we look forward to a world founded
upon four essential human freedoms.
The rst is freedom of speech and
expressioneverywhere in the world.
The second is freedom of every person to
worship God in his own wayeverywhere in
the world.
The third is freedom from wantwhich,
translated into world terms, means economic understandings which will secure to
every nation a healthy peacetime life for its
The Four Freedoms Speech was popular, and the goals

were inuential in the postwar politics. However, in
1941 the speech received heavy criticism from antiwar contingents and many pro-liberty advocates within
Congress.[10] Critics argued that the Four Freedoms were
simply a charter for Roosevelts New Deal, social reforms
that had already created sharp divisions within Congress.
Conservatives and classical liberals who opposed social
programs and increased government intervention argued
against Roosevelts attempt to justify and depict the war
as necessary for the defense of leftist policies.[11]
2.7. FOUR FREEDOMS

While the Freedoms did become a forceful aspect of
American thought on the war, they were never the exclusive justication for the war. Polls and surveys conducted by the Oce of War Information (OWI) revealed
that self-defense of American values, and vengeance
for Pearl Harbor were still the most prevalent reasons for
war.[12] Though Roosevelt sought to use the Four Freedoms as an ideological counter to fascism and a force to
mobilize a nation apathetic to the war in Europe, records
suggest that the American people were more concerned
with their own personal experience than liberal humanitarianism.
2.7.4
Hypocrisies
In a 1942 radio address, President Roosevelt declared the

Four Freedoms embodied rights of men of every creed
and every race, wherever they live. [13] Despite these
words, many critics still claim that minorities were still
treated with fewer rights.
149
the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy
freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and
want has been proclaimed the highest aspiration of the
common people....[17]
2.7.6 Disarmament
FDR called for a world-wide reduction of armaments as
a goal for the future days, which we seek to make secure
but one that was attainable in our own time and generation. More immediately, though, he called for a massive
build-up of U.S. arms production: Every realist knows
that the democratic way of life is at this moment being
directly assailed in every part of the world... The need of
the moment is that our actions and our policy should be
devoted primarilyalmost exclusivelyto meeting this
foreign peril. ... [T]he immediate need is a swift and
driving increase in our armament production. ... I also
ask this Congress for authority and for funds sucient
to manufacture additional munitions and war supplies of
many kinds, to be turned over to those nations which are
now in actual war with aggressor nations. ... Let us say
to the democracies...'" - Franklin D. Roosevelt[18]
Many African Americans ghting in World War II were

forced to ght in segregated units, and African Americans
in the United States experienced job discrimination, with
one aviation plant spokesman of the time stating, the Negro will be considered only as janitors and in other similar 2.7.7 Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freecapacities...Regardless of their training as aircraft workdoms Park
ers, we will not employ them.[14]
Many Hispanics of the era were discriminated against, as Main article: Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park
well. For example, in the Zoot Suit Riots (1943) white

sailors and Marines attacked Mexican Americans in Los The Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park is a park
Angeles, California.
designed by the architect Louis Kahn for the south point
[19]
The Park celebrates the famous
On February 19, 1942, President Franklin D. Roo- of Roosevelt Island.
speech,
and
text
from
the
speech is inscribed on a granite
sevelt authorized Japanese American internment with
wall
in
the
nal
design
of
the Park.
Executive Order 9066, which allowed local military
commanders to designate military areas as exclusion
zones, from which any or all persons may be excluded. This power was used to declare that all people of
Japanese ancestry were excluded from the entire Pacic
coast, including all of California and much of Oregon,
Washington and Arizona, except for those in internment
camps.[15] By 1946, the United States had incarcerated
120,000 individuals of Japanese descent, of whom about
80,000 had been born in the United States.[16]
2.7.8 Awards
Main article: Four Freedoms Award
The Roosevelt Institute[20] honors outstanding individuals

who have demonstrated a lifelong commitment to these
ideals. The Four Freedoms Award medals are awarded
at ceremonies at Hyde Park, New York and Middelburg,
Netherlands during alternate years. The awards were rst
presented in 1982 on the centenary of President Roo2.7.5 United Nations
sevelts birth as well as the bicentenary of diplomatic reThe concept of the Four Freedoms became part of the lations between the United States and the Netherlands.
personal mission undertaken by First Lady Eleanor Roo- Among the laureates have been:
sevelt regarding her inspiration behind the United Nations
Declaration of Human Rights, General Assembly Resolu William Brennan
tion 217A. Indeed, these Four Freedoms were explicitly
H.M. Juan Carlos of Spain
incorporated into the preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which reads, "Whereas disregard
Jimmy Carter
and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous
Bill Clinton
acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and
150
The Dalai Lama

Mikhail Gorbachev
Averell Harriman
Vclav Havel
John F. Kennedy
Mike Manseld
Paul Newman
Tip O'Neill
Shimon Peres
H.R.H. Princess Juliana of the Netherlands
Coretta Scott King
Brent Scowcroft
Harry S. Truman
Liv Ullman
Elie Wiesel
Joanne Woodward
2.7.9
Use in popular culture
Freedom of Speech from the Four Freedoms series by Norman

Rockwell
Art
Norman Rockwells paintings Main article: Four
Freedoms (Norman Rockwell)
President Roosevelts Four Freedoms speech inspired a
set of four Four Freedoms paintings by Norman Rockwell. The four paintings were published in The Saturday
Evening Post on February 20, February 27, March 6, and
March 13 in 1943. The paintings were accompanied in
the magazine by matching essays on the Four Freedoms.
The United States Department of the Treasury toured
Rockwells Four Freedoms paintings around the country
after their publication in 1943. The Four Freedoms Tour
raised over $130,000,000 in war bond sales.
Other artwork
In 1941, artist Kindred McLeary painted America
the Mighty (also known as Defense of Human Freedoms) in the State Departments Harry S. Truman
Building.[21]
In 1942, artist Hugo Ballin painted The Four Freedoms mural in the Council Chamber of the City Hall
of Burbank, California.[22]
Freedom from Want from the Four Freedoms series by Norman
In 1943, New Jersey muralist Michael Lenson
(190372) painted The Four Freedoms mural for the
Fourteenth Street School in Newark, New Jersey.[23]
Rockwell
2.7. FOUR FREEDOMS
151
In 1948, muralist Anton Refregier completed the Monument

History of San Francisco in the Rincon Center in
San Francisco, California. Panel 27 depicted the Main article: Four Freedoms Monument
four freedoms.[24]
In the late 1950s, artist Mildred Nungester Wolfe
painted four mural panels depicting the freedoms for
a country store in Richton, Mississippi. Those panels now hang in the Mississippi Museum of Art.[25]
FDR commissioned sculptor Walter Russell to design a monument to be dedicated to the rst hero of
the war. The Four Freedoms Monument was created
in 1941 and dedicated at Madison Square Garden,
in New York City, in 1943.
In 1982, Allyn Cox completed four paintings in the

Great Experiment Hall in the United States House Postage stamps
of Representatives. Four of the murals depict alle Rockwells Four Freedoms paintings were reprogorical gures representing the four freedoms.[26]
duced as postage stamps by the United States Post
Oce in 1941,[31] in 1943, [32] in 1946,[33] and in
In the early 1990s, artist David McDonald repro1994.[31]
duced Rockwells Four Freedoms paintings as four
large murals on the side of an old grocery building
in downtown Silverton, Oregon.[27]
2.7.10 See also
In 2008, Florida International University's
Wolfsonian museum hosted the Thoughts on
Democracy exhibition that displayed posters created by sixty leading contemporary artists and
designers, invited to create a new graphic design inspired by American illustrator Norman Rockwells
Four Freedoms posters.[28]
Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 19291945, a Pulitzer-winning
history of the era.
Four Freedoms (European Union)
Second Bill of Rights, proposed by FDR in his 1944
State of the Union Address
Liberalism in the United States
Fictional entities
The Marvel Comics superhero team the Fantastic
Four was based in the Four Freedoms Plaza building from 1986,[29] to 1998, when it was destroyed by the Masters of Evil (in the guise of the
Thunderbolts).[30]
Games
The Splinter Cell franchise makes numerous references to the Four Freedoms. In the opening sequence of the rst game, the Four Freedoms are displayed in text version as a splash screen at the opening of the game, with a fth freedom added: The
freedom to protect the other fourby any means
necessary. It is this so-called fth freedom that the
games protagonist operates under, and the theme is
continued in subsequent entries in the series.
Literature
John Crowley's novel Four Freedoms (2009) is
largely based on the themes of Roosevelts speech.
World War II Victory Medal, which includes the

Four Freedoms on its reverse.
The Free Software Denition is often called the
four freedoms within the free software community
in reference to the speech and fundamental principles.
2.7.11 Notes
[1] Kennedy, David M., Freedom From Fear: the American
people in depression and war, 19291945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) 386
[2] Bodnar, John, The Good War in American Memory.
(Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010) 11
[5] Inazu, John D. (2012). Libertys Refuge: The Forgotten Freedom of Assembly. Yale University Press. ISBN
0300173156.
152
[6] FDR, The Four Freedoms, Speech Text |". Voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu. 1941-01-06. Retrieved 201408-14.
[7] The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt (New York: Random House and Harper and Brothers, 1940) 63344
people in depression and war, 1929-1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) 47076
[26] The American Story in Art: The Murals of Allyn Cox in the
U.S. Capitol, The United States Capitol Historical Society,
retrieved June 1, 2014
[27] Silverton Mural Society
[28] Thoughts on Democracy. Wolfsonian FIU. 2008.
[29] Byrne, John (w, p), Al Gordon (i). Rip Wide the Sky!"
Fantastic Four #289 (April 1986). Marvel Comics.
[30] Busiek, Kurt (w), Bagley, Mark (p), Vince Russell (i).
Heroes Reward. Thunderbolts #10 (January 1998).
Marvel Comics.
[31] Scott Catalog souvenir sheet of four stamps (2840)


[13] Foner, Eric, The Story of American Freedom. (New

York: W.W. Norton, 1998) 223
[14] Zinn, Howard (2003). A Peoples History of the United

States: 1492present. New York: HarperCollins. p. 415.
Four Freedoms Lesson plan for grades 912 from

National Endowment for the Humanities
[15] Korematsu v. United States dissent by Justice Owen

Josephus Roberts, reproduced at ndlaw.com. Retrieved
September 12, 2006.
Text and audio.
[16] Park, Yoosun, Facilitating Injustice: Tracing the Role

of Social Workers in the World War II Internment of
Japanese Americans. (Social Service Review 82.3, 2008)
448
[17] White, E.B. & Lerner, Max & Cowley, Malcolm &
Niebuhr, Reinhold (1942). The United Nations Fight
for the Four Freedoms. Washington, D.C.: Government
Printing Oce. ASIN B003HKRK80.
[18] Roosevelt, Franklin Delano (1941).
speech. Wikisource.
Four Freedoms
[19] About the Park. Four Freedoms Park Conservancy. Retrieved 23 July 2014.
[20] Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute, Franklin and
Eleanor Roosevelt Institute
[21] Vo, Tuan (October 2010), Forgotten Treasure, State Magazine, pp. 2023, retrieved June 1, 2014
[22] City Council Chamber & Murals, retrieved June 1, 2014
[23] Ocial Website of Michael Lenson - WPA Muralist and
Realist Painter, retrieved June 1, 2014
[24] War and Peace (1948), SF Mural Arts, retrieved June 1,
2014
[25] Lucas, Sherry (May 21, 2014). Richton mural donated to
Miss. Museum of Art. Hattiesburg American. Retrieved
June 1, 2014.
FDR4Freedoms Digital Resource The digital education resource of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Four
Freedoms Park
Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park
2.8 Cairo Declaration on Human

Rights in Islam
The Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam
(CDHRI) is a declaration of the member states of the
Organisation of the Islamic Conference adopted in Cairo,
Egypt, in 1990,[1] which provides an overview on the Islamic perspective on human rights, and arms Islamic
sharia as its sole source. CDHRI declares its purpose to
be general guidance for Member States [of the OIC] in
the eld of human rights.
This declaration is widely acknowledged as an Islamic response to the United Nations' Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (UDHR), adopted in 1948. It guarantees
many of the same rights as the UDHR (cf. liberal Islam), while at the same time rearming the inequalities
inherent in Islamic law and tradition in terms of religion,
gender, sexuality, political rights, and other aspects of
contemporary society at odds with Islamic law and traditions.
2.8. CAIRO DECLARATION ON HUMAN RIGHTS IN ISLAM
2.8.1
History
Some Muslim countries had criticized the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights for its failure to take
into account the cultural and religious context of nonWestern countries.[2] In 1981, Said Rajaie-Khorassani
the post-revolutionary Iranian representative to the UN
articulated the position of his country regarding the
UDHR, by saying that it was a relativistic "secular understanding of the Judeo-Christian tradition, which could
not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing Islamic law.[3]
153
no individual is to be used for medical or scientic experiments without his consent or at the risk of his health or
of his life. It also prohibits the taking of hostages of any
individual for any purpose whatsoever. Moreover, the
CDHRI guarantees the presumption of innocence; guilt is
only to be proven through a trial in which he [the defendant] shall be given all the guarantees of defence. The
Declaration also forbids the promulgation of emergency
laws that would provide executive authority for such actions. Art. 19 stipulates that there are no other crimes
or punishments than those mentioned in the sharia, which
include corporal punishment (whipping, amputation) and
capital punishment by lapidation or decapitation.[5] The
right to hold public oce can only be exercised in accordance with the sharia,[6] which forbids Muslims to submit
to the rule of non-Muslims.
The CDHRI was adopted in 1990 by members of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference. It has been signed
by 45 states so far.[4] In 1992, the CDHRI was presented
to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights,
where it was strongly condemned by the International The Declaration also emphasizes the full right to freeCommission of Jurists.
dom and self-determination, and its opposition to
enslavement, oppression, exploitation, and colonialism.
The CDHRI declares the rule of law, establishing equal2.8.2 Contents
ity and justice for all, with the limitations provided under
Islamic law. The CDHRI also guarantees all individuals
The Declaration starts by saying All men are equal in the right to participate, directly or indirectly in the adterms of basic human dignity (note that the phrase is ministration of his countrys public aairs. The CDHRI
equal human dignity not equal human rights) and also forbids any abuse of authority subject to the Islamic
forbids discrimination on the basis of race, colour, Shariah.
language, belief, sex, religion, political aliation, social
Article 22(a) of the Declaration states that Everyone
status or other considerations. It goes on to proclaim
shall have the right to express his opinion freely in such
the sanctity of life, and declares the preservation of humanner as would not be contrary to the principles of the
man life as a duty prescribed by the Shariah. The
Shariah. 22(b) states that Everyone shall have the right
CDHRI also guarantees non-belligerentssuch as old
to advocate what is right, and propagate what is good,
men, women and children, the wounded and sick, and
and warn against what is wrong and evil according to the
prisoners of warthe right to food, shelter, and access
norms of Islamic Shariah. 22(c) states: Information is a
to safety and medical treatment in times of war.
vital necessity to society. It may not be exploited or misThe CDHRI gives men and women the right to marriage used in such a way as may violate sanctities and the digregardless of their race, colour, or nationality, but not re- nity of Prophets, undermine moral and ethical values or
ligion. In addition, women are given equal human dig- disintegrate, corrupt or harm society, or weaken its faith.
nity, own rights to enjoy, duties to perform, own 22(d) states that It is not permitted to arouse nationaliscivil entity, nancial independence, and the right to tic or doctrinal hatred or to do anything that may be an
retain her name and lineage, but not equal rights in gen- incitement to any form of racial discrimination.
eral. The Declaration makes the husband responsible for
the social and nancial protection of the family. The Declaration gives both parents the rights over their children, Religious features
and makes it incumbent upon both of them to protect the
child, both before and after birth. The Declaration also Although the CDHRI uses a universalist language
entitles every family the right to privacy. It also forbids akin to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
the demolition, conscation, and eviction of any family quite a number of [its] features express an Is[1]
from their residence. Furthermore, should the family get lamic particularity. The preamble is mostly religious
separated in times of war, it is the responsibility of the rhetoric, and the particulars of the CDHRI contain numerous references to the Quran, sharia, and aspects of
state to arrange visits or reunions of families.
the Islamic faith that appear on no other similar internaArticle 10 of the Declaration states: Islam is the reli- tional list.[1] The CDHRI concludes in article 24 and 25
gion of unspoiled nature. It is prohibited to exercise any that all rights and freedoms mentioned are subject to the
form of compulsion on man or to exploit his poverty or Islamic sharia, which is the declarations sole source.[7]
ignorance in order to convert him to another religion or The CDHRI declares true religion to be the guaranto atheism.
tee for enhancing such dignity along the path to human
The Declaration protects each individual from arbitrary integrity. It also places the responsibility for defending
arrest, torture, maltreatment, or indignity. Furthermore, those rights upon the entire Ummah.
154
2.8.3
Criticism
Human rights in Asia
The CDHRI has been criticized for being implemented

Islam and democracy
by a set of states with widely disparate religious policies and practices who had a shared interest in disarming international criticism of their domestic human rights 2.8.5 References
record.[1]
Article 24 of the declaration states: All the rights and
freedoms stipulated in this Declaration are subject to the
Islamic Sharia. Article 19 also says: There shall be
no crime or punishment except as provided for in the
Sharia.[8]
The CDHRI has been criticised for failing to guarantee freedom of religion, in particular the right of each
and every individual to change their religion, as a fundamental and non-derogable right.[8] In a joint written
statement submitted by the International Humanist and
Ethical Union (IHEU), a non-governmental organization
in special consultative status, the Association for World
Education (AWE) and the Association of World Citizens (AWC), a number of concerns were raised that the
CDHRI limits human rights, religious freedom, and freedom of expression. The statement concludes that The
Cairo Declaration of Human Rights in Islam is clearly
an attempt to limit the rights enshrined in the UDHR
and the International Covenants. It can in no sense be
seen as complementary to the Universal Declaration.[9]
In September 2008, in an article to the United Nations,
the Center for Inquiry writes that the CDHRI undermines equality of persons and freedom of expression and
religion by imposing restrictions on nearly every human
right based on Islamic Sharia law.[10]
Rhona Smith writes that, because of the CDHRIs reference to Shariah, it implies an inherent degree of superiority of men.[11]
[1] Brems, E (2001). Islamic Declarations of Human

Rights. Human rights: universality and diversity: Volume 66 of International studies in human rights. Martinus
Nijho Publishers. pp. 24184. ISBN 90-411-1618-4.
[2] National Review Online, Human Rights and Human
Wrongs, David G. Littman, January 19, 2003, retrieved
30 Mai, 2012
[3] Universal Human Rights and 'Human Rights in Islam'".
'Midstream'.
[4] Anver M. Emon, Mark Ellis, Benjamin Glahn: Islamic
Law and International Human Rights Law p. 113. Oxford
University Press, 2012.
[5] There shall be no crime or punishment except as provided
for in the Scharia.
[6] Smith (2003), p.195
[7] Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam,Aug. 5,
1990, U.N. GAOR, World Conf. on Hum. Rts., 4th Sess.,
Agenda Item 5, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.157/PC/62/Add.18
(1993)
[8] Kazemi, F (2002). Perspectives on Islam and Civil Society. In Hashmi SH. Islamic Political Ethics: Civil Society,
Pluralism and Conict. Princeton University Press. pp.
50. ISBN 0-691-11310-6.
Adama Dienga member of the International Commis- [9] The Cairo Declaration and the Universality of Human
sion of Juristshas also criticised the CDHRI. He argued
Rights.
that the declaration gravely threatens the inter-cultural
consensus on which the international human rights instru- [10] CFI Defends Freedom of Expression at the U.N. Human
Rights Council.
ments are based; that it introduces intolerable discrimination against non-Muslims and women. He further argued
that the CDHRI reveals a deliberately restrictive charac- [11] Rhona, Smith. Textbook on International Human Rights,
Oxford University Press, 2003, ISBN 1-84174-301-1,
ter in regard to certain fundamental rights and freedoms,
p.195
to the point that certain essential provisions are below the
legal standards in eect in a number of Muslim countries; it uses the cover of the Islamic sharia (Law)" to [12] David Littman, Universal Human Rights and Human
Rights in Islam, Dhimmitude (Article published in the
justify the legitimacy of practices, such as corporal punjournal Midstream (New York) February/March 1999)
ishment, which attack the integrity and dignity of the hu[3][12]
man being.

2.8.4
See also
Arab Charter on Human Rights

Human Rights in Islam
Human rights in Africa
Cairo Declaration of Human Rights in Islam (English)

Universal Human Rights and Human Rights in Islam
2.9. MINORITY RIGHTS
2.9 Minority rights

Minority rights are the normal individual rights as
applied to members of racial, ethnic, class, religious,
linguistic or sexual minorities; and also the collective
rights accorded to minority groups. Minority rights may
also apply simply to individual rights of anyone who is not
part of a majority decision.
Civil rights movements often seek to ensure that individual rights are not denied on the basis of membership in a
minority group, such as global womens rights and global
LGBT rights movements, or the various racial minority
rights movements around the world (such as the AfricanAmerican Civil Rights Movement (19551968)).
2.9.1
History
The issue of minority rights was rst raised in 1814, at

the Congress of Vienna, which discussed the fate of German Jews and especially of the Poles who were once
again partitioned up. The Congress expressed hope that
Prussia, Russia, and Austria would grant tolerance and
protection to their minorities, which ultimately they disregarded, engaging in organized discrimination. The
Congress of Paris in 1856 paid special attention to the
status of Jews and Christians in the Ottoman Empire. In
Britain William E Gladstone made outrage regarding the
massacres of Bulgarians by the Ottoman Empire a major campaign issue and demanded international attention.
The Congress of Berlin in 1878 dealt with the status of
Jews in Romania, especially, and also Serbia, and Bulgaria. On the whole these 19th century congresses failed
to impose signicant reforms. Russia was especially active in protecting Orthodox Christians, and Slavic peoples
under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Persecution
or discrimination against specic minorities was increasingly the subject of media attention, and the Jews began
to organize to protest the pogroms in Russia. However
there was little international outrage regarding other minorities, such as the blacks in the southern United States.
No one paid much attention to the attacks on Armenians
until it became large-scale genocide in 1915, and even
then nothing was done.[1]
155
were compelled to sign minority rights treaties as a precondition of diplomatic recognition. It was agreed that
although the new States had been recognized, they had
not been 'created' before the signatures of the nal Peace
Treaties. The issue of German and Polish rights was a
point of dispute as Polish rights in Germany remained
unprotected, in contrast to rights of German minority in
Poland. As with most of the principals adopted by the
League, the Minorities Treaties were a part of the Wilsonian idealist approach to international relations, and as
with the League itself, the Minority Treaties were increasingly ignored by the respective governments, with
the entire system mostly collapsing in the late 1930s. Despite the political failure they remained the basis of international law. After World War II the legal principles
were incorporated in the UN Charter and a host of international human rights treaties.
International law
Minority rights, as applying to ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities and indigenous peoples, are an integral part
of international human rights law. Like childrens rights,
womens rights and refugee rights, minority rights are a
legal framework designed to ensure that a specic group
which is in a vulnerable, disadvantaged or marginalized
position in society, is able to achieve equality and is
protected from persecution. The rst post-war international treaty to protect minorities, designed to protect
them from the greatest threat to their existence, was the
U.N. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide.
Subsequent human rights standards that codify minority
rights include the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Article 27), the United Nations Declaration
on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic,
Religious and Linguistic Minorities, two Council of Europe treaties (the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the European Charter for
Regional or Minority Languages), and the Organization
for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Copenhagen Document of 1990.
Minority rights cover protection of existence, protection

from discrimination and persecution, protection and proThe rst minority rights were proclaimed and enacted by
[2] motion of identity, and participation in political life. For
the revolutionary Parliament of Hungary in July 1849.
the rights of LGBT people, The Yogyakarta Principles
Minority rights were codied in Austrian law in 1867.[3]
have been approved by the United Nations Human Rights
Council and for the rights of persons with disabilities, the
Minority rights at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities was
adopted by United Nations General Assembly.
For information about Minority rights at the Paris To protect minority rights, many countries have specic
conference, see Minority Treaties.
laws and/or commissions or ombudsman institutions (for
example the Hungarian Parliamentary Commissioner for
[4]
At the Versailles Peace Conference the Supreme Council National and Ethnic Minorities Rights).
established 'The Committee on New States and for The While initially, the United Nations treated indigenous
Protection of Minorities. All the new successor states peoples as a sub-category of minorities, there is an ex-
156
panding body of international law specically devoted to

them, in particular Convention 169 of the International
Labour Organization and the UN Declaration on the
Rights of Indigenous Peoples (adopted 14 September
2007).
In 2008 a declaration on LGBT rights was presented
in the UN General Assembly, and in 2011 a LGBT
rights resolution was passed in the United Nations Human
Rights Council (See LGBT rights at the United Nations).
Tyranny of the majority

The Yogyakarta Principles
2.9.4 Bibliography
Barzilai, G. 2003. Communities and Law: Politics
and Cultures of Legal Identities. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
There are many political bodies which also feature minority group rights. This might be seen in armative action quotas, or in guaranteed minority representation in a
consociational state.
Fink, Carole. 2006. Defending the Rights of Others:

The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878-1938 excerpt and text search
2.9.2
Henrard, K. 2000. Devising an Adequate System of

Minority Protection: Individual Human Rights, Minority Rights, and the Right to Self-Determination
Leiden: Martinus Nijho Publishers
National minorities in the law of the

EC/EU
The direct role of the European Union (and also the law of
the EU/EC) in the area of protection of national minorities is still very limited (likewise the general protection of
human rights). The EU has relied on general international
law and a European regional system of international law
(based on the Council of Europe, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, etc.) and in a case of necessity accepted their norms. But the de-economisation
of European integration, which started in the 1990s, is
changing this situation. The political relevance of national minorities protection is very high.
Now (2009), although protection of the national minorities has not become a generally accepted legally binding
principle of the EU, in several legal acts issues of national
minorities are mentioned. In external relations protection
of national minorities became one of the main criteria for
cooperation with the EU or accession.[5]
2.9.3
See also
Armative action
Civil rights
European Centre for Minority Issues
Jackson Preece, J. 2005. Minority Rights: Between

Diversity and Community Cambridge: Polity Press
Malloy, T.H. 2005. National Minority Rights in
Europe Oxford and New York: Oxford University
Press.
Pentassuglia, G. 2002. Minorities in international
law: an introductory study Strasbourg: Council of
Europe Publications
mihula, D. 2008. National Minorities in the Law
of the EC/EU, Romanian Journal of European Affairs, Vol. 8 no. 3, pp. 2008, pp. 5181. online
Thornberry, P. 1991. International Law and the
Rights of Minorities. Oxford: Clarendon Press
Weller, M. (ed.) 2006. The Rights of Minorities in
Europe: A Commentary on the European Framework
Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.
Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Weller, M., Denika Blacklock and Katherine Nobbs
(eds.) 2008. The Protection of Minorities in the
Wider Europe Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Global Human Rights Defence

Human rights
LGBT rights in the United States
Marek Edelman
Minority Rights Group International
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
Social vulnerability
External links
Gabriel N. Toggenburg, Minority Protection and the
European Union, OSI, Budapest 2004
Gabriel N. Toggenburg / Gnther Rautz, Das ABC
des Minderheitenschutz in Europa, Bhlau, Wien
2010
Gabriel N. Toggenburg, The Unions role vis-a-vis
its minorities after the enlargement decade: a remaining share or a new part?, European University
Institute, Florence 2006
2.10. AFRICAN-AMERICAN CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT (195468)
2.9.5
References
[1] Carole Fink, Defending the Rights of Others: The Great

Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection,
1878-1938 (2006) ch 1-2
[2] Laszlo Peter, Martyn C. Rady, Peter A. Sherwood: Lajos
Kossuth sas word ...:papers delivered on the occasion of
the bicentenary of Kossuths birth (page 101)
[3] Staatsgrundgesetz vom 21. Dezember 1867 (R.G.Bl.
142/1867), ber die allgemeinen Rechte der Staatsbrger
fr die im Reichsrate vertretenen Knigreiche und Lnder
see Article 19 (German)
157
Protecting and promoting minorities In: D+C,

Vol.42.2015:5[1]
[1] ""Protecting and promoting minorities German Institute
for Human Rights (DIMR)". In: D+C, Vol.42.2015:5.
2.10 African-American
Civil
Rights Movement (195468)
African-American Civil Rights Movement redirects

here. For the movement in the early 20th century, see
[4] Homepage of the Parliamentary Commissioner
African-American Civil Rights Movement (18961954).
For the movement in the 19th century, see African[5] Daniel mihula (2008). National Minorities in the Law of American Civil Rights Movement (186595).
the EC/EU in Romanian Journal of European Aairs, Vol.
Civil Rights Movement redirects here. For the world8 no. 3, Sep. 2008, pp.51-81.
wide series of political movements, see Movements for
civil rights. For a list of other uses, see Civil Rights
Movement (disambiguation).
U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Minorities
Commentary to the Declaration on the Rights
of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic,
Religious and Linguistic Minorities, United
Nations Working Group on Minorities
U.N. Independent Expert on Minority Issues
U.N. Forum on Minority Issues, its recommendations
U.N. Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide
Minority Rights Group International
Minority rights implemented at grassroot level
OSCE Copenhagen Document 1990
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Hague recommendations regarding the education rights of national minorities & explanatory note
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Oslo recommendation regarding the linguistic
rights of national minorities
Congress of the Council of Europe Recommendation 222 (2007) Language Education in Regional or
Minority Languages
The Civil Rights Movement or 1960s Civil Rights

Movement, sometimes anachronistically referred to as
the African-American Civil Rights Movement although
the term African-Americans was not used in the 1960s,
encompasses social movements in the United States
whose goals were to end racial segregation and discrimination against black Americans and to secure legal recognition and federal protection of the citizenship rights enumerated in the Constitution and federal law. This article covers the phase of the movement between 1954
and 1968, particularly in the South. The leadership
was African-American, much of the political and nancial support came from labor unions (led by Walter
Reuther), major religious denominations, and prominent
white politicians such as Hubert Humphrey and Lyndon
B. Johnson.
The movement was characterized by major campaigns
of civil resistance. Between 1955 and 1968, acts of
nonviolent protest and civil disobedience produced crisis situations and productive dialogues between activists
and government authorities. Federal, state, and local governments, businesses, and communities often had to respond immediately to these situations that highlighted the
inequities faced by African Americans. Forms of protest
and/or civil disobedience included boycotts such as the
successful Montgomery Bus Boycott (195556) in Alabama; "sit-ins" such as the inuential Greensboro sit-ins
(1960) in North Carolina; marches, such as the Selma
to Montgomery marches (1965) in Alabama; and a wide
range of other nonviolent activities.
Compilation of reports and opinions concerning the

protection of national minorities Venice CommisNoted legislative achievements during this phase of the
sion
Civil Rights Movement were passage of the Civil Rights
Documents submitted to the Working Group on Mi- Act of 1964,[1] which banned discrimination based on
norities that was replaced by the Forum on Minority race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in emIssues, established by Human Rights Council reso- ployment practices and ended unequal application of
lution 6/15
voter registration requirements and racial segregation in
158
schools, at the workplace, and by public accommodations; the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which restored and
protected voting rights; the Immigration and Nationality
Services Act of 1965, which dramatically opened entry
to the U.S. to immigrants other than traditional Northern
European and Germanic groups; and the Fair Housing
Act of 1968, which banned discrimination in the sale or
rental of housing. African Americans re-entered politics
in the South, and across the country young people were
inspired to take action.

having intimidated and violently attacked blacks before
and during elections.
From 1890 to 1908, southern states passed new constitutions and laws to disfranchise African Americans by creating barriers to voter registration; voting rolls were dramatically reduced as blacks were forced out of electoral
politics. While progress was made in some areas, this
status lasted in most southern states until national civil
rights legislation was passed in the mid-1960s to provide
federal enforcement of constitutional voting rights. For
more than 60 years, blacks in the South were not able to
elect anyone to represent their interests in Congress or local government.[8] Since they could not vote, they could
not serve on local juries.
A wave of inner city riots in black communities from

1964 through 1970 undercut support from the white community. The emergence of the Black Power movement,
which lasted from about 1966 to 1975, challenged the established black leadership for its cooperative attitude and During this period, the white-dominated Democratic
its nonviolence, and instead demanded political and eco- Party maintained political control of the South. Benomic self-suciency.
cause whites controlled all the seats representing the toMany popular representations of the movement are cen- tal population of the South, they had a powerful voting
tered on the leadership and philosophy of Martin Luther block in Congress. The Republican Partythe party of
King, Jr., who won the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize for his Lincolnwhich had been the party that most blacks berole in the movement; however, some scholars note that longed to, shrank to insignicance as black voter registrathe movement was too diverse to be credited to one per- tion was suppressed. Until 1965, the "solid South" was a
son, organization, or strategy.[2]
one-party system under the Democrats. Outside a few areas (usually in remote Appalachia), the Democratic Party
nomination was tantamount to election for state and local
oce.[9] In 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt invited
2.10.1 Background
Booker T. Washington to dine at the White House, makBefore the American Civil War, almost four million ing him the rst African American to attend an ocial
blacks were denied freedom from bondage, only white dinner there. The invitation was roundly criticized by
men of property could vote, and the Naturalization Act of southern politicians and newspapers. Washington per1790 limited U.S. citizenship to whites only.[3][4][5] Fol- suaded the president to appoint more blacks to federal
lowing the Civil War, three constitutional amendments posts in the South and to try to boost African Ameriwere passed, including the 13th Amendment (1865) that can leadership in state Republican organizations. Howended slavery; the 14th Amendment (1868) that gave ever, this was resisted by both white Democrats and white
as an unwanted federal intrusion into state
African Americans citizenship, adding their total popu- Republicans
[10]
politics.
lation of four million to the ocial population of southern states for Congressional apportionment; and the 15th
Amendment (1870) that gave African-American males
the right to vote (only males could vote in the U.S. at the
time). From 1865 to 1877, the United States underwent
a turbulent Reconstruction Era trying to establish free labor and civil rights of freedmen in the South after the end
of slavery. Many whites resisted the social changes, leading to insurgent movements such as the Ku Klux Klan,
whose members attacked black and white Republicans to
maintain white supremacy. In 1871, President Ulysses S.
Grant, the U.S. Army, and U.S. Attorney General Amos
T. Akerman, initiated a campaign to repress the KKK
under the Enforcement Acts.[6] Some states were reluctant to enforce the federal measures of the act; by the
early 1870s, other white supremacist groups arose that
violently opposed African-American legal equality and
surage.[7]
After the disputed election of 1876 resulted in the end
of Reconstruction and federal troops were withdrawn,
whites in the South regained political control of the regions state legislatures by the end of the century, after
The mob-style lynching of Will James, Cairo, Illinois, 1909.
During the same time as African Americans were being disenfranchised, white Democrats imposed racial
segregation by law. Violence against blacks increased,
with numerous lynchings through the turn of the century. The system of de jure state-sanctioned racial discrimination and oppression that emerged from the postReconstruction South became known as the "Jim Crow"

system. The United States Supreme Court, made up almost entirely of Northerners, upheld the constitutionality of those state laws that required racial segregation
in public facilities in its 1896 decision Plessy v. Ferguson, legitimizing them through the "separate but equal"
doctrine.[11]
Segregation remained intact into the mid-1950s, when
many states began to gradually integrate their schools following the unanimous Supreme Court decision in Brown
v. Board of Education that overturned Plessy v. Ferguson. The early 20th century is a period often referred
to as the "nadir of American race relations". While
problems and civil rights violations were most intense
in the South, social discrimination and tensions aected
African Americans in other regions as well.[12] At the national level, the Southern bloc controlled important committees in Congress, defeated passage of laws against
lynching, and exercised considerable power beyond the
number of whites in the South.
Characteristics of the post-Reconstruction period:
Racial segregation. By law, public facilities and government services such as education were divided
into separate white and colored domains.[13]
Characteristically, those for colored were underfunded and of inferior quality.
Disenfranchisement. When white Democrats regained power, they passed laws that made voter registration more restrictive, essentially forcing black
voters o the voting rolls. The number of AfricanAmerican voters dropped dramatically, and they no
longer were able to elect representatives. From 1890
to 1908, Southern states of the former Confederacy created constitutions with provisions that disfranchised tens of thousands of African Americans
and U.S. states such as Alabama disfranchised poor
whites as well.
159
victory in the Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board

of Education in 1954 when the Court rejected separate
white and colored school systems and, by implication,
overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine established
in Plessy v. Ferguson of 1896.[14]
The integration of Southern public libraries involved
many of the same characteristics seen in the larger Civil
Rights Movement.[15] This includes sit-ins, beatings, and
white resistance.[15] For example, in 1963 in the city of
Anniston, Alabama, two black ministers were brutally
beaten for attempting to integrate the public library.[15]
Though there was resistance and violence, the integration of libraries were generally quicker than integration
of other public institutions.[15]
Black veterans of the military after both World Wars
pressed for full civil rights and often led activist movements. In 1948 they gained integration in the military under President Harry Truman, who issued Executive Order
9981 to accomplish it. The situation for blacks outside the
South was somewhat better (in most states they could vote
and have their children educated, though they still faced
discrimination in housing and jobs). From 1910 to 1970,
African Americans sought better lives by migrating north
and west out of the South. Nearly seven million blacks
left the South in what was known as the Great Migration.
So many people migrated that the demographics of some
previously black-majority states changed to white majority (in combination with other developments).
Housing segregation was a nationwide problem, persistent well outside the South. Although the federal government had become increasingly involved in mortgage lending and development in the 1930s and 1940s, it did not
reject the use of race-restrictive covenants until 1950.[16]
Suburbanization was already connected with white ight
by this time, a situation perpetuated by real estate agents
continuing discrimination. In particular, from the 1930s
to the 1960s the National Association of Real Estate
Boards (NAREB) issued guidelines that specied that a
realtor "should never be instrumental in introducing to a
Exploitation. Increased economic oppression of neighborhood a character or property or occupancy, memblacks, Latinos, and Asians, denial of economic op- bers of any race or nationality, or any individual whose
portunities, and widespread employment discrimi- presence will be clearly detrimental to property values in a
neighborhood."[17]
nation.
Invigorated by the victory of Brown and frustrated by
Violence. Individual, police, paramilitary, organi- the lack of immediate practical eect, private citizens
zational, and mob racial violence against blacks (and increasingly rejected gradualist, legalistic approaches as
Latinos in the Southwest and Asians in California). the primary tool to bring about desegregation. They were
faced with "massive resistance" in the South by propoAfrican Americans and other ethnic minorities rejected nents of racial segregation and voter suppression. In dethis regime. They resisted it in numerous ways and sought ance, African American activists adopted a combined
better opportunities through lawsuits, new organizations, strategy of direct action, nonviolence, nonviolent resispolitical redress, and labor organizing (see the African- tance, and many events described as civil disobedience,
American Civil Rights Movement (18961954)). The giving rise to the African-American Civil Rights MoveNational Association for the Advancement of Colored ment of 19541968.
People (NAACP) was founded in 1909. It fought to
end race discrimination through litigation, education, and
lobbying eorts. Its crowning achievement was its legal
160
2.10.2
Mass action replacing litigation
fered training and leadership assistance for local eorts to

ght segregation. The headquarters organization raised
funds, mostly from Northern sources, to support such
The strategy of public education, legislative lobbying, and
campaigns. It made nonviolence both its central tenet and
litigation that had typied the civil rights movement durits primary method of confronting racism.
ing the rst half of the 20th century broadened after
Brown to a strategy that emphasized direct action": boy- In 1959, Septima Clarke, Bernice Robinson, and Esau
cotts, sit-ins, Freedom Rides, marches, and similar tactics Jenkins, with the help of Myles Horton's Highlander Folk
that relied on mass mobilization, nonviolent resistance, School in Tennessee, began the rst Citizenship Schools
and civil disobedience. This mass action approach typi- in South Carolina's Sea Islands. They taught literacy to
enable blacks to pass voting tests. The program was an
ed the movement from 1960 to 1968.
enormous success and tripled the number of black votChurches, local grassroots organizations, fraternal sociers on Johns Island. SCLC took over the program and
eties, and black-owned businesses mobilized volunteers
duplicated its results elsewhere.
to participate in broad-based actions. This was a more direct and potentially more rapid means of creating change
than the traditional approach of mounting court chal2.10.3 Key events
lenges used by the NAACP and others.
In 1952, the Regional Council of Negro Leadership
(RCNL), led by T. R. M. Howard, a black surgeon, entrepreneur, and planter, organized a successful boycott
of gas stations in Mississippi that refused to provide restrooms for blacks. Through the RCNL, Howard led
campaigns to expose brutality by the Mississippi state
highway patrol and to encourage blacks to make deposits
in the black-owned Tri-State Bank of Nashville which, in
turn, gave loans to civil rights activists who were victims
of a credit squeeze by the White Citizens Councils.[18]
Although considered and rejected after Claudette
Colvin's arrest for not giving up her seat on a Montgomery, Alabama, bus in March, 1955, after Rosa
Parks arrest in December Jo Ann Gibson-Robinson
of the Montgomery Womens Political Council put a
long-considered Bus Boycott protest in motion. Late that
night, she, two students, and John Cannon, chairman of
the Business Department at Alabama State University,
mimeographed and distributed approximately 52,500
leaets calling for a boycott of the buses.[19][20]
The rst day of the boycott having been successful, King,
E.D. Nixon, and other civic and religious leaders created the Montgomery Improvement Associationso as
to continue the Montgomery Bus Boycott. The MIA
managed to keep the boycott going for over a year until a
federal court order required Montgomery to desegregate
its buses. The success in Montgomery made its leader
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. a nationally known gure.
It also inspired other bus boycotts, such as the successful
Tallahassee, Florida, boycott of 195657.[21]
Main article: Timeline of the African-American Civil

Rights Movement
Brown v. Board of Education, 1954

Main article: Brown v. Board of Education
In the spring of 1951, black students in Virginia protested
their unequal status in the states segregated educational
system. Students at Moton High School protested the
overcrowded conditions and failing facility.[22] Some local leaders of the NAACP had tried to persuade the students to back down from their protest against the Jim
Crow laws of school segregation. When the students did
not budge, the NAACP joined their battle against school
segregation. The NAACP proceeded with ve cases challenging the school systems; these were later combined
under what is known today as Brown v. Board of Education.[22]
In 1957 Dr. King and Rev. Ralph Abernathy, the leaders of the Montgomery Improvement Association, joined
with other church leaders who had led similar boycott efforts, such as Rev. C. K. Steele of Tallahassee and Rev.
T. J. Jemison of Baton Rouge; and other activists such
as Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth, Ella Baker, A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin and Stanley Levison, to form the School integration, Barnard School, Washington, D.C., 1955
Southern Christian Leadership Conference. The SCLC,
with its headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia, did not attempt On May 17, 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court handed down
to create a network of chapters as the NAACP did. It of- its decision regarding the case called Brown v. Board

of Education of Topeka, Kansas, in which the plaintis
charged that the education of black children in separate public schools from their white counterparts was
unconstitutional. The Court stated that the
segregation of white and colored children
in public schools has a detrimental eect upon
the colored children. The impact is greater
when it has the sanction of the law; for the policy of separating the races is usually interpreted
as denoting the inferiority of the Negro group.
The lawyers from the NAACP had to gather some plausible evidence in order to win the case of Brown vs. Board
of Education. Their way of addressing the issue of school
segregation was to enumerate several arguments. One of
them pertained to having an exposure to interracial contact in a school environment. It was said that it would,
in turn, help to prevent children to live with the pressures
that society exerts in regards to race. Therefore, having
a better chance of living in democracy. In addition, another was in reference to the emphasis of how "'education' comprehends the entire process of developing and
training the mental, physical and moral powers and capabilities of human beings.[23]
Risa Golubo wrote that the NAACPs intention was to
show the Courts that African American children were
the victims of school segregation and their futures were
at risk. The Court ruled that both Plessy v. Ferguson
(1896), which had established the separate but equal
standard in general, and Cumming v. Richmond County
Board of Education (1899), which had applied that standard to schools, were unconstitutional.
161
of African American Dr. David Jones to the school

board in 1953, convinced numerous white and black citizens that Greensboro was heading in a progressive direction. Integration in Greensboro occurred rather peacefully compared to the process in Southern states such
as Alabama, Arkansas, and Virginia where "massive resistance" was practiced by top ocials and throughout
the states. In Virginia, some counties closed their public
schools rather than integrate, and many white Christian
private schools were founded to accommodate students
who used to go to public schools. Even in Greensboro,
much local resistance to desegregation continued, and in
1969, the federal government found the city was not in
compliance with the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Transition
to a fully integrated school system did not begin until
1971.[27]
Many Northern cities also had de facto segregation policies, which resulted in a vast gulf in educational resources
between black and white communities. In Harlem, New
York for example, neither a single new school was built
since the turn of the century, nor did a single nursery school exist even as the Second Great Migration was causing overcrowding. Existing schools tended
to be dilapidated and staed with inexperienced teachers. Brown helped stimulate activism among New York
City parents like Mae Mallory who, with support of the
NAACP, initiated a successful lawsuit against the city and
state on Brown's principles. Mallory and thousands of
other parents bolstered the pressure of the lawsuit with
a school boycott in 1959. During the boycott, some
of the rst freedom schools of the period were established. The city responded to the campaign by permitting more open transfers to high-quality, historicallywhite schools. (New Yorks African-American community, and Northern desegregation activists generally, now
found themselves contending with the problem of white
ight, however.)[28][29]
The federal government led a friend of the court brief in

the case urging the judges to consider the eect that segregation had on Americas image in the Cold War. Secretary of State Dean Acheson was quoted in the brief stating
that The United States is under constant attack in the foreign press, over the foreign radio, and in such international
Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955
bodies as the United Nations because of various practices
1956
of discrimination in this country. [24][25]
The following year, in the case known as Brown II, the
Court ordered segregation to be phased out over time,
with all deliberate speed.[26] Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954) did not overturn Plessy v.
Ferguson (1896). Plessy v. Ferguson was segregation in
transportation modes. Brown v. Board of Education dealt
with segregation in education. Brown v. Board of Education did set in motion the future overturning of 'separate
but equal'.
On May 18, 1954 Greensboro, North Carolina became
the rst city in the South to publicly announce that it
would abide by the Supreme Courts Brown v. Board of
Education ruling. It is unthinkable,' remarked School
Board Superintendent Benjamin Smith, 'that we will try
to [override] the laws of the United States.[27] This positive reception for Brown, together with the appointment
Main articles: Rosa Parks and Montgomery Bus Boycott

Civil rights leaders focused on Montgomery Alabama,
highlight extreme forms of segregation there. Local black
leader Rosa Parks on December 1, 1955, refused to give
up her seat on a public bus to make room for a white passenger; she was arrested and received national publicity,
hailed as the mother of the civil rights movement. Parks
was secretary of the Montgomery NAACP chapter and
had recently returned from a meeting at the Highlander
Center in Tennessee where nonviolent civil disobedience
as a strategy was taught. African-Americans gathered and
organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott to demand a bus
system in which passengers would be treated equally.[30]
After the city rejected many of their suggested reforms,
the NAACP, led by E.D. Nixon, pushed for full deseg-
162
regation of public buses. With the support of most of
Montgomerys 50,000 African Americans, the boycott
lasted for 381 days, until the local ordinance segregating African Americans and whites on public buses was
repealed. Ninety percent of African Americans in Montgomery partook in the boycotts, which reduced bus revenue signicantly, as they comprised the majority of the
riders. In November 1956, a federal court ordered Montgomerys buses desegregated and the boycott ended.[30]

took his stand against integration and against the Federal
court ruling.
Faubus resistance received the attention of President

Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was determined to enforce
the orders of the Federal courts. Critics had charged he
was lukewarm, at best, on the goal of desegregation of
public schools. But, Eisenhower federalized the National
Guard in Arkansas and ordered them to return to their
barracks. Eisenhower deployed elements of the 101st
Local leaders established the Montgomery Improvement Airborne Division to Little Rock to protect the students.
Association to focus their eorts. Martin Luther King, The students attended high school under harsh conditions.
Jr., was elected President of this organization. The They had to pass through a gauntlet of spitting, jeering
lengthy protest attracted national attention for him and whites to arrive at school on their rst day, and to put up
the city. His eloquent appeals to Christian brotherhood with harassment from other students for the rest of the
and American idealism created a positive impression on year. Although federal troops escorted the students bepeople both inside and outside the South.[20]
tween classes, the students were teased and even attacked
by white students when the soldiers were not around.
Desegregating Little Rock Central High School, 1957 One of the Little Rock Nine, Minnijean Brown, was suspended for spilling a bowl of chili on the head of a white
student who was harassing her in the school lunch line.
Main article: Little Rock Nine
expelled for verbally abusing a white feA crisis erupted in Little Rock, Arkansas when Governor Later, she was
male student.[32]
Only Ernest Green of the Little Rock Nine graduated
from Central High School. After the 195758 school
year was over, Little Rock closed its public school system completely rather than continue to integrate. Other
school systems across the South followed suit.
The method of Nonviolence and Nonviolence Training
During the time period considered to be the AfricanAmerican Civil Rights era, the predominant use of
protest was nonviolent, or peaceful.[33] Often referred
Troops from the 327th Regiment, 101st Airborne escorting the to as pacism, the method of nonviolence is considered
Little Rock Nine African-American students up the steps of Cento be an attempt to impact society positively. Although
tral High.
acts of racial discrimination have occurred historically
throughout the United States, perhaps the most violent
of Arkansas Orval Faubus called out the National Guard regions have been in the former Confederate states. Duron September 4 to prevent entry to the nine Africaning the 1950s and 1960s, the nonviolent protesting of the
American students who had sued for the right to attend Civil Rights Movement caused denite tension, which
an integrated school, Little Rock Central High School.[31]
gained national attention.
The nine students had been chosen to attend Central High
In order to prepare for protests physically and psychobecause of their excellent grades.
logically, demonstrators received training in nonviolence.
On the rst day of school, only one of the nine students According to former Civil Rights activist Bruce Hartshowed up because she did not receive the phone call ford, there are two main branches of nonviolence trainabout the danger of going to school. She was harassed ing. There is the philosophical method, which involves
by white protesters outside the school, and the police had understanding the method of nonviolence and why it is
to take her away in a patrol car to protect her. Afterward, considered useful, and there is the tactical method, which
the nine students had to carpool to school and be escorted ultimately teaches demonstrators how to be a protestorby military personnel in jeeps.
-how to sit-in, how to picket, how to defend yourself
Faubus was not a proclaimed segregationist. The against attack, giving training on how to remain cool
Arkansas Democratic Party, which then controlled pol- when people are screaming racist insults into your face
itics in the state, put signicant pressure on Faubus after and pouring stu on you and hitting you (Veterans of
he had indicated he would investigate bringing Arkansas the Civil Rights Movement). The philosophical method
into compliance with the Brown decision. Faubus then of nonviolence, in the American Civil Rights Move-

ment, was largely inspired by Mahatma Gandhis noncooperation with the British colonists in India, which
was intended to gain attention so that the public would
either intervene in advance, or provide public pressure in support of the action to be taken (Erikson, 415).
As Hartford explains it, philosophical nonviolence training aims to shape the individual persons attitude and
mental response to crises and violence (Veterans of the
Civil Rights Movement). Hartford and activists like him,
who trained in tactical nonviolence, considered it necessary in order to ensure physical safety, instill discipline,
teach demonstrators how to demonstrate, and form mutual condence among demonstrators (Veterans of the
Civil Rights Movement).[33][34]
For many, the concept of nonviolent protest was a way of
life, a culture. However, not everyone agreed with this
notion. James Forman, former SNCC (and later Black
Panther) member and nonviolence trainer, was among
those who did not. In his autobiography, The Making of
Black Revolutionaries, Forman revealed his perspective
on the method of nonviolence as strictly a tactic, not a
way of life without limitations. Similarly, Robert Moses,
who was also an active member of SNCC, felt that the
method of nonviolence was practical. When interviewed
by author Robert Penn Warren, Moses said Theres no
question that he [Martin Luther King, Jr.] had a great
deal of inuence with the masses. But I don't think its
in the direction of love. Its in a practical direction . . .
(Who Speaks for the Negro? Warren).[35][36]
163
sexually assaulting black women in Monroe, Williams

announced to United Press International reporters that
he would meet violence with violence as a policy.
Williams declaration was quoted on the front page of
The New York Times, and The Carolina Times considered it the biggest civil rights story of 1959.[41] NAACP
National chairman Roy Wilkins immediately suspended
Williams from his position, but the Monroe organizer
won support from numerous NAACP chapters across the
country. Ultimately, Wilkins resorted to bribing inuential organizer Daisy Bates to campaign against Williams at
the NAACP national convention and the suspension was
upheld. The convention nonetheless passed a resolution
which stated: We do not deny, but rearm the right of
individual and collective self-defense against unlawful assaults. [42] Martin Luther King Jr. argued for Williams
removal,[43] but Ella Baker[44] and WEB Dubois[2] both
publicly praised the Monroe leaders position.
Williams along with his wife, Mabel Williams continued to play a leadership role in the Monroe movement, and to some degree, in the national movement. The
Williamses published The Crusader, a nationally circulated newsletter, beginning in 1960, and the inuential
book Negroes With Guns in 1962. Williams did not call
for full militarization in this period, but exibility in the
freedom struggle.[45] Williams was well-versed in legal
tactics and publicity, which he had used successfully in
the internationally known "Kissing Case" of 1958, as well
as nonviolent methods, which he used at lunch counter
sit-ins in Monroe all with armed self-defense as a complementary tactic.
Robert F. Williams and the debate on nonviolence,

Williams led the Monroe movement in another armed
19591964
stand-o with white supremacists during an August 1961
The Jim Crow system employed terror as a means of so- Freedom Ride; he had been invited to participate in the
cial control,[37] with the most organized manifestations campaign by Ella Baker and James Forman of the Stubeing the Ku Klux Klan and their collaborators in local dent Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). The
police departments. This violence played a key role in incident (along with his campaigns for peace with Cuba)
blocking the progress of the Civil Rights Movement in resulted in him being targeted by the FBI and prosecuted
[46]
the late 1950s. Some black organizations in the South for kidnapping; he was cleared of all charges in 1976.
began practicing armed self-defense. The rst to do so Meanwhile, armed self-defense continued discreetly in
with such gures as SNCCs
openly was the Monroe, North Carolina chapter of the the Southern movement
[46]
Amzie
Moore,
Hartman
Turnbow,[47] and Fannie Lou
NAACP led by Robert F. Williams. Williams had rebuilt
[48]
all willing to use arms to defend their lives
the chapter after its membership was terrorized out of Hamer
from
nightrides.
Taking refuge from the FBI in Cuba, the
public life by the Klan. He did so by encouraging a new,
Willamses
broadcast
the radio show "Radio Free Dixie"
more working-class membership to arm itself thoroughly
[38]
throughout
the
eastern
United States via Radio Progresso
When Klan nightriders atand defend against attack.
beginning
in
1962.
In
this period, Williams advocated
tacked the home of NAACP member Dr. Albert Perry in
guerilla
warfare
against
racist institutions, and saw the
October 1957, Williams militia exchanged gunre with
large
ghetto
riots
of
the
era
as a manifestation of his stratthe stunned Klansmen, who quickly retreated. The folegy.
lowing day, the city council held an emergency session
and passed an ordinance banning KKK motorcades.[39]
One year later, Lumbee Indians in North Carolina would
have a similarly successful armed stand-o with the Klan
(known as the Battle of Hayes Pond) which resulted in
KKK leader James W. Catsh Cole being convicted of
incitement to riot.[40]
University of North Carolina historian Walter Rucker has

written that the emergence of Robert F Williams contributed to the marked decline in anti-black racial violence in the USAfter centuries of anti-black violence,
African-Americans across the country began to defend
their communities aggressively employing overt force
After the acquittal of several white men charged with when necessary. This in turn evoked in whites real fear
164
of black vengeance" This opened up space for AfricanAmericans to use nonviolent demonstration with less fear
of deadly reprisal.[49] Of the many civil rights activists
who share this view, the most prominent was Rosa Parks.
Parks gave the eulogy at Williams funeral in 1996, praising him for his courage and for his commitment to freedom, and concluding that The sacrices he made, and
what he did, should go down in history and never be
forgotten.[50]
Sit-ins, 19581960
See also: Greensboro sit-ins and Nashville sit-ins
In July 1958, the NAACP Youth Council sponsored sitins at the lunch counter of a Dockum Drug Store in downtown Wichita, Kansas. After three weeks, the movement
successfully got the store to change its policy of segregated seating, and soon afterward all Dockum stores in
Kansas were desegregated. This movement was quickly
followed in the same year by a student sit-in at a Katz
Drug Store in Oklahoma City led by Clara Luper, which
also was successful.[51]
Mostly black students from area colleges led a sit-in at a
Woolworth's store in Greensboro, North Carolina.[52] On
February 1, 1960, four students, Ezell A. Blair, Jr., David
Richmond, Joseph McNeil, and Franklin McCain from
North Carolina Agricultural & Technical College, an allblack college, sat down at the segregated lunch counter to
protest Woolworths policy of excluding African Americans from being served there.[53] The four students purchased small items in other parts of the store and kept
their receipts, then sat down at the lunch counter and
asked to be served. After being denied service, they
produced their receipts and asked why their money was
good everywhere else at the store, but not at the lunch
counter.[54]

leased An Appeal for Human Rights[62] as a full page
advertisement in newspapers, including the Atlanta Constitution, Atlanta Journal, and Atlanta Daily World.[63]
Known as the Committee on the Appeal for Human
Rights (COAHR), the group initiated the Atlanta Student
Movement[64] and began to lead sit-ins starting on March
15, 1960.[57][65] By the end of 1960, the proces of sit-ins
had spread to every southern and border state, and even to
facilities in Nevada, Illinois, and Ohio that discriminated
against blacks.
Demonstrators focused not only on lunch counters but
also on parks, beaches, libraries, theaters, museums, and
other public facilities. In April 1960 activists who had
led these sit-ins were invited by SCLC activist Ella Baker
to hold a conference at Shaw University, a historically
black university in Raleigh, North Carolina. This conference led to the formation of the Student Nonviolent
Coordinating Committee (SNCC).[66] SNCC took these
tactics of nonviolent confrontation further, and organized
the freedom rides. As the constitution protected interstate commerce, they decided to challenge segregation on
interstate buses and in public bus facilities by putting interracial teams on them, to travel from the North through
the segregated South.[67]
Freedom Rides, 1961

Main article: Freedom Rider
Freedom Rides were journeys by Civil Rights activists

on interstate buses into the segregated southern United
States to test the United States Supreme Court decision
Boynton v. Virginia, (1960) 364 U.S., which ruled that
segregation was unconstitutional for passengers engaged
in interstate travel. Organized by CORE, the rst Freedom Ride of the 1960s left Washington D.C. on May 4,
1961, and was scheduled to arrive in New Orleans on May
The protesters had been encouraged to dress profession- 17.[68]
ally, to sit quietly, and to occupy every other stool so
During the rst and subsequent Freedom Rides, activists
that potential white sympathizers could join in. The
Greensboro sit-in was quickly followed by other sit-ins traveled through the Deep South to integrate seating patterns on buses and desegregate bus terminals, including
in Richmond, Virginia;[55] Nashville, Tennessee; and
[56][57]
Atlanta, Georgia.
The most immediately eective restrooms and water fountains. That proved to be a danreof these was in Nashville, where hundreds of well orga- gerous mission. In Anniston, Alabama, one bus was [69]
bombed,
forcing
its
passengers
to
ee
for
their
lives.
nized and highly disciplined college students conducted
sit-ins in coordination with a boycott campaign.[58][59] As In Birmingham, Alabama, an FBI informant reported
students across the south began to sit-in at the lunch that Public Safety Commissioner Eugene Bull Connor
counters of local stores, police and other ocials some- gave Ku Klux Klan members fteen minutes to attack an
times used brute force to physically escort the demonstra- incoming group of freedom riders before having police
tors from the lunch facilities.
protect them. The riders were severely beaten until it
The sit-in technique was not newas far back as 1939, looked like a bulldog had got a hold of them. James Peck,
beaten so badly that he required fty
African-American attorney Samuel Wilbert Tucker orga- a white activist, was[69]
stitches
to
his
head.
nized a sit-in at the then-segregated Alexandria, Virginia
library.[60] In 1960 the technique succeeded in bring- In a similar occurrence in Montgomery, Alabama, the
ing national attention to the movement.[61] On March 9, Freedom Riders followed in the footsteps of Rosa Parks
1960 an Atlanta University Center group of students re- and rode an integrated Greyhound bus from Birmingham.

Although they were protesting interstate bus segregation
in peace, they were met with violence in Montgomery as a
large, white mob attacked them for their activism. They
caused an enormous, 2-hour long riot which resulted in
22 injuries, ve of whom were hospitalized.[70]
Mob violence in Anniston and Birmingham temporarily
halted the rides. SNCC activists from Nashville brought
in new riders to continue the journey from Birmingham to New Orleans. In Montgomery, Alabama, at the
Greyhound Bus Station, a mob charged another bus load
of riders, knocking John Lewis unconscious with a crate
and smashing Life photographer Don Urbrock in the face
with his own camera. A dozen men surrounded James
Zwerg, a white student from Fisk University, and beat
him in the face with a suitcase, knocking out his teeth.[69]
On May 24, 1961, the freedom riders continued their
rides into Jackson, Mississippi, where they were arrested
for breaching the peace by using white only facilities.
New freedom rides were organized by many dierent organizations and continued to ow into the South. As riders arrived in Jackson, they were arrested. By the end of
summer, more than 300 had been jailed in Mississippi.[68]
...When the weary Riders arrive in Jackson and attempt to use white only restrooms
and lunch counters they are immediately arrested for Breach of Peace and Refusal to Obey
an Ocer. Says Mississippi Governor Ross
Barnett in defense of segregation: The Negro is dierent because God made him different to punish him. From lockup, the Riders announce Jail No Bailthey will not
pay nes for unconstitutional arrests and illegal
convictionsand by staying in jail they keep
the issue alive. Each prisoner will remain in jail
for 39 days, the maximum time they can serve
without loosing [sic] their right to appeal the
unconstitutionality of their arrests, trials, and
convictions. After 39 days, they le an appeal
and post bond...[71]
The jailed freedom riders were treated harshly, crammed
into tiny, lthy cells and sporadically beaten. In Jackson,
some male prisoners were forced to do hard labor in 100degree heat. Others were transferred to the Mississippi
State Penitentiary at Parchman, where they were treated
to harsh conditions. Sometimes the men were suspended
by wrist breakers from the walls. Typically, the windows of their cells were shut tight on hot days, making it
hard for them to breathe.
Public sympathy and support for the freedom riders led
John F. Kennedy's administration to order the Interstate
Commerce Commission (ICC) to issue a new desegregation order. When the new ICC rule took eect on
November 1, 1961, passengers were permitted to sit
wherever they chose on the bus; white and colored
signs came down in the terminals; separate drinking foun-
165
tains, toilets, and waiting rooms were consolidated; and

lunch counters began serving people regardless of skin
color.
The student movement involved such celebrated gures
as John Lewis, a single-minded activist; James Lawson, the revered guru of nonviolent theory and tactics; Diane Nash, an articulate and intrepid public champion of justice; Bob Moses, pioneer of voting registration in Mississippi; and James Bevel, a ery preacher and
charismatic organizer, strategist, and facilitator. Other
prominent student activists included Charles McDew,
Bernard Lafayette, Charles Jones, Lonnie King, Julian
Bond, Hosea Williams, and Stokely Carmichael.
Voter registration organizing
After the Freedom Rides, local black leaders in Mississippi such as Amzie Moore, Aaron Henry, Medgar Evers,
and others asked SNCC to help register black voters and
to build community organizations that could win a share
of political power in the state. Since Mississippi ratied
its new constitution in 1890 with provisions such as poll
taxes, residency requirements, and literacy tests, it made
registration more complicated and stripped blacks from
voter rolls and voting. In addition, violence at the time of
elections had earlier suppressed black voting.
By the mid-20th century, preventing blacks from voting had become an essential part of the culture of
white supremacy. In the fall of 1961, SNCC organizer
Robert Moses began the rst voter registration project in
McComb and the surrounding counties in the Southwest
corner of the state. Their eorts were met with violent repression from state and local lawmen, the White Citizens
Council, and the Ku Klux Klan. Activists were beaten,
there were hundreds of arrests of local citizens, and the
voting activist Herbert Lee was murdered.[72]
White opposition to black voter registration was so intense in Mississippi that Freedom Movement activists
concluded that all of the states civil rights organizations
had to unite in a coordinated eort to have any chance
of success. In February 1962, representatives of SNCC,
CORE, and the NAACP formed the Council of Federated Organizations (COFO). At a subsequent meeting in
August, SCLC became part of COFO.[73]
In the Spring of 1962, with funds from the Voter Education Project, SNCC/COFO began voter registration organizing in the Mississippi Delta area around Greenwood,
and the areas surrounding Hattiesburg, Laurel, and Holly
Springs. As in McComb, their eorts were met with
erce oppositionarrests, beatings, shootings, arson, and
murder. Registrars used the literacy test to keep blacks
o the voting roles by creating standards that even highly
educated people could not meet. In addition, employers
red blacks who tried to register, and landlords evicted
them from their rental homes.[74] Despite these actions,
over the following years, the black voter registration cam-
166
paign spread across the state.
(Kennard was a native and resident of Hattiesburg.) McSimilar voter registration campaignswith similar Cain said:
responseswere begun by SNCC, CORE, and SCLC
We insist that educationally and socially,
in Louisiana, Alabama, southwest Georgia, and South
we maintain a segregated society. ... In all fairCarolina. By 1963, voter registration campaigns in
ness, I admit that we are not encouraging Nethe South were as integral to the Freedom Movement
gro voting ... The Negroes prefer that control
as desegregation eorts. After passage of the Civil
of the government remain in the white mans
Rights Act of 1964,[1] protecting and facilitating voter
hands.[77][79][80]
registration despite state barriers became the main eort
of the movement. It resulted in passage of the Voting
Rights Act of 1965, which had provisions to enforce the Note: Mississippi had passed a new constitution in 1890
constitutional right to vote for all citizens.
that eectively disfranchised most blacks by changing
Integration of Mississippi universities, 195665
electoral and voter registration requirements; although

it deprived them of constitutional rights authorized under post-Civil War amendments, it survived US Supreme
Court challenges at the time. It was not until after passage
of the 1965 Voting Rights Act that most blacks in Mississippi and other southern states gained federal protection
to enforce the constitutional right of citizens to vote.
James Meredith walking to class accompanied by U.S. marshals.
Beginning in 1956, Clyde Kennard, a black Korean Warveteran, wanted to enroll at Mississippi Southern College
(now the University of Southern Mississippi) under the
GI Bill at Hattiesburg. Dr. William David McCain, the
college president, used the Mississippi State Sovereignty
Commission, in order to prevent his enrollment by appealing to local black leaders and the segregationist state
political establishment.[75]
The state-funded organization tried to counter the Civil
Rights Movement by positively portraying segregationist policies. More signicantly, it collected data on activists, harassed them legally, and used economic boycotts against them by threatening their jobs (or causing
them to lose their jobs) to try to suppress their work.
Kennard was twice arrested on trumped-up charges, and
eventually convicted and sentenced to seven years in the
state prison.[76] After three years at hard labor, Kennard
was paroled by Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett. Journalists had investigated his case and publicized the states
mistreatment of his colon cancer.[76]
McCains role in Kennards arrests and convictions is
unknown.[77][78][79][80] While trying to prevent Kennards
enrollment, McCain made a speech in Chicago, with
his travel sponsored by the Mississippi State Sovereignty
Commission. He described the blacks seeking to desegregate Southern schools as imports from the North.
US Army trucks loaded with US Marshals on the University of

Mississippi campus.
In September 1962, James Meredith won a lawsuit to secure admission to the previously segregated University of
Mississippi. He attempted to enter campus on September
20, on September 25, and again on September 26. He was
blocked by Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett, who said,
"[N]o school will be integrated in Mississippi while I am
your Governor. The Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals
held Barnett and Lieutenant Governor Paul B. Johnson,
Jr. in contempt, ordering them arrested and ned more
than $10,000 for each day they refused to allow Meredith
to enroll.[81]
Attorney General Robert Kennedy sent in a force of U.S.
Marshals. On September 30, 1962, Meredith entered
the campus under their escort. Students and other whites
began rioting that evening, throwing rocks and ring on
the U.S. Marshals guarding Meredith at Lyceum Hall.
Two people, including a French journalist, were killed;
28 marshals suered gunshot wounds; and 160 others
were injured. President John F. Kennedy sent regular US
Army forces to the campus to quell the riot. Meredith
began classes the day after the troops arrived.[82]
167
Kennard and other activists continued to work on public

university desegregation. In 1965 Raylawni Branch and
Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong became the rst AfricanAmerican students to attend the University of Southern
Mississippi. By that time, McCain helped ensure they
had a peaceful entry.[83] In 2006, Judge Robert Helfrich
ruled that Kennard was factually innocent of all charges
for which he had been convicted in the 1950s.[76]
Albany Movement, 196162

Main article: Albany Movement
The SCLC, which had been criticized by some student
activists for its failure to participate more fully in the
freedom rides, committed much of its prestige and resources to a desegregation campaign in Albany, Georgia,
in November 1961. King, who had been criticized personally by some SNCC activists for his distance from the
dangers that local organizers facedand given the derisive nickname De Lawd as a resultintervened personally to assist the campaign led by both SNCC organizers
and local leaders.
Alabama governor George Wallace stands against desegregation

at the University of Alabama and is confronted by US Deputy
Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach in 1963.
The campaign used a variety of nonviolent methods

of confrontation, including sit-ins, kneel-ins at local
churches, and a march to the county building to mark the
beginning of a drive to register voters. The city, however,
obtained an injunction barring all such protests. Convinced that the order was unconstitutional, the campaign
deed it and prepared for mass arrests of its supporters.
The campaign was a failure because of the canny tactics King elected to be among those arrested on April 12,
of Laurie Pritchett, the local police chief, and divisions 1963.[85]
within the black community. The goals may not have
been specic enough. Pritchett contained the marchers While in jail, King wrote his famous "Letter from Birm[86]
without violent attacks on demonstrators that inamed ingham Jail" on the margins of a newspaper, since he
national opinion. He also arranged for arrested demon- had not been allowed any writing paper while held in soli[87]
strators to be taken to jails in surrounding communities, tary connement. Supporters appealed to the Kennedy
allowing plenty of room to remain in his jail. Prichett also administration, which intervened to obtain Kings release.
foresaw Kings presence as a danger and forced his release King was allowed to call his wife, who was recuperating
to avoid Kings rallying the black community. King left at home after the birth of their fourth child, and was rein 1962 without having achieved any dramatic victories. leased early on April 19.
The local movement, however, continued the struggle, The campaign, however, faltered as it ran out of demonand it obtained signicant gains in the next few years.[84] strators willing to risk arrest. James Bevel, SCLCs Director of Direct Action and Director of Nonviolent Education, then came up with a bold and controversial alBirmingham Campaign, 1963
ternative: to train high school students to take part in
the demonstrations. As a result, in what would be called
Main articles: Birmingham Campaign and Birmingham the Childrens Crusade, more than one thousand students
riot of 1963
skipped school on May 2 to meet at the 16th Street BapThe Albany movement was shown to be an important tist Church to join the demonstrations. More than six
education for the SCLC, however, when it undertook hundred marched out of the church fty at a time in an
the Birmingham campaign in 1963. Executive Direc- attempt to walk to City Hall to speak to Birminghams
tor Wyatt Tee Walker carefully planned the early strategy mayor about segregation. They were arrested and put into
and tactics for the campaign. It focused on one goal jail.[88]
the desegregation of Birminghams downtown merchants, In this rst encounter the police acted with restraint. On
rather than total desegregation, as in Albany.
the next day, however, another one thousand students
The movements eorts were helped by the brutal response of local authorities, in particular Eugene Bull
Connor, the Commissioner of Public Safety. He had long
held much political power, but had lost a recent election
for mayor to a less rabidly segregationist candidate. Refusing to accept the new mayors authority, Connor intended to stay in oce.
gathered at the church. When Bevel started them marching fty at a time, Bull Connor nally unleashed police
dogs on them and then turned the citys re hoses water streams on the children. National television networks
broadcast the scenes of the dogs attacking demonstrators and the water from the re hoses knocking down the
schoolchildren.
168

and white workers took place in both Philadelphia and
Harlem in successful eorts to integrate state construction projects.[91][92] On June 6, over a thousand whites
attacked a sit-in in Lexington, North Carolina; blacks
fought back and one white man was killed.[93][94] Edwin
C. Berry of the National Urban League warned of a complete breakdown in race relations: My message from the
beer gardens and the barbershops all indicate the fact that
the Negro is ready for war.[90]
Congress of Racial Equality march in Washington DC on September 22, 1963 in memory of the children killed in the Birmingham
bombings.
In Cambridge, Maryland, a workingclass city on the

Eastern Shore, Gloria Richardson of SNCC led a movement that pressed for desegregation but also demanded
lowrent public housing, jobtraining, public and private
jobs, and an end to police brutality. On June 14, struggles
between blacks and whites escalated to the point where
local authorities declared martial law, and Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy directly intervened to negotiate a
desegregation agreement.[95] Richardson felt that the increasing participation of poor and working-class blacks
was expanding both the power and parameters of the
movement, asserting that The people as a whole really
do have more intelligence than a few of their leaders.
Widespread public outrage led the Kennedy administration to intervene more forcefully in negotiations between the white business community and the SCLC. On
May 10, the parties announced an agreement to desegregate the lunch counters and other public accommodations
downtown, to create a committee to eliminate discriminatory hiring practices, to arrange for the release of jailed In their deliberations during this wave of protests,
protesters, and to establish regular means of communica- the Kennedy administration privately felt that militant
demonstrations were bad for the country and that Netion between black and white leaders.
groes are going to push this thing too far.[96] On May 24,
Not everyone in the black community approved of the Robert Kennedy had a meeting with prominent black inagreement the Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth was particu- tellectuals to discuss the racial situation. The blacks critlarly critical, since he was skeptical about the good faith icized Kennedy harshly for vacillating on civil rights, and
of Birminghams power structure from his experience in said that the African-American communitys thoughts
dealing with them. Parts of the white community re- were increasingly turning to violence. The meeting
acted violently. They bombed the Gaston Motel, which ended with ill will on all sides.[97][98][99] Nonetheless,
housed the SCLCs unocial headquarters, and the home the Kennedys ultimately decided that new legislation for
of Kings brother, the Reverend A. D. King. In response, equal public accommodations was essential to drive acthousands of blacks rioted, burning numerous buildings tivists into the courts and out of the streets.[96][100]
and one of them stabbed and wounded a police ocer.[89]
On June 11, 1963, George Wallace, Governor of AlKennedy prepared to federalize the Alabama National abama, tried to block[101] the integration of the University
Guard if the need arose. Four months later, on September of Alabama. President John F. Kennedy sent a mili15, a conspiracy of Ku Klux Klan members bombed the tary force to make Governor Wallace step aside, allowing
Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, killing the enrollment of Vivian Malone Jones and James Hood.
four young girls.
That evening, President Kennedy addressed the nation on
TV and radio with his historic civil rights speech, where
he lamented a rising tide of discontent that threatens the
Rising tide of discontent and Kennedys Response, public safety. He called on Congress to pass new civil
1963
rights legislation, and urged the country to embrace civil
rights as a moral issue...in our daily lives.[102] In the
Main articles: Gloria Richardson, Stand in the School- early hours of June 12, Medgar Evers, eld secretary of
house Door and Civil Rights Address
the Mississippi NAACP, was assassinated by a member
of the Klan.[103][104] The next week, as promised, on June
Kennedy submitted his Civil Rights
Birmingham was only one of over a hundred cities rocked 19, 1963, President
[105]
bill
to
Congress.
by chaotic protest that spring and summer, some of them
in the North. During the March on Washington, Martin
Luther King would refer to such protests as the whirlwinds of revolt. In Chicago, blacks rioted through the March on Washington, 1963
South Side in late May after a white police ocer shot
a fourteen-year-old black boy who was eeing the scene Main article: March on Washington for Jobs and Freeof a robbery.[90] Violent clashes between black activists dom
169
Civil Rights marchers at the Lincoln Memorial.
passage of civil rights legislation. However, Randolph

and King were rm that the march would proceed.[107]
With the march going forward, the Kennedys decided it
was important to work to ensure its success. Concerned
about the turnout, President Kennedy enlisted the aid of
The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom at the National additional church leaders and the UAW union to help moMall.
bilize demonstrators for the cause.[108]
The march was held on August 28, 1963. Unlike the
A. Philip Randolph had planned a march on Washing- planned 1941 march, for which Randolph included only
black-led organizations in the planning, the 1963 march
was a collaborative eort of all of the major civil rights
organizations, the more progressive wing of the labor
movement, and other liberal organizations. The march
had six ocial goals:
meaningful civil rights laws
a massive federal works program
full and fair employment
decent housing
Civil Rights March on Washington, leaders marching from the
Washington Monument to the Lincoln Memorial.
ton, D.C. in 1941 to support demands for elimination

of employment discrimination in defense industries; he
called o the march when the Roosevelt administration
met the demand by issuing Executive Order 8802 barring
racial discrimination and creating an agency to oversee
compliance with the order.[106]
Randolph and Bayard Rustin were the chief planners of
the second march, which they proposed in 1962. In 1963,
the Kennedy administration initially opposed the march
out of concern it would negatively impact the drive for
the right to vote

adequate integrated education.
Of these, the marchs major focus was on passage of the
civil rights law that the Kennedy administration had proposed after the upheavals in Birmingham.
National media attention also greatly contributed to the
marchs national exposure and probable impact. In
his section The March on Washington and Television
News,[109] William Thomas notes: Over ve hundred
cameramen, technicians, and correspondents from the
170
Martin Luther King, Jr. at a Civil Rights March on Washington,

D.C.
major networks were set to cover the event. More cameras would be set up than had lmed the last presidential inauguration. One camera was positioned high in the
Washington Monument, to give dramatic vistas of the
marchers. By carrying the organizers speeches and offering their own commentary, television stations framed
the way their local audiences saw and understood the
event.[109]

right to self-defense and the philosophy of Black nationalism (which Malcolm said no longer required Black separatism). Gloria Richardson head of the Cambridge,
Maryland chapter of SNCC, leader of the Cambridge
rebellion[110] and an honored guest at The March on
Washington immediately embraced Malcolms oer.
Mrs. Richardson, the nations most prominent woman
[civil rights] leader, told The Baltimore Afro-American
that Malcolm is being very practicalThe federal government has moved into conict situations only when
matters approach the level of insurrection. Self-defense
may force Washington to intervene sooner.[111] Earlier,
in May 1963, James Baldwin had stated publicly that the
Black Muslim movement is the only one in the country
we can call grassroots, I hate to say itMalcolm articulates for Negroes, their sueringhe corroborates their
reality...[112] On the local level, Malcolm and the NOI
had been allied with the Harlem chapter of the Congress
of Racial Equality (CORE) since at least 1962.[113]
On March 26, 1964, as the Civil Rights Act was facing
sti opposition in Congress, Malcolm had a public meeting with Martin Luther King, Jr. at the Capitol building. Malcolm had attempted to begin a dialog with Dr.
King as early as 1957, but King had rebued him. Malcolm had responded by calling King an "Uncle Tom" who
turned his back on black militancy in order to appease the
white power structure. However, the two men were on
good terms at their face-to-face meeting.[114] There is evidence that King was preparing to support Malcolms plan
to formally bring the US government before the United
Nations on charges of human rights violations against
African-Americans.[115] Malcolm now encouraged Black
nationalists to get involved in voter registration drives and
other forms of community organizing to redene and expand the movement.[116]
The march was a success, although not without controversy. An estimated 200,000 to 300,000 demonstrators
gathered in front of the Lincoln Memorial, where King
delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. While
many speakers applauded the Kennedy administration for
the eorts it had made toward obtaining new, more eective civil rights legislation protecting the right to vote and
outlawing segregation, John Lewis of SNCC took the administration to task for not doing more to protect southern
blacks and civil rights workers under attack in the Deep Civil rights activists became increasingly combative in the
1963 to 1964 period, owing to events such as the thwartSouth.
ing of the Albany campaign, police repression and Ku
After the march, King and other civil rights leaders met
Klux Klan terrorism in Birmingham, and the assassinawith President Kennedy at the White House. While the
tion of Medgar Evers. Mississippi NAACP Field DiKennedy administration appeared sincerely committed to
rector Charles EversMedgar Evers brothertold a pubpassing the bill, it was not clear that it had the votes in
lic NAACP conference on February 15, 1964 that nonCongress to do it. However when President Kennedy was
violence won't work in Mississippiwe made up our
[105]
assassinated on November 22, 1963,
the new Presmindsthat if a white man shoots at a Negro in Missisident Lyndon Johnson decided to use his inuence in
sippi, we will shoot back.[117] The repression of sit-ins
Congress to bring about much of Kennedys legislative
in Jacksonville, Florida provoked a riot that saw black
agenda.
youth throwing Molotov cocktails at police on March 24,
1964.[118] Malcolm X gave extensive speeches in this period warning that such militant activity would escalate
Malcolm X joins the movement, 19641965
further if African-Americans rights were not fully recMain articles: Malcolm X, Black Nationalism and The ognized. In his landmark April 1964 speech "The Ballot or the Bullet", Malcolm presented an ultimatum to
Ballot or the Bullet
white America: Theres new strategy coming in. It'll be
Molotov cocktails this month, hand grenades next month,
In March 1964, Malcolm X (Malik El-Shabazz), national and something else next month. It'll be ballots, or it'll be
representative of the Nation of Islam, formally broke with bullets.[119]
that organization, and made a public oer to collaborate with any civil rights organization that accepted the As noted in Eyes on the Prize, Malcolm X had a far reach-

ing eect on the civil rights movement. In the South,
there had been a long tradition of self reliance. Malcolm
Xs ideas now touched that tradition.[120] Self-reliance
was becoming paramount in light of the 1964 Democratic
National Convention's decision to refuse seating to the
Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) and to
seat the state delegation elected in violation of the partys
rules through Jim Crow law instead.[121] SNCC moved in
an increasingly militant direction and worked with Malcolm X on two Harlem MFDP fundraisers in December 1964. When Fannie Lou Hamer spoke to Harlemites
about the Jim Crow violence that she'd suered in Mississippi, she linked it directly to the Northern police brutality against blacks that Malcolm protested against;[122]
When Malcolm asserted that African-Americans should
emulate the Mau Mau army of Kenya in eorts to gain
their independence, many in SNCC applauded.[123] During the Selma campaign for voting rights in 1965, Malcolm made it known that he'd heard reports of increased
threats of lynching around Selma, and responded in late
January with an open telegram to George Lincoln Rockwell, the head of the American Nazi Party, stating: if
your present racist agitation against our people there in
Alabama causes physical harm to Reverend King or any
other black Americansyou and your KKK friends will
be met with maximum physical retaliation from those of
us who are not handcued by the disarming philosophy of
nonviolence.[124] The following month, the Selma chapter of SNCC invited Malcolm to speak to a mass meeting there. On the day of Malcolms appearance, President Johnson made his rst public statement in support
of the Selma campaign.[125] Paul Ryan Haygood, a codirector of the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, credits Malcolm with a role in stimulating the responsiveness of the
federal government. Haygood noted that shortly after
Malcolms visit to Selma, a federal judge, responding to
a suit brought by the Department of Justice, required Dallas County registrars to process at least 100 Black applications each day their oces were open.[126]
St. Augustine, Florida, 196364
Main article: St. Augustine movement
St. Augustine, on the northeast coast of Florida was famous as the Nations Oldest City, founded by the Spanish in 1565. It became the stage for a great drama leading up to the passage of the landmark Civil Rights Act of
1964. A local movement, led by Dr. Robert B. Hayling,
a black dentist and Air Force veteran, and aliated with
the NAACP, had been picketing segregated local institutions since 1963, as a result of which Dr. Hayling and
three companions, James Jackson, Clyde Jenkins, and
James Hauser, were brutally beaten at a Ku Klux Klan
rally in the fall of that year.
171
Willie Carl Singleton (who came to be known as The

St. Augustine Four) spent six months in jail and reform school after sitting in at the local Woolworths lunch
counter. It took a special action of the governor and cabinet of Florida to release them after national protests by
the Pittsburgh Courier, Jackie Robinson, and others.
In response to the repression, the St. Augustine movement practiced armed self-defense in addition to nonviolent direct action. In June 1963, Dr. Hayling publicly stated that I and the others have armed. We will
shoot rst and answer questions later. We are not going to die like Medgar Evers. The comment made national headlines.[127] When Klan nightriders terrorized
black neighborhoods in St. Augustine, Haylings NAACP
members often drove them o with gunre, and in October, a Klansman was killed.[128]
In 1964, Dr. Hayling and other activists urged the
Southern Christian Leadership Conference to come to St.
Augustine. The rst action came during spring break,
when Hayling appealed to northern college students to
come to the Ancient City, not to go to the beach, but
to take part in demonstrations. Four prominent Massachusetts womenMrs. Mary Parkman Peabody, Mrs.
Esther Burgess, Mrs. Hester Campbell (all of whose husbands were Episcopal bishops), and Mrs. Florence Rowe
(whose husband was vice president of John Hancock Insurance Company) came to lend their support. The arrest
of Mrs. Peabody, the 72-year-old mother of the governor of Massachusetts, for attempting to eat at the segregated Ponce de Leon Motor Lodge in an integrated group,
made front page news across the country, and brought the
movement in St. Augustine to the attention of the world.
Widely publicized activities continued in the ensuing
months, as Congress saw the longest libuster against a
civil rights bill in its history. Dr. Martin Luther King,
Jr. was arrested at the Monson Motel in St. Augustine on
June 11, 1964, the only place in Florida he was arrested.
He sent a Letter from the St. Augustine Jail to a northern supporter, Rabbi Israel Dresner of New Jersey, urging
him to recruit others to participate in the movement. This
resulted, a week later, in the largest mass arrest of rabbis
in American historywhile conducting a pray-in at the
Monson.
A well-known photograph taken in St. Augustine shows
the manager of the Monson Motel pouring acid in the
swimming pool while blacks and whites are swimming in
it. The horrifying photograph was run on the front page
of the Washington newspaper the day the senate went to
vote on passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Mississippi Freedom Summer, 1964

Main article: Freedom Summer
Nightriders shot into black homes, and teenagers Audrey

Nell Edwards, JoeAnn Anderson, Samuel White, and In the summer of 1964, COFO brought nearly 1,000
172
activists to Mississippimost of them white college fect of Freedom Summer was on the volunteers, almost
studentsto join with local black activists to register all of whomblack and whitestill consider it to have
voters, teach in Freedom Schools, and organize the been one of the dening periods of their lives.[133]
Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP).[129]
Many of Mississippis white residents deeply resented the
outsiders and attempts to change their society. State and
local governments, police, the White Citizens Council
and the Ku Klux Klan used arrests, beatings, arson, murder, spying, ring, evictions, and other forms of intimidation and harassment to oppose the project and prevent blacks from registering to vote or achieving social
equality.[130]
Civil Rights Act of 1964

Main article: Civil Rights Act of 1964
Although President Kennedy had proposed civil rights

legislation and it had support from Northern Congressmen and Senators of both parties, Southern Senators
blocked the bill by threatening libusters. After considerOn June 21, 1964, three civil rights workers disap- able parliamentary maneuvering and 54 days of libuster
peared. James Chaney, a young black Mississippian and on the oor of the United States Senate, President Johnplasterers apprentice; and two Jewish activists, Andrew son got a bill through the Congress.[134]
Goodman, a Queens College anthropology student; and
Michael Schwerner, a CORE organizer from Manhattan's On July 2, 1964, Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of
[1]
Lower East Side, were found weeks later, murdered by 1964, that banned discrimination based on race, color,
conspirators who turned out to be local members of the religion, sex or national origin in employment practices
Klan, some of them members of the Neshoba County and public accommodations. The bill authorized the Atsheris department. This outraged the public, leading torney General to le lawsuits to enforce the new law. The
the U.S. Justice Department along with the FBI (the lat- law also nullied state and local laws that required such
ter which had previously avoided dealing with the issue discrimination.
of segregation and persecution of blacks) to take action.
The outrage over these murders helped lead to the pasMississippi Freedom Democratic Party, 1964
sage of the Civil Rights Act. (See Mississippi civil rights
workers murders for details).
Main article: Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
From June to August, Freedom Summer activists worked Blacks in Mississippi had been disfranchised by statuin 38 local projects scattered across the state, with the
largest number concentrated in the Mississippi Delta region. At least 30 Freedom Schools, with close to 3,500
students were established, and 28 community centers set
up.[131]
Over the course of the Summer Project, some 17,000
Mississippi blacks attempted to become registered voters
in deance of the red tape and forces of white supremacy
arrayed against themonly 1,600 (less than 10%) succeeded. But more than 80,000 joined the Mississippi
Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP), founded as an alternative political organization, showing their desire to vote
and participate in politics.[132]
Though Freedom Summer failed to register many voters,
it had a signicant eect on the course of the Civil Rights
Movement. It helped break down the decades of peoples isolation and repression that were the foundation of
the Jim Crow system. Before Freedom Summer, the national news media had paid little attention to the persecution of black voters in the Deep South and the dangers
endured by black civil rights workers. The progression of
events throughout the South increased media attention to
Mississippi.[133]
President Lyndon B. Johnson meets with Civil Rights leaders

Martin Luther King, Jr., Whitney Young, and James Farmer,
January 1964.
tory and constitutional changes since the late 19th century. In 1963 COFO held a Freedom Vote in Mississippi to demonstrate the desire of black Mississippians
to vote. More than 80,000 people registered and voted
in the mock election, which pitted an integrated slate of
candidates from the Freedom Party against the ocial
[135]
The deaths of auent northern white students and threats state Democratic Party candidates.
to other northerners attracted the full attention of the me- In 1964, organizers launched the Mississippi Freedom
dia spotlight to the state. Many black activists became Democratic Party (MFDP) to challenge the all-white ofembittered, believing the media valued lives of whites cial party. When Mississippi voting registrars refused
and blacks dierently. Perhaps the most signicant ef- to recognize their candidates, they held their own pri-
173
mary. They selected Fannie Lou Hamer, Annie Devine, Boycott of New Orleans by American Football
and Victoria Gray to run for Congress, and a slate of del- League players, January 1965
egates to represent Mississippi at the 1964 Democratic
National Convention.[129]
After the 1964 professional American Football League
The presence of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic season, the AFL All-Star Game had been scheduled for
Party in Atlantic City, New Jersey, was inconvenient, early 1965 in New Orleans' Tulane Stadium. After nuhowever, for the convention organizers. They had merous black players were refused service by a number of
planned a triumphant celebration of the Johnson admin- New Orleans hotels and businesses, and white cabdrivers
istrations achievements in civil rights, rather than a ght refused to carry black passengers, black and white playover racism within the Democratic Party. All-white del- ers alike lobbied for a boycott of New Orleans. Under
egations from other Southern states threatened to walk the leadership of Bualo Bills' players, including Cookie
out if the ocial slate from Mississippi was not seated. Gilchrist, the players put up a unied front. The game
Johnson was worried about the inroads that Republican was moved to Jeppesen Stadium in Houston.
Barry Goldwater's campaign was making in what previously had been the white Democratic stronghold of the
Solid South, as well as support that George Wallace had
received in the North during the Democratic primaries.
The discriminatory practices that prompted the boycott

were illegal under the Civil Rights Act of 1964,[1] which
had been signed in July 1964. This new law likely encouraged the AFL players in their cause. It was the
boycott by a professional sports event of an entire
Johnson could not, however, prevent the MFDP from tak- rst [137]
city.
ing its case to the Credentials Committee. There Fannie
Lou Hamer testied eloquently about the beatings that she
and others endured and the threats they faced for trying to
Selma Voting Rights Movement and the Voting
register to vote. Turning to the television cameras, Hamer
Rights Act, 1965
asked, Is this America?"
Johnson oered the MFDP a compromise under which Main articles: Selma to Montgomery marches and
it would receive two non-voting, at-large seats, while the Voting Rights Act
white delegation sent by the ocial Democratic Party
would retain its seats. The MFDP angrily rejected the
SNCC had undertaken an ambitious voter registration
compromise.
program in Selma, Alabama, in 1963, but by 1965
The MFDP kept up its agitation at the convention, af- had made little headway in the face of opposition from
ter it was denied ocial recognition. When all but three Selmas sheri, Jim Clark. After local residents asked the
of the regular Mississippi delegates left because they SCLC for assistance, King came to Selma to lead several
refused to pledge allegiance to the party, the MFDP del- marches, at which he was arrested along with 250 other
egates borrowed passes from sympathetic delegates and demonstrators. The marchers continued to meet violent
took the seats vacated by the ocial Mississippi dele- resistance from police. Jimmie Lee Jackson, a resident
gates. National party organizers removed them. When of nearby Marion, was killed by police at a later march
they returned the next day, they found convention orga- in February 17, 1965. Jacksons death prompted James
nizers had removed the empty seats that had been there Bevel, director of the Selma Movement, to initiate and orthe day before. They stayed and sang freedom songs.
ganize a plan to march from Selma to Montgomery, the
The 1964 Democratic Party convention disillusioned state capital.
many within the MFDP and the Civil Rights Movement,
but it did not destroy the MFDP. The MFDP became
more radical after Atlantic City. It invited Malcolm X
to speak at one of its conventions and opposed the war in
Vietnam.
King awarded Nobel Peace Prize
On March 7, 1965, acting on Bevels plan, Hosea

Williams of the SCLC and John Lewis of SNCC led
a march of 600 people to walk the 54 miles (87 km)
from Selma to the state capital in Montgomery. Only six
blocks into the march, at the Edmund Pettus Bridge, state
troopers and local law enforcement, some mounted on
horseback, attacked the peaceful demonstrators with billy
clubs, tear gas, rubber tubes wrapped in barbed wire, and
bull whips. They drove the marchers back into Selma.
Lewis was knocked unconscious and dragged to safety.
At least 16 other marchers were hospitalized. Among
those gassed and beaten was Amelia Boynton Robinson,
who was at the center of civil rights activity at the time.
The national broadcast of the news footage of lawmen

On December 10, 1964, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was attacking unresisting marchers seeking to exercise their
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, the youngest man to re- constitutional right to vote provoked a national response,
ceive the award; he was 35 years of age.[136]
as had scenes from Birmingham two years earlier. The
174
marchers were able to obtain a court order permitting The act had an immediate and positive eect for African
them to make the march without incident two weeks later. Americans. Within months of its passage, 250,000 new
black voters had been registered, one third of them by
federal examiners. Within four years, voter registration
in the South had more than doubled. In 1965, Mississippi had the highest black voter turnout at 74% and led
the nation in the number of black public ocials elected.
In 1969, Tennessee had a 92.1% turnout among black
voters; Arkansas, 77.9%; and Texas, 73.1%.
Participants in the Selma to Montgomery marches
Several whites who had opposed the Voting Rights Act

paid a quick price. In 1966 Sheri Jim Clark of Alabama, infamous for using cattle prods against civil rights
marchers, was up for reelection. Although he took o the
notorious Never pin on his uniform, he was defeated.
At the election, Clark lost as blacks voted to get him out
of oce. Clark later served a prison term for drug dealing.
The evening of a second march on March 9 to the site of

Bloody Sunday, local whites attacked Rev. James Reeb, a
voting rights supporter. He died of his injuries in a Birmingham hospital March 11. On March 25, four Klansmen
shot and killed Detroit homemaker Viola Liuzzo as she
drove marchers back to Selma at night after the successfully completed march to Montgomery.
Blacks regaining the power to vote changed the political

landscape of the South. When Congress passed the Voting Rights Act, only about 100 African Americans held
elective oce, all in northern states. By 1989, there were
more than 7,200 African Americans in oce, including
more than 4,800 in the South. Nearly every Black Belt
county (where populations were majority black) in AlEight days after the rst march, but before the nal march, abama had a black sheri. Southern blacks held top poPresident Johnson delivered a televised address to support sitions in city, county, and state governments.
the voting rights bill he had sent to Congress. In it he Atlanta elected a black mayor, Andrew Young, as did
stated:
Jackson, Mississippi, with Harvey Johnson, Jr., and New
Orleans, with Ernest Morial. Black politicians on the national level included Barbara Jordan, elected as a RepreBut even if we pass this bill, the battle will
sentative from Texas in Congress, and President Jimmy
not be over. What happened in Selma is part of
Carter appointed Andrew Young as United States Ama far larger movement which reaches into every
bassador to the United Nations. Julian Bond was elected
section and state of America. It is the eort of
to the Georgia State Legislature in 1965, although poAmerican Negroes to secure for themselves the
litical reaction to his public Opposition to the U.S. infull blessings of American life.
volvement in the Vietnam War prevented him from taking his seat until 1967. John Lewis represents Georgias
Their cause must be our cause too. Because
5th congressional district in the United States House of
it is not just Negroes, but really it is all of us,
Representatives, where he has served since 1987.
who must overcome the crippling legacy of bigotry and injustice. And we shall overcome.
Fair housing movements, 19661968
Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965 on August 6. The 1965 act suspended poll taxes, literacy tests,
and other subjective voter registration tests. It authorized
Federal supervision of voter registration in states and individual voting districts where such tests were being used.
African Americans who had been barred from registering to vote nally had an alternative to taking suits to
local or state courts, which had seldom prosecuted their
cases to success. If discrimination in voter registration
occurred, the 1965 act authorized the Attorney General
of the United States to send Federal examiners to replace
local registrars. Johnson reportedly told associates of his
concern that signing the bill had lost the white South as
voters for the Democratic Party for the foreseeable future.
The rst major blow against housing segregation in the

era, the Rumford Fair Housing Act, was passed in California in 1963. It was overturned by white California voters and real estate lobbyists the following year
with Proposition 14, a move which helped precipitate
the Watts Riots.[138][139] In 1966, the California Supreme
Court invalidated Proposition 14 and reinstated the Fair
Housing Act.[140]
Struggles for fair housing laws became a major project
of the movement over the next two years, with Martin
Luther King, Jr., James Bevel, and Al Raby leading the
Chicago Freedom Movement around the issue in 1966. In
the following year, Father James Groppi and the NAACP
Youth Council also attracted national attention with a
175
fair housing campaign in Milwaukee.[141][142] Both move- King and three of the King children led 20,000 marchers
ments faced violent resistance from white homeowners through the streets of Memphis, holding signs that read,
and legal opposition from conservative politicians.
Honor King: End Racism and Union Justice Now.
The Fair Housing Bill was the most contentious civil Armed National Guardsmen lined the streets, sitting on
rights legislation of the era. Senator Walter Mondale, M-48 tanks, to protect the marchers, and helicopters
who advocated for the bill, noted that over successive circled overhead. On April 9 Mrs. King led another
in a funeral procession through the streets
years, it was the most libustered legislation in US his- 150,000 people
[145]
Her
dignity revived courage and hope in
of
Atlanta.
tory. It was opposed by most Northern and Southern
many of the Movements members, cementing her place
senators, as well as the National Association of Real Estate Boards. A proposed Civil Rights Act of 1966 as the new leader in the struggle for racial equality.
had collapsed completely because of its fair housing Coretta Scott King said,[146]
provision.[143] Mondale commented that:
[Martin Luther King, Jr.] gave his life for
the poor of the world, the garbage workers of
A lot of civil rights [legislation] was about makMemphis and the peasants of Vietnam. The
ing the South behave and taking the teeth from
day that Negro people and others in bondage
George Wallace, [but] this came right to the
are truly free, on the day want is abolished, on
neighborhoods across the country. This was
the day wars are no more, on that day I know
civil rights getting personal.[144]
my husband will rest in a long-deserved peace.
Memphis, King assassination and the Poor Peoples
Rev. Ralph Abernathy succeeded King as the head of
March 1968
the SCLC and attempted to carry forth Kings plan for a
Poor Peoples March. It was to unite blacks and whites to
Main articles: Poor Peoples Campaign and Assassination
campaign for fundamental changes in American society
of Martin Luther King, Jr.
and economic structure. The march went forward under
Rev. James Lawson invited King to Memphis, TenAbernathys plainspoken leadership but did not achieve
its goals.
See also: Orangeburg massacre
Civil Rights Act of 1968
A 3000-person shantytown called Resurrection City was established on the National Mall.
As 1968 began, the fair housing bill was being libustered

once again, but two developments revived it.[144] The
Kerner Commission report on the 1967 ghetto riots was
delivered to Congress on March 1, and it strongly recommended a comprehensive and enforceable federal open
housing law as a remedy to the civil disturbances. The
Senate was moved to end their libuster that week.[147]
As the House of Representatives deliberated the bill in

wave of
nessee, in March 1968 to support a sanitation workers April, Dr. King was assassinated, and the largest
[148]
unrest
since
the
Civil
War
swept
the
country.
Senator
strike. These workers launched a campaign for union repCharles
Mathias
wrote
that
resentation after two workers were accidentally killed on
the job, and King considered their struggle to be a vital
some Senators and Representatives publicly
part of the Poor Peoples Campaign he was planning.
stated they would not be intimidated or rushed
A day after delivering his stirring "I've Been to the Mouninto legislating because of the disturbances.
taintop" sermon, which has become famous for his vision
Nevertheless, the news coverage of the riots
of American society, King was assassinated on April 4,
and the underlying disparities in income, jobs,
1968. Riots broke out in black neighborhoods in more
housing, and education, between White and
than 110 cities across the United States in the days that
Black Americans helped educate citizens and
followed, notably in Chicago, Baltimore, and in WashCongress about the stark reality of an enorington, D.C. The damage done in many cities destroyed
mous social problem. Members of Congress
black businesses and homes, and slowed economic develknew they had to act to redress these imbalopment for a generation.
ances in American life to fulll the dream that
The day before Kings funeral, April 8, Coretta Scott
King had so eloquently preached.[147]
176
The House passed the legislation on April 10, and President Johnson signed it the next day. The Civil Rights Act
of 1968 prohibited discrimination concerning the sale,
rental, and nancing of housing based on race, religion,
national origin. It also made it a federal crime to by force
or by threat of force, injure, intimidate, or interfere with
anyone by reason of their race, color, religion, or national origin.[149]
2.10.4
Other issues
Competing ideas
Despite the common notion that the ideas of Martin
Luther King, Jr., Malcolm X and Black Power only conicted with each other and were the only ideologies of the
Civil Rights Movement, there were other sentiments felt
by many blacks. Fearing the events during the movement
were occurring too quickly, there were some blacks who
felt that leaders should take their activism at a slower pace.
Others had reservations on how focused blacks were on
the movement and felt that such attention was better spent
on reforming issues within the black community.
While most popular representations of the movement
are centered on the leadership and philosophy of Martin Luther King, Jr., some scholars note that the movement was too diverse to be credited to one person, organization, or strategy.[2] Sociologist Doug McAdam has
stated that, in Kings case, it would be inaccurate to say
that he was the leader of the modern civil rights movement...but more importantly, there was no singular civil
rights movement. The movement was, in fact, a coalition
of thousands of local eorts nationwide, spanning several decades, hundreds of discrete groups, and all manner of strategies and tacticslegal, illegal, institutional,
non-institutional, violent, non-violent. Without discounting Kings importance, it would be sheer ction to call
him the leader of what was fundamentally an amorphous,
uid, dispersed movement.[150]
while both groups criticize NAACP-style integration, nationalists articulate a third alternative to integration and Jim Crow, while segregationists preferred to stick with the status
quo. Second, absent from black defenders of
segregations political vocabulary was the demand for self-determination. They called for
all-black institutions, but not autonomous allblack institutions; indeed, some defenders of
segregation asserted that black people needed
white paternalism and oversight in order to
thrive.[151]
Oftentimes, African-American community leaders would
be staunch defenders of segregation. Church ministers, businessmen and educators were among those who
wished to keep segregation and segregationist ideals in
order to retain the privileges they gained from patronage
from whites, such as monetary gains. In addition, they
relied on segregation to keep their jobs and economies in
their communities thriving. It was feared that if integration became widespread in the South, black-owned businesses and other establishments would lose a large chunk
of their customer base to white-owned businesses, and
many blacks would lose opportunities for jobs that were
presently exclusive to their interests.[152] On the other
hand, there were the everyday, average black people who
criticized integration as well. For them, they took issue
with dierent parts of the Civil Rights Movement and
the potential for blacks to exercise consumerism and economic liberty without hindrance from whites.[153]
For Martin Luther King, Jr., Malcolm X and other leading activists and groups during the movement, these opposing viewpoints acted as an obstacle against their ideas.
These dierent views made such leaders work much
harder to accomplish, but they were nonetheless important in the overall scope of the movement. For the most
part, the black individuals who had reservations on various aspects of the movement and ideologies of the activists were not able to make a game-changing dent in
Those who blatantly rejected integration usually had a le- their eorts, but the existence of these alternate ideas
gitimate rationale for doing so, such as fearing a change in gave some blacks an outlet to express their concerns about
the status quo they had been used to for so long, or fearing the changing social structure.
for their safety if they found themselves in environments
where whites were much more present. However, there
were also those who defended segregation for the sake of Avoiding the Communist label
keeping ties with the white power structure from which
See also: The Communist Party and African-Americans
many relied on for social and economic mobility above
other blacks. Based on her interpretation of a 1966 study
made by Donald Matthews and James Prothro detailing On December 17, 1951, the Communist Partyaliated
the relative percentage of blacks for integration, against Civil Rights Congress delivered the petition We Charge
it or feeling something else, Lauren Winner asserts that: Genocide: The Crime of Government Against the Negro
People, often shortened to We Charge Genocide, to the
Black defenders of segregation look, at rst
United Nations in 1951, arguing that the U.S. federal govblush, very much like black nationalists, espeernment, by its failure to act against lynching in the United
States, was guilty of genocide under Article II of the UN
cially in their preference for all-black instituGenocide Convention.[154] The petition was presented to
tions; but black defenders of segregation difthe United Nations at two separate venues: Paul Robefer from nationalists in two key ways. First,
177
son, concert singer and activist, to a UN ocial in New

York City, while William L. Patterson, executive director of the CRC, delivered copies of the drafted petition
to a UN delegation in Paris.[155]
Patterson, the editor of the petition, was a leader in the
Communist Party USA and head of the International Labor Defense, a group that oered legal representation to
communists, trade unionists, and African-Americans in
cases involving issues of political or racial persecution.
The ILD was known for leading the defense of the Scottsboro boys in Alabama in 1931, where the Communist
Party had considerable inuence among African Americans in the 1930s. This had largely declined by the late
1950s, although they could command international attention. As earlier Civil Rights gures such as Robeson, Du
Bois and Patterson became more politically radical (and
therefore targets of Cold War anti-Communism by the
US. Government), they lost favor with both mainstream
Black America and the NAACP.[155]
In order to secure a place in the mainstream and gain the
broadest base, the new generation of civil rights activists
believed they had to openly distance themselves from anything and anyone associated with the Communist party.
According to Ella Baker, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference adopted Christian into its name to deter charges of Communism.[156] The FBI under J Edgar
Hoover had been concerned about communism since the
early 20th century, and continued to label as Communist or subversive some of the civil rights activists,
whom it kept under close surveillance. In the early 1960s,
the practice of distancing the Civil Rights Movement
from Reds was challenged by the Student Nonviolent
Coordinating Committee who adopted a policy of accepting assistance and participation by anyone, regardless of political aliation, who supported the SNCC program and was willing to put their body on the line. At
times this political openness put SNCC at odds with the
NAACP.[155]
Kennedy administration, 196163

During the years preceding his election to the presidency,
John F. Kennedy's record of voting on issues of racial
discrimination had been minimal. Kennedy openly confessed to his closest advisors that during the rst months
of his presidency, his knowledge of the civil rights movement was lacking.
For the rst two years of the Kennedy administration,
civil rights activists had mixed opinions of both the president and attorney general, Robert F. Kennedy. Many
viewed the administration with suspicion. A well of
historical cynicism toward white liberal politics had left
African Americans with a sense of uneasy disdain for any
white politician who claimed to share their concerns for
freedom. Still, many had a strong sense that the Kennedys
represented a new age of political dialogue.
Robert F. Kennedy speaking to a Civil Rights crowd in front of

the Justice Department building, June 1963.
Although observers frequently assert the phrases The

Kennedy administration or President Kennedy when
discussing the executive and legislative support of the
Civil Rights movement between 1960 and 1963, many
of the initiatives resulted from Robert Kennedys passion. Through his rapid education in the realities of
racism, Robert Kennedy underwent a thorough conversion of purpose as Attorney-General. The President came
to share his brothers sense of urgency on the matters;
the Attorney-General succeeded in urging the president
to address the issue in a speech to the nation.[157]
Robert Kennedy rst became seriously concerned with
civil rights in mid-May 1961 during the Freedom Rides,
when photographs of the burning bus and savage beatings in Aniston and Birmingham were broadcast around
the world. They came at an especially embarrassing
time, as President Kennedy was about to have a summit
with the Soviet premier in Vienna. The White House
was concerned with its image among the populations of
newly independent nations in Africa and Asia, and Robert
Kennedy responded with an address for Voice of America stating that great progress had been made on the issue
of race relations. Meanwhile, behind the scenes, the administration worked to resolve the crisis with a minimum
of violence and prevent the Freedom Riders from generating a fresh crop of headlines that might divert attention
178
from the Presidents international agenda. The Freedom

Riders documentary notes that, The back burner issue of
civil rights had collided with the urgent demands of Cold
War realpolitik.[158]
and much more importantly, to each other

that this is the land of the free except for the
Negroes; that we have no second-class citizens
except Negroes; that we have no class or caste
system, no ghettoes, no master race except
with respect to Negroes? Now the time has
come for this Nation to fulll its promise. The
events in Birmingham and elsewhere have so
increased the cries for equality that no city or
State or legislative body can prudently choose
to ignore them.
President Kennedy, [160]
On May 21, when a white mob attacked and burned the

First Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama, where
King was holding out with protesters, Robert Kennedy
telephoned King to ask him to stay in the building until
the U.S. Marshals and National Guard could secure the
area. King proceeded to berate Kennedy for allowing
the situation to continue. King later publicly thanked
Robert Kennedys commanding the force to break up an
attack, which might otherwise have ended Kings life.
With a very small majority in Congress, the presidents
ability to press ahead with legislation relied considerably
on a balancing game with the Senators and Congressmen
of the South. Without the support of Vice-President Lyndon Johnson, a former Senator who had years of experience in Congress and longstanding relations there, many
of the Attorney-Generals programs would not have progressed.
Assassination cut short the life and careers of both the

Kennedy brothers and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The
essential groundwork of the Civil Rights Act 1964 had
been initiated before John F. Kennedy was assassinated.
The dire need for political and administrative reform was
driven home on Capitol Hill by the combined eorts of
the Kennedy brothers, Dr. King (and other leaders) and
By late 1962, frustration at the slow pace of political
President Lyndon Johnson.
change was balanced by the movements strong support
for legislative initiatives: housing rights, administrative In 1966, Robert Kennedy undertook a tour of South
representation across all US Government departments, Africa in which he championed the cause of the antisafe conditions at the ballot box, pressure on the courts apartheid movement. His tour gained international praise
to prosecute racist criminals. King remarked by the end at a time when few politicians dared to entangle themselves in the politics of South Africa. Kennedy spoke out
of the year,
against the oppression of the black population. He was
welcomed by the black population as though a visiting
This administration has reached out more
head of state. In an interview with LOOK Magazine he
creatively than its predecessors to blaze new
said:
trails, [notably in voting rights and government
appointments]. Its vigorous young men [had
launched] imaginative and bold forays [and displayed] a certain lan in the attention they give
to civil-rights issues.[159]
From squaring o against Governor George Wallace, to
tearing into Vice-President Johnson (for failing to desegregate areas of the administration), to threatening corrupt white Southern judges with disbarment, to desegregating interstate transport, Robert Kennedy came to be
consumed by the Civil Rights movement. He continued
to work on these social justice issues in his bid for the
presidency in 1968.
At the University of Natal in Durban,

I was told the church to which most of the
white population belongs teaches apartheid as
a moral necessity. A questioner declared that
few churches allow black Africans to pray with
the white because the Bible says that is the way
it should be, because God created Negroes to
serve. But suppose God is black, I replied.
What if we go to Heaven and we, all our lives,
have treated the Negro as an inferior, and God
is there, and we look up and He is not white?
What then is our response?" There was no
answer. Only silence.
Robert Kennedy, LOOK Magazine[161]
On the night of Governor Wallaces capitulation to

African-American enrollment at the University of Alabama, President Kennedy gave an address to the nation,
which marked the changing tide, an address that was to
become a landmark for the ensuing change in political American Jewish community and the Civil Rights
policy as to civil rights. In it President Kennedy spoke of movement
the need to act decisively and to act now:
We preach freedom around the world,
and we mean it, and we cherish our freedom
here at home, but are we to say to the world,
Many in the Jewish community supported the Civil Rights

Movement. In fact, statistically Jews were one of the
most actively involved non-black groups in the Movement. Many Jewish students worked in concert with
179
Students selected had to have excelled in the curricula oered by their schools. The second group of students includes those whose life circumstances have created formidable challenges that required focus, energy,
and skills that otherwise would have been devoted to
academic pursuits. Some have served as heads of their
households, others have worked full-time while attending
high school full-time, and others have shown leadership
in other ways.
The American Jewish Committee, American Jewish
Congress, and Anti-Defamation League (ADL) actively
promoted civil rights.
Jewish civil rights activist Joseph L. Rauh, Jr. marching with

Martin Luther King in 1963.
African Americans for CORE, SCLC, and SNCC as fulltime organizers and summer volunteers during the Civil
Rights era. Jews made up roughly half of the white northern volunteers involved in the 1964 Mississippi Freedom
Summer project and approximately half of the civil rights
attorneys active in the South during the 1960s.[162]
While Jews were very active in the civil rights movement

in the South, in the North, many had experienced a more
strained relationship with African Americans. In communities experiencing white ight, racial rioting, and urban decay, Jewish Americans were more often the last remaining whites in the communities most aected. With
Black militancy and the Black Power movements on the
rise, Black Anti-Semitism increased leading to strained
relations between Blacks and Jews in Northern communities. In New York City, most notably, there was a
major socio-economic class dierence in the perception of African Americans by Jews.[163] Jews from better educated Upper Middle Class backgrounds were often
very supportive of African American civil rights activities
while the Jews in poorer urban communities that became
increasingly minority were often less supportive largely
in part due to more negative and violent interactions between the two groups.
Jewish leaders were arrested while heeding a call from

Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. in St. Augustine,
Florida, in June 1964, where the largest mass arrest of
rabbis in American history took place at the Monson Motor Lodgea nationally important civil rights landmark
that was demolished in 2003 so that a Hilton Hotel could
See also: African AmericanJewish relations, New York
be built on the site. Abraham Joshua Heschel, a writer,
City teachers strike of 1968 and Brownsville, Brooklyn
rabbi, and professor of theology at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York, was outspoken on
the subject of civil rights. He marched arm-in-arm with
Dr. King in the 1965 Selma to Montgomery march. In
the Mississippi civil rights workers murders of 1964, the
two white activists killed, Andrew Goodman and Michael
Schwerner, were both Jewish.
Brandeis University, the only nonsectarian Jewishsponsored college university in the world, created the
Transitional Year Program (TYP) in 1968, in part response to Rev. Dr. Martin Luther Kings assassination.
The faculty created it to renew the Universitys commitment to social justice. Recognizing Brandeis as a university with a commitment to academic excellence, these
faculty members created a chance to disadvantaged students to participate in an empowering educational experience.
The program began by admitting 20 black males. As it
developed, two groups have been given chances. The rst
group consists of students whose secondary schooling
experiences and/or home communities may have lacked
the resources to foster adequate preparation for success
at elite colleges like Brandeis. For example, their high
schools do not oer AP or honors courses nor high quality laboratory experiences.
Prole Despite large Jewish organisations such as the

American Jewish Committee, American Jewish Congress
and the ADL being actively involved in the Movement,
many Jewish individuals in the Southern states who supported civil rights for African-Americans tended to keep
a low prole on the race issue, in order to avoid attracting the attention of the anti-Black and antisemitic Ku
Klux Klan.[164] However, Klan groups exploited the issue of African-American integration and Jewish involvement in the struggle to launch acts of violent antisemitism.
As an example of this hatred, in one year alone, from
November 1957 to October 1958, temples and other Jewish communal gatherings were bombed and desecrated in
Atlanta, Nashville, Jacksonville, and Miami, and dynamite was found under synagogues in Birmingham, Charlotte, and Gastonia, North Carolina. Some rabbis received death threats, but there were no injuries following
these outbursts of violence.[164]
180
Fraying of alliances
King reached the height of popular acclaim during his
life in 1964, when he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
His career after that point was lled with frustrating challenges. The liberal coalition that had gained passage of
the Civil Rights Act of 1964[1] and the Voting Rights Act
of 1965 began to fray.
King was becoming more estranged from the Johnson administration. In 1965 he broke with it by calling for peace
negotiations and a halt to the bombing of Vietnam. He
moved further left in the following years, speaking of the
need for economic justice and thoroughgoing changes in
American society. He believed change was needed beyond the civil rights gained by the movement.
Kings attempts to broaden the scope of the Civil Rights
Movement were halting and largely unsuccessful, however. King made several eorts in 1965 to take the Movement north to address issues of employment and housing discrimination. SCLCs campaign in Chicago publicly failed, as Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley marginalized SCLCs campaign by promising to study the citys
problems. In 1966, white demonstrators holding white
power signs in notoriously racist Cicero, a suburb of
Chicago, threw stones at marchers demonstrating against
housing segregation.
Race riots, 196370

By the end of World War II, more than half of the countrys black population lived in Northern and Western industrial cities rather than Southern rural areas.[165] Migrating to those cities for better job opportunities, education and to escape legal segregation, African Americans
often found segregation that existed in fact rather than in
law.
See also: Second Great Migration (African American)
While after the 1920s, the Ku Klux Klan was not prevalent, by the 1960s other problems prevailed in northern
cities. Beginning in the 1950s, deindustrialization and restructuring of major industries: railroads and meatpacking, steel industry and car industry, markedly reduced
working-class jobs, which had earlier provided middleclass incomes. As the last population to enter the industrial job market, blacks were disadvantaged by its collapse. At the same time, investment in highways and
private development of suburbs in the postwar years had
drawn many ethnic whites out of the cities to newer housing in expanding suburbs. Urban blacks who did not follow the middle class out of the cities became concentrated
in the older housing of inner city neighborhoods, among
the poorest in most major cities.

much higher in many black than in white neighborhoods,
and crime was frequent. African Americans rarely owned
the stores or businesses where they lived. Many were limited to menial or blue-collar jobs, although union organizing in the 1930s and 1940s had opened up good working
environments for some. African Americans often made
only enough money to live in dilapidated tenements that
were privately owned, or poorly maintained public housing. They also attended schools that were often the worst
academically in the city and that had fewer white students
than in the decades before WWII.
The racial makeup of most major city police departments, largely ethnic white (especially Irish), was a major
factor in adding to racial tensions. Even a black neighborhood such as Harlem had a ratio of one black ocer
for every six white ocers.[166] The majority-black city
of Newark, New Jersey had only 145 blacks among its
1322 police ocers.[167] Police forces in Northern cities
were largely composed of white ethnics, descendants of
19th-century immigrants: mainly Irish, Italian, and Eastern European ocers. They had established their own
power bases in the police departments and in territories in
cities. Some would routinely harass blacks with or without provocation.[168]
Harlem riot of 1964

riot of 1964
Further information: Harlem
One of the rst major race riots took place in Harlem,

New York, in the summer of 1964. A white IrishAmerican police ocer, Thomas Gilligan, shot 15-yearold James Powell, who was black, for allegedly charging
him armed with a knife. It was found that Powell was unarmed. A group of black civilians demanded Gilligans
suspension. Hundreds of young demonstrators marched
peacefully to the 67th Street police station on July 17,
1964, the day after Powells death.[169]
The police department did not suspend Gilligan. Although the precinct had promoted the NYPD's rst
black station commander, neighborhood residents were
frustrated with racial inequalities. Rioting broke out,
and Bedford-Stuyvesant, a major black neighborhood in
Brooklyn erupted next. That summer, rioting also broke
out in Philadelphia, for similar reasons.
In the aftermath of the riots of July 1964, the federal

government funded a pilot program called Project Uplift.
Thousands of young people in Harlem were given jobs
during the summer of 1965. The project was inspired
by a report generated by HARYOU called Youth in the
Ghetto.[170] HARYOU was given a major role in organizing the project, together with the National Urban League
and nearly 100 smaller community organizations.[171]
Because jobs in new service areas and parts of the econ- Permanent jobs at living wages were still out of reach of
omy were being created in suburbs, unemployment was many young black men.
181
In Detroit, a small black middle class had begun to develop among those African-Americans who worked at
unionized jobs in the automotive industry; these workers still contended with unsafe working conditions and
racist practices, concerns which the United Auto Workers channeled into bureaucratic and ineective grievance
procedures.[172] White mobs enforced the segregation of
housing up through the 1960s; upon learning that a new
homebuyer was black, whites would congregate outside
the home picketing, often breaking windows, committing arson, and attacking their new neighbors.[173] Blacks
who were not upwardly mobile were living in substandard conditions, subject to the same problems as AfricanAmericans in Watts and Harlem.
Police arrest a man during the Watts Riots, August 1965.
Watts riot (1965) Further information: Watts Riots

In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act, but the new law had no immediate eect
on living conditions for blacks. A few days after the act
became law, a riot broke out in the South Central Los
Angeles neighborhood of Watts. Like Harlem, Watts was
an impoverished neighborhood with very high unemployment. Its residents were supervised by a largely white police department that had a history of abuse against blacks.
While arresting a young man for drunk driving, police
ocers argued with the suspects mother before onlookers. The conict triggered a massive destruction of property through six days of rioting. Thirty-four people were
killed and property valued at about $30 million was destroyed, making the Watts Riots among the most expensive in American history.
When white police ocers shut down an illegal bar and

arrested a large group of patrons during the hot summer,
furious residents rioted. Blacks looted and destroyed
property for ve days, and National Guardsmen and federal troops patrolled in tanks through the streets. Residents reported that police ocers shot at black people
before even determining if the suspects were armed or
dangerous. After ve days, 43 people had been killed,
hundreds injured, and thousands left homeless. $40 to
$45 million worth of damage was caused.[173]
State and local governments responded to the riot with a
dramatic increase in minority hiring. Mayor Cavanaugh
in May 1968 appointed a Special Task Force on Police
Recruitment and Hiring, and by July 1972, blacks made
up 14 percent of the Detroit police, more than double
their percentage in 1967.[174] The Michigan government
used its reviews of contracts issued by the state to secure a
21 percent increase in nonwhite employment.[175] In the
aftermath of the turmoil, the Greater Detroit Board of
Commerce launched a campaign to nd jobs for ten thousand previously unemployable persons, a preponderant
number of whom were black.[176]
Prior to the disorder, Detroit enacted no ordinances to
end housing segregation, and few had been enacted in the
state of Michigan at all.[177] Governor George Romney
immediately responded to the riot of 1967 with a special
session of the Michigan legislature where he forwarded
sweeping housing proposals that included not only fair
housing, but important relocation, tenants rights and
code enforcement legislation. Romney had supported
such proposals in 1965, but abandoned them in the face
of organized opposition. White conservative resistance
was powerful in 1967 as well, but this time Romney did
not relent and once again proposed the housing laws at
the regular 1968 session of the legislature.
With black militancy on the rise, ghetto residents directed acts of anger at the police. Black residents growing
tired of police brutality continued to riot. Some young
people joined groups such as the Black Panthers, whose
popularity was based in part on their reputation for confronting police ocers. Riots among blacks occurred
in 1966 and 1967 in cities such as Atlanta, San Francisco, Oakland, Baltimore, Seattle, Tacoma, Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Columbus, Newark, Chicago, New York City The governor publicly warned that if the housing mea(specically in Brooklyn, Harlem and the Bronx), and sures were not passed, it will accelerate the recruitment
worst of all in Detroit.
of revolutionary insurrectionists. The laws passed both
houses of the legislature. Historian Sidney Fine writes
that: The Michigan Fair Housing Act, which took eect
Detroit riot of 1967 Further information: Detroit riot on November 15, 1968, was stronger than the federal fair
of 1967
housing lawand than just about all the existing state fair
182
housing acts. It is probably more than a coincidence that

the state that had experienced the most severe racial disorder of the 1960s also adopted one of the strongest state
fair housing acts. [177]
dreds of thousands of industrial jobs disappeared since

the later 1950s from the old industrial cities. Some moved
South, as has much population following new jobs, and
others out of the U.S. altogether. Civil unrest broke out in
Detroits decline had begun in the 1950s, during which Miami in 1980, in Los Angeles in 1992, and in Cincinnati
the city lost almost a tenth of its population.[178] It has in 2001.
been argued including by Mayor Coleman Young See also: Mass racial violence in the United States
that the riot was the primary accelerator of "white ight",
an ethnic succession by which white residents moved out
of inner-city neighborhoods into the suburbs.[179] In contrast, urban aairs experts largely blame a Supreme Court Black power, 1966
decision against NAACP lawsuits on school desegregation 1974s Milliken v. Bradley case which maintained
Main article: Black Power
the suburban schools as a lily-white refuge.[180][181][182] In
his dissenting opinion, Supreme Court Justice William
O. Douglas wrote that the Milliken decision perpet- During the Freedom Summer campaign of 1964, numeruated "restrictive covenants" that maintained...black ous tensions within the civil rights movement came to
ghettos.[183] (Detroit lost 12.8% of its white population the forefront. Many blacks in SNCC developed concerns
in the 1950s, 15.2% of its white population in the 1960s, that white activists from the North were taking over the
movement. The massive presence of white students was
and 21.2% of its white population in the 1970s.)[184]
also not reducing the amount of violence that SNCC suffered, but seemed to be increasing it. Additionally, there
Nationwide riots of 1967 Further information: Long was profound disillusionment at Lyndon Johnsons deHot Summer of 1967
nial of voting status for the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party.[186][187] Meanwhile, during CORE's work
In addition to Detroit, over 100 US cities experienced in Louisiana that summer, that group found the federal
riots in 1967, including Newark, Cincinnati, Cleveland, government would not respond to requests to enforce the
and Washington D.C.[185] President Johnson created the provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, or to protect
National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders in the lives of activists who challenged segregation. For the
1967. The commissions nal report called for major Louisiana campaign to survive it had to rely on a local
reforms in employment and public assistance for black African-American militia called the Deacons for Defense
communities. It warned that the United States was mov- and Justice, who used arms to repel white supremacist violence and police repression. COREs collaboration with
ing toward separate white and black societies.
the Deacons was eective against breaking Jim Crow in
numerous Louisiana areas.[188][189]
King riots (1968) Further information: King assassi- In 1965, SNCC helped organize an independent politnation riots
ical party, the Lowndes County Freedom Organization
In April 1968 after the assassination of Dr. Martin
Luther King, Jr. in Memphis, Tennessee, rioting broke
out in cities across the country from frustration and despair. These included Cleveland, Baltimore, Washington,
D.C., Chicago, New York City and Louisville, Kentucky.
As in previous riots, most of the damage was done in
black neighborhoods. In some cities, it has taken more
than a quarter of a century for these areas to recover from
the damage of the riots; in others, little recovery has been
achieved.
(LCFO), in the heart of Alabama Klan territory, and permitted its black leaders to openly promote the use of
armed self-defense. Meanwhile, the Deacons for Defense and Justice expanded into Mississippi and assisted
Charles Evers' NAACP chapter with a successful campaign in Natchez.[190] The same year, the Watts Rebellion
took place in Los Angeles, and seemed to show that most
black youth were now committed to the use of violence
to protest inequality and oppression.
During the March Against Fear in 1966, SNCC and
CORE fully embraced the slogan of black power to describe these trends towards militancy and self-reliance. In
Mississippi, Stokely Carmichael declared, I'm not going
to beg the white man for anything that I deserve, I'm going
to take it. We need power. [191]
Programs in armative action resulted in the hiring of

more black police ocers in every major city. Today
blacks make up a proportional majority of the police departments in cities such as Baltimore, Washington, New
Orleans, Atlanta, Newark, and Detroit. Civil rights laws Several people engaging in the Black Power movement
have reduced employment discrimination.
started to gain more of a sense in black pride and identity
The conditions that led to frequent rioting in the late as well. In gaining more of a sense of a cultural iden1960s have receded, but not all the problems have been tity, several blacks demanded that whites no longer refer
solved. With industrial and economic restructuring, hun- to them as Negroes but as Afro-Americans. Up un-
183
til the mid-1960s, blacks had dressed similarly to whites

and straightened their hair. As a part of gaining a unique
identity, blacks started to wear loosely t dashikis and
had started to grow their hair out as a natural afro. The
afro, sometimes nicknamed the "'fro, remained a popular black hairstyle until the late 1970s.
Black Power was made most public, however, by the
Black Panther Party, which was founded by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, California, in 1966.
This group followed the ideology of Malcolm X, a former
member of the Nation of Islam, using a by-any-means
necessary approach to stopping inequality. They sought
to rid African American neighborhoods of police brutality and created a ten-point plan amongst other things.
Mississippi State Penitentiary.
Their dress code consisted of black leather jackets,

berets, slacks, and light blue shirts. They wore an afro
hairstyle. They are best remembered for setting up free
breakfast programs, referring to police ocers as pigs, cilities. By the end of June 1963, Freedom Riders had
displaying shotguns and a raised st, and often using the been convicted in Jackson, Mississippi.[193] Many were
statement of "Power to the people".
jailed in Mississippi State Penitentiary at Parchman. MisBlack Power was taken to another level inside prison sissippi employed the trusty system, a hierarchical order
to control and enforce
walls. In 1966, George Jackson formed the Black Guer- of inmates that used some inmates
[194]
punishment
of
other
inmates.
rilla Family in the California San Quentin State Prison.
The goal of this group was to overthrow the white-run
government in America and the prison system. In 1970,
this group displayed their dedication after a white prison
guard was found not guilty of shooting and killing three
black prisoners from the prison tower. They retaliated by
killing a white prison guard.
In 1970 the civil rights lawyer Roy Haber began taking

statements from inmates. He collected 50 pages of details
of murders, rapes, beatings and other abuses suered by
the inmates from 1969 to 1971 at Mississippi State Penitentiary. In a landmark case known as Gates v. Collier
(1972), four inmates represented by Haber sued the suNumerous popular cultural expressions associated with perintendent of Parchman Farm for violating their rights
black power appeared at this time. Released in Au- under the United States Constitution.
gust 1968, the number one Rhythm & Blues single for Federal Judge William C. Keady found in favor of the
the Billboard Year-End list was James Brown's "Say It inmates, writing that Parchman Farm violated the civil
Loud I'm Black and I'm Proud".[192] In October 1968, rights of the inmates by inicting cruel and unusual punTommie Smith and John Carlos, while being awarded the ishment. He ordered an immediate end to all unconstigold and bronze medals, respectively, at the 1968 Sum- tutional conditions and practices. Racial segregation of
mer Olympics, donned human rights badges and each inmates was abolished. And the trustee system, which alraised a black-gloved Black Power salute during their low certain inmates to have power and control over others,
podium ceremony.
was also abolished.[195]
King was not comfortable with the Black Power slogan,
which sounded too much like black nationalism to him.
When King was murdered in 1968, Stokely Carmichael
stated that whites murdered the one person who would
prevent rampant rioting and that blacks would burn every
major city to the ground.
The prison was renovated in 1972 after the scathing ruling by Judge Keady; he wrote that the prison was an affront to modern standards of decency. Among other
reforms, the accommodations were made t for human
habitation. The system of trusties was abolished. (The
prison had armed lifers with ries and given them authority to oversee and guard other inmates, which led to many
abuses and murders.)[196]
2.10.5
In integrated correctional facilities in northern and western states, blacks represented a disproportionate number
of the prisoners, in excess of their proportion of the general population. They were often treated as second-class
citizens by white correctional ocers. Blacks also represented a disproportionately high number of death row
inmates. Eldridge Cleaver's book Soul on Ice was written
from his experiences in the California correctional system; it contributed to black militancy.[197]
Prison reform
Gates v. Collier
Conditions at the Mississippi State Penitentiary at Parchman, then known as Parchman Farm, became part of the
public discussion of civil rights after activists were imprisoned there. In the spring of 1961, Freedom Riders
came to the South to test the desegregation of public fa-
184
2.10.6
Cold War
Southern Conference Educational Fund (SCEF)
Southern Student Organizing Committee (SSOC)

There was an international context for the actions of
the U.S. Federal government during these years. It had
stature to maintain in Europe and a need to appeal to the National economic empowerment organizations
people in the Third World.[198] In Cold War Civil Rights:
Race and the Image of American Democracy, the histo Operation Breadbasket
rian Mary L. Dudziak wrote that Communists critical of
Urban League
the United States accused the nation for its hypocrisy in
portraying itself as the leader of the free world, when
so many of its citizens were subjected to severe racial dis- Local civil rights organizations
crimination and violence. She argued that this was a major factor in the government moving to support civil rights
Albany Movement (Albany, GA)
legislation.
Council of Federated Organizations (Mississippi)
2.10.7
Montgomery Improvement Association (Montgomery, AL)
Documentary lms
Freedom on My Mind, 110 minutes, 1994, Producer/Directors: Connie Field and Marilyn Mulford, 1994 Academy Award Nominee, Best Documentary Feature
Regional Council of Negro Leadership (Mississippi)

Womens Political Council (Montgomery, AL)
Eyes on the Prize (1987 and 1990), PBS television 2.10.9 Individual activists
series; released again in 2006 and 2009.
Ralph Abernathy
Dare Not Walk Alone, about the civil rights move Victoria Gray Adams
ment in St. Augustine, Florida. Nominated in 2009
for an NAACP Image Award.
Maya Angelou
Crossing in St. Augustine (2010), produced by
Ella Baker
Andrew Young, who participated in the civil rights
movement in St. Augustine in 1964. Information
James Baldwin
available from AndrewYoung.Org.
Marion Barry
Freedom Riders (2010), 120 min. PBS, American
Daisy Bates
Experience.
Fay Bellamy Powell
2.10.8
Activist organizations
James Bevel
National/regional civil rights organizations
Unita Blackwell
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
Julian Bond
Deacons for Defense and Justice

Leadership Conference on Civil Rights (LCCR)
Medical Committee for Human Rights (MCHR)
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

Coordinating
Amelia Boynton
Anne Braden
Carl Braden
Mary Fair Burks
Stokely Carmichael
Septima Clark
Organization of Afro-American Unity
Student Nonviolent
(SNCC)
Claude Black
Committee
Albert Cleage
Charles E. Cobb, Jr.
Annie Lee Cooper

Dorothy Cotton
Autherine Lucy
Claudette Colvin
Clara Luper
Jonathan Daniels
Thurgood Marshall
Annie Devine
James Meredith
Doris Derby
Marian Wright Edelman
Medgar Evers
Myrlie Evers-Williams
James L. Farmer, Jr.
Loren Miller
Jack Minnis
Anne Moody
Harry T. Moore
E. Frederic Morrow
Robert Parris Moses
Karl Fleming
Bill Moyer
Sarah Mae Flemming
Diane Nash
James Forman
Denise Nicholas
Frankie Muse Freeman
E. D. Nixon
Fred Gray
David Nolan
Dick Gregory
James Orange
Prathia Hall
Fannie Lou Hamer
Lorraine Hansberry
Lola Hendricks
Aaron Henry
Myles Horton
Nan Grogan Orrock

Rosa Parks
Rutledge Pearson
George Raymond Jr.
James Reeb
Frederick D. Reese
Gloria Richardson
T. R. M. Howard
Amelia Boynton Robinson
Winson Hudson
Jo Ann Robinson
Jesse Jackson
Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
Jimmie Lee Jackson
Bayard Rustin
Esau Jenkins
Cleveland Sellers
Gloria Johnson-Powell
Charles Sherrod
Clyde Kennard
Coretta Scott King
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Bernard Lafayette
W. W. Law
Fred Shuttlesworth
Modjeska Monteith Simkins
Charles Kenzie Steele
Dempsey Travis
C. T. Vivian
Wyatt Tee Walker
James Lawson
Hosea Williams
John Lewis
Robert F. Williams
Viola Liuzzo
Malcolm X
Joseph Lowery
Andrew Young
185
186
Related activists and artists
Muhammad Ali
Joan Baez
Harry Belafonte
Ralph Bunche
Guy Carawan
Robert Carter
William Sloane Con
Ossie Davis
Ruby Dee
James Dombrowski
W. E. B. Du Bois
Virginia Durr
Bob Dylan
John Hope Franklin
2.10.10 See also

African-American Civil Rights Movement (1865
95)
African-American Civil Rights Movement (1896
1954)
Timeline of the African-American Civil Rights
Movement (195468)
Executive Order 9981, ending segregated units in
the United States military
Photographers of the American Civil Rights Movement
"We Shall Overcome", unocial movement anthem
List of Kentucky women in the civil rights era
African-American Civil Rights Movement in popular culture
Jack Greenberg
Anna Arnold Hedgeman
Dorothy Height
Charlton Heston
Mahalia Jackson
History preservation:
Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project
Reads Drug Store (Baltimore), site of a 1955 desegregation sit-in
Clarence Jordan
Stetson Kennedy
Arthur Kinoy
William Kunstler
Staughton Lynd
Constance Baker Motley
Nichelle Nichols
Phil Ochs
Odetta
Sidney Poitier
A. Philip Randolph
Paul Robeson
Jackie Robinson
Pete Seeger
Nina Simone
Norman Thomas
Roy Wilkins
Whitney Young
Howard Zinn
PostCivil Rights Movement:

PostCivil Rights Era African-American history
Black Lives Matter
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1999. ISBN 0-8078-2470-4.
Morris, Aldon D. The Origins of the Civil Rights
Movement: Black Communities Organizing for
Change. New York: The Free Press, 1984. ISBN
0-02-922130-7
Sokol, Jason. There Goes My Everything: White
Southerners in the Age of Civil Rights, 19451975.
New York: Knopf, 2006.
Payne, Charles M. I've Got the Light of Freedom:
The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1995.
Patterson, James T. Brown v. Board of Education, a
Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy. Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-19-515632-3
Raiford, Leigh. Imprisoned in a Luminous Glare:
Photography and the African American Freedom
Struggle. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Press, 2011.
Ransby, Barbara. Ella Baker and the Black Freedom
Movement, a Radical Democratic Vision. The University of North Carolina Press, 2003.
193
Reeves, Richard (1993). President Kennedy: Prole 2.10.13 External links

of Power. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN
978-0-671-64879-4.
Civil Rights Greensboro provides access to archival
resources documenting the modern civil rights era in
Sitko, Howard. The Struggle for Black Equality
Greensboro, North Carolina, from the 1940s to the
(2nd ed. 2008)
early 1980s
Tsesis, Alexander. We Shall Overcome: A History
of Civil Rights and the Law. (Yale University Press,
2008). ISBN 978-0-300-11837-7
Williams, Juan. Eyes on the Prize: Americas Civil
Rights Years, 19541965. New York: Penguin
Books, 1987. ISBN 0-14-009653-1
Historiography and memory
Armstrong, Julie Buckner, ed. The Cambridge Companion to American Civil Rights Literature (Cambridge University Press, 2015). xxiv, 209 pp.
Fairclough, Adam. Historians and the Civil Rights
Movement. Journal of American Studies (1990)
24#3 pp: 387-398. in JSTOR
Frost, Jennifer. Using Master Narratives to
Teach History: The Case of the Civil Rights Movement. History Teacher (2012) 45#3 pp: 437-446.
Online
St. Augustine Civil Rights Movement and Freedom

Trail marking its sites.
Civil Rights Resource Guide, from the Library of
Congress
The Civil Rights Era Library of Congress
Civil Rights Digital Library Digital Library of Georgia
Civil Rights Movement Veterans ~ Movement history, personal stories, documents, and photos.
Civil Rights Movement 19551965
Civil Rights as a Peoples Movement American University Course Syllabus
Let Justice Roll Down: The Civil Rights Movement
Through Film Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute
Hall, Jacquelyn Dowd. The long civil rights movement and the political uses of the past. Journal of
American History (2005) 91#4 pp: 1233-1263.
University of Southern Mississippis Civil Rights

Documentation Project, includes an extensive Timeline
Lawson, Steven F. Freedom Then, Freedom Now:

The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement,
American Historical Review (1991) 96#2 , pp. 456
471 in JSTOR
President Kennedys Address to the nation on Civil

Rights
Sandage, Scott A. A marble house divided: The

Lincoln Memorial, the civil rights movement, and
the politics of memory, 1939-1963. Journal of
American History (1993): 135-167. Online
Primary sources
Carson, Clayborne; Garrow, David J.; Kovach, Bill;
Polsgrove, Carol, eds. Reporting Civil Rights: American Journalism 19411963 and Reporting Civil
Rights: American Journalism 19631973. New
York: Library of America, 2003. ISBN 1-93108228-6 and ISBN 1-931082-29-4.
Dann, Jim. Challenging the Mississippi Firebombers,
Memories of Mississippi 196465. Baraka Books
2013. ISBN 978-1-926824-87-1
Holsaert, Faith et al. Hands on the Freedom Plow
Personal Accounts by Women in SNCC. University
of Illinois Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-252-03557-9.
What Was Jim Crow? (The racial caste system that

precipitated the Civil Rights Movement)
History and images of the sit-in movement
WDAS Radios Enduring Impact on the Civil Rights
Movement
The Committee on the Appeal for Human Rights
and the Atlanta Student Movement
The Georgia Movement
Black Leaders of the Civil Rights Movement
The Albany Movement (entry in the New Georgia
Encyclopedia)
Materials relating to the desegregation of Ole Miss
in 1962
Images of the Civil Rights Movement in Florida
from the State Archives of Florida
194
2.11 Martin Luther King, Jr.
Martin Luther King and MLK redirect here. For

other uses, see Martin Luther King (disambiguation) and
MLK (disambiguation).
Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929 April
4, 1968), was an American Baptist minister, activist,
humanitarian, and leader in the African-American Civil Kings high school alma mater was named after AfricanRights Movement. He is best known for his role in the American scholar Booker T. Washington.
advancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil disobedience based on his Christian beliefs.
King became a civil rights activist early in his career.
He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped
found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference
(SCLC) in 1957, serving as its rst president. With the
SCLC, King led an unsuccessful 1962 struggle against
segregation in Albany, Georgia (the Albany Movement),
and helped organize the 1963 nonviolent protests in
Birmingham, Alabama, that attracted national attention
following television news coverage of the brutal police
response. King also helped to organize the 1963 March
on Washington, where he delivered his famous "I Have a
Dream" speech. There, he established his reputation as
one of the greatest orators in American history.
2.11.1 Early life and education
King was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia, to Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr., and Alberta
Williams King.[1] Kings legal name at birth was Michael
King,[2] and his father was also born Michael King, but
the elder King changed his and his sons names following
a 1934 trip to Germany to attend the Fifth Baptist World
Alliance Congress in Berlin. It was during this time he
chose to be called Martin Luther King in honor of the
German reformer Martin Luther.[3][4] King had Irish ancestry through his paternal great-grandfather.[5][6]
Martin, Jr., was a middle child, between an older sister, Willie Christine King, and a younger brother, Alfred
Daniel Williams King.[7] King sang with his church choir
at the 1939 Atlanta premiere of the movie Gone with the
Wind.[8] King liked singing and music. Kings mother, an
accomplished organist and choir leader, took him to various churches to sing. He received attention for singing
I Want to Be More and More Like Jesus. King later
became a member of the junior choir in his church.[9]
On October 14, 1964, King received the Nobel Peace

Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolence. In 1965, he helped to organize the Selma to Montgomery marches, and the following year he and SCLC
took the movement north to Chicago to work on segregated housing. In the nal years of his life, King expanded his focus to include poverty and speak against the
Vietnam War, alienating many of his liberal allies with a
1967 speech titled "Beyond Vietnam".
King said his father regularly whipped him until he was
fteen and a neighbor reported hearing the elder King
In 1968, King was planning a national occupation of
Washington, D.C., to be called the Poor Peoples Cam- telling his son he would make something of him even if
he had to beat him to death. King saw his fathers proud
paign, when he was assassinated on April 4 in Memphis,
Tennessee. His death was followed by riots in many U.S. and unafraid protests in relation to segregation, such as
cities. Allegations that James Earl Ray, the man con- Martin, Sr., refusing to listen to a trac policeman after
victed of killing King, had been framed or acted in con- being referred to as boy or stalking out of a store with
that they would
cert with government agents persisted for decades after his son when being told by a shoe clerk
[10]
have
to
move
to
the
rear
to
be
served.
the shooting.
King was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal
of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal. Martin
Luther King, Jr. Day was established as a holiday in
numerous cities and states beginning in 1971, and as a
U.S. federal holiday in 1986. Hundreds of streets in the
U.S. have been renamed in his honor, and a county in
Washington State was also renamed for him. The Martin
Luther King, Jr. Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., was dedicated in 2011.
When King was a child, he befriended a white boy whose

father owned a business near his familys home. When the
boys were 6, they attended dierent schools, with King
attending a segregated school for African-Americans.
King then lost his friend because the childs father no
longer wanted them to play together.[11]
King suered from depression throughout much of his
life. In his adolescent years, he initially felt some resentment against whites due to the racial humiliation
2.11. MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

that he, his family, and his neighbors often had to endure in the segregated South.[12] At age 12, shortly after
his maternal grandmother died, King blamed himself and
jumped out of a second story window, but survived.[13]
King was originally skeptical of many of Christianitys
claims.[14] At the age of thirteen, he denied the bodily resurrection of Jesus during Sunday school. From this point,
he stated, doubts began to spring forth unrelentingly.[15]
However, he later concluded that the Bible has many
profound truths which one cannot escape and decided
to enter the seminary.[14]
Growing up in Atlanta, King attended Booker T. Washington High School. He became known for his public speaking ability and was part of the schools debate
team.[16] King became the youngest assistant manager of
a newspaper delivery station for the Atlanta Journal in
1942 at age 13.[17] During his junior year, he won rst
prize in an oratorical contest sponsored by the Negro Elks
Club in Dublin, Georgia. Returning home to Atlanta by
bus, he and his teacher were ordered by the driver to stand
so white passengers could sit down. King refused initially, but complied after his teacher informed him that
he would be breaking the law if he did not go along with
the order. He later characterized this incident as the angriest I have ever been in my life.[16] A precocious student, he skipped both the ninth and the twelfth grades
of high school.[18] It was during Kings junior year that
Morehouse College announced it would accept any high
school juniors who could pass its entrance exam. At that
time, most of the students had abandoned their studies
to participate in World War II. Due to this, the school
became desperate to ll in classrooms. At age 15, King
passed the exam and entered Morehouse.[16] The summer
before his last year at Morehouse, in 1947, an eighteenyear-old King made the choice to enter the ministry after
he concluded the church oered the most assuring way to
answer an inner urge to serve humanity. Kings inner
urge had begun developing and he made peace with the
Baptist Church, as he believed he would be a rational
minister with sermons that were a respectful force for
ideas, even social protest.[19]
195
busch's social gospel.[23] In his third year there, he became romantically involved with the daughter of an immigrant German woman working as a cook in the cafeteria. The daughter had been involved with a professor
prior to her relationship with King. King had plans of
marrying her, but was advised not to by friends due to the
reaction an interracial relationship would spark from both
blacks and whites, as well as the chances of it destroying his chances of ever pastoring a church in the South.
King tearfully told a friend that he could not endure his
mothers pain over the marriage and broke the relationship o around six months later. He would continue to
have lingering feelings, with one friend being quoted as
saying, He never recovered.[23]
King married Coretta Scott, on June 18, 1953, on the
lawn of her parents house in her hometown of Heiberger,
Alabama.[25] They became the parents of four children:
Yolanda King (b. 1955), Martin Luther King III (b.
1957), Dexter Scott King (b. 1961), and Bernice King (b.
1963).[26] During their marriage, King limited Corettas
role in the Civil Rights Movement, expecting her to be a
housewife and mother.[27]
Doctoral studies
See also: Martin Luther King, Jr. authorship issues
King then began doctoral studies in systematic theology

at Boston University and received his Ph.D. degree on
June 5, 1955, with a dissertation on A Comparison of
the Conceptions of God in the Thinking of Paul Tillich
and Henry Nelson Wieman". An academic inquiry concluded in October 1991 that portions of his dissertation
had been plagiarized and he had acted improperly. However, "[d]espite its nding, the committee said that 'no
thought should be given to the revocation of Dr. Kings
doctoral degree,' an action that the panel said would serve
no purpose.[28][29][30] The committee also found that
the dissertation still makes an intelligent contribution to
scholarship. However, a letter is now attached to Kings
dissertation in the university library, noting that numerIn 1948, he graduated from Morehouse with a B.A. de- ous passages were included without the appropriate quogree in sociology, and enrolled in Crozer Theological tations and citations of sources.[31]
Seminary in Chester, Pennsylvania, from which he graduated with a B.Div. degree in 1951.[20][21] Kings father fully supported his decision to continue his educa- 2.11.2 Ideas, inuences, and political
tion. King was joined in attending Crozer by Walter Mcstances
Call, a former classmate at Morehouse.[22] At Crozer,
King was elected president of the student body.[23] The Religion
African-American students of Crozer for the most part
conducted their social activity on Edwards Street. King King became pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
was endeared to the street due to a classmate having an in Montgomery, Alabama, when he was twenty-ve years
aunt that prepared the two collard greens, which they both old, in 1954.[32] As a Christian minister, his main inurelished.[24] King once called out a student for keeping ence was Jesus Christ and the Christian gospels, which
beer in his room because of their shared responsibility he would almost always quote in his religious meetings,
as African-Americans to bear the burdens of the Negro speeches at church, and in public discourses. Kings faith
race. For a time, he was interested in Walter Rauschen- was strongly based in Jesus commandment of loving your
196
neighbor as yourself, loving God above all, and loving

your enemies, praying for them and blessing them. His
nonviolent thought was also based in the injunction to turn
the other cheek in the Sermon on the Mount, and Jesus
teaching of putting the sword back into its place (Matthew
26:52).[33] In his famous Letter from Birmingham Jail,
King urged action consistent with what he describes as
Jesus extremist love, and also quoted numerous other
Christian pacist authors, which was very usual for him.
In another sermon, he stated:
the 1940s,[38] and Woord had been promoting Gandhism to Southern blacks since the early 1950s.[37] King
had initially known little about Gandhi and rarely used the
term nonviolence during his early years of activism in
the early 1950s. King initially believed in and practiced
self-defense, even obtaining guns in his household as a
means of defense against possible attackers. The pacists
guided King by showing him the alternative of nonviolent
resistance, arguing that this would be a better means to accomplish his goals of civil rights than self-defense. King
then vowed to no longer personally use arms.[39][40]
Before I was a civil rights leader, I was

a preacher of the Gospel. This was my
rst calling and it still remains my greatest
commitment. You know, actually all that I do
in civil rights I do because I consider it a part
of my ministry. I have no other ambitions in
life but to achieve excellence in the Christian
ministry. I don't plan to run for any political
oce. I don't plan to do anything but remain a
preacher. And what I'm doing in this struggle,
along with many others, grows out of my
feeling that the preacher must be concerned
about the whole man.
King, 1967[34][35]
In the aftermath of the boycott, King wrote Stride Toward

Freedom, which included the chapter Pilgrimage to Nonviolence. King outlined his understanding of nonviolence,
which seeks to win an opponent to friendship, rather than
to humiliate or defeat him. The chapter draws from an address by Woord, with Rustin and Stanley Levison also
providing guidance and ghostwriting.[41]
Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi's success with nonviolent

activism, King had for a long time...wanted to take a
trip to India.[42] With assistance from Harris Woord,
the American Friends Service Committee, and other supporters, he was able to fund the journey in April 1959.[43]
[44]
The trip to India aected King, deepening his understanding of nonviolent resistance and his commitment
to Americas struggle for civil rights. In a radio address
made during his nal evening in India, King reected,
In his speech "I've Been to the Mountaintop", he stated Since being in India, I am more convinced than ever
before that the method of nonviolent resistance is the
that he just wanted to do Gods will.
most potent weapon available to oppressed people in their
struggle for justice and human dignity.
Nonviolence
Bayard Rustins open homosexuality, support of
democratic socialism, and his former ties to the
Communist Party USA caused many white and AfricanAmerican leaders to demand King distance himself from
Rustin,[45] which King agreed to do.[46] However, King
agreed that Rustin should be one of the main organizers
of the 1963 March on Washington.[47]
Kings admiration of Gandhis nonviolence did not diminish in later years. He went so far as to hold up his
example when receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964,
hailing the successful precedent of using nonviolence
in a magnicent way by Mohandas K. Gandhi to challenge the might of the British Empire... He struggled
only with the weapons of truth, soul force, non-injury and
courage.[48]
Gandhi seemed to have inuenced him with certain moral
principles,[49] though Gandhi himself had been inuenced by The Kingdom of God Is Within You, a nonviolent classic written by Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy.
Veteran African-American civil rights activist Bayard
In turn, both Gandhi and Martin Luther King had read
[36]
Rustin was Kings rst regular advisor on nonviolence.
Tolstoy, and King, Gandhi and Tolstoy had been strongly
King was also advised by the white activists Harris Wofinuenced by Jesus' Sermon on the Mount. King quoted
[37]
ford and Glenn Smiley. Rustin and Smiley came from
Tolstoys War and Peace in 1959.[50]
the Christian pacist tradition, and Woord and Rustin
both studied Gandhi's teachings. Rustin had applied non- Another inuence for Kings nonviolent method was
violence with the Journey of Reconciliation campaign in Henry David Thoreau's essay On Civil Disobedience,
King at a Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C.

which King read in his student days. He was inuenced by
the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system.[51]
He also was greatly inuenced by the works of Protestant
theologians Reinhold Niebuhr and Paul Tillich,[52] as well
as Walter Rauschenbuschs Christianity and the Social
Crisis. King also sometimes used the concept of "agape"
(brotherly Christian love).[53] However, after 1960, he
ceased employing it in his writings.[54]
197
Even after renouncing his personal use of guns, King

had a complex relationship with the phenomenon of selfdefense in the movement. He publicly discouraged it
as a widespread practice, but acknowledged that it was
sometimes necessary.[55] Throughout his career King was
frequently protected by other civil rights activists who
carried arms, such as Colonel Stone Johnson,[56] Robert
Hayling, and the Deacons for Defense and Justice.[57][58]
adds that he likely would have made an exception to his

non-endorsement policy for a second Kennedy term, saying Had President Kennedy lived, I would probably have
endorsed him in 1964.[64] In 1964, King urged his supporters and all people of goodwill to vote against Republican Senator Barry Goldwater for president, saying
that his election would be a tragedy, and certainly suicidal almost, for the nation and the world.[65] King supported the ideals of democratic socialism, although he
was reluctant to speak directly of this support due to
the anti-communist sentiment being projected throughout America at the time, and the association of socialism with communism. King believed that capitalism
could not adequately provide the basic necessities of
many American people, particularly the African American community.[66]
Politics
Compensation
As the leader of the SCLC, King maintained a policy

of not publicly endorsing a U.S. political party or candidate: I feel someone must remain in the position of nonalignment, so that he can look objectively at both parties
and be the conscience of bothnot the servant or master
of either.[59] In a 1958 interview, he expressed his view
that neither party was perfect, saying, I don't think the
Republican party is a party full of the almighty God nor
is the Democratic party. They both have weaknesses ...
And I'm not inextricably bound to either party.[60] King
did praise Democratic Senator Paul Douglas of Illinois as
being the greatest of all senators because of his erce
advocacy for civil rights causes over the years.[61]
King stated that black Americans, as well as other disadvantaged Americans, should be compensated for historical wrongs. In an interview conducted for Playboy in
1965, he said that granting black Americans only equality could not realistically close the economic gap between
them and whites. King said that he did not seek a full
restitution of wages lost to slavery, which he believed impossible, but proposed a government compensatory program of $50 billion over ten years to all disadvantaged
groups.[67]
He posited that the money spent would be more than amply justied by the benets that would accrue to the nation
through a spectacular decline in school dropouts, family
King critiqued both parties performance on promoting breakups, crime rates, illegitimacy, swollen relief rolls,
rioting and other social evils.[68] He presented this idea
racial equality:
as an application of the common law regarding settlement
of unpaid labor, but claried that he felt that the money
Actually, the Negro has been betrayed by
should not be spent exclusively on blacks. He stated, It
both the Republican and the Democratic party.
should benet the disadvantaged of all races.[69]
The Democrats have betrayed him by capitulating to the whims and caprices of the Southern Dixiecrats. The Republicans have betrayed
The lack of attention given to family planning
him by capitulating to the blatant hypocrisy of
reactionary right wing northern Republicans.
On being awarded the Planned Parenthood Federation of
And this coalition of southern Dixiecrats and
America's Margaret Sanger Award on 5th May, 1966,
right wing reactionary northern Republicans
King said:
defeats every bill and every move towards lib[62]
eral legislation in the area of civil rights.
Recently, the press has been lled with reports of sightings of ying saucers. While we
Although King never publicly supported a political party
or candidate for president, in a letter to a civil rights
need not give credence to these stories, they alsupporter in October 1956 he said that he was undelow our imagination to speculate on how viscided as to whether he would vote for Adlai Stevenson
itors from outer space would judge us. I am
or Dwight Eisenhower, but that In the past I always
afraid they would be stupeed at our conduct.
voted the Democratic ticket.[63] In his autobiography,
They would observe that for death planning we
King says that in 1960 he privately voted for Democratic
spend billions to create engines and strategies
for war. They would also observe that we
candidate John F. Kennedy: I felt that Kennedy would
make the best president. I never came out with an enspend millions to prevent death by disease and
other causes. Finally they would observe that
dorsement. My father did, but I never made one. King
198

we spend paltry sums for population planning,
even though its spontaneous growth is an urgent threat to life on our planet. Our visitors
from outer space could be forgiven if they reported home that our planet is inhabited by a
race of insane men whose future is bleak and
uncertain.
There is no human circumstance more tragic
than the persisting existence of a harmful condition for which a remedy is readily available.
Family planning, to relate population to world
resources, is possible, practical and necessary.
Unlike plagues of the dark ages or contemporary diseases we do not yet understand, the
modern plague of overpopulation is soluble by
means we have discovered and with resources
we possess.
What is lacking is not sucient knowledge of
the solution but universal consciousness of the
gravity of the problem and education of the billions who are its victims. ...[70][71]
which concluded with a United States District Court ruling in Browder v. Gayle that ended racial segregation on
all Montgomery public buses.[77][78] Kings role in the bus
boycott transformed him into a national gure and the
best-known spokesman of the civil rights movement.[79]
2.11.4 Southern Christian

Conference
Leadership
In 1957, King, Ralph Abernathy, Fred Shuttlesworth,

Joseph Lowery, and other civil rights activists founded
the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC).
The group was created to harness the moral authority and
organizing power of black churches to conduct nonviolent
protests in the service of civil rights reform. One of the
groups inspirations was the crusades of evangelist Billy
Graham, who befriended King after he attended a Graham crusade in New York City in 1957.[80] King led the
SCLC until his death.[81] The SCLCs 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom was the rst time King addressed a
national audience.[82] Other civil rights leaders involved
in the SCLC with King included: James Bevel, Allen
2.11.3 Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955
Johnson, Curtis W. Harris, Walter E. Fauntroy, C. T.
Vivian, Andrew Young, The Freedom Singers, Charles
Main articles: Montgomery Bus Boycott and Jim Crow
Evers, Cleveland Robinson, Randolph Blackwell, Annie
laws Public arena
Bell Robinson Devine, Charles Kenzie Steele, Alfred
In March 1955, a fteen-year-old school girl in MontDaniel Williams King, Benjamin Hooks, Aaron Henry
and Bayard Rustin. [83]
Rosa Parks with King, 1955
gomery, Claudette Colvin, refused to give up her bus seat

to a white man in compliance with Jim Crow laws, laws
in the US South that enforced racial segregation. King
was on the committee from the Birmingham AfricanAmerican community that looked into the case; because Colvin was pregnant and unmarried, E.D. Nixon
and Cliord Durr decided to wait for a better case to
pursue.[72]
On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for
refusing to give up her seat.[73] The Montgomery Bus
Boycott, urged and planned by Nixon and led by King,
soon followed.[74] The boycott lasted for 385 days,[75]
and the situation became so tense that Kings house was
bombed.[76] King was arrested during this campaign,
On September 20, 1958, while signing copies of his book

Stride Toward Freedom in Blumsteins department store
in Harlem,[84] King narrowly escaped death when Izola
Curry, a mentally ill black woman who believed he was
conspiring against her with communists, stabbed him in
the chest with a letter opener. After emergency surgery,
King was hospitalized for several weeks, while Curry was
found mentally incompetent to stand trial.[85][86] In 1959,
he published a short book called The Measure of A Man,
which contained his sermons "What is Man?" and The
Dimensions of a Complete Life. The sermons argued
for mans need for Gods love and criticized the racial injustices of Western civilization.[87]
Harry Wachtelwho joined Kings legal advisor
Clarence B. Jones in defending four ministers of the
SCLC in a libel suit over a newspaper advertisement
(New York Times Co. v. Sullivan)founded a taxexempt fund to cover the expenses of the suit and to
assist the nonviolent civil rights movement through a
more eective means of fundraising. This organization
was named the Gandhi Society for Human Rights.
King served as honorary president for the group. Displeased with the pace of President Kennedys addressing
the issue of segregation, King and the Gandhi Society
produced a document in 1962 calling on the President
to follow in the footsteps of Abraham Lincoln and use
an Executive Order to deliver a blow for Civil Rights as
a kind of Second Emancipation Proclamation - Kennedy

did not execute the order.[88]
199
ment, King was criticized by many groups. This included opposition by more militant blacks such as Nation
of Islam member Malcolm X.[97] Stokely Carmichael
was a separatist and disagreed with Kings plea for
racial integration because he considered it an insult to a
uniquely African-American culture.[98] Omali Yeshitela
urged Africans to remember the history of violent European colonization and how power was not secured by Europeans through integration, but by violence and force.[99]
Albany Movement
Lyndon Johnson and Robert Kennedy with Civil Rights leaders,
June 22, 1963
Main article: Albany Movement
The FBI, under written directive from Attorney General

Robert F. Kennedy, began tapping Kings telephone in
the fall of 1963.[89] Concerned that allegations of communists in the SCLC, if made public, would derail the
administrations civil rights initiatives, Kennedy warned
King to discontinue the suspect associations, and later
felt compelled to issue the written directive authorizing
the FBI to wiretap King and other SCLC leaders.[90] J.
Edgar Hoover feared Communists were trying to inltrate
the Civil Rights movement, but when no such evidence
emerged, the bureau used the incidental details caught on
tape over the next ve years in attempts to force King out
of the preeminent leadership position.[91]
The Albany Movement was a desegregation coalition

formed in Albany, Georgia, in November 1961. In December, King and the SCLC became involved. The
movement mobilized thousands of citizens for a broadfront nonviolent attack on every aspect of segregation
within the city and attracted nationwide attention. When
King rst visited on December 15, 1961, he had
planned to stay a day or so and return home after giving counsel.[100] The following day he was swept up in
a mass arrest of peaceful demonstrators, and he declined
bail until the city made concessions. According to King,
that agreement was dishonored and violated by the city
after he left town.[100]
King believed that organized, nonviolent protest against

the system of southern segregation known as Jim Crow
laws would lead to extensive media coverage of the struggle for black equality and voting rights. Journalistic accounts and televised footage of the daily deprivation and
indignities suered by southern blacks, and of segregationist violence and harassment of civil rights workers and
marchers, produced a wave of sympathetic public opinion
that convinced the majority of Americans that the Civil
Rights Movement was the most important issue in American politics in the early 1960s.[92][93]
King returned in July 1962, and was sentenced to fortyve days in jail or a $178 ne. He chose jail. Three days
into his sentence, Police Chief Laurie Pritchett discreetly
arranged for Kings ne to be paid and ordered his release. We had witnessed persons being kicked o lunch
counter stools ... ejected from churches ... and thrown
into jail ... But for the rst time, we witnessed being
kicked out of jail.[101] It was later acknowledged by the
King Center that Billy Graham was the one who bailed
King out of jail during this time.[102]
King organized and led marches for blacks right to vote,

desegregation, labor rights and other basic civil rights.[78]
Most of these rights were successfully enacted into the
law of the United States with the passage of the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 and the 1965 Voting Rights Act.[94][95]
King and the SCLC put into practice many of the principles of the Christian Left and applied the tactics of nonviolent protest with great success by strategically choosing
the method of protest and the places in which protests
were carried out. There were often dramatic stand-os
with segregationist authorities. Sometimes these confrontations turned violent.[96]
Throughout his participation in the civil rights move-
After nearly a year of intense activism with few tangible results, the movement began to deteriorate. King
requested a halt to all demonstrations and a Day of
Penance to promote nonviolence and maintain the moral
high ground. Divisions within the black community and
the canny, low-key response by local government defeated eorts.[103] Though the Albany eort proved a key
lesson in tactics for Dr. King and the national civil rights
movement,[104] the national media was highly critical of
Kings role in the defeat, and the SCLCs lack of results
contributed to a growing gulf between the organization
and the more radical SNCC. After Albany, King sought
to choose engagements for the SCLC in which he could
control the circumstances, rather than entering into preexisting situations.[105]
200
Birmingham campaign
never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be demanded by the oppressed.[113] He points out that the
Main article: Birmingham campaign
Boston Tea Party, a celebrated act of rebellion in the
In April 1963, the SCLC began a campaign against racial American colonies, was illegal civil disobedience, and
that, conversely, everything Adolf Hitler did in Germany
was 'legal'".[113] King also expresses his frustration with
white moderates and clergymen too timid to oppose an
unjust system:
King following his arrest in Birmingham
segregation and economic injustice in Birmingham, Alabama. The campaign used nonviolent but intentionally
confrontational tactics, developed in part by Rev. Wyatt
Tee Walker. Black people in Birmingham, organizing
with the SCLC, occupied public spaces with marches and
sit-ins, openly violating laws that they considered unjust.
Kings intent was to provoke mass arrests and create
a situation so crisis-packed that it will inevitably open
the door to negotiation.[106] However, the campaigns
early volunteers did not succeed in shutting down the
city, or in drawing media attention to the polices actions. Over the concerns of an uncertain King, SCLC
strategist James Bevel changed the course of the campaign by recruiting children and young adults to join in
the demonstrations.[107] Newsweek called this strategy a
Childrens Crusade.[108][109]
I have almost reached the regrettable conclusion that the Negros great stumbling block
in his stride toward freedom is not the White
Citizens Councilor or the Ku Klux Klanner,
but the white moderate, who is more devoted to
order than to justice; who prefers a negative
peace which is the absence of tension to a positive peace which is the presence of justice; who
constantly says: I agree with you in the goal
you seek, but I cannot agree with your methods of direct action"; who paternalistic-ally believes he can set the timetable for another mans
freedom; who lives by a mythical concept of
time and who constantly advises the Negro to
wait for a more convenient season.[113]
St. Augustine, Florida
Main article: St. Augustine movement
In March 1964, King and the SCLC joined forces with
Robert Haylings then-controversial movement in St. Augustine, Florida. Haylings group had been aliated with
the NAACP but was forced out of the organization for
advocating armed self-defense alongside nonviolent tactics. Ironically, the pacist SCLC accepted them.[114]
King and the SCLC worked to bring white Northern activists to St. Augustine, including a delegation of rabbis and the 72-year-old mother of the governor of Massachusetts, all of whom were arrested.[115][116] During
June, the movement marched nightly through the city,
often facing counter demonstrations by the Klan, and
provoking violence that garnered national media attention. Hundreds of the marchers were arrested and jailed.
During the course of this movement, the Civil Rights Act
of 1964 was passed.[117]
During the protests, the Birmingham Police Department,

led by Eugene Bull Connor, used high-pressure water
jets and police dogs against protesters, including children. Footage of the police response was broadcast on
national television news and dominated the nations attention, shocking many white Americans and consolidating black Americans behind the movement.[110] Not all
of the demonstrators were peaceful, despite the avowed
intentions of the SCLC. In some cases, bystanders attacked the police, who responded with force. King and
the SCLC were criticized for putting children in harms
way. But the campaign was a success: Connor lost his
job, the Jim Crow signs came down, and public places Selma, Alabama
became more open to blacks. Kings reputation improved
Main article: Selma to Montgomery marches
immensely.[108]
King was arrested and jailed early in the campaignhis
13th arrest[111] out of 29.[112] From his cell, he composed
the now-famous Letter from Birmingham Jail which responds to calls on the movement to pursue legal channels
for social change. King argues that the crisis of racism
is too urgent, and the current system too entrenched:
We know through painful experience that freedom is
In December 1964, King and the SCLC joined forces

with the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
(SNCC) in Selma, Alabama, where the SNCC had been
working on voter registration for several months.[118] A
local judge issued an injunction that barred any gathering of 3 or more people aliated with the SNCC, SCLC,

DCVL, or any of 41 named civil rights leaders. This injunction temporarily halted civil rights activity until King
deed it by speaking at Brown Chapel on January 2,
1965.[119]
New York City
On February 6, 1964, King delivered the inaugural
speech of a lecture series initiated at the New School
called The American Race Crisis. No audio record of
his speech has been found, but in August 2013, almost 50
years later, the school discovered an audiotape with 15
minutes of a question-and-answer session that followed
Kings address. In these remarks, King referred to a conversation he had recently had with Jawaharlal Nehru in
which he compared the sad condition of many African
Americans to that of Indias untouchables.[120]
2.11.5
March on Washington, 1963
201
prising the Big Six were Roy Wilkins from the National
Association for the Advancement of Colored People;
Whitney Young, National Urban League; A. Philip Randolph, Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters; John Lewis,
SNCC; and James L. Farmer, Jr., of the Congress of
Racial Equality.[121]
The primary logistical and strategic organizer was Kings
colleague Bayard Rustin.[122] For King, this role was another which courted controversy, since he was one of the
key gures who acceded to the wishes of President John
F. Kennedy in changing the focus of the march.[123][124]
Kennedy initially opposed the march outright, because he
was concerned it would negatively impact the drive for
passage of civil rights legislation. However, the organizers were rm that the march would proceed.[125] With the
march going forward, the Kennedys decided it was important to work to ensure its success. President Kennedy
was concerned the turnout would be less than 100,000.
Therefore, he enlisted the aid of additional church leaders and the UAW union to help mobilize demonstrators
for the cause.[126]
Main article: March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom

King, representing the SCLC, was among the leaders of
King is most famous for his I Have a Dream speech, given in

front of the Lincoln Memorial during the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.
March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
the so-called Big Six civil rights organizations who were

instrumental in the organization of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, which took place on August 28, 1963. The other leaders and organizations com-
The march originally was conceived as an event to dramatize the desperate condition of blacks in the southern
U.S. and an opportunity to place organizers concerns and
grievances squarely before the seat of power in the nations capital. Organizers intended to denounce the federal government for its failure to safeguard the civil rights
and physical safety of civil rights workers and blacks.
However, the group acquiesced to presidential pressure
and inuence, and the event ultimately took on a far less
strident tone.[127] As a result, some civil rights activists
felt it presented an inaccurate, sanitized pageant of racial
harmony; Malcolm X called it the Farce on Washing-
202
ton, and the Nation of Islam forbade its members from The original, typewritten copy of the speech, including
attending the march.[127][128]
Dr. Kings handwritten notes on it, was discovered in
The march did, however, make specic demands: an 1984 to be in the hands of George Raveling, the rst
end to racial segregation in public schools; meaningful African-American basketball coach of the University of
civil rights legislation, including a law prohibiting racial Iowa. In 1963, Raveling, then 26, was standing near the
discrimination in employment; protection of civil rights podium, and immediately after the oration, impulsively
King if he could have his copy of the speech. He
workers from police brutality; a $2 minimum wage for all asked [139]
got
it.
workers; and self-government for Washington, D.C., then
governed by congressional committee.[129][130][131] Despite tensions, the march was a resounding success.[132]
2.11.6 Selma Voting Rights Movement and
More than a quarter of a million people of diverse ethBloody Sunday, 1965
nicities attended the event, sprawling from the steps of
the Lincoln Memorial onto the National Mall and around
the reecting pool. At the time, it was the largest gather- Main article: Selma to Montgomery marches
ing of protesters in Washington, D.C.'s history.[132]
King delivered a 17-minute speech, later known as "I Acting on James Bevels call for a march from Selma to
Have a Dream". In the speechs most famous passagein Montgomery, King, Bevel, and the SCLC, in partial colwhich he departed from his prepared text, possibly at the laboration with SNCC, attempted to organize the march
prompting of Mahalia Jackson, who shouted behind him, to the states capital. The rst attempt to march on March
7, 1965, was aborted because of mob and police violence
Tell them about the dream!"[133][134] King said:[135]
against the demonstrators. This day has become known
as Bloody Sunday, and was a major turning point in the
I say to you today, my friends, so even
eort to gain public support for the Civil Rights Movethough we face the diculties of today and toment. It was the clearest demonstration up to that time
morrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream
of the dramatic potential of Kings nonviolence strategy.
deeply rooted in the American dream.
King, however, was not present.[140]
I have a dream that one day this nation will rise
up and live out the true meaning of its creed:
'We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all
men are created equal.'
I have a dream that one day on the red hills of
Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons
of former slave owners will be able to sit down
together at the table of brotherhood.
I have a dream that one day even the state of
Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of
injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice.
I have a dream that my four little children will
one day live in a nation where they will not be
The civil rights march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama in
judged by the color of their skin but by the con1965
tent of their character.
I have a dream today.
King met with ocials in the Lyndon B. Johnson AdI have a dream that one day, down in Alabama,
ministration on March 5 in order to request an injunction
with its vicious racists, with its governor havagainst any prosecution of the demonstrators. He did
ing his lips dripping with the words of interponot attend the march due to church duties, but he later
sition and nullication; one day right there in
wrote, If I had any idea that the state troopers would
Alabama, little black boys and black girls will
use the kind of brutality they did, I would have felt
be able to join hands with little white boys and
compelled to give up my church duties altogether to
white girls as sisters and brothers.
lead the line.[141] Footage of police brutality against the
I have a dream today.
protesters was broadcast extensively and aroused national
[142]
I Have a Dream came to be regarded as one of the public outrage.
nest speeches in the history of American oratory.[136]
The March, and especially Kings speech, helped put civil
rights at the top of the agenda of reformers in the United
States and facilitated passage of the Civil Rights Act of
1964.[137][138]
King next attempted to organize a march for March 9.

The SCLC petitioned for an injunction in federal court
against the State of Alabama; this was denied and the
judge issued an order blocking the march until after a
hearing. Nonetheless, King led marchers on March 9 to

the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, then held a short
prayer session before turning the marchers around and
asking them to disperse so as not to violate the court
order. The unexpected ending of this second march
aroused the surprise and anger of many within the local movement.[143] The march nally went ahead fully on
March 25, 1965.[144][145] At the conclusion of the march
on the steps of the state capitol, King delivered a speech
that became known as "How Long, Not Long". In it, King
stated that equal rights for African Americans could not
be far away, because the arc of the moral universe is
long, but it bends toward justice.[lower-alpha 1][146][147]
2.11.7
203
1966, were met by thrown bottles and screaming throngs.
Rioting seemed very possible.[154][155] Kings beliefs militated against his staging a violent event, and he negotiated
an agreement with Mayor Richard J. Daley to cancel a
march in order to avoid the violence that he feared would
result.[156] King was hit by a brick during one march
but continued to lead marches in the face of personal
danger.[157]
When King and his allies returned to the South, they

left Jesse Jackson, a seminary student who had previously joined the movement in the South, in charge of
their organization.[158] Jackson continued their struggle
for civil rights by organizing the Operation Breadbastargeted chain stores that did not deal
Chicago Open Housing Movement, ket movement that[159]
fairly with blacks.
1966
Main article: Chicago Freedom Movement

2.11.8
In 1966, after several successes in the South, King,
Opposition to the Vietnam War
See also: Opposition to the U.S. involvement in the

Vietnam War
President Lyndon Johnson with King in 1966
Bevel, and others in the civil rights organizations tried to

spread the movement to the North, with Chicago as their
rst destination. King and Ralph Abernathy, both from
the middle class, moved into a building at 1550 S. Hamlin
Ave., in the slums of North Lawndale[148] on Chicagos
West Side, as an educational experience and to demonstrate their support and empathy for the poor.[149]
King long opposed American involvement in the Vietnam

War,[160] but at rst avoided the topic in public speeches
in order to avoid the interference with civil rights goals
that criticism of President Johnsons policies might have
created.[160] However, at the urging of SCLCs former
Director of Direct Action and now the head of the
Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam, James Bevel,[161] King eventually agreed to publicly oppose the war as opposition was growing among
the American public.[160] In an April 4, 1967, appearance at the New York City Riverside Churchexactly
one year before his deathKing delivered a speech titled "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence".[162] He
spoke strongly against the U.S.'s role in the war, arguing
that the U.S. was in Vietnam to occupy it as an American
colony[163] and calling the U.S. government the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today.[164] He also
connected the war with economic injustice, arguing that
the country needed serious moral change:
The SCLC formed a coalition with CCCO, Coordinating Council of Community Organizations, an organizaA true revolution of values will soon look
tion founded by Albert Raby, and the combined orgauneasily on the glaring contrast of poverty and
nizations eorts were fostered under the aegis of the
wealth. With righteous indignation, it will look
Chicago Freedom Movement.[150] During that spring,
across the seas and see individual capitalists
several white couple / black couple tests of real estate ofof the West investing huge sums of money in
ces uncovered racial steering: discriminatory processing
Asia, Africa and South America, only to take
of housing requests by couples who were exact matches
the prots out with no concern for the social
in income, background, number of children, and other
betterment of the countries, and say: This is
attributes.[151] Several larger marches were planned and
not just.[165]
executed: in Bogan, Belmont Cragin, Jeerson Park,
Evergreen Park (a suburb southwest of Chicago), Gage King also opposed the Vietnam War because it took
Park, Marquette Park, and others.[150][152][153]
money and resources that could have been spent on
Abernathy later wrote that the movement received a social welfare at home. The United States Congress was
worse reception in Chicago than in the South. Marches, spending more and more on the military and less and
especially the one through Marquette Park on August 5, less on anti-poverty programs at the same time. He
204
summed up this aspect by saying, A nation that continues year after year to spend more money on military
defense than on programs of social uplift is approaching spiritual death.[165] He stated that North Vietnam
did not begin to send in any large number of supplies
or men until American forces had arrived in the tens of
thousands,[166] and accused the U.S. of having killed
a million Vietnamese, mostly children.[167] King also
criticized American opposition to North Vietnams land
reforms.[168]

traditional capitalism, he also rejected communism because of its materialistic interpretation of history that
denied religion, its ethical relativism, and its political
totalitarianism.[181]
King also stated in Beyond Vietnam that true compassion is more than inging a coin to a beggar ... it
comes to see that an edice which produces beggars
needs restructuring.[182] King quoted a United States
ocial who said that, from Vietnam to Latin America, the country was on the wrong side of a world
Kings opposition cost him signicant support among revolution.[182] King condemned Americas alliance
white allies, including President Johnson, Billy with the landed gentry of Latin America, and said that
Graham,[169] union leaders and powerful publishers.[170] the U.S. should support the shirtless and barefoot peoThe press is being stacked against me, King said,[171] ple in the Third World rather than suppressing their atcomplaining of what he described as a double stan- tempts at revolution.[182]
dard that applauded his nonviolence at home, but On April 15, 1967, King participated in and spoke at
deplored it when applied toward little brown Viet- an anti-war march from New Yorks Central Park to
namese children.[172] Life magazine called the speech the United Nations organized by the Spring Mobilization
demagogic slander that sounded like a script for Radio Committee to End the War in Vietnam and initiated by
Hanoi",[165] and The Washington Post declared that King its chairman, James Bevel. At the U.N. King also brought
had diminished his usefulness to his cause, his country, up issues of civil rights and the draft.
his people.[172][173]
I have not urged a mechanical fusion of the
civil rights and peace movements. There are
people who have come to see the moral imperative of equality, but who cannot yet see
the moral imperative of world brotherhood. I
would like to see the fervor of the civil-rights
movement imbued into the peace movement to
instill it with greater strength. And I believe
everyone has a duty to be in both the civilrights and peace movements. But for those who
presently choose but one, I would hope they
will nally come to see the moral roots common to both.[183]
King speaking to an anti-Vietnam war rally at the University of
Minnesota, St. Paul on April 27, 1967
Seeing an opportunity to unite civil rights activists and

anti-war activists,[161] Bevel convinced King to become
even more active in the anti-war eort.[161] Despite his
The Beyond Vietnam speech reected Kings evolving growing public opposition towards the Vietnam War,
political advocacy in his later years, which paralleled the King was also not fond of the hippie culture which deteachings of the progressive Highlander Research and Ed- veloped from the anti-war movement.[184] In his 1967
ucation Center, with which he was aliated.[174][175] King Massey Lecture, King stated:
began to speak of the need for fundamental changes in
the political and economic life of the nation, and more
The importance of the hippies is not in
frequently expressed his opposition to the war and his detheir unconventional behavior, but in the fact
sire to see a redistribution of resources to correct racial
that hundreds of thousands of young people, in
and economic injustice.[176] He guarded his language in
turning to a ight from reality, are expressing
public to avoid being linked to communism by his ena profoundly discrediting view on the society
emies, but in private he sometimes spoke of his supthey emerge from.[184]
port for democratic socialism.[177][178] In a 1952 letter to
Coretta Scott, he said I imagine you already know that On January 13, 1968, the day after President Johnsons
I am much more socialistic in my economic theory than State of the Union Address, King called for a large march
capitalistic...[179] In one speech, he stated that some- on Washington against one of historys most cruel and
thing is wrong with capitalism and claimed, There must senseless wars.[185][186]
be a better distribution of wealth, and maybe America
We need to make clear in this political year,
must move toward a democratic socialism.[180] King had
read Marx while at Morehouse, but while he rejected
to congressmen on both sides of the aisle and

to the president of the United States, that we
will no longer tolerate, we will no longer vote
for men who continue to see the killings of
Vietnamese and Americans as the best way
of advancing the goals of freedom and selfdetermination in Southeast Asia.[185][186]
205
and established a camp they called Resurrection City.
They stayed for six weeks.[195]
2.11.10 Assassination and aftermath

Main article: Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
On March 29, 1968, King went to Memphis, Tennessee,
2.11.9
Poor Peoples Campaign, 1968
Main article: Poor Peoples Campaign

In 1968, King and the SCLC organized the Poor Peoples Campaign to address issues of economic justice.
King traveled the country to assemble a multiracial army
of the poor that would march on Washington to engage in nonviolent civil disobedience at the Capitol until Congress created an economic bill of rights for poor
Americans.[187][188]
The campaign was preceded by Kings nal book, Where
Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?, which
laid out his view of how to address social issues and
poverty. King quoted from Henry George and Georges
book, Progress and Poverty, particularly in support of a
guaranteed basic income.[189][190][191] The campaign culminated in a march on Washington, D.C., demanding
economic aid to the poorest communities of the United
States.
King and the SCLC called on the government to invest
in rebuilding Americas cities. He felt that Congress
had shown hostility to the poor by spending military
funds with alacrity and generosity. He contrasted this
with the situation faced by poor Americans, claiming
that Congress had merely provided poverty funds with
miserliness.[188] His vision was for change that was more
revolutionary than mere reform: he cited systematic aws
of racism, poverty, militarism and materialism, and argued that reconstruction of society itself is the real issue
to be faced.[192]
The Poor Peoples Campaign was controversial even
within the civil rights movement. Rustin resigned from
the march, stating that the goals of the campaign were
too broad, that its demands were unrealizable, and that he
thought that these campaigns would accelerate the backlash and repression on the poor and the black.[193]
After Kings death
The plan to set up a shantytown in Washington, D.C., was
carried out soon after the April 4 assassination. Criticism
of Kings plan was subdued in the wake of his death, and
the SCLC received an unprecedented wave of donations
for the purpose of carrying it out. The campaign ocially
began in Memphis, on May 2, at the hotel where King was
murdered.[194]
Thousands of demonstrators arrived on the National Mall
The Lorraine Motel, where King was assassinated, is now the site
of the National Civil Rights Museum.
in support of the black sanitary public works employees,

represented by AFSCME Local 1733, who had been on
strike since March 12 for higher wages and better treatment. In one incident, black street repairmen received
pay for two hours when they were sent home because of
bad weather, but white employees were paid for the full
day.[196][197][198]
On April 3, King addressed a rally and delivered his
I've Been to the Mountaintop address at Mason Temple,
the world headquarters of the Church of God in Christ.
Kings ight to Memphis had been delayed by a bomb
threat against his plane.[199] In the close of the last speech
of his career, in reference to the bomb threat, King said
the following:
And then I got to Memphis. And some began to say the threats, or talk about the threats
that were out. What would happen to me from
some of our sick white brothers?
Well, I don't know what will happen now.
We've got some dicult days ahead. But it
doesn't matter with me now. Because I've
been to the mountaintop. And I don't mind.
Like anybody, I would like to live a long life.
Longevity has its place. But I'm not concerned
about that now. I just want to do Gods will.
And Hes allowed me to go up to the mountain. And I've looked over. And I've seen the
promised land. I may not get there with you.
But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a
people, will get to the promised land. So I'm
happy, tonight. I'm not worried about anything.
206

I'm not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen
the glory of the coming of the Lord.[200]
King was booked in room 306 at the Lorraine Motel,

owned by Walter Bailey, in Memphis. Abernathy, who
was present at the assassination, testied to the United
States House Select Committee on Assassinations that
King and his entourage stayed at room 306 at the Lorraine Motel so often it was known as the King-Abernathy
suite.[201] According to Jesse Jackson, who was present,
Kings last words on the balcony before his assassination
were spoken to musician Ben Branch, who was scheduled to perform that night at an event King was attending:
Ben, make sure you play 'Take My Hand, Precious Lord'
in the meeting tonight. Play it real pretty.[202]
Then, at 6:01 p.m., April 4, 1968, a shot rang out as
King stood on the motels second-oor balcony. The bullet entered through his right cheek, smashing his jaw,
then traveled down his spinal cord before lodging in his
shoulder.[203][204] Abernathy heard the shot from inside
the motel room and ran to the balcony to nd King on the
oor.[205] Jackson stated after the shooting that he cradled
Kings head as King lay on the balcony, but this account
was disputed by other colleagues of Kings; Jackson later
changed his statement to say that he had reached out
for King.[206]
After emergency chest surgery, King died at St. Josephs
Hospital at 7:05 p.m.[207] According to biographer Taylor
Branch, Kings autopsy revealed that though only 39 years
old, he had the heart of a 60 year old, which Branch
attributed to the stress of 13 years in the Civil Rights
Movement.[208]
Aftermath
Further information: King assassination riots
The assassination led to a nationwide wave of race riots in Washington, D.C.; Chicago; Baltimore; Louisville;
Kansas City; and dozens of other cities.[209][210] Presidential candidate Robert F. Bobby Kennedy was on
his way to Indianapolis for a campaign rally when he
was informed of Kings death. He gave a short speech
to the gathering of supporters informing them of the
tragedy and urging them to continue Kings ideal of
nonviolence.[211] James Farmer, Jr., and other civil rights
leaders also called for nonviolent action, while the more
militant Stokely Carmichael called for a more forceful
response.[212] The city of Memphis quickly settled the
strike on terms favorable to the sanitation workers.[213]
President Lyndon B. Johnson declared April 7 a national
day of mourning for the civil rights leader.[214] Vice President Hubert Humphrey attended Kings funeral on behalf
of the President, as there were fears that Johnsons presence might incite protests and perhaps violence.[215] At
his widows request, Kings last sermon at Ebenezer Bap-
tist Church was played at the funeral,[216] a recording of

his Drum Major sermon, given on February 4, 1968.
In that sermon, King made a request that at his funeral
no mention of his awards and honors be made, but that
it be said that he tried to feed the hungry, clothe the
naked, be right on the [Vietnam] war question, and
love and serve humanity.[217] His good friend Mahalia
Jackson sang his favorite hymn, Take My Hand, Precious Lord, at the funeral.[218]
Two months after Kings death, escaped convict James
Earl Ray was captured at London Heathrow Airport while
trying to leave the United Kingdom on a false Canadian
passport in the name of Ramon George Sneyd on his
way to white-ruled Rhodesia.[219] Ray was quickly extradited to Tennessee and charged with Kings murder.
He confessed to the assassination on March 10, 1969,
though he recanted this confession three days later.[220]
On the advice of his attorney Percy Foreman, Ray pled
guilty to avoid a trial conviction and thus the possibility of receiving the death penalty. He was sentenced to
a 99-year prison term.[220][221] Ray later claimed a man
he met in Montreal, Quebec, with the alias Raoul was
involved and that the assassination was the result of a
conspiracy.[222][223] He spent the remainder of his life attempting, unsuccessfully, to withdraw his guilty plea and
secure the trial he never had.[221]
Allegations of conspiracy
Rays lawyers maintained he was a scapegoat similar to
the way that John F. Kennedy assassin Lee Harvey Oswald is seen by conspiracy theorists.[224] Supporters of
this assertion say that Rays confession was given under
pressure and that he had been threatened with the death
penalty.[221][225] They admit Ray was a thief and burglar,
but claim he had no record of committing violent crimes
with a weapon.[223] However, prison records in dierent
U.S. cities have shown that he was incarcerated on numerous occasions for charges of armed robbery.[226] In a
2008 interview with CNN, Jerry Ray, the younger brother
of James Earl Ray, claimed that James was smart and was
sometimes able to get away with armed robbery. Jerry
Ray said that he had assisted his brother on one such robbery. I never been with nobody as bold as he is, Jerry
said. He just walked in and put that gun on somebody,
it was just like its an everyday thing.[226]
Those suspecting a conspiracy in the assassination point
to the two successive ballistics tests which proved that a
rie similar to Rays Remington Gamemaster had been
the murder weapon. Those tests did not implicate Rays
specic rie.[221][227] Witnesses near King at the moment
of his death said that the shot came from another location. They said that it came from behind thick shrubbery
near the boarding housewhich had been cut away in
the days following the assassinationand not from the
boarding house window.[228] However, Rays ngerprints
were found on various objects (a rie, a pair of binocu-

lars, articles of clothing, a newspaper) that were left in
the bathroom where it was determined the gunre came
from.[226] An examination of the rie containing Rays
ngerprints also determined that at least one shot was
red from the rearm at the time of the assassination.[226]
207
ing out the evidence and criticizing other accounts.[238]
Kings friend and colleague, James Bevel, also disputed
the argument that Ray acted alone, stating, There is no
way a ten-cent white boy could develop a plan to kill
a million-dollar black man.[239] In 2004, Jesse Jackson
stated:
The fact is there were saboteurs to disrupt the march. And within our own organization, we found a very key person who was on
the government payroll. So inltration within,
saboteurs from without and the press attacks.
... I will never believe that James Earl Ray had
the motive, the money and the mobility to have
done it himself. Our government was very involved in setting the stage for and I think the
escape route for James Earl Ray.[240]
Martin Luther King and Coretta Scott Kings sarcophagus, located on the grounds of the Martin Luther King, Jr. National
Historic Site in Atlanta, Georgia
2.11.11 FBI and Kings personal life

FBI surveillance and wiretapping
FBI director J. Edgar Hoover personally ordered surveilIn 1997, Kings son Dexter Scott King met with Ray, and
lance of King, with the intent to undermine his power
[229]
publicly supported Rays eorts to obtain a new trial.
as a civil rights leader.[170][241] According to the Church
Two years later, Coretta Scott King, Kings widow, Committee, a 1975 investigation by the U.S. Congress,
along with the rest of Kings family, won a wrongful From December 1963 until his death in 1968, Martin
death claim against Loyd Jowers and other unknown co- Luther King Jr. was the target of an intensive campaign
conspirators. Jowers claimed to have received $100,000 by the Federal Bureau of Investigation to 'neutralize' him
to arrange Kings assassination. The jury of six whites as an eective civil rights leader.[242]
and six blacks found in favor of the King family,
The Bureau received authorization to proceed with wirending Jowers to be complicit in a conspiracy against
tapping from Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy in the
King and that government agencies were party to the
fall of 1963[243] and informed President John F. Kennedy,
assassination.[230][231] William F. Pepper represented the
both of whom unsuccessfully tried to persuade King to
King family in the trial.[232]
dissociate himself from Stanley Levison, a New York
In 2000, the U.S. Department of Justice completed the lawyer who had been involved with Communist Party
investigation into Jowers claims but did not nd evidence USA.[244][245] Although Robert Kennedy only gave writto support allegations about conspiracy. The investigation ten approval for limited wiretapping of Kings phones
report recommended no further investigation unless some on a trial basis, for a month or so,[246] Hoover exnew reliable facts are presented.[233] A sister of Jowers tended the clearance so his men were unshackled to
admitted that he had fabricated the story so he could make look for evidence in any areas of Kings life they deemed
$300,000 from selling the story, and she in turn corrob- worthy.[247] The Bureau placed wiretaps on Levisons and
orated his story in order to get some money to pay her Kings home and oce phones, and bugged Kings rooms
income tax.[234][235]
in hotels as he traveled across the country.[244][248] In
In 2002, The New York Times reported that a church min- 1967, Hoover listed the SCLC as a black nationalist hate
ister, Rev. Ronald Denton Wilson, claimed his father, group, with the instructions: No opportunity should be
Henry Clay Wilsonnot James Earl Rayassassinated missed to exploit through counterintelligence techniques
King. He stated, It wasn't a racist thing; he thought Mar- the organizational and personal conicts of the leadertargeted group is distin Luther King was connected with communism, and he ships of the groups ... to insure the
[241][249]
rupted,
ridiculed,
or
discredited.
wanted to get him out of the way. Wilson provided no
evidence to back up his claims.[236]
King researchers David Garrow and Gerald Posner disagreed with William F. Peppers claims that the government killed King.[237] In 2003, William Pepper published
a book about the long investigation and trial, as well as his
representation of James Earl Ray in his bid for a trial, lay-
NSA monitoring of Kings communications

In a secret operation code-named "Minaret", the National
Security Agency (NSA) monitored the communications
of leading Americans, including King, who criticized the
208
U.S. war in Vietnam.[250] A review by the NSA itself

concluded that Minaret was disreputable if not outright
illegal.[250]
Allegations of communism
For years, Hoover had been suspicious about potential inuence of communists in social movements such as labor
unions and civil rights.[251] Hoover directed the FBI to
track King in 1957, and the SCLC as it was established (it
did not have a full-time executive director until 1960).[91]
The investigations were largely supercial until 1962,
when the FBI learned that one of Kings most trusted advisers was New York City lawyer Stanley Levison.[252]
The FBI feared Levison was working as an agent of inuence over King, in spite of its own reports in 1963 that
Levison had left the Party and was no longer associated
in business dealings with them.[253] Another King lieutenant, Hunter Pitts O'Dell, was also linked to the Communist Party by sworn testimony before the House Un- Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X, March 26, 1964
American Activities Committee (HUAC).[254] However,
by 1976 the FBI had acknowledged that it had not obtained any evidence that King himself or the SCLC were
actually involved with any communist organizations.[242] credit King through revelations regarding his private life.
FBI surveillance of King, some of it since made public,
For his part, King adamantly denied having any connec- attempted to demonstrate that he also engaged in numertions to communism, stating in a 1965 Playboy inter- ous extramarital aairs.[248] Lyndon Johnson once said
view that there are as many Communists in this freedom that King was a hypocritical preacher.[260]
movement as there are Eskimos in Florida.[255] He argued that Hoover was following the path of appeasement Ralph Abernathy stated in his 1989 autobiography And
of political powers in the South and that his concern for the Walls Came Tumbling Down that King had a weakcommunist inltration of the Civil Rights Movement was ness for women, although they all understood and bemeant to aid and abet the salacious claims of southern lieved in the biblical prohibition against sex outside of
had a particularly diracists and the extreme right-wing elements.[242] Hoover marriage. It was just that he [261]
cult
time
with
that
temptation.
In a later interview,
did not believe Kings pledge of innocence and replied
Abernathy
said
that
he
only
wrote
the
term womanizby saying that King was the most notorious liar in the
ing,
that
he
did
not
specically
say
King
had extramarital
[256]
country.
After King gave his I Have A Dream
sex
and
that
the
indelities
King
had
were emotional
speech during the March on Washington on August 28,
[262]
rather
than
sexual.
Abernathy
criticized
the media
1963, the FBI described King as the most dangerous and
for
sensationalizing
the
statements
he
wrote
about
Kings
[248]
eective Negro leader in the country.
It alleged that
[262]
aairs,
such
as
the
allegation
that
he
admitted
in his
he was knowingly, willingly and regularly cooperating
book
that
King
had
a
sexual
aair
the
night
before
he
was
[257]
with and taking guidance from communists.
assassinated.[262] In his original wording, Abernathy had
The attempt to prove that King was a communist was re- claimed he saw King coming out of his room with a lady
lated to the feeling of many segregationists that blacks in when he awoke the next morning and later claimed that
the South were happy with their lot but had been stirred he may have been in there discussing and debating and
up by communists and outside agitators.[258] How- trying to get her to go along with the movement, I don't
ever, the 1950s and '60s Civil Rights Movement arose know.[262]
from activism within the black community dating back
to before World War I. King said that the Negro revo- In his 1986 book Bearing the Cross, David Garrow wrote
lution is a genuine revolution, born from the same womb about a number of extramarital aairs, including one
that produces all massive social upheavalsthe womb of woman King saw almost daily. According to Garrow,
that relationship ... increasingly became the emotional
intolerable conditions and unendurable situations.[259]
centerpiece of Kings life, but it did not eliminate the
incidental couplings ... of Kings travels. He alleged
that King explained his extramarital aairs as a form
Adultery
of anxiety reduction. Garrow asserted that Kings supHaving concluded that King was dangerous due to composed promiscuity caused him painful and at times overmunist inltration, the FBI shifted to attempting to dis- whelming guilt.[263] Kings wife Coretta appeared to

have accepted his aairs with equanimity, saying once
that all that other business just doesn't have a place in the
very high level relationship we enjoyed.[264] Shortly after
Bearing the Cross was released, civil rights author Howell
Raines gave the book a positive review but opined that
Garrows allegations about Kings sex life were sensational and stated that Garrow was amassing facts rather
than analyzing them.[265]
209
drive him to suicide,[271] although William Sullivan, head
of the Domestic Intelligence Division at the time, argued
that it may have only been intended to convince Dr. King
to resign from the SCLC.[242] King refused to give in to
the FBIs threats.[248]
Judge John Lewis Smith, Jr., in 1977 ordered all known

copies of the recorded audiotapes and written transcripts
resulting from the FBIs electronic surveillance of King
The FBI distributed reports regarding such aairs to the between 1963 and 1968 to be held in the National
executive branch, friendly reporters, potential coalition Archives and sealed from public access until 2027.[272]
partners and funding sources of the SCLC, and Kings
family.[266] The Bureau also sent anonymous letters to
King threatening to reveal information if he did not cease Police observation during the assassination
his civil rights work.[267] One anonymous letter sent to
King just before he received the Nobel Peace Prize read, Across from the Lorraine Motel, next to the boarding
house in which Ray was staying, was a re station. Poin part:
lice ocers were stationed in the re station to keep King
under surveillance.[273] Agents were watching King at the
time he was shot.[274] Immediately following the shooting, ocers rushed out of the station to the motel. Marrell McCollough, an undercover police ocer, was the
rst person to administer rst aid to King.[275] The antagonism between King and the FBI, the lack of an all
points bulletin to nd the killer, and the police presence
nearby led to speculation that the FBI was involved in the
assassination.[276]
2.11.12 Legacy
The so-called suicide letter,[268] mailed anonymously by the FBI
The American public, the church organizations that have been helpingProtestants,
Catholics and Jews will know you for what you
arean evil beast. So will others who have
backed you. You are done. King, there is only
one thing left for you to do. You know what
it is. You have just 34 days in which to do
(this exact number has been selected for a specic reason, it has denite practical signicant
[sic]). You are done. There is but one way out
for you. You better take it before your lthy
fraudulent self is bared to the nation.[269]
President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Among the
guests behind him is Martin Luther King.
Kings main legacy was to secure progress on civil rights

in the U.S. Just days after Kings assassination, Congress
passed the Civil Rights Act of 1968.[277] Title VIII of the
Act, commonly known as the Fair Housing Act, prohibited discrimination in housing and housing-related transactions on the basis of race, religion, or national origin
(later expanded to include sex, familial status, and disability). This legislation was seen as a tribute to Kings
struggle in his nal years to combat residential discrimi[277]
A tape recording of several of Kings extramarital li- nation in the U.S.
aisons, excerpted from FBI wiretaps, accompanied the Internationally, Kings legacy includes inuences on the
letter.[270] King interpreted this package as an attempt to Black Consciousness Movement and Civil Rights Move-
210
Protesters at the 2012 Republican National Convention display

Dr. Kings words and image on a banner
bands footsteps and was active in matters of social justice

and civil rights until her death in 2006. The same year that
Martin Luther King was assassinated, she established the
King Center in Atlanta, Georgia, dedicated to preserving
his legacy and the work of championing nonviolent conict resolution and tolerance worldwide.[283] Their son,
Dexter King, serves as the centers chairman.[284][285]
Daughter Yolanda King, who died in 2007, was a motivational speaker, author and founder of Higher Ground
Productions, an organization specializing in diversity
training.[286]
Even within the King family, members disagree about
his religious and political views about gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender people. Kings widow Coretta said
publicly that she believed her husband would have supported gay rights.[287] However, his youngest child, Bernice King, has said publicly that he would have been opposed to gay marriage.[288]
On February 4, 1968, at the Ebenezer Baptist Church, in
speaking about how he wished to be remembered after
his death, King stated:
Martin Luther King, Jr., statue over the west entrance of

Westminster Abbey, installed in 1998
ment in South Africa.[278][279] Kings work was cited by

and served as an inspiration for South African leader
Albert Lutuli, who fought for racial justice in his country and was later awarded the Nobel Prize.[280] The day
following Kings assassination, school teacher Jane Elliott
conducted her rst Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes exercise with
her class of elementary school students in Riceville, Iowa.
Her purpose was to help them understand Kings death as
it related to racism, something they little understood as
they lived in a predominately white community.[281] King
has become a national icon in the history of American liberalism and American progressivism.[282]
Kings wife, Coretta Scott King, followed in her hus-
I'd like somebody to mention that day that

Martin Luther King Jr. tried to give his life
serving others. I'd like for somebody to say that
day that Martin Luther King Jr. tried to love
somebody.
I want you to say that day that I tried to be
right on the war question. I want you to be able
to say that day that I did try to feed the hungry.
I want you to be able to say that day that I did
try in my life to clothe those who were naked.
I want you to say on that day that I did try in
my life to visit those who were in prison. And
I want you to say that I tried to love and serve
humanity.
Yes, if you want to say that I was a drum
major. Say that I was a drum major for justice. Say that I was a drum major for peace. I
was a drum major for righteousness. And all of
the other shallow things will not matter. I won't
211
have any money to leave behind. I won't have

the ne and luxurious things of life to leave behind. But I just want to leave a committed life
behind.[212][289]
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day
Main article: Martin Luther King, Jr. Day
Beginning in 1971, cities such as St. Louis, Missouri, and
states established annual holidays to honor King.[290] At
the White House Rose Garden on November 2, 1983,
President Ronald Reagan signed a bill creating a federal holiday to honor King. Observed for the rst time
on January 20, 1986, it is called Martin Luther King,
Jr. Day. Following President George H. W. Bush's
1992 proclamation, the holiday is observed on the third
Monday of January each year, near the time of Kings
birthday.[291][292] On January 17, 2000, for the rst time,
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day was ocially observed in
all fty U.S. states.[293] Arizona (1992), New Hampshire
(1999) and Utah (2000) were the last three states to recognized the holiday. Utah previously celebrated the hol- Martin Luther King, Jr., showing his medallion received from
iday at the same time but under the name Human Rights Mayor Wagner
Day.[294]
Liturgical commemorations
which was awarded to him for leading nonviolent resistance to racial prejudice in the U.S.[300] In 1965, he
was awarded the American Liberties Medallion by the
American Jewish Committee for his exceptional advancement of the principles of human liberty.[299][301]
In his acceptance remarks, King said, Freedom is one
thing. You have it all or you are not free.[302]
King is remembered as a martyr by the Episcopal Church

in the United States of America with an annual feast
day on the anniversary of his death, April 4.[295] The
Evangelical Lutheran Church in America commemorates
King liturgically on the anniversary of his birth, January
In 1957, he was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the
15.[296]
NAACP.[303] Two years later, he won the AniseldWolf Book Award for his book Stride Toward Freedom:
[304]
In 1966, the Planned ParentUK legacy and The Martin Luther King Peace Com- The Montgomery Story.
hood Federation of America awarded King the Margaret
mittee
Sanger Award for his courageous resistance to bigotry
In the United Kingdom, The Northumbria and Newcastle and his lifelong dedication to the advancement of social
[305]
Also in 1966, King was
Universities Martin Luther King Peace Committee[297] justice and human dignity.
exists to honour Kings legacy, as represented by his - elected as a fellow of the American Academy of Arts
[306]
In November 1967 he made a 24 hour
nal visit to the UK to receive an honorary degree from and Sciences.
[298]
The Peace Committee trip to the United Kingdom to receive an honorary deNewcastle University in 1967.
operates out of the chaplaincies of the citys two universi- gree from Newcastle University, being the rst African
[307]
In a movties, Northumbria and Newcastle, both of which remain American to be so honoured by Newcastle.
[308]
he said
centres for the study of Martin Luther King and the US ing impromptu acceptance speech,
Civil Rights Movement. Inspired by Kings vision, it unThere are three urgent and indeed great
dertakes a range of activities across the UK as it seeks to
problems that we face not only in the United
build cultures of peace.
States of America but all over the world today.
That is the problem of racism, the problem of
poverty and the problem of war.
2.11.13 Awards and recognition
King was awarded at least fty honorary degrees from In 1971 he was posthumously awarded a Grammy Award
colleges and universities.[299] On October 14, 1964, King for Best Spoken Word Album for his Why I Oppose the
became the youngest recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, War in Vietnam.[309]
212
Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, where King ministered, was renamed Dexter Avenue King Memorial Baptist Church in 1978.
King was second in Gallups List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century.[312] In 1963, he was
named Time Person of the Year, and in 2000, he was
voted sixth in an online Person of the Century poll by
the same magazine.[313] King placed third in the Greatest
American contest conducted by the Discovery Channel
and AOL.[314]
Statue of King in Birminghams Kelly Ingram Park
Memorials and eponymous places and buildings

In 1977, the Presidential Medal of Freedom was posthumously awarded to King by President Jimmy Carter. The
citation read:
Martin Luther King, Jr., was the conscience of his generation. He gazed upon
the great wall of segregation and saw that the
power of love could bring it down. From the
pain and exhaustion of his ght to fulll the
promises of our founding fathers for our humblest citizens, he wrung his eloquent statement
of his dream for America. He made our nation
stronger because he made it better. His dream
sustains us yet.[310]
Martin Luther King Jr. Street at Liberty Bell Park in Jerusalem,
King and his wife were also awarded the Congressional Israel
Gold Medal in 2004.[311]
213
The Landmark for Peace Memorial in Indianapolis,
Indiana[318]
The Homage to King sculpture in Atlanta, Georgia[318]
The Dream sculpture in Portland, Oregon
The National Civil Rights Museum, at the Lorraine
Motel in Memphis, Tennessee, where King died[318]
Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church in Selma, Alabama[318]
Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial in Yerba Buena Gardens
There are numerous memorials to King in the United

States, including:
More than 730 cities in the United States have streets
named after King.[315]
King County, Washington, rededicated its name in
his honor in 1986, and changed its logo to an image
of his face in 2007.[316]
The city government center in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, is named in honor of King.[317]
In 1980, the U.S. Department of the Interior designated Kings boyhood home in Atlanta and several
nearby buildings the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site.[318]
Numerous other memorials honor him around the world,

including:
The Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. Church in
Debrecen, Hungary[318]
The King-Luthuli Transformation
Johannesburg, South Africa[318]
Center
in
The Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. Forest in Israel's

Southern Galilee region (along with the Coretta
Scott King Forest in Biriya Forest, Israel)[318]
The Martin Luther King, Jr.
Ghana[318]
School in Accra,
The Gandhi-King Plaza (garden), at the India International Center in New Delhi, India
A bust of King was added to the gallery of notables

in the United States Capitol in 1986, portraying him 2.11.14 Bibliography
in a restful, nonspeaking pose.[319]
Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story
(1958) ISBN 978-0-06-250490-6
The beginning words of Kings I Have a Dream
speech are etched on the steps of the Lincoln Memo The Measure of a Man (1959) ISBN 978-0-8006rial, at the place where King stood during that
0877-4
speech.[320] These words from the speech"ve
short lines of text carved into the granite on the steps
Strength to Love (1963) ISBN 978-0-8006-9740-2
of the Lincoln Memorialwere etched in 2003,
on the 40th anniversary of the march to Washing Why We Can't Wait (1964) ISBN 978-0-8070-0112ton, by stone carver Andy Del Gallo, after a law was
7
passed by Congress providing authorization for the
Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?
inscription.[320]
(1967) ISBN 978-0-8070-0571-2
In 1996, Congress authorized the Alpha Phi Alpha
The Trumpet of Conscience (1968) ISBN 978-0fraternity, of which King is still a member, to es8070-0170-7
tablish a foundation to manage fund raising and design of a national Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial
A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and
on the National Mall in Washington, D.C.[321] King
Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. (1986) ISBN
was the rst African American and the fourth non978-0-06-250931-4
president honored with his own memorial in the Na[322]
The memorial opened in Autional Mall area.
The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr.
gust 2011[323] and is administered by the National
(1998), ed. Clayborne Carson ISBN 978-0-446Park Service.[324] The address of the monument,
67650-2
1964 Independence Avenue, S.W., commemorates
All Labor Has Dignity (2011) ed. Michael Honey
the year that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 became
ISBN 978-0-8070-8600-1
law.[325]
214
Thou, Dear God": Prayers That Open Hearts and

Spirits Collection of Dr. Kings prayers. (2011), ed.
Dr. Lewis Baldwin ISBN 978-0-8070-8603-2
MLK: A Celebration in Word and Image Photographed by Bob Adelman, introduced by Charles
Johnson ISBN 978-0-8070-0316-9
2.11.15
See also
Martin Luther King, Jr. authorship issues

Sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr.
[5] King, James Albert.

[6] Nsenga, Burton. AfricanAncestry.com Reveals Roots of
MLK and Marcus Garvey.
[7] King 1992, p. 76.
[8] Katznelson, Ira (2005). When Armative Action was
White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in
Twentieth-Century America. WW Norton & Co. p. 5.
ISBN 0-393-05213-3.
[9] Millender, Dharathula H. (1986). Martin Luther King Jr.:
Young Man with a Dream. Aladdin. pp. 4546. ISBN
978-0020420101.
[10] Frady, Marshall (2005). Martin Luther King, Jr: A Life.
pp. 1215. ISBN 978-0143036487.
The Meeting
Concepts
[11] Pierce, Alan (2004). Assassination of Martin Luther King

Jr. Abdo Pub Co. p. 14. ISBN 978-1591977278.
Equality before the law
[12] Blake, John. How MLK became an angry black man.
Violence begets violence
[13] Carson, Clayborn. Martin Luther King Jr..

[14] Kings God: The Unknown Faith of Dr. Martin Luther
King Jr. Tikkun. November 2, 2001. Retrieved February
8, 2010.
General
List of American philosophers
[15] King 1998, p. 6.
[16] Fleming, Alice (2008). Martin Luther King Jr.: A Dream

of Hope. Sterling. p. 9. ISBN 978-1402744396.
List of peace activists
[17] King, Martin Luther (1992). The Papers of Martin Luther

King, Jr, Volume 1. University of California Press. p. 82.
ISBN 978-0520079502.
After Martin Luther King

PostCivil Rights era in African-American history
2.11.16
References
[18] Ching, Jacqueline (2002). The Assassination of Martin

Luther King, Jr. Rosen Publishing. p. 18. ISBN 0-82393543-4.
[19] Frady, p. 18.
Notes
[1] Though commonly attributed to King, this expression originated with 19th-century abolitionist Theodore
Parker.[146]
Citations
[1] Ogletree, Charles J. (2004). All Deliberate Speed: Reections on the First Half Century of Brown v. Board of Education. W W Norton & Co. p. 138. ISBN 0-393-058972.
[2] Upbringing & Studies. The King Center. Archived
from the original on January 9, 2013. Retrieved September 2, 2012.
[3] Mohn, Tanya (January 12, 2012). Martin Luther King
Jr.: The German Connection and How He Got His
Name. Forbes.com. Retrieved January 16, 2012.
[4] Martin Luther King Jr. name change.
way.com. Retrieved July 9, 2013.
German-
[20] Downing, Frederick L. (1986). To See the Promised Land:

The Faith Pilgrimage of Martin Luther King, Jr. Mercer
University Press. p. 150. ISBN 0-86554-207-4.
[21] Nojeim, Michael J. (2004). Gandhi and King: The Power
of Nonviolent Resistance. Greenwood Publishing Group.
p. 179. ISBN 0-275-96574-0.
[22] Farris, Christine King (2009). Through It All: Reections
on My Life, My Family, and My Faith. Atria Books. pp.
4447. ISBN 978-1416548812.
[23] Frady, pp. 20-22.
[24] L. Lewis, David (2013). King: A Biography. University
of Illinois Press. p. 27.
[25] Coretta Scott King. The Daily Telegraph. February 1,
2006. Archived from the original on January 9, 2013. Retrieved September 8, 2008.
[26] Warren, Mervyn A. (2001). King Came Preaching: The
Pulpit Power of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. InterVarsity
Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-8308-2658-0.
[27] Civil Rights History from the Ground Up: Local Struggles,
a National Movement. University of Georgia Press. p.
410.
[28] Radin, Charles A. (October 11, 1991). Panel Conrms
Plagiarism by King at BU. The Boston Globe. p. 1.
[29] Martin Luther King. Snopes. Retrieved March 14,
2011.
[30] Boston U. Panel Finds Plagiarism by Dr. King. The
New York Times. October 11, 1991. Archived from the
original on November 13, 2013. Retrieved November 13,
2013.
[31] Kings Ph.D. dissertation, with attached note (PDF).
Retrieved November 7, 2014.
[32] Fuller, Linda K. (2004). National Days, National Ways:
Historical, Political, And Religious Celebrations around the
World. Greenwood Publishing. p. 314. ISBN 0-27597270-4.
[33] Martin Luther King Jr., Justice Without Violence- April
3, 1957. Mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu. Retrieved July 9,
2013.
[34] The Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute. Why Jesus Called A Man A Fool. Delivered at
Mount Pisgah Missionary Baptist Church, Chicago, Illinois, on 27 August 1967.
[35] The Hungton Post. 2013. 'A Gift Of Love': Martin Luther Kings Sermons From Strength To Love (EXCERPT).
215
[46] Frady 2002, p. 42.

[47] De Leon, David (1994). Leaders from the 1960s: a biographical sourcebook of American activism. Greenwood
Publishing. p. 138. ISBN 0-313-27414-2.
[48] Dr. Martin Luther King (December 11, 1964). Nobel
Lecture by MLK. The King Center. p. 12.
[49] King 1992, pp. 13536.
[50] King Jr., Martin Luther; Clayborne Carson; et al. (2005).
The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr., Volume V: Threshold of a New Decade, January 1959 December 1960.
University of California Press. pp. 149, 269, 248. ISBN
0-520-24239-4.
[51] King, M. L. Morehouse College (Chapter 2 of The Autobiography of Martin Luther King Jr.)
[52] Reinhold Niebuhr and Contemporary Politics: God and
Power
[53] Agape. Martin Luther King Jr. and the Global Freedom
Struggle. The Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute. Retrieved January 19, 2015.
[54] Wang, Lisa. Martin Luther King Jr.'s Troubled Attitude
toward Nonviolent Resistance (PDF). Expos. Harvard
College Writing Program. Retrieved January 19, 2015.
[55] Nonviolence: The Only Road to Freedom - Teaching
American History. teachingamericanhistory.org.
[56] Birmingham civil rights activist Colonel Stone Johnson
has died (slideshow)". AL.com.
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Were Right to Wiretap MLK. Human Events. Retrieved
Story of the Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.,
August 27, 2008.
and the Greatest Manhunt of our Time. Doubleday. p.
283.
[245] Kotz 2005.
[229] James Earl Ray, convicted King assassin, dies. CNN.
[246] Herst 2007, p. 372.
April 23, 1998. Retrieved September 17, 2006.
[230] Trial Transcript Volume XIV. The King Center. [247] Herst 2007, pp. 37274.
Archived from the original on May 6, 2008. Retrieved
[248] Christensen, Jen (April 7, 2008). FBI tracked Kings evAugust 27, 2008.
ery move. CNN. Retrieved June 14, 2008.
[231] Sack, Kevin; Yellin, Emily (December 10, 1999). Dr.
Kings Slaying Finally Draws A Jury Verdict, but to Little [249] Glick, Brian (1989). War at Home: Covert Action Against
Eect. The New York Times. Archived from the original
U.S. Activists and What We Can Do About It. South End
on January 20, 2013. Retrieved January 20, 2013.
Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-89608-349-3.
221
[250] The Guardian, September 26, 2013, Declassied NSA [270] Frady 2002, pp. 158159.
Files Show Agency Spied on Muhammad Ali and MLK
Operation Minaret Set Up in 1960s to Monitor Anti- [271] Wilson, Sondra K. (1999). In Search of Democracy: The
NAACP Writings of James Weldon Johnson, Walter White,
Vietnam Critics, Branded 'Disreputable If Not Outright
and Roy Wilkins (19201977). Oxford University Press.
Illegal' by NSA Itself, The Guardian
p. 466. ISBN 0-19-511633-X.
[251] Downing, Frederick L. (1986). To See the Promised Land:
The Faith Pilgrimage of Martin Luther King, Jr. Mercer [272] Phillips, Geraldine N. (Summer 1997). Documenting
the Struggle for Racial Equality in the Decade of the SixUniversity Press. pp. 2467. ISBN 0-86554-207-4.
ties. Prologue (The National Archives and Records Ad[252] Kotz 2005, p. 233.
ministration). Retrieved June 15, 2008.
[253] Kotz 2005, pp. 7074.
[273] Eyewitness to Murder: The King Assassination Featured

Individuals. Black in America. CNN. Archived from the
[254] Woods, Je (2004). Black Struggle, Red Scare: Segregaoriginal on September 6, 2012. Retrieved June 16, 2008.
tion and Anti-communism in the South, 19481968. LSU
Press. p. 126. ISBN 0-8071-2926-7. See also: Wannall, [274] McKnight, Gerald (1998). The Last Crusade: Martin
Ray (2000). The Real J. Edgar Hoover: For the Record.
Luther King, Jr., the FBI, and the Poor Peoples Crusade.
Turner Publishing. p. 87. ISBN 1-56311-553-0.
Westview Press. p. 76. ISBN 0-8133-3384-9.
[255] Washington 1991, p. 362.
[275] Martin Luther King Jr.: The FBI Files. Filiquarian Publishing. 2007. pp. 402. ISBN 1-59986-253-0. See also:
[256] Bruns, Roger (2006). Martin Luther King Jr.: A BiograPolk, James (April 7, 2008). King conspiracy theories
phy. Greenwood Publishing. p. 67. ISBN 0-313-33686still thrive 40 years later. CNN. Retrieved June 16, 2008.
5.
and Kings FBI le Part 1 of 2 (PDF). FBI. Retrieved
January 16, 2012. and Kings FBI le Part 2 of 2 (PDF).
[257] Kotz 2005, p. 83.
FBI. Retrieved January 16, 2012.
[258] Gilbert, Alan (1990). Democratic Individuality: A Theory
[276] Knight, Peter (2003). Conspiracy Theories in American
of Moral Progress. Cambridge University Press. p. 435.
History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 4089. ISBN
ISBN 0-521-38709-4.
1-57607-812-4.
[259] Washington 1991, p. 363.
[277] The History of Fair Housing. U.S. Department of
Housing and Urban Development. Retrieved April 19,
[260] Sidey, Hugh (February 10, 1975). L.B.J., Hoover and
2012.
Domestic Spying. Time. Archived from the original on
September 21, 2011. Retrieved June 14, 2008.
[278] Ansell, Gwen (2005). Soweto Blues: Jazz, Popular Music, and Politics in South Africa. Continuum International
[261] Abernathy, Ralph (1989). And the walls came tumbling
Publishing Group. p. 139. ISBN 0-8264-1753-1.
down: an autobiography. Harper & Row. p. 471. ISBN
978-0-06-016192-7.
[279] Clinton, Hillary Rodham (2007). It Takes a Village: And
Other Lessons Children Teach Us. Simon & Schuster. p.
[262] Abernathy, Ralph David (October 29, 1989). And the
137. ISBN 1-4165-4064-4.
Walls Came Tumbling Down. Booknotes. Archived
from the original on December 11, 2007. Retrieved June
[280] King 1992, pp. 30708.
14, 2008.
[263] Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern [281] Peters, William. A Class Divided: One Friday in April,
1968. Frontline. PBS. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
Christian Leadership Conference. William Morrow & Co.
1986. pp. 3756.
[282] Krugman, Paul R. (2009). The Conscience of a Liberal.
W. W. Norton & Company. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-393[264] Frady 2002, p. 67.
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[266] Burnett, Thom (2005). Conspiracy Encyclopedia. Collins
& Brown. p. 58. ISBN 1-84340-287-4.
[284] Copeland, Larry (February 1, 2006). Future of Atlantas
King Center in limbo. USA Today. Retrieved August 27,
[267] Thragens, William C. (1988). Popular Images of Amer2008.
ican Presidents. Greenwood Publishing. p. 532. ISBN
0-313-22899-X.
[285] Chairmans Message: Introduction to the King Center
and its Mission. The King Center. Archived from the
[268] Gage, Beverly (November 11, 2014). What an Uncenoriginal on January 18, 2008. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
sored Letter to M.L.K. Reveals. The New York Times.
[286] Welcome. Higher Ground Productions. Retrieved June
[269] Kotz 2005, p. 247.
15, 2008.
222
[287] The Triple Evils. The King Center. Archived from the [305] The Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. upon accepting
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The Planned Parenthood Federation Of America Margaret Sanger Award. PPFA. Archived from the original
[288] Williams, Brandt (January 16, 2005). What would Maron February 24, 2008. Retrieved August 27, 2008.
tin Luther King do?". Minnesota Public Radio. Retrieved
[306] SCLC Press Release. SCLC via the King Center. May
August 27, 2008.
16, 1966. Archived from the original on January 9, 2013.
[289] IBM advertisement. The Dallas Morning News. January
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[307] Ward, Brian. A King in Newcastle; Martin Luther King
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Holiday. The American Presidency Project. 1992. Re[309] Gates, Henry Louis; Appiah, Anthony (1999). Africana:
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[292] Martin Luther King Day. U.S. Department of State.
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[310] Carter, Jimmy (July 11, 1977). Presidential Medal of
Freedom Remarks on Presenting the Medal to Dr. Jonas
[293] Goldberg, Carey (May 26, 1999). Contrarian New
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4, 2013. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
[294] The History of Martin Luther King Day. Infoplease.
[311] Congressional Gold Medal Recipients (1776 to
Present)". Oce of the Clerk: U.S. House of Represen[295] Martin Luther King Day Weekend 2012 (PDF). Epistatives. Retrieved June 16, 2008.
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[312] Gallup, George; Gallup, Jr., Alec (2000). The Gallup Poll:
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Church. Archived from the original on January 10, 2013.
[313] Harpaz, Beth J. (December 27, 1999). Time Names EinRetrieved January 10, 2013.
stein as Person of the Century. via HighBeam Research
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(subscription required) . Associated Press. Retrieved JanKing Peace Committee; Newcastle University. ncl.ac.uk.
uary 20, 2013.
[298] Ncl.ac.uk; see also Ward, Brian. A King in Newcastle; [314] Reagan voted 'greatest American'". BBC. June 28, 2005.
Martin Luther King Jr. And British Race Relations, 1967Retrieved August 27, 2008.
1968. The Gerogia Historical Quarterly 79, no. 3 (1995):
[315] Alderman, Derek H. (February 13, 2006). Naming
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Streets for Martin Luther King, Jr.: No Easy Road
(PDF). Landscape and Race in the United States. Rout[299] Warren, Mervyn A. (2001). King Came Preaching: The
ledge Press. Retrieved July 4, 2011.
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[316] King County Was Rededicated For MLK. The Seattle
Times. January 18, 1998. Retrieved June 13, 2008. See
[300] Wintle, Justin (2001). Makers of Modern Culture: Makers
also: New logo is an image of civil rights leader. King
of Culture. Routledge. p. 272. ISBN 0-415-26583-5.
County. Retrieved June 13, 2008.
[301] Engel, Irving M. Commemorating Martin Luther King
Jr.: Presentation of American Liberties Medallion. [317] Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Essay Competition
Winners Announced. City of Harrisburg. January 19,
American Jewish Committee. Retrieved June 13, 2008.
2003. Archived from the original on December 7, 2007.
[302] King, Jr., Martin Luther. Commemorating Martin
Luther King Jr.: Response to Award of American Liberties Medallion. American Jewish Committee. Retrieved [318] Wax, Emily (2011-08-23). Martin Luther King Jr. sites
across the globe. The Washington Post. Lifestyle: Full
June 13, 2008.
Coverage: The Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial. Re[303] Spingarn Medal Winners: 1915 to Today. NAACP.
trieved October 20, 2011.
[319] Trescott, Jacqueline (2011-08-23). Across D.C., statues
[304] Martin Luther King Jr.. Aniseld-Wolf Book Awards.
honor African Americans. The Washington Post. ReRetrieved October 2, 2011.
[320] Ramanathan, Levanya, Pieces of Black History, Washington Post, January 27, 2012. Retrieved January 27,
2012.
[321] Washington, DC Martin Luther King Jr. National
Memorial Project Foundation Breaks Ground On Historic $100 Million Memorial On The National Mall In
Washington, D.C.. Washington, DC Martin Luther King
Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation. November 6,
2006. Archived from the original on September 8, 2012.
[322] Tobias, Randall L. (January 18, 2007). Celebrating the
Birthday of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.. U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on November
15, 2007. Retrieved January 16, 2012.
[323] Tavernise, Sabrina (August 23, 2011). A Dream Fullled, Martin Luther King Memorial Opens. New York
Times. Archived from the original on January 4, 2013.
[324] Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial. National Park Service. Archived from the original on January 4, 2013. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
[325] Guevara, Brittni (July 26, 2011). FYIDC: Paying Tribute
To Dr. King. Washington Life. Retrieved January 20,
2013.
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Abernathy, Ralph (1989). And the Walls Came
Tumbling Down: An Autobiography. Harper &
Row. ISBN 0-06-016192-2.
Branch, Taylor (2006). At Canaans Edge: America
In the King Years, 19651968. Simon & Schuster.
ISBN 0-684-85712-X.
223
Herst, Burton (2007). Bobby and J. Edger. Carroll
& Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1982-6.
Jackson, Thomas F. (2006). From Civil Rights to
Human Rights: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the
Struggle for Economic Justice. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3969-0.
King Jr., Martin Luther (1998). Carson, Clayborne,
ed. Autobiography. Warner Books. p. 6. ISBN
0-446-52412-3.
King Jr., Martin Luther; Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph; Russell, Penny A. (1992).
The papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. University of
California Press. ISBN 0-520-07950-7.
Kotz, Nick (2005). Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines
Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Laws that
Changed America. Houghton Miin Books. ISBN
0-618-08825-3.
Lawson, Steven F.; Payne, Charles M.; Patterson,
James T. (2006). Debating the Civil Rights Movement, 19451968. Rowman & Littleeld. ISBN 07425-5109-1.
Robbins, Mary Susannah (2007). Against the Vietnam War: Writings by Activists. Rowman & Littleeld. ISBN 0-7425-5914-9.
Washington, James M. (1991). A Testament of
Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06064691-8.
Cohen, Adam Seth; Taylor, Elizabeth (2000). Further reading

Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley: His Battle for
Chicago and the Nation. Back Bay. ISBN 0-316 Ayton, Mel (2005). A Racial Crime: James Earl Ray
83489-0.
And The Murder Of Martin Luther King Jr. Archebooks Publishing. ISBN 1-59507-075-3.
Frady, Marshall (2002). Martin Luther King Jr.: A
Life. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-303648-7.
Garrow, David J. (1981). The FBI and Martin
Luther King, Jr. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14006486-9.
Garrow, David. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther
King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership
Conference (1989). Pulitzer Prize. ISBN 978-0-06056692-0
James L. Bevel, The Strategist of the 1960s Civil
Rights Movement, a 1984 paper by Randy Kryn,
published with a 1988 addendum by Kryn in Prof.
David Garrow's We Shall Overcome, Volume II
(Carlson Publishing Company, 1989).
Glisson, Susan M. (2006). The Human Tradition in
the Civil Rights Movement. Rowman & Littleeld.
ISBN 0-7425-4409-5.
Branch, Taylor (1988). Parting the Waters: America

in the King Years, 19541963. Simon & Schuster.
ISBN 0-671-46097-8.
Branch, Taylor (1998). Pillar of Fire: America in the
King Years, 19631965. Simon & Schuster. ISBN
0-684-80819-6.
King, Coretta Scott (1993) [1969]. My Life with
Martin Luther King, Jr. Henry Holth & Co. ISBN
0-8050-2445-X.
King Jr., Martin Luther (2015). Cornel West,
ed. The Radical King. Beacon Press. ISBN
0807012823.
Kirk, John A., ed. Martin Luther King Jr. and the
Civil Rights Movement: Controversies and Debates
(2007). pp. 224
224
Schulke, Flip; McPhee, Penelope. King Remembered, Foreword by Jesse Jackson (1986). ISBN
978-1-4039-9654-1
Why I Am Opposed to the War in Vietnam, sermon at the Ebenezer Baptist Church on April 30,
1967 (audio of speech with video 23:31)
Waldschmidt-Nelson, Britta. Dreams and Nightmares: Martin Luther King Jr. Malcolm X, and the
Struggle for Black Equality. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2012. ISBN 0-8130-37239.
Walk to Freedom, Detroit, June 23, 1963. Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Aairs.
Wayne State University.
2.11.17
External links
Chiastic outline of Martin Luther King, Jr.'s I Have

a Dream speech
2.12 Rosa Parks
General
For other uses, see Rosa Parks (disambiguation).
Martin Luther King, Jr. at DMOZ
Rosa Louise McCauley Parks (February 4, 1913 October 24, 2005) was an African-American Civil Rights
Martin Luther King, Jr. Collection, Morehouse activist, whom the United States Congress called the
rst lady of civil rights and the mother of the freedom
College, RWWL
movement.[1] Her birthday, February 4, and the day she
The Martin Luther King, Jr. Papers Project
was arrested, December 1, have both become Rosa Parks
Day, commemorated in both California and Ohio.
FBI le on Martin Luther King, Jr.
On December 1, 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, Parks
FBI letter sent MLK to convince him to kill himself refused to obey bus driver James F. Blake's order to give
Vox, 2015.
up her seat in the colored section to a white passenger,
after the white section was lled. Parks was not the rst
Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Nobel Peace Prize, Civil person to resist bus segregation. Others had taken simiRights Digital Library
lar steps, including Bayard Rustin in 1942,[2] Irene Mor Works by Martin Luther King, Jr. at Project Guten- gan in 1946, Sarah Louise Keys in 1952, and the members of the ultimately successful Browder v. Gayle lawberg
suit (Claudette Colvin, Aurelia Browder, Susie McDon Works by or about Martin Luther King, Jr. at ald, and Mary Louise Smith) who were arrested in Montgomery for not giving up their bus seats months before
Internet Archive
Parks. NAACP organizers believed that Parks was the
Westminster Abbey: Martin Luther King, Jr.
best candidate for seeing through a court challenge after her arrest for civil disobedience in violating Alabama
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. at Bualo, digital
segregation laws, although eventually her case became
collection of Dr. Kings visit and speech in Bufbogged down in the state courts while the Browder v.
falo, New York on November 9, 1967, from the
Gayle case succeeded.[3][4]
University at Bualo Libraries
Parks act of deance and the Montgomery Bus Boycott
became important symbols of the modern Civil Rights
Speeches and interviews
Movement. She became an international icon of resistance to racial segregation. She organized and collab Audio from April 1961 King, The Church on the orated with civil rights leaders, including Edgar Nixon,
Frontier of Racial Tensions, speech at Southern president of the local chapter of the NAACP; and Martin
Seminary
Luther King, Jr., a new minister in town who gained national prominence in the civil rights movement.
Martin Luther King, Jr. Historic Speeches and InAt the time, Parks was secretary of the Montgomery
terviews
chapter of the NAACP. She had recently attended the
The New Negro, King interviewed by J. Waites Highlander Folk School, a Tennessee center for trainWaring
ing activists for workers rights and racial equality. She
acted as a private citizen tired of giving in. Although
Interview with Dr. Kenneth Clark, PBS
widely honored in later years, she also suered for her
act; she was red from her job as a seamstress in a lo Beyond Vietnam speech text and audio
cal department store, and received death threats for years
King Institute Encyclopedia multimedia
afterwards.
The King Center
2.12. ROSA PARKS
225
Shortly after the boycott, she moved to Detroit, where she school and black students had to walk to theirs:
briey found similar work. From 1965 to 1988 she served
as secretary and receptionist to John Conyers, an AfricanI'd see the bus pass every day... But to
American U.S. Representative. She was also active in the
me, that was a way of life; we had no choice
Black Power movement and the support of political prisbut to accept what was the custom. The bus
oners in the US.
was among the rst ways I realized there was a
black world and a white world.[9]
After retirement, Parks wrote her autobiography and
lived a largely private life in Detroit. In her nal years, she
suered from dementia. Parks received national recognition, including the NAACPs 1979 Spingarn Medal,
the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Congressional
Gold Medal, and a posthumous statue in the United States
Capitols National Statuary Hall. Upon her death in 2005,
she was the rst woman and second non-U.S. government
ocial to lie in honor at the Capitol Rotunda.
2.12.1
Although Parks autobiography recounts early memories

of the kindness of white strangers, she could not ignore
the racism of her society. When the Ku Klux Klan
marched down the street in front of their house, Parks
recalls her grandfather guarding the front door with a
shotgun.[10] The Montgomery Industrial School, founded
and staed by white northerners for black children, was
burned twice by arsonists. Its faculty was ostracized by
the white community.
Early years
Repeatedly bullied by white children in her neighborhood, Parks often fought back physically. She later said
Rosa Parks was born Rosa Louise McCauley in that As far back as I remember, I could never think in
Tuskegee, Alabama, on February 4, 1913, to Leona terms of accepting physical abuse without some form of
(ne Edwards), a teacher, and James McCauley, a retaliation if possible. [11]
carpenter. She was of African ancestry, though one
In 1932, Rosa married Raymond Parks, a barber from
of her great-grandfathers was Scots-Irish and one of
her great-grandmothers was a slave of Native Ameri- Montgomery. He was a member of the NAACP, which
at the time was collecting money to support the defense
can descent.[5][6] She was small as a child and suered
poor health with chronic tonsillitis. When her parents of the Scottsboro Boys, a group of black men falsely accused of raping two white women. Rosa took numerous
separated, she moved with her mother to Pine Level,
just outside the state capital, Montgomery. She grew jobs, ranging from domestic worker to hospital aide. At
her husbands urging, she nished her high school studies
up on a farm with her maternal grandparents, mother,
and younger brother Sylvester. They all were members in 1933, at a time when less than 7% of African Amerof the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), a icans had a high school diploma. Despite the Jim Crow
century-old independent black denomination founded by laws and discrimination by registrars, she succeeded in
free blacks in Philadelphia in the early nineteenth cen- registering to vote on her third try.
In December 1943, Parks became active in the Civil
tury.
McCauley attended rural schools[7] until the age of Rights Movement, joined the Montgomery chapter of the
eleven. As a student at the Industrial School for Girls in NAACP, and was elected secretary. She later said, I was
they needed a secretary, and
Montgomery, she took academic and vocational courses. the only woman there, and[12]
I
was
too
timid
to
say
no.
She continued as secretary
Parks went on to a laboratory school set up by the
until
1957.
She
worked
for
the
local NAACP leader E.D.
Alabama State Teachers College for Negroes for secNixon,
even
though
he
maintained
that Women don't
ondary education, but dropped out in order to care for
[13]
need
to
be
nowhere
but
in
the
kitchen.
When Parks
her grandmother and later her mother, after they became
asked
Well,
what
about
me?",
he
replied
I
need a secill.[8]
retary and you are a good one.[13]
Around the turn of the 20th century, the former Confederate states had adopted new constitutions and elec- In 1944, in her capacity as secretary, she investigated
toral laws that eectively disfranchised black voters and, the gang-rape of Recy Taylor, a black woman from
in Alabama, many poor white voters as well. Under the Abbeville, Alabama. Parks and other civil rights acwhite-established Jim Crow laws, passed after Democrats tivists organized the Committee for Equal Justice for
regained control of southern legislatures, racial segrega- Mrs. Recy Taylor, launching what the Chicago Defender
campaign for equal justice to be seen
tion was imposed in public facilities and retail stores in called the strongest
[14]
in
a
decade.
the South, including public transportation. Bus and train
companies enforced seating policies with separate sec- Although never a member of the Communist Party, she
tions for blacks and whites. School bus transportation attended meetings with her husband. The notorious
was unavailable in any form for black schoolchildren in Scottsboro case had been brought to prominence by the
the South, and black education was always underfunded. Communist Party.[15]
Parks recalled going to elementary school in Pine Level, In the 1940s, Parks and her husband were members of
where school buses took white students to their new the Voters League. Sometime soon after 1944, she held
226
a brief job at Maxwell Air Force Base, which, despite

its location in Montgomery, Alabama, did not permit
racial segregation because it was federal property. She
rode on its integrated trolley. Speaking to her biographer, Parks noted, You might just say Maxwell opened
my eyes up. Parks worked as a housekeeper and seamstress for Cliord and Virginia Durr, a white couple.
Politically liberal, the Durrs became her friends. They
encouragedand eventually helped sponsorParks in
the summer of 1955 to attend the Highlander Folk
School, an education center for activism in workers rights
and racial equality in Monteagle, Tennessee. There Parks
was mentored by the veteran organizer Septima Clark.[11]
In August 1955, black teenager Emmett Till was brutally murdered after reportedly irting with a young
white woman while visiting relatives in Mississippi.[16]
On November 27, 1955, Rosa Parks attended a mass
meeting in Montgomery that addressed this case as well
as the recent murders of the activists George W. Lee
and Lamar Smith. The featured speaker was T. R. M.
Howard, a black civil rights leader from Mississippi who
headed the Regional Council of Negro Leadership.[17]
The discussions concerned actions blacks could take to
gain respect for their rights.
2.12.2
Parks and the Montgomery Bus

Boycott
Main article: Montgomery Bus Boycott
Montgomery buses: law and prevailing customs

In 1900, Montgomery had passed a city ordinance to segregate bus passengers by race. Conductors were empowered to assign seats to achieve that goal. According to the
law, no passenger would be required to move or give up
his seat and stand if the bus was crowded and no other
seats were available. Over time and by custom, however,
Montgomery bus drivers adopted the practice of requiring black riders to move when there were no white-only
seats left.
The rst four rows of seats on each Montgomery bus were
reserved for whites. Buses had colored sections for
black people generally in the rear of the bus, although
blacks comprised more than 75% of the ridership. The
sections were not xed but were determined by placement
of a movable sign. Black people could sit in the middle
rows until the white section lled; if more whites needed
seats, blacks were to move to seats in the rear, stand, or, if
there was no room, leave the bus. Black people could not
sit across the aisle in the same row as white people. The
driver could move the colored section sign, or remove
it altogether. If white people were already sitting in the
front, black people had to board at the front to pay the
fare, then disembark and reenter through the rear door.
For years, the black community had complained that the
situation was unfair. Parks said, My resisting being mistreated on the bus did not begin with that particular arrest...I did a lot of walking in Montgomery.[7]
One day in 1943, Parks boarded the bus and paid the fare.
She then moved to her seat but driver James F. Blake told
her to follow city rules and enter the bus again from the
back door. Parks exited the vehicle and waited for the
next bus, determined never to ride with Blake again.[18]
Her refusal to move
After working all day, Parks boarded the Cleveland Avenue bus around 6 p.m., Thursday, December 1, 1955,
in downtown Montgomery. She paid her fare and sat in
an empty seat in the rst row of back seats reserved for
blacks in the colored section. Near the middle of the
bus, her row was directly behind the ten seats reserved
for white passengers. Initially, she did not notice that the
bus driver was the same man, James F. Blake, who had
left her in the rain in 1943. As the bus traveled along its
regular route, all of the white-only seats in the bus lled
up. The bus reached the third stop in front of the Empire
Theater, and several white passengers boarded.
Seat layout on the bus where Parks sat, December 1, 1955
Blake noted that two or three white passengers were

standing, as the front of the bus had lled to capacity.
He moved the colored section sign behind Parks and
demanded that four black people give up their seats in
the middle section so that the white passengers could sit.
Years later, in recalling the events of the day, Parks said,
When that white driver stepped back toward us, when he
2.12. ROSA PARKS
227
arrest Parks. When recalling the incident for Eyes on the
Prize, a 1987 public television series on the Civil Rights
Movement, Parks said, When he saw me still sitting, he
asked if I was going to stand up, and I said, 'No, I'm not.'
And he said, 'Well, if you don't stand up, I'm going to
have to call the police and have you arrested.' I said, 'You
may do that.'"[23]
Rosa Parks arrest
A plaque entitled The Bus Stop at Dexter Ave. and Montgomery

St.the place Rosa Parks boarded the buspays tribute to her
and the success of the Montgomery bus boycott.
Booking photo of Parks
The No. 2857 bus on which Parks was riding before her arrest (a
GM old-look transit bus, serial number 1132), is now a museum
exhibit at the Henry Ford Museum.
Police report on Parks, December 1, 1955, page 1

waved his hand and ordered us up and out of our seats,
I felt a determination to cover my body like a quilt on a
winter night.[19]
By Parks account, Blake said, Y'all better make it light
on yourselves and let me have those seats.[20] Three of
them complied. Parks said, The driver wanted us to
stand up, the four of us. We didn't move at the beginning,
but he says, 'Let me have these seats.' And the other three
people moved, but I didn't.[21] The black man sitting next
to her gave up his seat.[22]
Parks moved, but toward the window seat; she did not get
up to move to the redesignated colored section.[22] Blake
said, Why don't you stand up?" Parks responded, I don't Police report on Parks, December 1, 1955, page 2
think I should have to stand up. Blake called the police to
228

in the area, and a front-page article in the Montgomery
Advertiser helped spread the word. At a church rally that
night, those attending agreed unanimously to continue the
boycott until they were treated with the level of courtesy
they expected, until black drivers were hired, and until
seating in the middle of the bus was handled on a rstcome basis.
Fingerprint card of Parks

During a 1956 radio interview with Sydney Rogers in
West Oakland several months after her arrest, Parks said
she had decided, I would have to know for once and for
all what rights I had as a human being and a citizen.[24]
In her autobiography, My Story she said:
People always say that I didn't give up my
seat because I was tired, but that isn't true. I
was not tired physically, or no more tired than
I usually was at the end of a working day. I was
not old, although some people have an image of
me as being old then. I was forty-two. No, the
only tired I was, was tired of giving in.[25]
The next day, Parks was tried on charges of disorderly

conduct and violating a local ordinance. The trial lasted
30 minutes. After being found guilty and ned $10, plus
$4 in court costs,[21] Parks appealed her conviction and
formally challenged the legality of racial segregation. In a
1992 interview with National Public Radio's Lynn Neary,
Parks recalled:
I did not want to be mistreated, I did not
want to be deprived of a seat that I had paid
for. It was just time... there was opportunity
for me to take a stand to express the way I felt
about being treated in that manner.[30] I had not
planned to get arrested. I had plenty to do without having to end up in jail. But when I had to
face that decision, I didn't hesitate to do so because I felt that we had endured that too long.
The more we gave in, the more we complied
with that kind of treatment, the more oppressive it became.[31]
On the day of Parks trial December 5, 1955 the

When Parks refused to give up her seat, a police ocer WPC distributed the 35,000 leaets. The handbill read,
arrested her. As the ocer took her away, she recalled
that she asked, Why do you push us around?" She reWe are...asking every Negro to stay o the
membered him saying, I don't know, but the laws the
buses
Monday in protest of the arrest and trial
law, and you're under arrest.[26] She later said, I only
... You can aord to stay out of school for one
knew that, as I was being arrested, that it was the very
day. If you work, take a cab, or walk. But
last time that I would ever ride in humiliation of this
please, children and grown-ups, don't ride the
kind...[21]
bus at all on Monday. Please stay o the buses
Monday.[32]
Parks was charged with a violation of Chapter 6, Section
[27]
11 segregation law of the Montgomery City code, although technically she had not taken a white-only seat; It rained that day, but the black community persevered in
she had been in a colored section.[28] Edgar Nixon, pres- their boycott. Some rode in carpools, while others travident of the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP and eled in black-operated cabs that charged the same fare as
leader of the Pullman Porters Union, and her friend the bus, 10 cents. Most of the remainder of the 40,000
Cliord Durr bailed Parks out of jail the next evening.[29] black commuters walked, some as far as 20 miles (32
km).
Montgomery Bus Boycott
That evening after the success of the one-day boycott, a

group of 16 to 18 people gathered at the Mt. Zion AME
Zion Church to discuss boycott strategies. At that time
Parks was introduced but not asked to speak, despite a
standing ovation and calls from the crowd for her to speak;
when she asked if she should say something, the reply
was, Why, you've said enough. [33]
Nixon conferred with Jo Ann Robinson, an Alabama

State College professor and member of the Womens Political Council (WPC), about the Parks case. Robinson
believed it important to seize the opportunity and stayed
up all night mimeographing over 35,000 handbills announcing a bus boycott. The Womens Political Council The group agreed that a new organization was needed to
was the rst group to ocially endorse the boycott.
lead the boycott eort if it were to continue. Rev. Ralph
On Sunday, December 4, 1955, plans for the Mont- Abernathy suggested the name "Montgomery Improvegomery Bus Boycott were announced at black churches ment Association" (MIA).[34] The name was adopted, and
2.12. ROSA PARKS
229
the MIA was formed. Its members elected as their president Martin Luther King, Jr., a relative newcomer to
Montgomery, who was a young and mostly unknown minister of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church.[35]
That Monday night, 50 leaders of the African-American
community gathered to discuss actions to respond to
Parks arrest. Edgar Nixon, the president of the NAACP,
said, My God, look what segregation has put in my
hands!"[36] Parks was considered the ideal plainti for a
test case against city and state segregation laws, as she was
seen as a responsible, mature woman with a good reputation. She was securely married and employed, was regarded as possessing a quiet and dignied demeanor, and
was politically savvy. King said that Parks was regarded
as one of the nest citizens of Montgomerynot one of
the nest Negro citizens, but one of the nest citizens of
Montgomery.[7]
Parks court case was being slowed down in appeals
through the Alabama courts on their way to a Federal appeal and the process could have taken years.[37] Holding
together a boycott for that length of time would have been
a great strain. In the end, black residents of Montgomery
continued the boycott for 381 days. Dozens of public
buses stood idle for months, severely damaging the bus
transit companys nances, until the city repealed its law
requiring segregation on public buses following the US
Supreme Court ruling in Browder v. Gayle that it was unconstitutional. Parks was not included as a plainti in the
Browder decision because the attorney Fred Gray concluded the courts would perceive they were attempting to
circumvent her prosecution on her charges working their
way through the Alabama state court system.[38]
Parks on a Montgomery bus on December 21, 1956, the day

Montgomerys public transportation system was legally integrated. Behind Parks is Nicholas C. Chriss, a UPI reporter covering the event.
ers of Montgomerys struggling civil rights movement

about how to proceed, and was constantly receiving death
threats.[11] In Hampton, she found a job as a hostess in an
inn at Hampton Institute, a historically black college.
Later that year, at the urging of her brother and sisterin-law in Detroit, Sylvester and Daisy McCauley, Rosa
and Raymond Parks and her mother moved north to
join them. The City of Detroit attempted to cultivate
a progressive reputation, but Parks encountered numerous signs of discrimination against African-Americans.
Schools were eectively segregated, and services in black
neighborhoods substandard. In 1964, Mrs. Parks told an
interviewer that, I don't feel a great deal of dierence
here...Housing segregation is just as bad, and it seems more
noticeable in the larger cities. She regularly participated
in the movement for open and fair housing.[41]
Parks played an important part in raising international

awareness of the plight of African Americans and the civil
rights struggle. King wrote in his 1958 book Stride Toward Freedom that Parks arrest was the catalyst rather
than the cause of the protest: The cause lay deep in the
record of similar injustices.[39] He wrote, Actually, no
one can understand the action of Mrs. Parks unless he
realizes that eventually the cup of endurance runs over,
and the human personality cries out, 'I can take it no Parks rendered crucial assistance in the rst campaign
longer.'"[40]
for Congress by John Conyers. She persuaded Martin
Luther King (who was generally reluctant to endorse local candidates) to appear with Conyers, thereby boost2.12.3 Detroit years
ing the novice candidates prole.[41] When Conyers was
elected, he hired her as a secretary and receptionist for
1960s
his congressional oce in Detroit. She held this position until she retired in 1988.[7] In a telephone interAfter her arrest, Parks became an icon of the Civil Rights view with CNN on October 24, 2005, Conyers recalled,
Movement but suered hardships as a result. Due to eco- You treated her with deference because she was so quiet,
nomic sanctions used against activists, she lost her job at so serene just a very special person ... There was
the department store. Her husband quit his job after his only one Rosa Parks.[42] Doing much of the daily conboss forbade him to talk about his wife or the legal case. stituent work for Conyers, Parks often focused on socioParks traveled and spoke extensively about the issues.
economic issues including welfare, education, job disIn 1957, Raymond and Rosa Parks left Montgomery for crimination, and aordable housing. She visited schools,
Hampton, Virginia; mostly because she was unable to hospitals, senior citizen facilities, and other community
nd work. She also disagreed with King and other lead- meetings and kept Conyers grounded in community con-
230
cerns and activism.[41]
Parks participated in activism nationally during the mid1960s, traveling to support the Selma-to-Montgomery
Marches, the Freedom Now Party,[11] and the Lowndes
County Freedom Organization. She also befriended
Malcolm X, who she regarded as a personal hero.[43]
Like many Detroit blacks, Mrs. Parks remained particularly concerned about housing issues. She herself lived
in a neighborhood, Virginia Park, which had been compromised by highway construction and so-called urban
renewal. By 1962, these policies had destroyed 10,000
structures in Detroit, displacing 43,096 people, 70 percent of them African-American. Parks lived just a mile
from the epicenter of the uprising that took place in Detroit in 1967, and she considered housing discrimination
a major factor that provoked the insurrection.[41]

November. Her personal ordeals caused her to become
removed from the civil rights movement. She learned
from a newspaper of the death of Fannie Lou Hamer,
once a close friend. Parks suered two broken bones in
a fall on an icy sidewalk, an injury which caused considerable and recurring pain. She decided to move with her
mother into an apartment for senior citizens. There she
nursed her mother Leona through the nal stages of cancer and geriatric dementia until she died in 1979 at the
age of 92.
Final years
In 1980, Parkswidowed and without immediate
familyrededicated herself to civil rights and educational organizations. She co-founded the Rosa L. Parks
Scholarship Foundation for college-bound high school
seniors,[50][51] to which she donated most of her speaker
fees. In February 1987 she co-founded, with Elaine Eason Steele, the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for
Self Development, an institute that runs the Pathways
to Freedom bus tours which introduce young people
to important civil rights and Underground Railroad sites
throughout the country. Though her health declined as
she entered her seventies, Parks continued to make many
appearances and devoted considerable energy to these
causes.
In the aftermath of the 1967 disorder, Mrs. Parks collaborated with members of the League of Revolutionary
Black Workers and the Republic of New Afrika in raising awareness of police abuse during the conict. She
served on a peoples tribunal investigating the killing
of three young men in what was known as the Algiers
Hotel Incident. She also helped form the Virginia Park
district council to help rebuild the area. The council facilitated the building of the only black-owned shopping center in the country.[41] Parks took part in the black power
movement, attending the Philadelphia Black Power conference, and the Black Political Convention in Gary, In- In 1992, Parks published Rosa Parks: My Story, an autodiana. She also supported and visited the Black Panther biography aimed at younger readers, which recounts her
life leading to her decision to keep her seat on the bus.
school in Oakland.[44][45][46]
A few years later, she published her memoir, titled Quiet
Strength (1995), which focuses on her faith in her life. On
August 30, 1994, Joseph Skipper, an African-American
1970s
drug addict, entered her home and attacked the 81-yearold Parks in the course of a robbery. The incident sparked
In the 1970s, Parks organized for the freedom of political outrage throughout the United States. After his arrest,
prisoners in the United States, particularly cases involvSkipper said that he had not known he was in Parks home
ing issues of self-defense. She helped found the Joann but recognized her after entering. Skipper asked, Hey,
Little Defense Committee, and also worked in support
aren't you Rosa Parks?" to which she replied, Yes. She
of Gary Tyler. Little soon became the rst woman in handed him $3 when he demanded money, and an adUnited States history to be acquitted under the defense
ditional $50 when he demanded more. Before eeing,
that she used deadly force to resist sexual assault.[47] Skipper struck Parks in the face.[52] Skipper was arrested
Gary Tyler has not been freed, but before Parks death
and charged with various breaking and entering oenses
was recognized as a prisoner of conscience by Amnesty against Parks and other neighborhood victims. He admitInternational.[48][49]
ted guilt and, on August 8, 1995, was sentenced to eight
The 1970s were a decade of loss for Parks in her per- to 15 years in prison.[53] Suering anxiety upon returning
sonal life. Her family was plagued with illness; she and to her small central Detroit house following the ordeal,
her husband had suered stomach ulcers for years and Parks moved into Riverfront Towers, a secure high-rise
both required hospitalization. In spite of her fame and apartment building where she lived for the rest of her life.
constant speaking engagements, Parks was not a wealthy In 1994 the Ku Klux Klan applied to sponsor a portion
woman. She donated most of the money from speaking of United States Interstate 55 in St. Louis County and
to civil rights causes, and lived on her sta salary and her Jeerson County, Missouri, near St. Louis, for cleanup
husbands pension. Medical bills and time missed from (which allowed them to have signs stating that this section
work caused nancial strain that required her to accept of highway was maintained by the organization). Since
assistance from church groups and admirers.
the state could not refuse the KKKs sponsorship, the MisHer husband died of throat cancer on August 19, 1977 souri legislature voted to name the highway section the
and her brother, her only sibling, died of cancer that Rosa Parks Highway. When asked how she felt about
2.12. ROSA PARKS

this honor, she is reported to have commented, It is always nice to be thought of.[54][55]
In 1999 Parks lmed a cameo appearance for the television series Touched by an Angel. It was to be her last appearance on lm; health problems made her increasingly
an invalid.
In 2002 Parks received an eviction notice from her $1800
per month apartment due to non-payment of rent. Parks
was incapable of managing her own nancial aairs by
this time due to age-related physical and mental decline.
Her rent was paid from a collection taken by Hartford
Memorial Baptist Church in Detroit. When her rent became delinquent and her impending eviction was highly
publicized in 2004, executives of the ownership company
announced they had forgiven the back rent and would allow Parks, by then 91 and in extremely poor health, to live
rent free in the building for the remainder of her life.[56]
Her heirs and various interest organizations alleged at the
time that her nancial aairs had been mismanaged.
2.12.4
In popular culture
231
ers that other African Americans before Parks had
been active in bus integration, but she got renown
as an NAACP secretary. The activists Jesse Jackson and Al Sharpton launched a boycott against the
lm, contending it was disrespectful, but NAACP
president Kweisi Mfume stated he thought the controversy was overblown.[60] Parks was oended
and boycotted the NAACP 2003 Image Awards ceremony, which Cedric hosted.[61]
Grime musician Skepta's track Shutdown includes
the lyrics Sittin' at the front, just like Rosa Parks.
2.12.5 Death and funeral

Parks resided in Detroit until she died of natural causes at
the age of 92 on October 24, 2005, in her apartment on
the east side of the city. She and her husband never had
children and she outlived her only sibling. She was survived by her sister-in-law (Raymonds sister), 13 nieces
and nephews and their families, and several cousins, most
of them residents of Michigan or Alabama.
City ocials in Montgomery and Detroit announced on

In 1979, the Supersisters trading card set was pro- October 27, 2005, that the front seats of their city buses
duced and distributed; one of the cards featured would be reserved with black ribbons in honor of Parks
Parkss name and picture.[57]
until her funeral. Parks con was own to Montgomery
The Neville Brothers recorded a song about Parks and taken in a horse-drawn hearse to the St. Paul African
called Sister Rosa on their 1989 album Yellow Methodist Episcopal (AME) church, where she lay in reMoon. A music video for the song was also made. pose at the altar on October 29, 2005, dressed in the uniform of a church deaconess. A memorial service was held
The song Daybreak from The Stone Roses' 1994 al- there the following morning. One of the speakers, United
bum Second Coming pays tribute to Parks with the States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, said that if it
line Sister Rosa Lee Parks / Love forever her name had not been for Parks, she would probably have never
in your heart.
become the Secretary of State. In the evening the casket
was transported to Washington, D.C. and transported by
In March 1999, Parks led a lawsuit (Rosa Parks a bus similar to the one in which she made her protest, to
v. LaFace Records) against American hip-hop duo lie in honor in the rotunda of the U.S. Capitol.
OutKast and their record company, claiming that the
duos song "Rosa Parks", the most successful radio Since the founding in 1852 of the practice of lying in
single of their 1998 album Aquemini, had used her state in the rotunda, Parks was the 31st person, the rst
name without permission.[58] The lawsuit was set- American who had not been a U.S. government ocial,
tled on April 15, 2005 (six months and nine days and the second private person (after the French planner
before Parks death); OutKast, their producer and Pierre L'Enfant) to be honored in this way. She was the
record labels paid Parks an undisclosed cash settle- rst woman and the second black person to lie in state
[62][63]
An estimated 50,000 people viewed
ment. They also agreed to work with the Rosa and in the Capitol.
Raymond Parks Institute to create educational pro- the casket there, and the event was broadcast on television
grams about the life of Rosa Parks. The record la- on October 31, 2005. A memorial service was held that
bel and OutKast admitted to no wrongdoing. Re- afternoon at Metropolitan AME Church in Washington,
[64]
sponsibility for the payment of legal fees was not DC.
[59]
disclosed.
With her body and casket returned to Detroit, for two
The documentary Mighty Times: The Legacy of days, Parks lay in repose at the Charles H. Wright MuRosa Parks (2001) received a 2002 nomination for seum of African American History. Her funeral service
Academy Award for Documentary Short Subject. was seven hours long and was held on November 2, 2005,
She collaborated that year in a TV movie of her life at the Greater Grace Temple Church in Detroit. After
the service, an honor guard from the Michigan National
starring Angela Bassett.
Guard laid the U.S. ag over the casket and carried it
The lm Barbershop (2002) featured a barber, to a horse-drawn hearse, which was intended to carry
played by Cedric the Entertainer, arguing with oth- it, in daylight, to the cemetery. As the hearse passed
232
the thousands of people who were viewing the procession, many clapped and cheered loudly and released white
balloons. Parks was interred between her husband and
mother at Detroits Woodlawn Cemetery in the chapels
mausoleum. The chapel was renamed the Rosa L. Parks
Freedom Chapel in her honor.[65] Parks had previously
prepared and placed a headstone on the selected location
with the inscription Rosa L. Parks, wife, 1913.
2.12.6
Legacy and honors

Rosa Parks Transit Center, Detroit
Barack Obama sitting on the bus. Parks was arrested sitting in

the same row Obama is in, but on the opposite side.
The Rosa Parks Congressional Gold Medal
1990,
Parks was invited to be part of the group welcoming Nelson Mandela upon his release from
prison in South Africa.[71]
Parks was in attendance as part of Interstate
475 outside of Toledo, Ohio is named after
Parks.[72]
1992, she received the Peace Abbey Courage of
Conscience Award along with Benjamin Spock and
others at the Kennedy Library and Museum in
Boston, Massachusetts.
Parks and U.S. President Bill Clinton
1976, Detroit renamed 12th Street Rosa Parks

Boulevard.[66]
1979, the NAACP awarded Parks the Spingarn
Medal,[67] its highest honor,[68]
1980, she received the Martin Luther King Jr.
Award.[69]
1983, she was inducted into Michigan Womens Hall
of Fame for her achievements in civil rights.[70]
1995, she received the Academy of Achievements

Golden Plate Award in Williamsburg, Virginia.
1996, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of
Freedom, the highest honor given by the U.S. executive branch.
1998, she was the rst to receive the International
Freedom Conductor Award given by the National
Underground Railroad Freedom Center.
1999,
she received the Congressional Gold Medal,
the highest award given by the U.S. legislative
2.12. ROSA PARKS
233
she receives the rst Governors Medal of
Honor for Extraordinary Courage.[75]
She was awarded two dozen honorary doctorates from universities worldwide
She is made an honorary member of the Alpha
Kappa Alpha sorority.
the Rosa Parks Library and Museum on the
campus of Troy University in Montgomery
was dedicated to her.
2002,
scholar Mole Kete Asante listed Parks on his
list of 100 Greatest African Americans.[76]
A portion of the Interstate 10 freeway in Los
Angeles is named in her honor.
2003, Bus No. 2857 on which Parks was riding is
restored and placed on display in The Henry Ford[77]
2004, In the Los Angeles County MetroRail system, the Imperial Highway/Wilmington station,
where the Blue Line connects with the Green Line,
has been ocially named the Rosa Parks Station.[78][79]
2005,
On October 30, 2005 President George W.
Bush issued a proclamation ordering that all
ags on U.S. public areas both within the country and abroad be own at half-sta on the day
of Parks funeral.
Metro Transit in King County, Washington
placed posters and stickers dedicating the rst
forward-facing seat of all its buses in Parks
memory shortly after her death,[80][81]
the American Public Transportation Association declared December 1, 2005, the 50th anniversary of her arrest, to be a National Transit Tribute to Rosa Parks Day.[82]
Statue of Rosa Parks in Statuary Hall in the United States Capitol,

Washington, D.C.
On that anniversary, President George W.

Bush signed Pub.L. 109116, directing that a
statue of Parks be placed in the United States
Capitols National Statuary Hall. In signing the
resolution directing the Joint Commission on
the Library to do so, the President stated:
branch, the medal bears the legend Mother of

the Modern Day Civil Rights Movement
she receives the WindsorDetroit International
Freedom Festival Freedom Award.
Time magazine named Parks one of the 20
most inuential and iconic gures of the 20th
century.[32]
By placing her statue in the heart

of the nations Capitol, we commemorate her work for a more perfect
union, and we commit ourselves to
continue to struggle for justice for
every American.[83]
President Bill Clinton honored her in his State

of the Union address, saying, Shes sitting
down with the rst lady tonight, and she may
get up or not as she chooses.[73]
2000,
her home state awarded her the Alabama
Academy of Honor,[74]
Portion of Interstate 96 in Detroit was

renamed by the state legislature as the
Rosa Parks Memorial Highway in December
2005.[84]
234
2006,
At Super Bowl XL, played at Detroits Ford
Field, long-time Detroit residents Coretta
Scott King and Parks were remembered and
honored by a moment of silence. The Super
Bowl was dedicated to their memory.[85]
Parks nieces and nephews and Martin Luther
King III joined the coin toss ceremonies,
standing alongside former University of
Michigan star Tom Brady who ipped the
coin.
On February 14, Nassau County, New York
Executive, Thomas Suozzi announced that the
Hempstead Transit Center would be renamed
the Rosa Parks Hempstead Transit Center in
her honor.
2007, Nashville, Tennessee, renamed MetroCenter
Boulevard (8th Avenue North) (US 41A and SR 12)
in September 2007 as Rosa L. Parks Boulevard.[86]
2009, On July 14, 2009, the Rosa Parks Transit Center opened in Detroit at the corner of Michigan and
Cass Avenues.[87]
2010, In Grand Rapids, Michigan, a plaza in the
heart of the city is named Rosa Parks Circle.
at a celebration held on her 100th Birthday at

the Davis Theater for the Performing Arts in
Montgomery, Alabama. This was the 100th
Birthday Wishes Project managed by the Rosa
Parks Museum at Troy University and the
Mobile Studio and was also a declared event
by the Senate.[90]
During both events the USPS unveiled a
postage stamp in her honor.[91]
On February 27, Parks became the rst
African American woman to have her likeness
depicted in National Statuary Hall. The monument, created by sculptor Eugene Daub, is a
part of the Capitol Art Collection among nine
other females featured in the National Statuary
Hall Collection.[92]
2014, the asteroid (284996) Rosaparks was named
after Rosa Parks.[93]
2015, the papers of Rosa Parks were cataloged
into the Library of Congress, after years of a legal
battle.[94]
2.12.7 See also

Viola Desmond
2012, President Barack Obama visited the famous

Rosa Parks bus at the Henry Ford Museum after an
event in Dearborn, Michigan, April 18, 2012.
2012, A street in West Valley City, Utah's second

largest city, leading to the Utah Cultural Celebration
Center is renamed Rosa Parks Drive.[88]
Elizabeth Jennings Graham
2013,
Cleveland Court Apartments 620638
John Mitchell, Jr.

Racism in the United States
Timeline of the African-American Civil Rights

On February 1, President Barack Obama proMovement
claimed February 4, 2013, as the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of Rosa Parks. He
Rosa Parks Act
called upon all Americans to observe this day
with appropriate service, community, and education programs to honor Rosa Parkss endur- 2.12.8 References
ing legacy.[89]
On February 4, to celebrate Rosa Parks 100th
birthday, the Henry Ford Museum declared
the day a National Day of Courage with
12 hours of virtual and on-site activities featuring nationally recognized speakers, musical and dramatic interpretative performances,
a panel presentation of Rosas Story and a reading of the tale Quiet Strength. The actual bus
on which Rosa Parks sat was made available
for the public to board and sit in the seat that
Rosa Parks refused to give up.[90]
On February 4, 2,000 birthday wishes gathered from people throughout the United States
were transformed into 200 graphics messages
[1] Pub.L. 10626, accessed 13 November 2011. The quoted

passages can be seen by clicking through to the text or
PDF.
[2] Rustin, Bayard (July 1942). Non-Violence vs. Jim

Crow. Fellowship. reprinted in Carson, Clayborne;
Garrow, David J.; Kovach, Bill (2003). Reporting Civil
Rights: American journalism, 19411963. Library of
America. pp. 1518. Retrieved September 13, 2011.
[3] Gonzlez, Juan; Goodman, Amy (March 29, 2013).
The Other Rosa Parks: Now 73, Claudette Colvin Was
First to Refuse Giving Up Seat on Montgomery Bus.
Democracy Now!http://www.democracynow.org/2013/3/
29/the_other_rosa_parks_now_73 |transcripturl= missing title (help). Pacica Radio. 25 minutes in. NPR.
Retrieved April 18, 2013.
2.12. ROSA PARKS
[4] Taylor Branch (1988). PARTING THE WATERS:

America in the King Years. Simon & Schuster. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
[5] Douglas Brinkley, Rosa Parks, Chapter 1, excerpted from
the book published by Lipper/Viking (2000), ISBN 0670-89160-6. Chapter excerpted on the site of the New
York Times. Retrieved July 1, 2008.
[6] James Webb, Why You Need to Know the Scots-Irish
at the Wayback Machine (archived July 4, 2009), Parade,
October 3, 2004. Retrieved July 1, 2008.
[7] Shipp, E. R. (2005-10-25). Rosa Parks, 92, Founding Symbol of Civil Rights Movement, Dies. New York
Times. p. 2. Retrieved January 1, 2010.
235
[20] Parks Recalls Bus Boycott, Excerpts from an interview

with Lynn Neary, National Public Radio, 1992, linked at
Civil Rights Icon Rosa Parks Dies, NPR, October 25,
[21] Civil rights icon Rosa Parks dies at 92, CNN, October
25, 2005. Retrieved July 4, 2008.
[22] Audio interview of Parks linked from Civil Rights Icon
Rosa Parks Dies, National Public Radio, October 25,
[23] Williams, Juan (2002). Eyes on the Prize: Americas Civil
Rights Years, 1954-1965. Penguin Books. p. 66. ISBN
0-14-009653-1.
[8] Shra, Anne (2005). Rosa Parks: Tired of Giving In. Enslow. pp. 2327. ISBN 978-0-7660-2463-2.
[24] Marsh, Charles (2006). The Beloved Community: How

Faith Shapes Social Justice from the Civil Rights to Today.
Basic Books. p. 21. ISBN 0-465-04416-6.
[9] The Story Behind the Bus. Rosa Parks Bus. The Henry
Ford. Retrieved July 1, 2008.
[25] Parks, Rosa; James Haskins (1992). Rosa Parks: My

Story. Dial Books. p. 116. ISBN 0-8037-0673-1.
[10] Congressional Record Volume 141, Number 176

(Wednesday, November 8, 1995) citing Walt Harrington,
A Person Who Wanted To Be Free, The Washington
Post Magazine , 8 October 1995
[26] Rosa Parks Interview (video and text of interview),

Academy of Achievement, 2 June 1995, accessed 13
November 2011.
[11] Gore, D.F.; Theoharis, J.; Woodard, K. (2009). Want to

Start a Revolution?: Radical Women in the Black Freedom
Struggle. NYU Press. ISBN 9780814732304. Retrieved
August 1, 2015.
[12] Feeney, Mark (October 25, 2005). Rosa Parks, civil
rights icon, dead at 92. Boston Globe. Retrieved July
31, 2009.
[13] Olson, L. (2001). Freedoms Daughters: The Unsung
Heroines of the Civil Rights Movement from 1830 to 1970.
Scribner. p. 97. ISBN 9780684850122. Retrieved August 1, 2015.
[14] McGuire, Danielle (December 1, 2012). Opinion: Its
time to free Rosa Parks from the bus. CNN. Retrieved
December 22, 2012.
[15] How 'Communism' Brought Racial Equality To The
South.
[27] Wright, Roberta Hughes (1991). The Birth of the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Charro Press. p. 27. ISBN 09629468-0-X.
[28] Hawken, Paul (2007). Blessed Unrest: How the Largest
Movement in the World Came Into Being, and Why No One
Saw it Coming. Viking. p. 79. ISBN 0-670-03852-0.
[29] Burns, Stewart (1997). Daybreak of Freedom: The Montgomery Bus Boycott. UNC Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-80784661-9.
[30] Parks, Rosa (1992). Parks Recalls Bus Boycott, Excerpts
from an interview with Lynn Neary, section Main Reason For Keeping Her Seat (adobe ash). radio interview
with Lynn Neary. National Public Radio. Archived from
the original on December 1, 2014. Retrieved December
1, 2014. linked at Civil Rights Icon Rosa Parks Dies.
NPR. October 25, 2005. Archived from the original on
November 2, 2005. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[16] Justice Department to Investigate 1955 Emmett Till

Murder, United States Department of Justice, May 2004,
accessed May 27, 2007. R. Alexander Acosta, Assistant Attorney General for the Civil Rights Division, states,
This brutal murder and grotesque miscarriage of justice
outraged a nation and helped galvanize support for the
modern American civil rights movement.
[31] Parks, Rosa (1992). Parks Recalls Bus Boycott, Excerpts

from an interview with Lynn Neary, section On the possibility of Arrest (adobe ash). radio interview with
Lynn Neary. National Public Radio. Archived from the
original on December 1, 2014. Retrieved December 1,
2014.linked at Civil Rights Icon Rosa Parks Dies. NPR.
October 25, 2005. Archived from the original on November 2, 2005. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[17] David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito, Black Maverick:

T. R. M. Howards Fight for Civil Rights and Economic
Power (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), pp.
138-39.
[32] Rita Dove, Heroes and Icons: Rosa Parks: Her simple
act of protest galvanized Americas civil rights revolution,
Time, June 14, 1999. Retrieved July 4, 2008.
[18] Woo, Elaine (2005-10-25). She Set Wheels of Justice in

Motion. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved July 22, 2011.
[19] Williams, Donnie; Wayne Greenhaw (2005). The Thunder of Angels: The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the People
who Broke the Back of Jim Crow. Chicago Review Press.
p. 48. ISBN 1-55652-590-7.
[33] https://books.google.com/books?id=gwVbfvfYEZkC&
pg=PA408&lpg=PA408&dq=rosa+parks+%22You've+
said+enough%22&source=bl&ots=rOsSH_BAPw&sig=
boOoZWgenR2iHSw50Ots6duyqcc&hl=en&sa=X&ei=
aK2kUojKF6_gsATI5IH4Aw&ved=0CFMQ6AEwBQ#
v=onepage&q=rosa%20parks%20%22You've%
20said%20enough%22&f=false
236
[34] Washington, James M. (1991). A Testament of Hope: The

Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr.
HarperCollins. p. 432. ISBN 0-06-064691-8.
[35] Shipp, E. R. (October 25, 2005). Rosa Parks, 92, Founding Symbol of Civil Rights Movement, Dies. New York
Times. p. 1. Retrieved July 4, 2008.
[36] Parks, Rosa; James Haskins (1992). Rosa Parks: My
Story. Dial Books. p. 125. ISBN 0-8037-0673-1.
[52] Associated Press, Assailant Recognized Rosa Parks,

Detroit Free Press, 3 September 1994. Story accessible
online as printed in the Reading Eagle, 2 September 1994;
accessed online 13 November 2011.
[53] Man Gets Prison Term For Attack on Rosa Parks, San
Francisco Chronicle, August 8, 1995.
[54] Happy Birthday, Rosa Parks! by Ilena Rosenthal,
Womens eNews, February 4, 2003 (retrieved on February
2, 2009).
[37] The Freedom Rides of 1961 (PDF). NC Civic Education Consortium. University of North Carolina. Retrieved
February 5, 2013.
[55] The Name Game, Snopes.com, last updated 3 December

2007. Accessed 13 November 2001.
[38] Browder v. Gayle, 352 U.S. 903 (1956)". King Institute

Encyclopedia. stanford.edu. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
[56] Associated Press, Landlord won't ask Rosa Parks to pay

rent, MSNBC, 6 December 2004. Accessed 13 November 2011.

[57] Wulf, Steve (2015-03-23). Supersisters: Original Roster. Espn.go.com. Retrieved June 4, 2015.

[58] Wallinger, Hanna (2006). Transitions: Race, Culture, and

the Dynamics of Change. LIT Verlag Berlin-HamburgMnster. p. 126. ISBN 3-8258-9531-9.
[41] Jeanne Theoharis, 'The northern promised land that

wasnt': Rosa Parks and the Black Freedom Struggle in
Detroit OAH Magazine of History, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp.
2327
[59] Jet, Vol. 107, No. 18, May 2, 2005
[42] Parks remembered for her courage, humility. CNN.

2005-10-30. Retrieved July 1, 2008.
[61] Rosa Parks boycotts NAACP awards ceremony.

Recordnet.com. Associated Press. March 9, 2003. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
[43] 10 Things You Didn't Know About Rosa Parks | Jeanne

Theoharis. hungtonpost.com. March 2, 2013. Retrieved August 1, 2015.
[44] From Alabama to Detroit: Rosa Parks Rebellious Life
The Clarion, Professional Sta Congres of CUNY
[45] Jeanne Theoharis " 'I Don't Believe in Gradualism': Rosa
Parks and the Black Power Movement in Detroit Paper presented at the annual meeting of the 96th Annual
Convention of the Association for the Study of AfricanAmerican Life and History, Richmond, VA,
[46] Cassandra Spratling,"Stamp ceremony kicks o day in
Parks honor USA Today, February 3, 2013
[47] A Life History of Being Rebellious: The Radicalism of
Rosa Parks by Jeanne Theoharis, in Want to Start a Revolution? Radical Women in the Black Freedom Struggle,
edited by Dayo F. Gore, et. al. (New York University
Press, 2009) p. 131-132
[48] Laura Taylor, Is This Justice?" Cornell Daily Sun,
FEBRUARY 20, 200
[49] Amnesty International Report c.1995
[50] Editorial: Rosa Parks legacy: non-violent power,
Madison Daily Leader, 1 October 2005. Accessed 13
November 2011.
[51] The Rosa L. Parks Scholarship Foundation, main page,
accessed 13 November 2011. (Not a citation for Parkss
role as a founder, just for the foundation itself.)
[60] Associated Press, "'Barbershop' actor to host Image

Awards, Los Angeles Times, 25 January 2003. Accessed
13 November 2011.
[62] Those Who Have Lain in State. Architect of the Capitol.

2009-12-01. Retrieved December 1, 2009.
[63] Memorial or Funeral Services in the Capitol Rotunda, senate.gov (United States Senate); content cited to Architect
of the Capitol. Accessed 23 November 2011.
[64] Wilgoren, Debbi and Theola S. Labbe (1 November
2005). An Overowing Tribute to an Icon. The Washington Post. Retrieved December 10, 2012.
[65] Santiago Esparza, Parks to remain private in death
Detroit News, November 3, 2005. Archived June 14, 2006
at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 5, 2008.
[66] Rosa L. Parks Collection. Papers, 1955-1976 (PDF).
Walter P. Reuther Library. p. 1. Retrieved November
22, 2011.
[67] Springarn Medal Winners: 1915 to Today, NAACP, no
date but list goes through 2010. Accessed 13 November
2011.
[68] NAACP Honors Congressman Conyers With 92nd Spingarn Medal, NAACP press release, April 3, 2007. Retrieved July 9, 2008.
[69] Black History Month. gale.cengage.com. Retrieved
February 5, 2013.
[70] ":
Michigan
Womens
Hall
of
Fame.
Hall.michiganwomen.org.
Retrieved August 13,
2012.
2.12. ROSA PARKS
237
[71] Ruth Ashby, Rosa Parks: Freedom Rider, Sterling Publishing ISBN 978-1-4027-4865-3
[89] Presidential Proclamation -- 100th Anniversary of the

Birth of Rosa Parks. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
[72] PArt of 1-475 named for Parks. Tuscaloosa News.

5/9/1990. Retrieved June 20, 2012. Check date values
in: |date= (help)
[90] OBSERVING THE 100TH BIRTHDAY OF ROSA

PARKS. Congressional Record 112th Congress (2011
2012). Library of Congress. December 19, 2012. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
[73] 1999 State of the Union Address. The Washington Post.

January 28, 2000. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
[74] Alabama Puts Rosa Parks In Its Academy Of Honor.
Chicago Tribune. Retrieved December 17, 2011.
[75] Rosa Parks Museum Dedicated During Civil Rights
Movement Anniversary Gala in Montgomery. Jet: 8.
December 18, 2000. Retrieved December 17, 2011.
[91] Rosa Parks stamp unveiled for late civil rights icons
100th birthday. CBS News. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
[92] Rosa Parks: First Statue of African-American Female
to Grace Capitol. ABC News. Retrieved February 27,
2013.
[93] Minor Planet Center.
[76] Asante, Mole Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York.
Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8.
[94] Cornish, Audie (7 February 2015). After years in Lockdown, Rosa Parks Papers Head To Library of Congress.
NPR. Retrieved February 9, 2015.
[77] Parks Bus Restored. Parks Bus Restored. Retrieved

June 20, 2012.
[78] MAX station renamed to honor Rosa Parks. TriMet.

Feb 4, 2009. Retrieved November 27, 2009.
[79] TriMet MAX station name honors Rosa Parks. Portland
Tribune. Feb 3, 2009. Retrieved February 10, 2009.
[80] Rosa Parks Honored on Metro Bus Fleet", King County
Metro Online. Retrieved July 5, 2008. Archived August
14, 2009 at the Wayback Machine
[81] Local Digest item Buses are memorial to Rosa Parks,
Seattle Times, 1 November 2005. Accessed 13 November
2011.
[82] National Transit Tribute to Rosa Parks Day. American
Public Transportation Association. 20070927220506.
Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2011. Check date values in: |date=
(help)
[83] President Signs H.R. 4145 to Place Statue of Rosa Parks
in U.S. Capitol. 2005-12-01. Retrieved December 4,
2005.
[84] Michigan Legislature (2001). Michigan Memorial Highway Act (Excerpt) Act 142 of 2001, 250.1098 Rosa Parks
Memorial Highway. State of Michigan. Retrieved August 18, 2006.
[85] Rosa Parks. birdsofwinter.com. Retrieved February 5,
2013.
[86] Tennessee Career Center at Metro Center. Department
of Labor and Workforce Development. Retrieved December 17, 2011.
[87] Bill Shea (9 July 2009). Detroits Rosa Parks Transit
Center opens Tuesday. Crains Business Detroit. Retrieved April 18, 2010.
[88] Cimaron Neugebauer (November 15, 2012). West Valley City renames street after Rosa Parks. The Salt Lake
Tribune.
Editorial. 1974. Two decades later. New York

Times (May 17): 38. (Within a year of Brown,
Rosa Parks, a tired seamstress in Montgomery, Alabama, was, like Homer Plessy sixty years earlier,
arrested for her refusal to move to the back of the
bus.)
Barnes, Catherine A. Journey from Jim Crow: The
Desegregation of Southern Transit, Columbia University Press, 1983.
Rosa Parks with James Haskins, Rosa Parks: My
Story New York: Scholastic Inc., 1992. ISBN 0590-46538-4
Brinkley, Douglas. Rosa Parks: A Life, Penguin
Books, October 25, 2005. ISBN 0-14-303600-9

Rosa Parks Library and Museum at Troy University
The Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development
Parks article in the Encyclopedia of Alabama
Rosa Parks bus on display at the Henry Ford Museum
Multimedia and interviews
Appearances on C-SPAN
Civil Rights Icon Rosa Parks Dies - National Public
Radio
Civil Rights Pioneer Rosa Parks 19132005 Democracy Now! democracynow.org
238
On Rosa Parks 100th Birthday, Recalling Her Re- age 20, he went to prison for larceny and breaking and
bellious Life Before and After the Montgomery Bus - entering. While in prison, Malcolm X became a memDemocracy Now! democracynow.org (2013-2-4)
ber of the Nation of Islam, and after his parole in 1952,
quickly rose to become one of the organizations most in Rosa Parks:the woman who changed a nation Parks uential leaders. He served as the public face of the coninterviewed by Kira Albin
troversial group for a dozen years. In his autobiography,
Malcolm X wrote proudly of some of the Nations social
Biography and 1995 interview at achievement.org
achievements made while he was a member, particularly
The Departure Of Rosa Parks (Trumpet & Sym- its free drug rehabilitation program. In keeping with the
phony Orchestra) by American composer David J. Nations teachings, he promoted black supremacy, advoSosnowski
cated the separation of black and white Americans, and
rejected the civil rights movement for their emphasis on
Jeanne Theoharis lecture on Parks at Black Women integration.
and the Radical Tradition
By March 1964, Malcolm X had grown disillusioned with
the Nation of Islam and its leader Elijah Muhammad. ExOthers
pressing many regrets about his time with them, which
he had come to regard as largely wasted, he embraced
A Guide to Materials for Parks from the Library of Sunni Islam. After a period of travel in Africa and the
Congress
Middle East, which included completing the Hajj, he
Complete audio/video and newspaper archive of the repudiated the Nation of Islam, disavowed racism and
founded Muslim Mosque, Inc. and the Organization of
Montgomery Bus Boycott
Afro-American Unity. He continued to emphasize Pan An essay on the life of Parks
Africanism, black self-determination, and black selfdefense.
Biography on womens history website
In February 1965 he was assassinated by three Nation
Rosa Parks: cadre of working-class movement that of Islam members. The Autobiography of Malcolm X,
ended Jim Crow
published shortly after his death, is considered one of the
most inuential nonction books of the 20th century.
print media reaction to Parks death in the Newseum
archive of front page images from 2005-10-25.
Rosa Parks at the Internet Movie Database
2.12.11
2.13.1 Early years
Related information
2.13 Malcolm X
This article is about the person. For other uses, see
Malcolm X (disambiguation).
Malik Shabazz redirects here. For other people of that
name, see Malik Shabazz (disambiguation).
Malcolm X (/mlkm ks/; May 19, 1925 February
21, 1965), born Malcolm Little and also known as elHajj Malik el-Shabazz[upper-alpha 1] (Arabic:
), was an American Muslim minister and a human
rights activist. To his admirers he was a courageous advocate for the rights of blacks, a man who indicted white
America in the harshest terms for its crimes against black
Americans; detractors accused him of preaching racism
and violence. He has been called one of the greatest and
most inuential African Americans in history.
Malcolm X was eectively orphaned early in life. His
father was killed when he was six and his mother was
placed in a mental hospital when he was thirteen, after
which he lived in a series of foster homes. In 1946, at
1930 United States Census return listing Earl Little family (lines
59.)
Malcolm Little was born May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, the fourth of seven children of Grenada-born
Louise Helen Little (ne Norton) from Grenada and Earl
Little, an American from Georgia.[1] Earl was an outspoken Baptist lay speaker, admirer of Pan-African activist Marcus Garvey, and local leader of the Universal
Negro Improvement Association (UNIA); he inculcated
self-reliance and black pride in his children.[2][3] Malcolm
X later said that white violence killed three of his fathers
2.13. MALCOLM X
239
brothers.[4]
repairs,[27] and in February began serving an eight-to-ten

State Prison for larceny and
Because of Ku Klux Klan threatsEarls UNIA activi- year sentence at Charlestown
[28]
breaking
and
entering.
[5]
ties were spreading trouble the family relocated in
1926 to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and shortly thereafter to
Lansing, Michigan.[6] There the family was frequently 2.13.2 Nation of Islam period
harassed by the Black Legion, a white racist group that
was also opposed to immigrants. When the family home Further information: Nation of Islam
burned in 1929, Earl accused the Black Legion.[7]
When Little was six, his father died in what was ocially
ruled a streetcar accident, though his mother Louise believed Earl had been murdered by the Black Legion. Rumors that white racists were responsible for his fathers
death were widely circulated, and were very disturbing to
Malcolm X as a child. As an adult, he expressed conicting beliefs on the question.[8] After a dispute with
creditors, Louise received a life insurance benet (nominally $1,000about $16,000 in 2014 dollars[upper-alpha 2] )
in payments of $18 per month;[9] the issuer of another,
larger policy refused to pay, claiming her husband Earl
had committed suicide.[10] To make ends meet Louise
rented out part of her garden, and her sons hunted
game.[11]
In 1937 a man Louise had been datingmarriage had
seemed a possibilityvanished from her life when she
became pregnant with his child.[12] In late 1938 she had
a nervous breakdown and was committed to Kalamazoo
State Hospital. The children were separated and sent to
foster homes. Malcolm and his siblings secured her release 24 years later.[13][14]
Prison
When Little was in prison, he met fellow convict John
Bembry,[29] a self-educated man he would later describe
as the rst man I had ever seen command total respect
... with words.[30] Under Bembrys inuence, Little developed a voracious appetite for reading.[31]
At this time, several of his siblings wrote to him about
the Nation of Islam, a relatively new religious movement
preaching black self-reliance and, ultimately, the return
of the African diaspora to Africa, where they would be
free from white American and European domination.[32]
He showed scant interest at rst, but after his brother
Reginald wrote in, Malcolm, don't eat any more pork
and don't smoke any more cigarettes. I'll show you how to
get out of prison,[33] he quit smoking and began to refuse
pork.[34] After a visit in which Reginald described the
groups teachings, including the belief that white people
are devils, Little concluded that every relationship he'd
had with whites had been tainted by dishonesty, injustice,
greed, and hatred.[35] Little, whose hostility to religion
had earned him the prison nickname Satan,[36] became
receptive to the message of the Nation of Islam.[37]
Malcolm Little excelled in junior high school but dropped

out after a white teacher told him that practicing law,
his aspiration at the time, was no realistic goal for a
nigger.[15] Later Malcolm X recalled feeling that the
In late 1948, Little wrote to Elijah Muhammad, the
white world oered no place for a career-oriented black
leader of the Nation of Islam. Muhammad advised him
man, regardless of talent.[15]
to renounce his past, humbly bow in prayer to Allah,
From age 14 to 21, Little held a variety of jobs and promise never to engage in destructive behavior
while living with his half-sister Ella Little-Collins in again.[38] Though Little later recalled the inner struggle
Roxbury, a largely African-American neighborhood of he had before bending his knees to pray,[39] he soon besouth Boston.[16][17]
came a member of the Nation of Islam.[38] Between
After a short time in Flint, Michigan, he moved to New Mr. Muhammads teachings, my correspondence, my
York Citys Harlem neighborhood in 1943, where he visitorsusually Ella and Reginaldand my reading of
engaged in drug dealing, gambling, racketeering, rob- books, he later wrote, months passed without my even
bery, and pimping;[18] according to recent biographies, thinking about being imprisoned. In fact, up[40]to then,
From
he also occasionally had sex with other men, usually for I had never been so truly free in my life.
that
time,
he
maintained
a
regular
correspondence
with
[19][20]
He was called Detroit Red because of
money.
[41]
Muhammad.
the reddish hair he inherited from his Scots maternal
grandfather.[21][22]
Little was declared mentally disqualied for military service after he told draft board ocials he wanted to be
sent down south to organize them nigger soldiers ... steal
us some guns, and kill us [some] crackers".[23][24][25]
In late 1945, Little returned to Boston, where he and
four accomplices committed a series of burglaries targeting wealthy white families.[26] In 1946, he was arrested
while picking up a stolen watch he had left at a shop for
In 1950, the FBI opened a le on Little after he wrote

a letter from prison to President Truman expressing opposition to the Korean War and declaring himself a
Communist.[42] That year, Little also began signing his
name Malcolm X.[43] He explained in his autobiography that the Muslims X symbolized the true African
family name that he could never know. For me, my
'X' replaced the white slavemaster name of 'Little' which
some blue-eyed devil named Little had imposed upon my
paternal forebears.[44]
240
Early ministry
After his parole in August 1952,[45] Malcolm X visited
Elijah Muhammad in Chicago.[46] In June 1953 he was
named assistant minister of the Nations Temple Number
One in Detroit.[47][upper-alpha 3] Later that year he established Bostons Temple Number 11;[49] in March 1954,
he expanded Temple Number 12 in Philadelphia;[50]
and two months later he was selected to lead Temple
Number 7 in Harlem,[51] where he rapidly expanded its
membership.[52]

tion of Islam memberssaw the ocers beating an
African-American man with nightsticks.[66] When they
attempted to intervene, shouting, You're not in Alabama...this is New York!"[67] one of the ocers turned
on Hinton, beating him so severely that he suered brain
contusions and subdural hemorrhaging. All four AfricanAmerican men were arrested.[66]
Alerted by a witness, Malcolm X and a small group of

Muslims went to the police station and demanded to see
Hinton.[66] Police initially denied that any Muslims were
being held, but when the crowd grew to about ve hunIn 1953, the FBI began surveillance of him, turning its dred, they allowed Malcolm X to speak with Hinton.[68]
attention from Malcolm Xs possible communist associa- Afterward Malcolm X insisted on arranging for an ambulance to take Hinton to Harlem Hospital.[69]
tions to his rapid ascent in the Nation of Islam.[53]
During 1955, Malcolm X continued his successful recruitment of members on behalf of the Nation of Islam.
He established temples in Springeld, Massachusetts
(Number 13); Hartford, Connecticut (Number 14); and
Atlanta, Georgia (Number 15). Hundreds of African
Americans were joining the Nation of Islam every
month.[54]
Beside his skill as a speaker, Malcolm X had an impressive physical presence. He stood 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m)
tall and weighed about 180 pounds (82 kg).[55] One writer
described him as powerfully built,[56] and another as
mesmerizingly handsome ... and always spotlessly wellgroomed.[55]
Marriage and family
Hintons injuries were treated and by the time he was

returned to the police station, some four thousand people had gathered outside.[68] Inside the station, Malcolm
X and an attorney were making bail arrangements for
two of the Muslims. Hinton was not bailed, and police said he could not go back to the hospital until his
arraignment the following day.[69] Considering the situation to be at an impasse, Malcolm X stepped outside the
station house and gave a hand signal to the crowd. Nation
members silently left, after which the rest of the crowd
also dispersed.[69] One police ocer told the New York
Amsterdam News: No one man should have that much
power.[69][70] Within a month the New York City Police
Department arranged to keep Malcolm X under surveillance; it also made inquiries with authorities in other cities
in which he had lived, and prisons in which he had served
time.[71] A grand jury declined to indict the ocers who
beat Hinton. In October, Malcolm X sent an angry telegram to the police commissioner. Soon the Police Department assigned undercover ocers to inltrate the Nation of Islam.[72]
In 1955, Betty Sanders met Malcolm X after one of his

lectures, then again at a dinner party; soon she was regularly attending his lectures. In 1956 she joined the Nation
of Islam, changing her name to Betty X.[57] One-on-one
dates were contrary to the Nations teachings, so the couple courted at social events with dozens or hundreds of
others, and Malcolm X made a point of inviting her on Increasing prominence
the frequent group visits he led to New York Citys muBy the late 1950s, Malcolm X was using a new name,
seums and libraries.[58]
Malcolm Shabazz or Malik el-Shabazz, although he was
Malcolm X proposed during a telephone call from Detroit
still widely referred to as Malcolm X.[73] His comments
[59][60]
in January 1958, and they married two days later.
on issues and events were being widely reported in print,
They had six daughters: Attallah (b. 1958, named after
on radio, and on television,[74] and he was featured in a
[61][upper-alpha 4]
Attila the Hun);
Qubilah (b. 1960, named
1959 New York City television broadcast about the Naafter Kublai Khan);[62] Ilyasah (b. 1962, named after
tion of Islam, The Hate That Hate Produced.[74]
[63]
Elijah Muhammad);
Gamilah Lumumba (b. 1964,
named after Patrice Lumumba);[64] and twins Malikah In September 1960, at the United Nations General Asand Malaak (b. 1965 after their fathers death, and named sembly in New York City, Malcolm X was invited to
the ocial functions of several African nations. He met
in his honor).[65]
Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Ahmed Skou Tour of
Guinea, and Kenneth Kaunda of the Zambian African
Johnson Hinton incident
National Congress.[75] Fidel Castro also attended the Assembly, and Malcolm X met publicly with him as part of a
The American public rst became aware of Malcolm X in welcoming committee of Harlem community leaders.[76]
1957, after Johnson Hinton, a Nation of Islam member, Castro was suciently impressed with Malcolm X to sugwas beaten by two New York City police ocers.[66][67] gest a private meeting, and after two hours of talking,
On April 26, Hinton and two other passersbyalso Na- Castro invited Malcolm X to visit Cuba.[77]
2.13. MALCOLM X
241
Advocacy and teachings while with Nation
1950s and early 1960s (from 500 to 25,000 by one

estimate;[upper-alpha 6] from 1,200 to 50,000 or 75,000 by
From his adoption of the Nation of Islam in 1952 until he another).[97][upper-alpha 7]
broke with it in 1964, Malcolm X promoted the Nations
teachings. These included the beliefs:
that black people are the original people of the
world[78]
that white people are devils[79]
that blacks are superior to whites, and
that the demise of the white race is imminent.[80]
Many whites and some blacks were alarmed by Malcolm
X and his statements during this period. He and the
Nation of Islam were described as hatemongers, black
supremacists, racists, violence-seekers, segregationists,
and a threat to improved race relations. He was accused
of being antisemitic.[81] One of the goals of the civil rights
movement was to end disfranchisement of African Americans, but the Nation of Islam forbade its members from
participating in voting and other aspects of the political
process.[82] Civil rights organizations denounced him and
the Nation as irresponsible extremists whose views did
not represent African Americans.[83][84][85]
Cassius Clay (in dark suit) watches Elijah Muhammad speak,

1964
He inspired the boxer Cassius Clay (later known as

Muhammad Ali) to join the Nation,[98] and they soon
formed a relationship which Clays cornerman Ferdie
Pacheco later described as like very close brothers.[99]
When Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam and converted
Malcolm X was equally critical of the civil rights to Sunni Islam, he tried to convince Clay to join him,
movement.[86] He labeled Martin Luther King Jr. a but Clay declined and refused to speak to him again.
chump and other civil rights leaders stooges of the When Ali left the group in 1975 and became a Sunni
white establishment.[87][upper-alpha 5] He called the 1963 Muslim,[100] he wrote, "[t]urning my back on Malcolm
March on Washington the farce on Washington,[88] and was one of the mistakes that I regret most in my life.[101]
said he did not know why so many black people were excited about a demonstration run by whites in front of a Malcolm X mentored and guided Louis X (later known
who eventually became the leader of
statue of a president who has been dead for a hundred as Louis Farrakhan),[102]
the
Nation
of
Islam.
Malcolm X also served as a men[89]
years and who didn't like us when he was alive.
tor and condant to Elijah Muhammads son, Wallace D.
While the civil rights movement fought against racial seg- Muhammad; the son told Malcolm X about his skepticism
regation, Malcolm X advocated the complete separation toward his fathers unorthodox approach to Islam.[103]
of African Americans from whites. He proposed that Wallace Muhammad was excommunicated from the NaAfrican Americans should return to Africa and that, in tion of Islam several times, although he was eventually
the interim, a separate country for black people in Amer- readmitted.[104]
ica should be created.[90][91] He rejected the civil rights
movements strategy of nonviolence, expressing the opinion that black people should defend and advance them- 2.13.3 Disillusionment and departure
selves "by any means necessary".[92] His speeches had
a powerful eect on his audiences, who were gener- During 1962 and 1963, events took place that caused
ally African Americans in northern and western cities. Malcolm X to reassess his relationship with the Nation
Many of themtired of being told to wait for freeof Islam, and particularly its leader, Elijah Muhammad.
dom, justice, equality and respect[93] felt that he articulated their complaints better than did the civil rights
NOI lack of response to LAPD violence
movement.[94][95]
Eect on Nation membership
Malcolm X is widely regarded as the second most inuential leader of the Nation of Islam after Elijah
Muhammad.[96] He was largely credited with the groups
dramatic increase in membership between the early
In late 1961, there were violent confrontations between

NOI members and police in South Central Los Angeles,
and numerous Muslims were arrested. They were acquitted, but tensions had been raised. Just after midnight on
April 27, 1962, LAPD ocers raided Mosque No 27,
randomly beating NOI members. Seven Muslims were
shot; one, Ronald Stokes, a Korean War veteran, was shot
242
fatally after surrendering to police. A number of Muslims
were indicted after the event, but no charges were made
against the police. To Malcolm X, the desecration and
violence demanded action, and he used what Farrakhan
called his gangsterlike past to rally the more hardened
of the New York members to go to Los Angeles for direct action against the police. He also spoke of the NOI
starting to work with civil rights organizations, local black
politicians, and religious groups. Elijah Muhammad did
not support him in any of these initiatives, claiming the
other organizations would turn to NOI in time, and saying "you don't go to war over a provocation. Malcolm
X was stunned and disappointed. Louis X saw this as an
important turning point in the deteriorating relationship
between Malcolm X and Muhammad.[105]
Sexual misbehavior by Elijah Muhammad

wrote his 1963 book about the Nation, When the Word Is
Given, he used a photograph of Malcolm X on the cover.
He also reproduced ve of his speeches, but featured only
one of Muhammadsall of which greatly upset Muhammad and made him envious.[110]
Departure from NOI
On March 8, 1964, Malcolm X publicly announced his
break from the Nation of Islam. He was still a Muslim,
he said, but felt that the Nation had gone as far as it can
because of its rigid teachings. He said he was planning to
organize a black nationalist organization to heighten the
political consciousness of African Americans. He also
expressed a desire to work with other civil rights leaders,
saying that Elijah Muhammad had prevented him from
doing so in the past.[111]
Rumors were circulating that Muhammad was conducting extramarital aairs with young Nation secretaries 2.13.4
which would constitute a serious violation of Nation
teachings. After rst discounting the rumors, Malcolm X
came to believe them after he spoke with Muhammads
son Wallace and with the women making the accusations.
Muhammad conrmed the rumors in 1963, attempting to
justify his behavior by referring to precedents set by Biblical prophets.[106]
Activity immediately after leaving

NOI
NOI response to his remarks on Kennedy assassination

On December 1, 1963, when asked for a comment about
the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, Malcolm X said that it was a case of "chickens coming home
to roost". He added that chickens coming home to
roost never did make me sad; they've always made me
glad.[107] The New York Times wrote, in further criticism of Mr. Kennedy, the Muslim leader cited the murders of Patrice Lumumba, Congo leader, of Medgar Evers, civil rights leader, and of the Negro girls bombed
earlier this year in a Birmingham church. These, he
said, were instances of other 'chickens coming home to
roost'.[107] The remarks prompted a widespread public
outcry. The Nation of Islam, which had sent a message
of condolence to the Kennedy family and ordered its ministers not to comment on the assassination, publicly censured their former shining star.[108] Malcolm X retained
his post and rank as minister, but was prohibited from
public speaking for 90 days.[109]
Media coverage of him, rather than Muhammad
Malcolm X had by now become a media favorite, and
some Nation members believed he was a threat to
Muhammads leadership. Publishers had shown interest
in Malcolm Xs autobiography, and when Louis Lomax
Malcolm Xs only meeting with Martin Luther King Jr., March

26, 1964
After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X founded

Muslim Mosque, Inc., a religious organization,[112][113]
and the Organization of Afro-American Unity, a secular
group that advocated Pan-Africanism.[114][115] On March
26, 1964 he met Martin Luther King Jr. for the rst and
only timeand only long enough for photographs to be
takenin Washington, D.C. as both men attended the
Senates debate on the Civil Rights bill.[upper-alpha 8][117] In
April, Malcolm X gave a speech titled "The Ballot or the
Bullet", in which he advised African Americans to exercise their right to vote wisely but cautioned that if the government continued to prevent African Americans from
2.13. MALCOLM X
243
attaining full equality, it might be necessary for them to 2.13.7

take up arms.[118][119]
Africa
2.13.5
Traveling abroad
Becoming a Sunni Muslim
Malcolm X had already visited the United Arab Republic,

arrangements
At this time, several Sunni Muslims encouraged Malcolm Sudan, Nigeria, and Ghana in 1959 to make [125]
After his
for
a
tour
of
Africa
by
Elijah
Muhammad.
X to learn about their faith. He soon converted to the
journey
to
Mecca
in
1964,
he
visited
Africa
a
second
Sunni faith.
time. He returned to the United States in late May[126]
and ew to Africa again in July.[127] During these visits he met ocials, gave interviews, and spoke on radio
2.13.6 Pilgrimage to Mecca
and television in Egypt, Ethiopia, Tanganyika, Nigeria,
Ghana, Guinea, Sudan, Senegal, Liberia, Algeria, and
Morocco.[128] In Cairo, he attended the second meeting
of the Organization of African Unity as a representative
of the Organization of Afro-American Unity.[129] By the
end of this third visit, he had met with essentially all
of Africas prominent leaders;[130] Kwame Nkrumah of
Ghana, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, and Ahmed Ben
Bella of Algeria had all invited Malcolm X to serve in
their governments.[130] After he spoke at the University
of Ibadan, the Nigerian Muslim Students Association bestowed on him the honorary Yoruba name Omowale (the
son who has come home).[131] He later called this his
most treasured honor.[132]
France and United Kingdom

On November 23, 1964, on his way home from Africa,
Malcolm X stopped in Paris, where he spoke at the Salle
de la Mutualit.[133][134] A week later, on November 30,
Malcolm X ew to the United Kingdom, and on December 3 took part in a debate at the Oxford Union Society. The motion was taken from a statement made earlier
that year by U.S. presidential candidate Barry Goldwater: Extremism in the Defense of Liberty is No Vice;
Malcolm X in 1964
Moderation in the Pursuit of Justice is No Virtue.[135]
In April 1964, with nancial help from his half-sister Ella Malcolm X argued for the armative, and interest in the
debate was so high that it was televised nationally by the
Little-Collins, Malcolm X ew to Jeddah, Saudi Arabia,
[136][137]
as the start of his Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca oblig- BBC.
atory for every Muslim who is able to do so. He was On February 5, 1965, Malcolm X ew to Britain
delayed in Jeddah when his U.S. citizenship and inabil- again,[138] and on February 8 he addressed the rst
ity to speak Arabic caused his status as a Muslim to be meeting of the Council of African Organizations in
questioned.[120][121] He had received Abdul Rahman Has- London.[139] The next day he tried to return to France,
san Azzam's book The Eternal Message of Muhammad but was refused entry.[140]
with his visa approval, and he contacted the author. Az- On February 12, he visited Smethwick, near
zams son arranged for his release and lent him his per- Birmingham, where the Conservative Party had
sonal hotel suite. The next morning Malcolm X learned won the parliamentary seat in the 1964 general election.
that Prince Faisal had designated him as a state guest.[122] The town had become a byword for racial division after
Several days later, after completing the Hajj rituals, Mal- Conservative supporters used the slogan, If you want a
colm X had an audience with the prince.[123]
nigger for your neighbour, vote Labour. In Smethwick
Malcolm X later said that seeing Muslims of all colors,
from blue-eyed blonds to black-skinned Africans, interacting as equals led him to see Islam as a means by which
racial problems could be overcome.[124]
he compared the treatment of colored residents with

the treatment of Jews under Hitler, saying: I would not
wait for the fascist element in Smethwick to erect gas
ovens.[141][142]
244
2.13.8
Return to United States
After returning to the U.S., Malcolm X addressed a wide

variety of audiences. He spoke regularly at meetings held
by Muslim Mosque, Inc., and the Organization of AfroAmerican Unity, and was one of the most sought-after
speakers on college campuses.[143] One of his top aides
later wrote that he welcomed every opportunity to speak
to college students.[144] He also addressed public meetings of the Socialist Workers Party, speaking at their Militant Labor Forum.[145] He was interviewed on the subjects of segregation and the Nation of Islam by Robert
Penn Warren for Warrens 1965 book Who Speaks for
the Negro?[146]
2.13.9
On June 8, FBI surveillance recorded a telephone call

in which Betty Shabazz was told that her husband was
as good as dead.[151] Four days later, an FBI informant
received a tip that Malcolm X is going to be bumped
o.[152] (That same month the Nation sued to reclaim
Malcolm Xs residence in East Elmhurst, Queens, New
York. His family was ordered to vacate[153] but on February 14, 1965the night before a hearing on postponing
the evictionthe house was destroyed by re.)[154]
On July 9 Muhammad aide John Ali (suspected of being an undercover FBI agent)[155] referred to Malcolm X
by saying, Anyone who opposes the Honorable Elijah
Muhammad puts their life in jeopardy.[156]
The September 1964 issue of Ebony dramatized Malcolm

Xs deance of these threats by publishing a photograph
Death threats and intimidation of him holding a rie while peering out a window.[25][157]
from Nation of Islam
In the December 4 issue of Muhammad Speaks, Louis
X wrote that such a man as Malcolm is worthy of
death.[158]
2.13.10 Assassination
The Audubon Ballroom stage after the murder. Circles on backdrop mark bullet holes.
On February 19, 1965, Malcolm X told interviewer

Gordon Parks that the Nation of Islam was actively trying
to kill him.
Malcolm X stands on guard, ready to protect his family, in this
iconic photo.
Throughout 1964, as his conict with the Nation of Islam

intensied, Malcolm X was repeatedly threatened.
In February a leader of Temple Number Seven ordered the bombing of Malcolm Xs car.[147] In March,
Muhammad told Boston minister Louis X (later known
as Louis Farrakhan) that hypocrites like Malcolm should
have their heads cut o";[148] the April 10 edition of
Muhammad Speaks featured a cartoon depicting Malcolm
Xs bouncing, severed head.[149][150]
On February 21, 1965, Malcolm X was preparing to address the Organization of Afro-American Unity in Manhattans Audubon Ballroom when someone in the 400person audience yelled, Nigger! Get your hand outta
my pocket!"[159][160][161] As Malcolm X and his bodyguards tried to quell the disturbance,[upper-alpha 9] a man
rushed forward and shot him once in the chest with a
sawed-o shotgun[162][163] and two other men charged
the stage ring semi-automatic handguns.[160] Malcolm
X was pronounced dead at 3:30 pm, shortly after arriving at Columbia Presbyterian Hospital.[161] The autopsy
identied 21 gunshot wounds to the chest, left shoulder,
arms and legs, including ten buckshot wounds from the
2.13. MALCOLM X
initial shotgun blast.[164]
One gunman, Nation of Islam member Talmadge Hayer
(also known as Thomas Hagan), was beaten by the
crowd before police arrived;[165][166] witnesses identied the others as Nation members Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Johnson.[167] All three were convicted of murder in March 1966 and sentenced to life
in prison.[168][169] At trial Hayer confessed, but refused
to identify the other assailants except to assert that they
were not Butler and Johnson.[170] In 1977 and 1978, he
signed adavits reasserting Butlers and Johnsons innocence, naming four other Nation members as participants
in the murder or its planning.[171][172] These adavits did
not result in the case being reopened.
Butler, today known as Muhammad Abdul Aziz, was
paroled in 1985 and became the head of the Nations
Harlem mosque in 1998; he maintains his innocence.[173]
In prison Johnson, who changed his name to Khalil Islam,
rejected the Nations teachings and converted to Sunni Islam. Released in 1987, he maintained his innocence until
his death in August 2009.[174][175] Hayer, today known as
Mujahid Halim,[176] was paroled in 2010.[177]
245
cause for which you struggle! And we will answer and say to them: Did you ever talk to
Brother Malcolm? Did you ever touch him, or
have him smile at you? Did you ever really listen to him? Did he ever do a mean thing? Was
he ever himself associated with violence or any
public disturbance? For if you did you would
know him. And if you knew him you would
know why we must honor him.[186]
Malcolm X was buried at Ferncli Cemetery in
Hartsdale, New York.[184] Friends took up the gravediggers shovels to complete the burial themselves.[187]
Actor and activist Ruby Dee and Juanita Poitier (wife of
Sidney Poitier) established the Committee of Concerned
Mothers to raise money toward a home for the family and
for the childrens educations.[188]
Reactions to assassination
Reactions to Malcolm Xs assassination were varied. In

a telegram to Betty Shabazz, Martin Luther King Jr. exA CNN Special Report, Witnessed: The Assassination pressed his sadness at the shocking and tragic assassinaof Malcolm X, was broadcast on February 17, 2015. It tion of your husband.[189] He said,
featured interviews with several people who worked with
him, including A. Peter Bailey and Earl Grant, as well as
While we did not always see eye to eye on
the daughter of Malcolm X, Ilyasah Shabazz.[178][179][180]
methods to solve the race problem, I always
had a deep aection for Malcolm and felt that
he had a great ability to put his nger on the
Funeral
existence and root of the problem. He was an
eloquent spokesman for his point of view and
The public viewing, February 2326 at Unity Funeral
no one can honestly doubt that Malcolm had a
Home in Harlem, was attended by some 14,000 to 30,000
great concern for the problems that we face as
[181]
mourners.
For the funeral on February 27, loudspeaka race.[189]
ers were set up for the overow crowd outside Harlems
thousand-seat Faith Temple of the Church of God in
Christ,[182][183] and a local television station carried the Elijah Muhammad told the annual Saviors Day convention on February 26, Malcolm X got just what
service live.[184]
he preached, but denied any involvement with the
Among the civil rights leaders attending were John Lewis,
murder.[190] We didn't want to kill Malcolm and didn't
Bayard Rustin, James Forman, James Farmer, Jesse
try to kill him, Muhammad said. We know such igGray, and Andrew Young.[182][185] Actor and activist
norant, foolish teachings would bring him to his own
Ossie Davis delivered the eulogy, describing Malcolm X
end.[191]
as our shining black prince":
Writer James Baldwin, who had been a friend of Malcolm Xs, was in London when he heard the news of the
There are those who will consider it their
assassination. He responded with indignation towards
duty, as friends of the Negro people, to tell
the reporters interviewing him, shouting, You did it!
us to revile him, to ee, even from the presIt is because of youthe men that created this white
ence of his memory, to save ourselves by writsupremacythat this man is dead. You are not guilty,
ing him out of the history of our turbulent
but you did it.... Your mills, your cities, your rape of a
times. Many will ask what Harlem nds to
continent started all this.[192]
honor in this stormy, controversial and bold
young captainand we will smile. Many will
say turn awayaway from this man, for he is
not a man but a demon, a monster, a subverter
and an enemy of the black manand we will
smile. They will say that he is of hatea fanatic, a racistwho can only bring evil to the
The New York Post wrote that even his sharpest critics
recognized his brillianceoften wild, unpredictable and
eccentric, but nevertheless possessing promise that must
now remain unrealized.[193] The New York Times wrote
that Malcolm X was an extraordinary and twisted man
who turn[ed] many true gifts to evil purpose and that his
246
life was strangely and pitifully wasted.[194] TIME Maga- agent.[155] Malcolm X had conded to a reporter that Ali
zine called him an unashamed demagogue whose creed exacerbated tensions between him and Elijah Muhamwas violence.[195]
mad, and that he considered Ali his archenemy within
[155]
Ali had a meeting
Outside of the U.S., and particularly in Africa, the press the Nation of Islam leadership.
with
Talmadge
Hayer,
one
of
the
men
convicted
of killing
[196]
was sympathetic.
The Daily Times of Nigeria wrote
[204]
Malcolm
X,
the
night
before
the
assassination.
that Malcolm X will have a place in the palace of
martyrs.[197] The Ghanaian Times likened him to John
Brown and Patrice Lumumba, and counted him among
a host of Africans and Americans who were martyred
in freedoms cause.[198] The Guangming Daily, published in Beijing, stated that Malcolm was murdered
because he fought for freedom and equal rights";[199] in
Cuba, El Mundo described the assassination as another
racist crime to eradicate by violence the struggle against
discrimination.[196]
Allegations of conspiracy
The Shabazz family are among those who have accused Louis Farrakhan of involvement in Malcolm Xs
assassination.[205][206][207][208][209] In a 1993 speech Farrakhan seemed to acknowledge the possibility that the
Nation of Islam was responsible:
Was Malcolm your traitor or ours? And
if we dealt with him like a nation deals with
a traitor, what the hell business is it of yours?
A nation has to be able to deal with traitors and
cutthroats and turncoats.[210][211]
In a 60 Minutes interview that aired during May 2000,
Farrakhan stated that some things he said may have led
to the assassination of Malcolm X. I may have been complicit in words that I spoke, he said. I acknowledge
that and regret that any word that I have said caused the
loss of life of a human being.[212] A few days later Farrakhan denied that he ordered the assassination of Malcolm X, although he again acknowledged that he created the atmosphere that ultimately led to Malcolm Xs
assassination.[213]
No consensus has been reached on who was responsible
for the assassination.[214] In August 2014, an online petition was started using the White House online petition
mechanism to call on the government to release without
alteration any les they still held relating to the murder
of Malcolm X.[215] The petition failed to attract enough
signatures to mandate a White House response.
2.13.11 Philosophy
Except for his autobiography, Malcolm X left no published writings. His philosophy is known almost entirely
from the many speeches and interviews he gave from
Within days, the question of who bore responsibility for 1952 until his death.[216] Many of those speeches, espethe assassination was being publicly debated. On Febru- cially from the last year of his life, were recorded and
ary 23, James Farmer, the leader of the Congress of have been published.[217]
Racial Equality, announced at a news conference that
local drug dealers, and not the Nation of Islam, were
to blame.[200] Others accused the NYPD, the FBI, or Beliefs of the Nation of Islam expressed by Malcolm
the CIA, citing the lack of police protection, the ease X
with which the assassins entered the Audubon Ballroom, and the failure of the police to preserve the crime Further information: Beliefs and theology of the Nation
of Islam
scene.[201][202]
Louis Farrakhan in 2005
In the 1970s, the public learned about COINTELPRO

and other secret FBI programs established to inltrate
and disrupt civil rights organizations during the 1950s
and 1960s.[203] John Ali, national secretary of the Nation
of Islam, was believed to have been an FBI undercover
While he was a member of the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X taught its beliefs, and his statements often began with the phrase The Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches us that...[218] It is virtually impossible
2.13. MALCOLM X
247
now to discern whether Malcolm Xs personal beliefs

at the time diverged from the teachings of the Nation
of Islam.[219][upper-alpha 10] After he left the Nation in
1964, he compared himself to a ventriloquists dummy
who could only say what Elijah Muhammad told him to
say.[218]
Malcolm X taught that black people were the original
people of the world,[78] and that white people were a race
of devils who were created by an evil scientist named
Yakub.[79] The Nation of Islam believed that black people
were superior to white people, and that the demise of the
white race was imminent.[80] When questioned concerning his statements that white people were devils, Malcolm
X said: history proves the white man is a devil.[220]
Anybody who rapes, and plunders, and enslaves, and
steals, and drops hell bombs on people... anybody who
does these things is nothing but a devil.[221]
Malcolm X said that Islam was the true religion of black
mankind and that Christianity was the white mans religion that had been imposed upon African Americans by
their slave-masters.[222] He said that the Nation of Islam
followed Islam as it was practiced around the world, but
the Nations teachings varied from those of other Muslims because they were adapted to the uniquely pitiful
condition of black people in America.[223] He taught that Malcolm X at a 1964 press conference
Wallace Fard Muhammad, the founder of the Nation, was
Allah incarnate,[224] and that Elijah Muhammad was his
Messenger, or Prophet.[upper-alpha 11]
determined to defend themselves from aggressors, and to
While the civil rights movement fought against racial seg- secure freedom, justice and equality by whatever means
regation, Malcolm X advocated the complete separation necessary.[228]
of blacks from whites. The Nation of Islam proposed the
Malcolm X stressed the global perspective he gained from
establishment of a separate country for African Amerihis international travels. He emphasized the direct con[90]
[225]
cans in the southern or southwestern United States
nection between the domestic struggle of African Ameras an interim measure until African Americans could reicans for equal rights with the independence struggles of
[91]
turn to Africa. Malcolm X suggested the United States
Third World nations.[229] He said that African Americans
government owed reparations to black people for the unwere wrong when they thought of themselves as a minorpaid labor of their ancestors.[226] He also rejected the civil
ity; globally, black people were the majority.[230]
rights movements strategy of nonviolence, advocating inIn his speeches at the Militant Labor Forum, which was
stead that black people should defend themselves.[92]
sponsored by the Socialist Workers Party, Malcolm X
criticized capitalism.[145] After one such speech, when
Independent views
he was asked what political and economic system he
wanted, he said he didn't know, but that it was no coAfter leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X announced incidence the newly independent countries in the Third
his willingness to work with leaders of the civil rights World were turning toward socialism.[231] When a removement,[111] though he advocated some changes to porter asked him what he thought about socialism, Maltheir policies. He felt that calling the movement a strug- colm X asked whether it was good for black people.
gle for civil rights would keep the issue within the United When the reporter told him it seemed to be, Malcolm
States, while changing the focus to human rights would X told him, Then I'm for it.[231][232]
make it an international concern. The movement could Although he no longer called for the separation of black
then bring its complaints before the United Nations, people from white people, Malcolm X continued to
where Malcolm X said the emerging nations of the world advocate black nationalism, which he dened as selfwould add their support.[227]
determination for the African-American community.[233]
Malcolm X argued that if the US government was unwilling or unable to protect black people, black people should
protect themselves. He said that he and the other members of the Organization of Afro-American Unity were
In the last months of his life, however, Malcolm X began to reconsider his support for black nationalism after
meeting northern African revolutionaries who, to all appearances, were white.[234]
248
After his Hajj, Malcolm X articulated a view of white

people and racism that represented a deep change from
the philosophy he had supported as a minister of the Nation of Islam. In a famous letter from Mecca, he wrote
that his experiences with white people during his pilgrimage convinced him to rearrange his thinking about race
and toss aside some of [his] previous conclusions.[235]
In a conversation with Gordon Parks, two days before his
assassination, Malcolm said:
[L]istening to leaders like Nasser,
Ben Bella, and Nkrumah awakened
me to the dangers of racism. I realized racism isn't just a black and
white problem. Its brought bloodbaths to about every nation on earth
at one time or another.
Brother, remember the time that
white college girl came into the
restaurantthe one who wanted to
help the [Black] Muslims and the
whites get togetherand I told her
there wasn't a ghost of a chance
and she went away crying? Well,
I've lived to regret that incident. In
many parts of the African continent
I saw white students helping black
people. Something like this kills a
lot of argument. I did many things
as a [Black] Muslim that I'm sorry
for now. I was a zombie thenlike
all [Black] MuslimsI was hypnotized, pointed in a certain direction
and told to march. Well, I guess
a mans entitled to make a fool of
himself if hes ready to pay the cost.
It cost me 12 years.
Mural on the wall of row houses in Philadelphia
especially those who lived in cities in the Northern and

Western United States, felt that Malcolm X articulated
their complaints concerning inequality better than did
the mainstream civil rights movement.[94][95] One biographer says that by giving expression to their frustration,
Malcolm X made clear the price that white America
would have to pay if it did not accede to black Americas
legitimate demands.[244]
In the late 1960s, increasingly radical black activists
based their movements largely on Malcolm X and his
teachings. The Black Power movement,[55][245] the Black
Arts Movement,[55][246] and the widespread adoption of
the slogan "Black is beautiful"[247] can all trace their roots
to Malcolm X.
In 1963 Malcolm X began a collaboration with Alex Haley on his life story, The Autobiography of Malcolm X.[110]
He told Haley, If I'm alive when this book comes out, it
will be a miracle.[248] Haley completed and published it
some months after the assassination.[249]
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a resurgence of interest in his life among young people. HipThat was a bad scene, brother.
hop groups such as Public Enemy adopted Malcolm X
The sickness and madness of those
as an icon,[250] and his image was displayed in hundreds
daysI'm glad to be free of
of thousands of homes, oces, and schools,[251] as well
them.[236]
as on T-shirts and jackets.[252] This wave peaked in 1992
with the release of the lm Malcolm X,[253] an adaptation
Up until one week before his death, Malcolm X contin- of The Autobiography of Malcolm X.
ued to publicly advocate that black people should achieve
In 1998 TIME Magazine named The Autobiography of
advancement by any means necessary.
Malcolm X one of the ten most inuential nonction
books of the 20th century.[254]
2.13.12
Legacy
Malcolm X has been described as one of the greatest and most inuential African Americans in
history.[237][238][239] He is credited with raising the
self-esteem of black Americans and reconnecting them
with their African heritage.[240] He is largely responsible
for the spread of Islam in the black community in the
United States.[241][242][243] Many African Americans,
Portrayals in lm and on stage

Denzel Washington played the title role in Malcolm
X[255] named one of the ten best lms of the 1990s by
both critic Roger Ebert and director Martin Scorsese.[256]
Washington had previously played the part of Malcolm X
in the 1981 O-Broadway play When the Chickens Came
2.13. MALCOLM X
249
Home to Roost.[257] Other portrayals include:

James Earl Jones, in the 1977 lm The Greatest.[258]
Dick Anthony Williams, in the 1978 television
miniseries King[259] and the 1989 American Playhouse production of the Je Stetson play The Meeting.[260]
Al Freeman Jr., in the 1979 television miniseries
Roots: The Next Generations.[261]
Morgan Freeman, in the 1981 television movie
Death of a Prophet.[262]
Ben Holt, in the 1986 opera X, The Life and Times
of Malcolm X at the New York City Opera.[263]
Malcolm X Boulevard in New York City
changed to Malcolm X Boulevard in 1985.[278][279] In

Gary Dourdan, in the 2000 television movie King of 1997, Oakland Avenue in Dallas, Texas, was renamed
the World.[264]
Malcolm X Boulevard.[280] Main Street in Lansing,
Michigan, was renamed Malcolm X Street in 2010.[281]
Joe Morton, in the 2000 television movie Ali: An
Dozens of schools have been named after Malcolm X,
American Hero.[265]
including Malcolm X Shabazz High School in Newark,
Mario Van Peebles, in the 2001 lm Ali.[266]
New Jersey,[282] Malcolm Shabazz City High School
in Madison, Wisconsin,[283] and Malcolm X College in
Lindsay Owen Pierre, in the 2013 television movie
Chicago, Illinois.[284] Malcolm X Liberation University,
Betty and Coretta.[267]
based on the Pan-Africanist ideas of Malcolm X, was
[268]
founded in 1969 in North Carolina.[285]
Nigel Thatch, in the 2014 lm Selma.
In 1996, the rst library named after Malcolm X was
opened, the Malcolm X Branch Library and Performing
Memorials and tributes
Arts Center of the San Diego Public Library system.[286]
The house that once stood at 3448 Pinkney Street in
North Omaha, Nebraska, was the rst home of Malcolm
Little with his birth family. The house was torn down in
1965 by new owners who did not know of its connection
with Malcolm X.[269] The site was listed on the National
Register of Historic Places in 1984 and is now identied
by a historic marker.[270][271] In 1987 the site was added
to the Nebraska register of historic sites and marked with
a state plaque.[272]
The U.S. Postal Service issued a Malcolm X postage

stamp in 1999.[287] In 2005, Columbia University announced the opening of the Malcolm X and Dr. Betty
Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center. The memorial is located in the Audubon Ballroom, where Malcolm X was assassinated.[288] Collections of Malcolm
Xs papers are held by the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture and the Robert W. Woodru Library.[289][290][291]
In Lansing, Michigan, where Malcolm Little spent his

early, formative years, a Michigan Historical Marker was 2.13.13 Published works
erected in 1975 to mark his homesite.[273] The city is also
home to El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz Academy, a public
The Autobiography of Malcolm X. With the assischarter school with an Afrocentric focus. The school is
tance of Alex Haley. New York: Grove Press, 1965.
located in the building where Little attended elementary
OCLC 219493184.
school.[274]
Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and StateIn cities around the world, Malcolm Xs birthday (May
ments. George Breitman, ed. New York: Merit Pub19) is commemorated as Malcolm X Day. The rst
lishers, 1965. OCLC 256095445.
known celebration of Malcolm X Day took place in
Washington, D.C., in 1971.[275] The city of Berkeley,
Malcolm X Talks to Young People. New York:
California, has recognized Malcolm Xs birthday as a
Young Socialist Alliance, 1965. OCLC 81990227.
citywide holiday since 1979.[276]
Two Speeches by Malcolm X. New York: Pathnder
Many cities have renamed streets after Malcolm X. In
Press, 1965. OCLC 19464959.
1987, New York mayor Ed Koch proclaimed Lenox Av Malcolm X on Afro-American History. New York:
enue in Harlem to be Malcolm X Boulevard.[277] The
name of Reid Avenue in Brooklyn, New York, was
Merit Publishers, 1967. OCLC 78155009.
250
The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard. Archie

Epps, ed. New York: Morrow, 1968. OCLC
185901618.
By Any Means Necessary: Speeches, Interviews, and
a Letter by Malcolm X. George Breitman, ed. New
York: Pathnder Press, 1970. OCLC 249307.
The End of White World Supremacy: Four Speeches
by Malcolm X. Benjamin Karim, ed. New York:
Monthly Review Press, 1971. OCLC 149849.
The Last Speeches. Bruce Perry, ed. New York:
Pathnder Press, 1989. ISBN 978-0-87348-543-2.
Malcolm X Talks to Young People: Speeches in the
United States, Britain, and Africa. Steve Clark, ed.
New York: Pathnder Press, 1991. ISBN 978-087348-962-1.
February 1965: The Final Speeches. Steve Clark,
ed. New York: Pathnder Press, 1992. ISBN 9780-87348-749-8.
The Diary of Malcolm X: 1964. Herb Boyd and
Ilyasah Shabazz, eds. Chicago: Third World Press,
2013. ISBN 978-0-88378-351-1.
2.13.14
See also
2.13.15
References
Notes
[1] This name includes the honoric El-Hajj, given on completion of the Hajj to Mecca. Malise Ruthven (1997). Islam: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.
p. 147. ISBN 978-0-19-285389-9.
[2] Consumer Price Index (estimate) 18002014. Federal
Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved February 27,
2014.
[3] Nation of Islam Temples were numbered according to the
order in which they were established.[48]
disservice... [U]rging Negroes to arm themselves and prepare to engage in violence, as he has done, can reap nothing but grief. Haley, Alex (January 1965). The Playboy
Interview: Martin Luther King. Playboy.
[6] Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 1516. Estimates
of the Black Muslim membership vary from a quarter of
a million down to fty thousand. Available evidence indicates that about one hundred thousand Negroes have
joined the movement at one time or another, but few
objective observers believe that the Black Muslims can
muster more than twenty or twenty-ve thousand active
temple people.
[7] Clegg, p. 115. The common response of Malcolm X to
questions about numbers'Those who know aren't saying, and those who say don't know'was typical of the
attitude of the leadership.
[8] There was no time for substantive discussions between
the two. They were photographed greeting each other
warmly, smiling and shaking hands.[116]
[9] In his Epilogue to The Autobiography of Malcolm X, Haley
wrote that Malcolm X said, Hold it! Hold it! Don't get
excited. Lets cool it, brothers. (p. 499.) According to
a transcript of an audio recording, Malcolms only words
were, Hold it!", repeated ten times. (DeCaro, p. 274.)
[10] Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 91. "'I'll be honest
with you,' Malcolm X said to me. 'Everybody is talking
about dierences between the Messenger and me. It is
absolutely impossible for us to dier.'"
[11] Malcolm X told Lewis Lomax that The Messenger is the
Prophet of Allah (Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p.
80). On another occasion, he said We never refer to the
Honorable Elijah Muhammad as a prophet (Malcolm X,
Last Speeches, p. 46).
Footnotes
[1] Watson, Clarence; Akhtar, Salman (2012). Ideology and
Identity: Malcolm X. In Akhtar, Salman. The African
American Experience: Psychoanalytic Perspectives. Lanham, Md.: Jason Aronson. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-76570835-9.
[2] Natambu, p. 7.
[4] In a 1992 interview, Attallah Shabazz said she was not

named after Attila, rather her name was Arabic for the
gift of God.Miller, Russell (November 23, 1992). X
Patriot. New York. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
[3] Perry, pp. 23.
[5] King expressed mixed feelings toward Malcolm X. He is

very articulate... but I totally disagree with many of his
political and philosophical views... I don't want to seem
to sound self-righteous, ... or that I think I have the only
truth, the only way. Maybe he does have some of the answer... I have often wished that he would talk less of violence, because violence is not going to solve our problem. And in his litany of articulating the despair of the
Negro without oering any positive, creative alternative, I
feel that Malcolm has done himself and our people a great
[6] Natambu, p. 3.
[4] Malcolm X, Autobiography, pp. 34.

[5] DeCaro, pp. 4344.
[7] Natambu, p. 4.
[8] Marable, Malcolm X, p. 29.
[9] Marable, Malcolm X, p. 32
[10] Natambu, p. 10.
2.13. MALCOLM X
251
[48] Perry, pp. 141142.
[13] Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 3536, 265
[49] Perry, p. 147.
[14] Perry, pp. 3334, 331.
[50] Perry, p. 152.
[15] Perry, p. 42.
[51] Perry, p. 153.
[16] Natambu, pp. 2129, 5556.
[52] Perry, pp. 161164.
[17] Perry, pp. 3248, 5861.
[53] Carson, p. 95.
[18] Perry, pp. 6281.
[54] Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 122123.
[55] Marable, Rediscovering Malcolms Life, p. 301.
[20] Perry, pp. 77, 8283.
[56] Lincoln, p. 189.
[21] Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 37, 5152.
[57] Rickford, pp. 3645, 5051.
[22] Perry, p. 2.
[58] Rickford, pp. 6163.
[23] Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 124.
[59] Shabazz, Betty, Malcolm X as a Husband and Father,

Clarke, pp. 132134.
[24] Carson, p. 108.

[25] Lord, Lewis; Thornton, Jeannye; Bodipo-Memba, Alejandro (November 15, 1992). The Legacy of Malcolm
X. U.S. News & World Report. p. 3. Archived from the
original on January 14, 2012. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
[60] Rickford, pp. 7374.

[61] Rickford, pp. 109110.
[62] Rickford, p. 122.
[26] Natambu, pp. 106109.
[27] Perry, p. 99.
[29] Natambu, p. 121.
[30] Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 178; ellipsis in original.
[67] Perry, p. 164.
[31] Perry, pp. 108110, 118.
[68] Perry, p. 165.
[32] Natambu, pp. 127128, 132138.
[33] Natambu, pp. 128129.
[70] Perry, p. 166.
[34] Perry, p. 113.
[35] Natambu, pp. 134135.
[36] Perry, pp. 104106.
[73] Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 135, 193.
[37] Natambu, p. 136.
[74] Perry, pp. 174179.
[38] Natambu, pp. 138139.
[75] Natambu, pp. 231233.
[77] Lincoln, p. 18.
[41] Perry, p. 116.
[78] Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 55.
[79] Perry, p. 115.
[82] Natambu, p. 260.
[46] Perry, pp. 142, 144145.
[47] Natambu, p. 168.
[84] Natambu, pp. 215216.
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[152] Carson, p. 324.
[153] Perry, pp. 290292.
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[156] Evanzz, p. 248.
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Kill Malcolm X. New York: Thunders Mouth Press.
ISBN 978-1-56025-049-4.
Friedly, Michael (1992). Malcolm X: The Assassination. New York: One World. ISBN 978-0-34540010-9.
Karim, Benjamin; with Peter Skutches and David
Gallen (1992). Remembering Malcolm. New York:
Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-88184-881-6.
Kondo, Zak A. (1993). Conspiracys: Unravelling
the Assassination of Malcolm X. Washington, D.C.:
Nubia Press. OCLC 28837295.

Malcolm X (1989) [1971]. The End of White World
Supremacy: Four Speeches by Malcolm X. Benjamin
Karim, ed. New York: Arcade. ISBN 978-155970-006-1.
Malcolm X (1990) [1965]. Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements. George Breitman,
ed. New York: Grove Weidenfeld. ISBN 978-08021-3213-0.
Malcolm X (1991) [1968]. The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard. Archie Epps, ed. New York:
Paragon House. ISBN 978-1-55778-479-7.
Marable, Manning (2011). Malcolm X: A Life of
Reinvention. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-67002220-5.
Marable, Manning (2009). Rediscovering Malcolms Life: A Historians Adventures in Living History. In Marable, Manning; Aidi, Hishaam D.
Black Routes to Islam. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8400-5.
Marsh, Clifton E. (2000) [1996]. The Lost-Found
Nation of Islam in America. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-1-57886-008-1.
Natambu, Ko (2002). The Life and Work of Malcolm X. Indianapolis: Alpha Books. ISBN 978-002-864218-5.
Perry, Bruce (1991). Malcolm: The Life of a Man
Who Changed Black America. Barrytown, N.Y.:
Station Hill. ISBN 978-0-88268-103-0.
Lincoln, C. Eric (1961). The Black Muslims in

America. Boston: Beacon Press. OCLC 422580.
Rickford, Russell J. (2003). Betty Shabazz: A Remarkable Story of Survival and Faith Before and After Malcolm X. Naperville, Ill.: Sourcebooks. ISBN
978-1-4022-0171-4.
Lomax, Louis E. (1987) [1968]. To Kill a Black

Man: The Shocking Parallel in the Lives of Malcolm
X and Martin Luther King Jr. Los Angeles: Holloway House. ISBN 978-0-87067-731-1.
Sales Jr., William W. (1994). From Civil Rights to

Black Liberation: Malcolm X and the Organization
of Afro-American Unity. Boston: South End Press.
ISBN 978-0-89608-480-3.
Lomax, Louis E. (1963). When the Word Is Given:

A Report on Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, and the
Black Muslim World. Cleveland: World Publishing.
OCLC 1071204.
Terrill, Robert (2004). Malcolm X: Inventing Radical Judgment. Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87013-730-3.
Malcolm X; with the assistance of Alex Haley

(1992) [1965]. The Autobiography of Malcolm X.
New York: One World. ISBN 978-0-345-376718. Citations in this article refer to this edition, of the
many that have been published.
Malcolm X (1989) [1970]. By Any Means Necessary: Speeches, Interviews, and a Letter by Malcolm
X. George Breitman, ed. New York: Pathnder
Press. ISBN 978-0-87348-150-2.
Wood, Joe, ed. (1992). Malcolm X: In Our Image.

New York: St. Martins Press. ISBN 978-0-31206609-3.

Abernethy, Graeme (2013). The Iconography of
Malcolm X. Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of
Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1920-7.
2.13. MALCOLM X
257
Baldwin, James (2007) [1973]. One Day, When I

Was Lost: A Scenario Based on Alex Haleys The
Autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: Vintage.
ISBN 978-0-307-27594-3.
Kly, Yussuf Naim, ed. (1986). The Black Book:

The True Political Philosophy of Malcolm X (El Hajj
Malik El Shabazz). Atlanta: Clarity Press. ISBN
978-0-932863-03-4.
Ball, Jared A.; Burroughs, Todd Steven, eds.

(2012). A Lie of Reinvention: Correcting Manning Marables Malcolm X. Baltimore: Black Classic
Press. ISBN 978-1-57478-049-9.
Leader, Edward Roland (1993). Understanding

Malcolm X: The Controversial Changes in His Political Philosophy. New York: Vantage Press. ISBN
978-0-533-09520-9.
Bailey, A. Peter (2013). Witnessing Brother Malcolm X: The Master Teacher. Plantation, Fla.: Llumina Press. ISBN 978-1-62550-039-7.
Lee, Spike; with Ralph Wiley (1992). By Any

Means Necessary: The Trials and Tribulations of the
Making of Malcolm X. New York: Hyperion. ISBN
978-1-56282-913-1.
Boyd, Herb; Daniels, Ron; Karenga, Maulana;

Madhubuti, Haki R., eds. (2012). By Any
Means Necessary: Malcolm X: Real, Not Reinvented.
Chicago: Third World Press. ISBN 978-0-88378336-8.
Breitman, George (1967). The Last Year of Malcolm X: The Evolution of a Revolutionary. New
York: Pathnder Press. ISBN 978-0-87348-004-8.
Breitman, George; Porter, Herman; Smith, Baxter
(1991) [1976]. The Assassination of Malcolm X.
New York: Pathnder Press. ISBN 978-0-87348632-3.
Cleage, Albert B.; Breitman, George (1968). Myths
About Malcolm X: Two Views. New York: Merit.
OCLC 615819.
Collins, Rodnell P. (1998). Seventh Child: A Family
Memoir of Malcolm X. Secaucus, N.J.: Birch Lane
Press. ISBN 978-1-55972-491-3.
Conyers Jr., James L.; Smallwood, Andrew P., eds.
(2008). Malcolm X: A Historical Reader. Durham,
N.C.: Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 978-089089-228-2.
DeCaro, Louis A. (1998). Malcolm and the Cross:
The Nation of Islam, Malcolm X, and Christianity.
New York: New York University Press. ISBN 9780-8147-1932-9.
Gallen, David, ed. (1992). Malcolm X: As They
Knew Him. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 9780-88184-850-2.
Goldman, Peter (1979). The Death and Life of Malcolm X (2nd ed.). Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois
Press. ISBN 978-0-252-00774-3.
Jamal, Hakim A. (1972). From The Dead Level:
Malcolm X and Me. New York: Random House.
ISBN 978-0-394-46234-9.
Jenkins, Robert L. (2002). The Malcolm X Encyclopedia. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN
978-0-313-29264-4.
Marable, Manning; Felber, Garrett, eds. (2013).

The Portable Malcolm X Reader. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-310694-4.
Shabazz, Ilyasah; with Kim McLarin (2002).
Growing Up X: A Memoir by the Daughter of Malcolm X. New York: One World. ISBN 978-0-34544495-0.
Sherwood, Marika (2011). Malcolm X Visits
Abroad. Hollywood, Calif.: Tsehai Publishers.
ISBN 978-1-59907-050-6.
Strickland, William; et al. (1994). Malcolm X:
Make It Plain. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN
978-0-14-017713-8.
Terrill, Robert, ed. (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Malcolm X. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-73157-7.
T'Shaka, Oba (1983). The Political Legacy of Malcolm X. Richmond, Calif.: Pan Afrikan Publications. ISBN 978-1-878557-01-8.
Waldschmidt-Nelson, Britta (2012). Dreams and
Nightmares: Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X,
and the Struggle for Black Equality. Gainesville,
Fla.: University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-08130-3723-3.
Wolfenstein, Eugene Victor (1989). The Victims
of Democracy: Malcolm X and the Black Revolution. London: Free Association Books. ISBN 9781-85343-111-1.

Ocial website of the Estate of Malcolm X
The Malcolm X Project at Columbia University
Malcolm, website on the life and legacy of Malcolm
X
Malcolm X at the Internet Movie Database
Malcolm X (Character)
Database
at the Internet Movie
258
2.14 We Shall Overcome

For the 1963 live album by Pete Seeger, see We Shall
Overcome (Pete Seeger album).
We Shall Overcome is a protest song that became a
key anthem of the African-American Civil Rights Movement. It is widely believed that the title and structure
of the song are derived from an early gospel song, I'll
Overcome Someday, by African-American composer
Charles Albert Tindley (18511933) although the musical and lyrical structure of Tindleys hymn is in fact substantially dierent from that of We Shall Overcome. In
addition, there is no mention whatsoever of Rev. Tindley
or his composition in either the 1960 and 1963 copyrights
of We Shall Overcome.
wrote the original. The original was faster.

[Sings] I'll be alright, I'll be alright, I'll be alright, someday ... deep in my heart I do not
weep, I'll be alright someday. Or deep in my
heart I do believe. And other verses are I'll
wear the crown, I'll wear the crown, and I'll
be like Him, I'll be like Him or I'll overcome,
I'll overcome.[1]
1. ^ Beliefnet: Pete Seeger | Wendy Schuman. wendyschuman.com. Retrieved
30 October 2014.
Some have theorized that We Shall Overcome was inspired by the song I'll Overcome Someday, copyrighted
in 1901 by Rev. Charles Albert Tindley. Recent empirical evidence, however, strongly suggests that the actual
source was a gospel hymn entitled If My Jesus Wills,
composed during the early 1930s, published in 1942
and copyrighted in 1954 by an African American Baptist choir director named Louise Shropshire. The book,
We Shall Overcome: Sacred Song on the Devils Tongue,
written by, Isaias Gamboa (music producer), reveals evidence of Louise Shropshires authorship. In addition,
the book reveals Shropshires role as a close friend, civil
rights ally and spiritual condant of Rev. Dr. Martin
Luther King, Jr., Rev. Thomas A. Dorsey and Rev. Fred
Shuttlesworth.
The song We Will Overcome was published in the

September 1948 issue of Peoples Songs Bulletin (a publication of Peoples Songs, an organization of which Pete
Seeger was the director and guiding spirit). It appeared in
the bulletin as a contribution of and with an introduction
by Zilphia Horton, then music director of the Highlander
Folk School of Monteagle, Tennessee, an adult education school that trained union organizers. In it, she wrote
that she had learned the song from members of the CIO
Food and Tobacco Workers Union: It was rst sung in
Charleston, S.C. ... Its strong emotional appeal and simple dignity never fails to hit people. It sort of stops them Lyrics to Louise Shropshires If My Jesus Wills (copycold silent.[1] It was her favorite song and she taught it to right 1950):
countless others, including Pete Seeger,[2] who included it
in his repertoire, as did many other activist singers, such
I'll Overcome, I'll Overcome, I'll Overas Frank Hamilton and Joe Glazer, who recorded it in
come
Someday
1950.
If My Jesus Wills, I Do Believe, I'll Overcome
According to the late Pete Seeger, the song is thought to
Someday
have become associated with the Civil Rights Movement
from 1959, when Guy Carawan stepped in as song leader
Lyrics to We Shall Overcome (copyright 1960):
at Highlander, which was then focused on nonviolent civil
rights activism. Seeger states the song quickly became
We Shall Overcome, We Shall Overcome,
the movements unocial anthem. Pete Seeger and other
We Shall Overcome Someday
famous folksingers in the early 1960s, such as Joan Baez,
Deep In My Heart, I Do Believe, We Shall
sang the song at rallies, folk festivals, and concerts in the
Overcome Someday
North and helped make it widely known. Since its rise to
prominence, the song, and songs based on it, have been
used in a variety of protests worldwide.
Guy Carawan, who introduced We Shall Overcome to
several student groups, wrote in 2010 that the old words
were ... I'll Overcome someday, I'll be all right / I'll wear
2.14.1 Origins as gospel, folk, and labor the cross, I'll Wear the Crown / I'll be like him, I'll Sing
song
My Song Someday.[3]
In a 2006 interview with Beliefnet.com interviewer, Zilphia Horton gave the original lyrics as We will overWendy Schuman; Pete Seeger responded to the following come, we will overcome someday. Oh, down in my heart,
I do believe, we'll overcome someday. Subsequent verses,
question regarding the origin of We Shall Overcome":
added by students at the Highlander School, began, The
Lord will see us through and On to victory.
Wendy Schuman: Whats the origin of
'We Shall Overcome', the hymn of the Civil
Rights Movement, which you popularized?"
Pete Seeger: Nobody knows exactly who
Louise Shropshires hymn, If My Jesus Wills, features

the additional verses, Gonna get my crown someday and
Gonna sing a new song someday, in addition to I do
2.14. WE SHALL OVERCOME
259
believe. These lyrics are noted by both Pete Seeger and I'll Overcome Someday was a hymn or gospel muGuy Carawan as having been from the original.
sic composition by the Reverend Charles Albert Tindley
with seven other
In a 2012 interview, after carefully analyzing the song, of Philadelphia that appeared together
[17]
songs
in
a
hymnal
published
in
1901.
A noted minisPete Seeger stated: Its very probable that Louise
ter
of
the
Methodist
Episcopal
Church,
Tindley
was the
Shropshires If my Jesus Wills was the hymn that Zilauthor
of
forty-ve
inuential
gospel
hymns,
of
which
phia Horton taught to him. Seeger also concluded that
We'll
Understand
It
By
and
By
and
Stand
By
Me
are
Louise Shropshire should be added to the "[We Shall
among
the
best
known.
The
published
text
bore
the
epi[4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]
Overcome]" story
graph, Ye shall overcome if ye faint not, derived from
Speculation that Rev. Charles Albert Tindleys I'll Over- Galatians 6:9: And let us not be weary in doing good,
come Someday may have been the direct inspiration for in due season we shall reap, if we faint not. It read:
for We Shall Overcome has been widely dismissed by
scholars as Tindleys song bears virtually no recognizThe world is one great battleeld
able musical resemblance to We Shall Overcome"; havWith forces all arrayed.
ing been written in a radically dierent time signature
If in my heart I do not yield,
and pentatonic scale. Although there are lyrical similarI'll overcome some day.
ities, the lyric rhyme scheme to I'll Overcome Someday is also radically dierent from that of We Shall
Overcome. Following an extensive forensic analysis of Tindleys songs were written in an idiom rooted in African
the two songs, renowned Ethnomusicologist Dr. Portia American folk traditions, using pentatonic intervals, with
Maultsby concluded that It is perhaps the lyrics that hold ample space allowed for improvised interpolation, the
the key to the creation of 'We Shall Overcome', adding: addition of blue thirds and sevenths, and frequently
the lyric rhyme scheme of If my Jesus Wills and We featuring short refrains in which the congregation could
[18]
Shall Overcome are identical and the lyric patterns of join. Tindleys importance, however, was primarily as
the songs are similar. In addition, it is possible to super- a lyricist and poet whose words spoke directly to the feelimpose convincingly the We Shall Overcome melody in ings of his audiences, many of whom had been freed from
diminution over the rst eight measures of the harmonic slavery only thirty-six years before he rst published his
songs, and who were often impoverished, illiterate, and
progression of If my Jesus Wills.[13]
newly arrived in the North.[19] Even today, wrote musiIn 2012, while looking to secure usage rights to We
cologist Horace Boyer in 1983, ministers quote his texts
Shall Overcome for the lm The Butler, directed by
in the midst of their sermons as if they were poems, as
Lee Daniels and starring Academy Award winners Forest
indeed they are.[20]
Whitaker, Oprah Winfrey, Robin Williams, Terrence
Howard, Jane Fonda, and Cuba Gooding Jr., lm pro- After its rst success, the popularity of I'll Overcome
ducer, Simone Sheeld discovered Isaias Gamboa (mu- Someday waned for a time in the gospel world. Howsic producer)'s book, We Shall Overcome; Sacred Song ever, a letter printed on the front page of the February
on the Devils Tongue. Upon reading that Pete Seeger and 1909 United Mine Workers Journal states that Last year
the other popularizers of the freedom song were not (and, at a strike, we opened every meeting with a prayer, and
[21]
in fact, did not claim to be) the original authors of We singing that good old song, 'We Will Overcome'.
Shall Overcome, Sheeld contacted Gamboa, who then Whether this refers to Tindleys 1902 gospel song cannot
contacted Robert Anthony Goins Shropshire, the grand- be determined, since the lyrics and tune have not come
son of Louise Shropshire. Sheeld then commissioned down to us. The mention is signicant, however, since
a musicological report and involved the NAACP in the this is the rst mention of a song with this title being sung
[22]
eort to seek recognition for Louise Shropshires role in in a secular context and mixed race setting. It is also (if
[14]
the quotation is accurate) the rst instance of the use of
the history and creation of We Shall Overcome.
the rst person plural pronoun we of a movement song
On September 11, 2013, following review and analysis
instead of the singular I usual in the gospel and spiritual
of evidence, testimony and documentation, the Cincintradition.[23] It seems reasonable to suppose that this more
nati, Ohio City Council unanimously passed a symbolic
militant version, or its memory, persisted underground in
resolution arming Louise Shropshires If My Jesus
the labor movement during the 1920s to re-emerge during
Wills as the source from which We Shall Overcome
its revival of the 1930s and 1940s.
was derived.[15]
Outside of the labor movement Tindleys hymn was simOn October 2, 2014, Louise Shropshire was inducted into
plied, and performances began to resemble another
the Ohio Civil Rights Hall of Fame for her contributions
folk-based spiritual, I'll Be All Right, of which many
to the African American Civil Rights Movement as origversions exist.[24] Tindleys original refrain, If in my
inal author of We Shall Overcome, as well as her close
heart, I do not yield, was simplied to Deep in my
association and support of Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King
heart, I do believe, and additional improvised verses
Jr. and Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth.[16]
were added. According to David Wallechinsky and Irving
Wallace, by 1945 the words and the tune had come to-
260
gether in a song still called by Tindleys title, I'll Overhim to proceed.

come Some Day, with additional words by Atron Twigg
Once we boys, he said, went for to tote some
and a revised musical arrangement by Chicago composer,
rice, and de nigger-driver, he keep a-callin' on
arranger, and publisher Kenneth Morris. Legendary
us; and I say, 'O, de ole nigger-driver!' Den
gospel singer, pianist, and composer Roberta Martin,
another said, 'First thing my mammy told me
also based in Chicago, composed another version of I'll
was, notin' so bad as a nigger-driver.' Den I
Overcome, the last 12 bars of which are the same as
made a sing, just puttin' a word, and den anthe current version of 'We Shall Overcome.'"[25] Thus by
other word.
the end of 1945 several versions of I Will [I'll] OverThen he began singing, and the men, after liscome were current as a gospel song, while on the South
tening a moment, joined in the chorus as if
Carolina picket line, Lucille Simmons, Delphine Brown,
it were an old acquaintance, though they eviand other striking tobacco workers were singing a slow
dently had never heard it before. I saw how
version of the song as We Will Overcome. Based on the
easily a new sing took root among them.[1]
Johns Island, South Carolina version of the song, I Will
1. ^ The Atlantic Monthly Negro SpirituOvercome, which began with a slow rhythmic pulse
als (June 1867) 19: 116: 685694.
(sometimes referred to as short meter), then increas[ed]
[26]
in tempo to a 'shout,'" the protest song utilized by Simmons and Brown was well-suited to the picket line since Bob Dylan has said that he used this very same melodic
it produced the eect of gradually building in intensity motif from No More Auction Block for his composition
as more voices joined the chorus.[27]
"Blowin' in the Wind.[30] Thus similarities of melodic
Although many scholars reject the theory, Tindleys I'll and rhythmic patterns imparted cultural and emotional
Overcome Someday thus is held by some historians to resonance (the same feeling) to three dierent, and hisprovide the structure for We Shall Overcome, with, torically very signicant songs.
according to them, both text and melody having undergone a process of alteration. They believe the tune has
been changed so that it now echoes the opening and closing melody of the powerfully resonant 19th-century "No
More Auction Block For Me",[28] also known from its refrain as "Many Thousands Gone".[29] This was number 35
in Thomas Wentworth Higginson's collection of Negro
Spirituals that appeared in the Atlantic Monthly of June
1867, with a comment by Higginson reecting on how
such songs were composed (i.e., whether the work of a
single author or through what used to be called communal composition):
The note progression of the tune has a discernible resemblance to the famous lay Catholic hymn "O Sanctissima"
(also known as The Sicilian Mariners Hymn) collected
(or composed) in Italy by Johann Gottfried Herder in
the late 18th century.[31][32] Arguably an even closer resemblance is to Caro Mio Ben attributed to Neapolitan
composer Giuseppe Giordani; this is also a late 18th century Italian song and was a staple of 19th century voice
teachers.
Even of this last composition, however, we

have only the approximate date and know nothing of the mode of composition. Allan Ramsay says of the Scots Songs, that, no matter
who made them, they were soon attributed to
the minister of the parish whence they sprang.
And I always wondered, about these, whether
they had always a conscious and denite origin in some leading mind, or whether they grew
by gradual accretion, in an almost unconscious
way. On this point I could get no information, though I asked many questions, until at
last, one day when I was being rowed across
from Beaufort to Ladies Island, I found myself, with delight, on the actual trail of a song.
One of the oarsmen, a brisk young fellow, not
a soldier, on being asked for his theory of the
matter, dropped out a coy confession. Some
good spirituals, he said, are start jess out o'
curiosity. I been a-raise a sing, myself, once.
My dream was fullled, and I had traced out,
not the poem alone, but the poet. I implored
In the fall of 1945 in Charleston, South Carolina, members of the Food and Tobacco Workers Union (who were
mostly female and African American) began a ve-month
strike against the American Tobacco Company. To keep
up their spirits during the cold, wet winter of 19451946,
strike leaders Lucille Simmons and Delphine Brown led
a slow long meter style version of the gospel hymn
We'll Overcome (I'll Be All Right) to end each days
picketing. Union organizer Zilphia Horton, the wife of
Myles Horton (co-founder of the Highlander Folk School,
later Highlander Research and Education Center), may
have learned the song from Lucille Simmons, although
the precise line of transmission from the picket lines of
South Carolina to the Highlander Folk School remains
a mystery.[33] Zilphia Horton was (19351956) Highlanders music director, and it became her custom to
end group meetings each evening by leading this, her favorite song. During the Presidential Campaign of Henry
A. Wallace, We Will Overcome was printed in Bulletin
No. 3 (September 1948), 8, of Peoples Songs with an
introduction by Horton saying that she had learned it
from the interracial Congress of Industrial Organizations
2.14.2 Role of Highlander Folk School

(CIO) Food and Tobacco Workers Union workers and
had found it to be extremely powerful. Pete Seeger, a
founding member, and for three years Director of Peoples Songs, learned it from Hortons version in 1947.[34]
Seeger writes: I changed it to 'We shall'... I think I liked
a more open sound; 'We will' has alliteration to it, but 'We
shall' opens the mouth wider; the 'i' in 'will' is not an easy
vowel to sing well [...].[35] Seeger also added some verses
(We'll walk hand in hand and The whole wide world
around).
261
2.14.3 Use in the 1960s Civil Rights Movement and other protest movements
In August 1963, 22-year-old folksinger Joan Baez led a

crowd of 300,000 in singing We Shall Overcome at
the Lincoln Memorial during the March on Washington. President Lyndon Johnson, a Southerner, used the
phrase We shall overcome in addressing Congress on
March 15, 1965[38] in his speech demanding a voting
rights act delivered after the violent Bloody Sunday atIn 1950, the CIOs Department of Education and Re- tacks on civil rights demonstrators during the Selma to
search released the album Eight New Songs for Labor, Montgomery marches, thus joining and legitimizing the
sung by Joe Glazer (Labors Troubador), and the Elm protest movement.
City Four. Songs on the album included I Ain't No Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. recited the words from We
Stranger Now, Too Old to Work, Thats All, Hum- Shall Overcome in his nal sermon delivered in Memblin' Back, Shine on Me, Great Day, The Mill Was phis on Sunday March 31, 1968, before his assassinaMade of Marble, and We Will Overcome. During a tion.[39] He had done so previously in 1965 in a simiSouthern CIO drive, Glazer taught the song to country lar sermon delivered before an interfaith congregation at
singer Texas Bill Strength, who recorded a version that Temple Israel in Hollywood, California:[40]
was later picked up by 4-Star Records.[36]
We shall overcome. We shall overcome.
The song made its rst recorded appearance as We Shall
Deep
in my heart I do believe we shall overOvercome (rather than We Will Overcome) in 1952
come.
And I believe it because somehow the
on a disc recorded by Laura Duncan (soloist) and The
arc
of
the
moral universe is long, but it bends
Jewish Young Singers (chorus) conducted by Robert De
towards
justice.
We shall overcome because
Cormier co-produced by Ernie Lieberman and Irwin SilCarlyle
is
right;
no
lie can live forever. We
ber on Hootenany Records (Hoot 104-A) (Folkways, FN
shall
overcome
because
William Cullen Bryant
2513, BCD15720), where it is identied as a Negro Spiris
right;
truth
crushed
to
earth will rise again.
itual.
We shall overcome because James Russell
Frank Hamilton, a folk singer from California who was
Lowell is right:
a member of Peoples Songs and later The Weavers,
picked up Seegers version. Hamiltons friend and travelTruth forever on the scaold,
ing companion, fellow-Californian Guy Carawan, learned
the song from Hamilton. Carawan and Hamilton, accomWrong forever on the throne.
panied by Ramblin Jack Elliot, visited Highlander in the
Yet that scaold sways the future,
early 1950s and would also have heard Zilphia Horton
And behind the then unknown
sing the song there. In 1957, Seeger sang for a Highlander
Standeth God within the shadow,
audience that included Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who
remarked on the way to his next stop, in Kentucky, how
Keeping watch above his own.
much the song had stuck with him. When, in 1959, Guy
With this faith, we will be able to hew out of
Carawan succeeded Horton as music director at Highthe mountain of despair a stone of hope. With
lander, he reintroduced it at the school. It was the young
this faith, we will be able to transform the jan(many of them teenagers) student-activists at Highlander,
gling discords of our nation into a beautiful
however, who gave the song the words and rhythms we
symphony of brotherhood. With this faith, we
know it by today, when they sang it to keep their spirwill be able to speed up the day. And in the
its up during the frightening police raids on Highlander
words of prophecy, every valley shall be exand their subsequent stays in jail in 195960. Because
alted. And every mountain and hill shall be
of this, Carawan has been reluctant to claim credit for
made low. The rough places will be made
the songs widespread popularity. In the PBS video We
plain and the crooked places straight. And
Shall Overcome, Julian Bond credits Carawan with teachthe glory of the Lord shall be revealed and
ing and singing the song at the founding meeting of the
all esh shall see it together. This will be a
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee in Raleigh,
great day. This will be a marvelous hour. And
North Carolina, in 1960. From there, it spread orally and
at that momentguratively speaking in biblibecame an anthem of Southern African-American labor
cal wordsthe morning stars will sing together
union and civil rights activism.[37] Seeger also has puband the sons of God will shout for joy[1]
licly, in concert, credited Carawan with the primary role
of teaching and popularizing the song within the Civil
1. ^ From the rst King had liked to cite
Rights Movement.
these same inspiration passages. The
262

arc of the moral universe is long, but it
bends toward justice is from the writings
of Theodore Parker the Unitarian abolitionist minister who was Kings favorite
theologian. Compare the transcript of
this 1957 speech given in Washington,
D.C.Give Us the Ballot,. Address Delivered at the Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom, Washington D.C. 1957-05-17..
We Shall Overcome later was adopted by various antiCommunist movements in the Cold War and post-Cold
War. In his memoir about his years teaching English in
Czechoslovakia after the Velvet Revolution, Mark Allen
wrote:
The melody was also used (crediting it to Tindley) in a

symphony by American composer William Rowland . In
1999 National Public Radio included We Shall Overcome on their NPR 100 list of most important American
songs of the 20th century.[46] As a reference to the line,
We Shall Overcome was sung days later by over fty on January 20, 2009, after the inauguration of Barack
Obama as 44th U.S. President, a man holding the banner
thousand attendees at Dr. Kings funeral.[41]
WE HAVE OVERCOME was seen near the Capitol,
Farmworkers in the United States later sang the song
a day after hundreds of people posed with the sign on
in Spanish during strikes and grape boycotts of the late
Martin Luther King, Jr. day[47]
1960s, and it was notably sung by the U.S. Senator for
New York Robert F. Kennedy, when he led anti-apartheid As the attempted serial killer "Lasermannen" had shot
crowds in choruses from the rooftop of his car while several immigrants around Stockholm in 1992, Prime
touring South Africa in 1966.[42] It was sung by South Minister Carl Bildt and Immigration Minister Birgit
African anti-apartheid millitant Frederick John Harris on Friggebo attended a meeting in Rinkeby. As the audiApril 1, 1965 before his execution for placing a bomb ence became upset, Friggebo tried to calm them down by
in Johannesburg, in protest of apartheid policies. South proposing that everyone sing We Shall Overcome. This
African Security Police agents searched Johannesburg statement is widely regarded as one of the most embarrecord stores to conscate copies of the song. According rassing moments in Swedish politics. In 2008, the newsto the New York Times: They were especially interested paper Svenska Dagbladet listed the Sveriges Television
in one version of 'We Shall Overcome' recorded by the recording of the event as the best political clip available
American folk singer Pete Seeger. It included the verse on YouTube.[48]
with the last words sung by Harris on his way to the gal- On June 7, 2010, Roger Waters of Pink Floyd fame relows: We shall all be free. Soon the song was no longer leased a new version of the song as a protest of the Israeli
played on the radio or heard in public in South Africa, blockade of Gaza.[49]
but the song had a new life in South African prisons.[43]
It was also the song Abie Nathan played as the Voice of On July 22, 2012, Bruce Springsteen performed the song
Peace on October 1, 1993, and as a result it found its way during the memorial concert in Oslo after the attacks in
to South Africa in the later years of the anti-apartheid Norway on July 22, 2011.
movement.[43]
Middlesbrough Football Club use this song as an unofThe Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association adopted cial anthem to be sung mainly in times of turmoil and
we shall overcome as a slogan and used it in the ti- defeat. Notable uses were at Wembley Stadium after the
tle of their retrospective autobiography publication, We FA Cup Final defeat against Chelsea in 1996 and after
Shall Overcome The History of the Struggle for Civil relegation due to the English FAs deduction of 3 points
Rights in Northern Ireland 19681978.[44][45] The lm after missing a game during the regular season.
Bloody Sunday depicts march leader MP Ivan Cooper
leading the song shortly before the Bloody Sunday shootings. In 1997, the Christian mens ministry, Promise Adaptation in India
Keepers featured the song on their worship CD for that
year The Making Of A Godly Man featuring (black) Renowned poet Girija Kumar Mathur composed its litworship leader Donn Thomas (along with the Maranatha! eral translation in Hindi "Hum Honge Kaamyab / Ek Din"
Promise Band). Bruce Springsteen re-interpreted the which became a popular patriotic/spiritual song during
song, which has been included on Where Have All the the 1980s, particularly in schools.
Flowers Gone: A Tribute to Pete Seeger and his 2006 al- In Bengali-speaking India and in Bangladesh there are
bum We Shall Overcome: The Seeger Sessions.
two versions, both popular among school-children and
political activists. Amra Karbo Joy (a literal translation)
was translated by the Bengali folk singer Hemanga Biswas
2.14.4 Widespread adaptation
and re-recorded by Bhupen Hazarika. Another version,
translated by Shibdas Bandyopadhyay, Ek Din Surjyer
It was rst adopted in Northern Ireland in 1968, when the Bhor (literally translated as One Day The Sun Will Rise)
Catholics sang this song when protesting for equal rights; was recorded by the Calcutta Youth Choir arranged by
it was the start of future troubles to come which lasted for Ruma Guha Thakurta during the 1971 Bangladesh War
another 30 years
of Independence and became one of the largest selling

Bengali records. It was a favorite of Bangladeshi Prime
Minister Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and regularly sung at
public events after Bangladesh gained independence.
263
African-American Civil Rights Movement in popular culture
In the southern Indian State of Kerala, a traditional com- 2.14.7 Notes

munist stronghold, the song became popular in college
campuses in late 1970s. It was the struggle song of the [1] 281. We Will Overcome. Peoples Songs, September
Students Federation of India SFI, the largest student or1948, p. 8
ganisation in the country. The song translated to the
regional language Malayalam by N. P. Chandrasekha- [2] Where Have All the Flowers Gone: A Musical Autobiography by Pete Seeger, 19931997, p. 34
ran, (.. in Malayalam) an activist
of SFI. The translation followed the same tune of the [3] Dunaway, David King; Beer, Molly (17 March 2010).
original song, as Nammal Vijayikkum (
Singing Out: An Oral History of Americas Folk Music Rein Malayalam). Later it was also published in Student,
vivals. Oxford University Press. pp. 1412. ISBN 978the monthly of SFI in Malayalam and in Sarvadesheeya
0-19-988859-7.
Ganangal (Mythri Books, Thiruvananthapuram), a trans[4] Dunaway, David King, Beer, Molly; Singing Out: An
lation of international struggle songs.
We Shall Overcome was a prominent song in the 2010
Bollywood lm My Name is Khan, which compared the
struggle of Muslims in the modern United States to the
struggles of African Americans in the past. The song was
sung in both English and Hindi in the lm, which starred
Shahrukh Khan.
2.14.5
Copyright and royalties
I'll Overcome Someday, written by Rev. Charles Albert Tindley of the Methodist Episcopal Church (now
The United Methodist Church), is still thought by many
to be the likely source of We Shall Overcome, although
the title, words, and tune dier substantially. Even had
the two been more similar, Tindleys hymn was published
in 1901, and in the public domain, according to United
States copyright law. We Shall Overcome is registered
as a derivative work with no original author listed. It is
an adaptation by Zilphia Horton, Guy Carawan, Frank
Hamilton, and Pete Seeger of a song that Zilphia Horton
heard sung by union organizer Lucille Simmons in 1945.
Hortons heirs, Carawan, Hamilton, and Seeger, share the
artists half of the rights, and TRO (The Richmond Organization, which includes Ludlow Music, Essex, Folkways
Music, and Hollis Music), holds the publishers rights (to
50% of the royalty earnings). Pete Seeger explained that
he took out a defensive copyright on advice of his publisher, TRO, to prevent someone else from doing so and
At that time we didn't know Lucille Simmons name.[50]
Their royalties go to the We Shall Overcome Fund, administered by Highlander under the trusteeship of the
writers (i.e., the holders of the writers share of the
copyright, who, strictly speaking, are the arrangers and
adapters). Such funds are used to give small grants for
cultural expression involving African Americans organizing in the U.S. South.[51]
2.14.6
See also
American Civil Rights Movement Timeline
Oral History of Americas Folk Music Revivals (2010)

Oxford University Press / p. 142
[5] Library of Congress LCCN Permalink for 2012560833.

lccn.loc.gov. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
[6] We Shall Overcome: Sacred Song on the Devils Tongue:
The Story of the most Inuential song of the 20th Century, how it became We Shall Overcome ... Dr. Martin
Luther King, Jr. - died penniless.: Isaias Gamboa, JoAnne
Henry PhD: 9780615475288: Amazon.com: Books.
web.archive.org. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
[7] Isaias Gamboa Explains Who Wrote We Shall Overcome | Vibe. vibe.com. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
[8] CaribPress Costa Rican author, Isaias Gamboa, pens
controversial book. caribpress.com. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
[9] New Book Reveals the Untold History of Iconic Civil
Rights Anthem 'We Shall Overcome'". eurweb.com. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
[10] Streaming Audio Player | www.wsbradio.com". wsbradio.com. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
[11] Raa Brasil Um cruzado no sculo 21 - Como um
guerreiro do tempo das Cruzadas, um afrocostarriquenho
vestiu-se com a armadura da f na justia divina para enfrentar os poderosos que enriqueceram custa de uma
cano religiosa, segundo ele, roubada pelo mercado
pop. racabrasil.uol.com.br. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
[12] Kenneth Miller (February 21, 2013). BOOK REVIEW
We Shall Overcome". Los Angeles Sentinel. Retrieved
October 30, 2014.
[13] We shall overcome : Sacred Song on the Devils Tongue
/ Isaias Gamboa p. 284; edited by JoAnne F. Henry, Ph.D.
and Audrey Owen. Amapola Publishers, Beverly Hills,
California 2012 / US Library of Congress Catalog number: 2012560833/ Call Number: ML3918.P67 G36 2012
[14] Holthaus, David (August 28, 2013). Book: Cincinnati
musician wrote 'We Shall Overcome'". Cincinnati Enquirer. Retrieved February 17, 2014.
[15] PDF No. 0079-2013 of September 3, 2013
264
[16] Inductees in Ohio civil-rights hall of fame urge continued work for equality | The Columbus Dispatch. dispatch.com. Retrieved October 30, 2014.
[17] It is reproduced on the entry for Charles Albert Tindley
on the website of the Taylor House Museum in Berlin,
Maryland, the town of his birth.
[18] The pentatonic scale most favored in African-American
spiritual and folk songs is composed of major seconds and
a minor third. Of the 45 songs in Tindleys catalog, fteen
(approximately one third), use the diatonic scale; fourteen
(nearly a third) use a pentatonic scale; and the remaining seventeen use dierent varieties of gapped (essentially
also pentatonic) scales: ten have the seventh tone omitted; six, the fourth tone omitted; and one uses a four tone
scale. See Horace Clarence Boyer, Charles Albert Tindley: Progenitor of Black-American Gospel Music, The
Black Perspective in Music 11: No. 2 (Autumn, 1983),
pp. 103132.
[19] Tindley was a composer for whom the lyrics constituted its
major element; while the melody and were handled with
care, these elements were regarded as subservient to the
text. (Boyer, [1983], p. 113.)
[20] Boyer (1983), p. 113.
[21] Pete Seeger, 2006 interview with Amy Goodman
(September 9, 2006) states that a professor from Pennsylvania sent him this information in 2004.
[22] The United Mine Workers was racially integrated from its
founding was notable for having a large black presence,
particularly in Alabama and West Virginia. The Alabama
branch, whose membership was three quarters black, in
particular, met with erce, racially based resistance during a strike in 1908 and was crushed. See Daniel Letwin,
Interracial Unionism, Gender, and Social Equality in the
Alabama Coalelds, 18781908, The Journal of Southern History LXI: 3 (August 1955): 519554.
[23] Seeger speculates that, its probably a late 19th century
union version of what was a well-known gospel song, I'll
overcome, I'll overcome, I'll overcome some day. This is
a hypothesis on Seegers part, unless Tindleys composition was, as is entirely possible, a re-working from folk or
even labor movement sources.
[24] Reverend Gary Davis, who was originally from the North
Carolina Piedmont region, sings a version of I'll Be All
Right with the phrase Deep in my heart, I do believe
sung to the familiar We Shall Overcome tune, recorded in
1960. However, Davis, a New York City resident since the
late 1940s, and an important gure in the 1950s and 1960s
folk revival, had by then undoubtedly heard the familiar
modern civil rights anthem.
[25] The Peoples Almanac, (New York: Doubleday, 1975).
[26] Reagon, Bernice Johnson (1975). Songs of the Civil
Rights Movement, 19551965: Study in Culture History.
Ph.D. diss. Howard University: 6566.
[27] Redmond, Shana L. (2014). Anthem: Social Movements
and the Sound of Solidarity in the African Diaspora. New
York: New York University Press. p. 173. ISBN
9780814770412.
[28] James Fuld, tentatively attributes the change to the version by Antron Twigg and Kenneth Morris. See James J.
Fuld, The Book of World-Famous Music: Classical, Popular, and Folk (noted by Wallace and Wallechinsky)1966;
New York: Dover, 1995). According to Alan Lomax's
The Folk Songs of North America, No More Auction
Block For Me originated in Canada and was sung by former slaves who ed there after Britain abolished slavery
in 1833.
[29] Eileen Southern, The Music of Black Americans: A History, Second Edition (Norton, 1971): 54647, 15960.
[30] From the sleeve notes to Bob Dylans Bootleg Series Volumes 13 "... it was Pete Seeger who rst identied
Dylans adaptation of the melody of this song ["No More
Auction Block"] for the composition of Blowin in the
Wind. Indeed, Dylan himself was to admit the debt in
1978, when he told journalist Marc Rowland: Blowin' in
the Wind has always been a spiritual. I took it o a song
called No More Auction Block thats a spiritual, and
Blowin in the Wind sorta follows the same feeling ...
[31] No one has ever found published versions of the tune in
Italy, though a version antedating Herders by a few years
was published in London. In any case, whether he composed or collected it, Herder had based his song on the
Italian folk tradition.
[32] Bobetsky, Victor V. (2015). We Shall Overcome: Essays
on a Great American Song. pp. 14. Retrieved 3 March
2015.
[33] Redmond, Shana L. (2014). Anthem: Social Movements
and the Sound of Solidarity in the African Diaspora. New
York: New York University Press. p. 172. ISBN
9780814770412.
[34] Dunaway, 1990, 22223; Seeger, 1993, 32; see also, Robbie Lieberman, My Song is My Weapon: Peoples Songs,
American Communism, and the Politics of Culture, 1930
50 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, [1989] 1995)
p.46, p. 185
[35] Seeger, Pete, and Peter Blood (eds), Where Have All the
Flowers Gone?: A Singers Stories, Songs, Seeds, Robberies
(1993). Independent Publications Group, Sing Out Publications, ISBN 1-881322-01-7
[36] Ronald Cohen and Dave Samuelson, Songs for Political
Action: Folkmusic, Topical Songs And the American Left
19261953 (This lavish book is published as part of Bear
Family Records 10-CD box set published in Germany in
1996. It includes a selection of satirical Trotskyist songs
from 1953 by Joe Glazer and Bill Friedland that make fun
of folk singers and folk songs in general and are bitterly
critical of the Popular Front and the labor movement from
the point of view of the ultra-left, taking them to task, for
example, for cooperating with FDR and for agreeing not
to strike during the war.
[37] Dunaway, 1990, 222223; Seeger, 1993, 32.
[38] Lyndon Johnson, speech of March 15, 1965, accessed
March 28, 2007 on HistoryPlace.com
[39] A new normal..
[40] A New Addition to Martin Luther Kings Legacy.

[41] Kotz, Nick (2005). 14. Another Martyr. Judgment days
: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King Jr., and the
laws that changed America. Boston: Houghton Miin. p.
419. ISBN 0-618-08825-3.
[42] Thomas, Evan. Robert Kennedy: His Life. New York:
Simon & Schuster. p. 322. ISBN 0-7432-0329-1.
[43] Dunaway ([1981, 1990] 2008) p. 243.
[44] CAIN: Civil Rights Association by Bob Purdie
[45] CAIN: Events: Civil Rights We Shall Overcome published by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association
(NICRA; 1978)
[46] The NPR 100 The most important American musical
works of the 20th century
[47] We Have Overcome. Washington Bureau Herd in
Washington | Washington Bureau. January 20, 2009
10:35 AM.
[48] Ledarbloggens Youtubiana hela listan! Svenska Dagbladet, 2 October 2008 (Swedish)
[49] Roger Waters releases We Shall Overcome video Floydian Slip, June 7, 2010.
[50] Seeger, 1993, p. 33
[51] Highlander Reports, 2004, p. 3.
2.14.8
References
Dunaway, David, How Can I Keep from Singing:

Pete Seeger, (orig. pub. 1981, reissued 1990). Da
Capo, New York, ISBN 0-306-80399-2.
Seeger, Pete, and Peter Blood (eds.), Where Have
All the Flowers Gone?: A Singers Stories, Songs,
Seeds, Robberies (1993). Independent Publications
Group, Sing Out Publications, ISBN 1-881322-017
Seeger, Pete, and Peter Blood (eds.), The We Shall
Overcome Fund. Highlander Reports, newsletter
of the Highlander Research and Education Center,
AugustNovember 2004, p. 3.
We Shall Overcome, PBS Home Video 174, 1990,
58 minutes.
265

Sing for Freedom: The Story of the Civil Rights
Movement Through Its Songs: Compiled and edited
by Guy and Candie Carawan; foreword by Julian
Bond (New South Books, 2007), comprising two
classic collections of freedom songs: We Shall
Overcome (1963) and Freedom Is A Constant Struggle (1968), reprinted in a single edition. The book
includes a major new introduction by Guy and Candie Carawan, words and music to the songs, important documentary photographs, and rsthand accounts by participants in the Civil Rights Movement.
Available from Highlander Center.
We Shall Overcome! Songs of the Southern Freedom
Movement: Julius Lester, editorial assistant. Ethel
Raim, music editor: Additional musical transcriptions: Joseph Byrd [and] Guy Carawan. New York:
Oak Publications, 1963.
Freedom is a Constant Struggle, compiled and edited
by Guy and Candie Carawan. Oak Publications,
1968.
Alexander Tsesis, We Shall Overcome: A History
of Civil Rights and the Law. Yale University Press,
2008.
Stuart Stotts, We Shall Overcome: A Song that
Changed the World, illustrated by Terrance Cummings, foreword by Pete Seeger. New York: Clarion
Books, 2010.
Sing for Freedom, Folkways Records, produced
by Guy and Candie Carawan, and the Highlander
Center. Field recordings from 1960 to 1988,
with the Freedom Singers, Birmingham Movement
Choir, Georgia Sea Island Singers, Doc Reese, Phil
Ochs, Pete Seeger, Len Chandler, and many others.
Smithsonian-Folkways CD version 1990.
We Shall Overcome: The Complete Carnegie Hall
Concert, June 8, 1963, Historic Live recording June
8, 1963. Two-disc set, includes the full concert,
starring Pete Seeger, with the Freedom Singers,
Columbia # 45312, 1989. Re-released 1997 by
Sony as a box CD set.
Voices of the Civil Rights Movement: Black American
Freedom Songs 19601966 [BOX CD SET] With
the Freedom Singers, Fanny Lou Hammer, and Bernice Johnson Reagon, Smithsonian-Folkways CD
ASIN: B000001DJT (1997).
Gamboa, Isaias We Shall Overcome: Sacred Song 2.14.10 External links

on the Devils Tongue / Amapola Publishers, Beverly Hills, California 2012 / US Library of Congress
We Shall Overcome on National Public Radio
Catalog number: 2012560833/ Call Number:
Lyrics
ML3918.P67 G36 2012 / ISBN 978-0615475288
266
Charles Tindley page on Taylor House Museum. 2.15 Black Power

This page also reproduces the We Shall Overcome
entry from Wallace and Wallechinskys Peoples Al- For the prominent gang in New Zealand, see Black
manac.
Power (New Zealand).
Authorized Prole of Guy Carawan with history of
the song, We Shall Overcome from the Association Black Power is a political slogan and a name for
various associated ideologies aimed at achieving selfof Cultural Equity
determination for people of African/Black descent.[1] It
[2]
Freedom in the Air: Albany Georgia. 196162. is used by African Americans in the United States. It
SNCC #101. Recorded by Guy Carawan, produced was prominent in the late 1960s and early 1970s, emphafor the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Commit- sizing racial pride and the creation of black political and
tee by Guy Carawan and Alan Lomax. "Freedom cultural institutions to nurture and promote black collec[3]
In the Air ... is a record of the 1961 protest in Al- tive interests and advance black values.
bany, Georgia, when, two weeks before Christmas, Black Power expresses a range of political goals, from
737 people brought the town nearly to a halt to force defense against racial oppression, to the establishment of
its integration. The records never been reissued and social institutions and a self-sucient economy. The earthats a shame, as its a moving document of a com- liest known usage of the term is found in a 1954 book by
munity through its protest songs, church services, Richard Wright entitled Black Power.[4] Although he did
and experiences in the thick of the civil rights strug- not coin the phrase, New York politician Adam Claygle. Nathan Salsburg, host, Root Hog or Die, ton Powell Jr. used the term on May 29, 1966 during a
East Village Radio, January 2007.
baccalaureate address at Howard University: To demand
these God-given rights is to seek black power.[4]
Susannes Folksong-Notizen, excerpts from various
articles, liner notes, etc. about We Shall Overcome.
Musical Transcription of We Shall Overcome, based
on a recording of Pete Seegers version, sung
with the SNCC Freedom Singers on the 1963 live
Carnegie Hall recording, and the 1988 version by
Pete Seeger sung at a reunion concert with Pete
and the Freedom Singers on the anthology, Sing for
Freedom, recorded in the eld 196088 and edited
and annotated by Guy and Candie Carawan, released
in 1990 as Smithsonian-Folkways CD SF 40032.
NPR news article including full streaming versions
of Pete Seegers classic 1963 live Carnegie Hall
recording and Bruce Springsteens tribute version.
"Pete Seeger & the story of 'We Shall Overcome'"
from 1968 interview on the Pop Chronicles.
2.15.1 Origin as a political slogan

The rst popular use of the term Black Power as a social
and racial slogan was by Stokely Carmichael (later known
as Kwame Ture) and Willie Ricks (later known as Mukasa
Dada), both organizers and spokespersons for the Student
Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). On June
16, 1966, in a speech in Greenwood, Mississippi after
the shooting of James Meredith during the March Against
Fear, Stokely Carmichael said:[5][6]
This is the twenty-seventh time I have been
arrested and I ain't going to jail no more! The
only way we gonna stop them white men from
whuppin' us is to take over. What we gonna
start sayin' now is Black Power!
Stokely Carmichael saw the concept of Black Power

Something About That Song Haunts You, essay on as a means of solidarity between individuals within the
the history of We Shall Overcome, Complicated movement. It was a replacement of the Freedom
Fun, June 9, 2006.
Now!" slogan of non-violent leader Martin Luther King.
With his conception and articulation of the word, he
Irv Lichtman, Howie Richmond Views Craft Of felt this movement was not just a movement for racial
Song: Publishing Giant Celebrates 50 Years As desegregation, but rather a movement to help combat
TRO Founder, Billboard, 8, 28, 1999. Excerpt: Americas crippling racism. He said, For the last time,
Key folk songs in the [TRO] catalog, as arranged 'Black Power' means black people coming together to
by a number of folklorists, are 'We Shall Over- form a political force and either electing representatives
come,' 'Kisses Sweeter Than Wine' 'On Top Of Old or forcing their representatives to speak their needs.[7]
Smokey,' 'So Long, Its Been Good To Know You,'
'Goodnight Irene,' 'If I Had A Hammer,' 'Tom Doo2.15.2 A range of ideologies
ley,' and 'Rock Island Line.'"
We Shall Overcome Book, Site for Stotts book (see
below) with related links and teacher guides.
Black Power adherents believed in Black autonomy, with

a variety of tendencies such as black nationalism, and
2.15. BLACK POWER

black separatism. Such positions caused friction with
leaders of the mainstream Civil Rights Movement, and
thus the two movements have sometimes been viewed as
inherently antagonistic. However, many groups and individuals - including Rosa Parks,[8] Robert F. Williams,
Maya Angelou, Gloria Richardson, and Fay Bellamy
Powell - participated in both civil rights and black power
activism. A growing number of scholars conceive of the
civil rights and black power movements as one interconnected Black Freedom Movement.[9][10][11]
Not all Black Power advocates were in favor of black separatism. While Stokely Carmichael and SNCC were in
favor of separatism for a time in the late 1960s, organizations such as the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense
were not. Though the Panthers considered themselves to
be at war with the prevailing white supremacist power
structure, they were not at war with all whites, but rather
those (mostly white) individuals empowered by the injustices of the structure and responsible for its reproduction.
Bobby Seale, Chairman and Co-Founder of the Black
Panther Party for Self-Defense, was outspoken about this.
His stand was that the oppression of black people was
more of a result of economic exploitation than anything
innately racist. In his book Seize the Time, he states that
In our view it is a class struggle between the massive proletarian working class and the small, minority ruling class.
Working-class people of all colors must unite against the
exploitative, oppressive ruling class. So let me emphasize
againwe believe our ght is a class struggle and not a
race struggle.[12]
267
Robert F. Willams, president of the Monroe, North Carolina chapter of the NAACP, openly questioned the ideology of nonviolence and its domination of the movements strategy. Williams was supported by prominent leaders such as Ella Baker and James Forman,
and opposed by others, such as Roy Wilkins (the national NAACP chairman) and Martin Luther King.[16]
In 1961, Maya Angelou, Leroi Jones, and Mae Mallory led a riotous (and widely-covered) demonstration at
the United Nations to protest the assassination of Patrice
Lumumba.[17][18] Malcolm X, national representative of
the Nation of Islam, also launched an extended critique
of nonviolence and integrationism at this time. After seeing the increasing militancy of blacks in the wake of the
16th Street Baptist Church bombing, and wearying of the
domination of Elijah Muhammed over the Nation of Islam, Malcolm left that organization and engaged with the
mainstream of the Civil Rights Movement. Malcolm was
now open to voluntary integration as a long-term goal,
but still supported armed self-defense, self-reliance, and
black nationalism; he became a simultaneous spokesman
for the militant wing of the Civil Rights Movement and
the non-separatist wing of the Black Power movement.
An early manifestation of Black Power in popular culture

was the performances given by Nina Simone at Carnegie
Hall in March 1964, and the album In Concert which resulted from them. Simone mocked liberal nonviolence
(Go Limp), and took a vengeful position toward white
racists ("Mississippi Goddamn" and her adaptation of
"Pirate Jenny"). Historian Ruth Feldstein writes that,
Contrary to the neat historical trajectories which suggest
Internationalist oshoots of black power include African that black power came late in the decade and only after
Internationalism, pan-Africanism, black nationalism, and the 'successes of earlier eorts, Simones album makes
black supremacy.
clear that black power perspectives were already taking
shape and circulating widely...in the early 1960s. [19]
2.15.3
Background
See also: Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee

The term Black Power was used in a dierent sense in
the 1850s by Black leader Frederick Douglass as an alternative name for the Slave Powerthat is the disproportionate political power at the national level held by slave
owners in the South.[13] Douglass predicted: The days
of Black Power are numbered. Its course, indeed is onward. But with the swiftness of an arrow, it rushes to
the tomb. While crushing its millions, it is also crushing
itself. The sword of Retribution, suspended by a single
hair, hangs over it. That sword must fall. Liberty must
triumph.[14]
In apartheid South Africa, Nelson Mandela's African
National Congress used the call-and-response chant
"Amandla! (Power!)", Ngawethu! (The power is ours!)"
from the late 1950s onward.[15]
The modern American concept emerged from the civil
rights movement in the early 1960s. Beginning in 1959,
By 1966, most of SNCCs eld sta, among them Stokely

Carmichael (later Kwame Ture), were becoming critical of the nonviolent approach to confronting racism and
inequalityarticulated and promoted by Martin Luther
King, Jr., Roy Wilkins, and other moderatesand rejected desegregation as a primary objective. King was
critical of the black power movement, stating in an August 1967 speech to the SCLC: Let us be dissatised
until that day when nobody will shout 'White Power!'
when nobody will shout 'Black Power!' but everybody
will talk about Gods power and human power.[20] In his
1967 book, Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?, King stated:
In the nal analysis the weakness of Black
Power is its failure to see that the black man
needs the white man and the white man needs
the black man. However much we may try
to romanticize the slogan, there is no separate black path to power and fulllment that
does not intersect white paths, and there is no
separate white path to power and fulllment,
268

short of social disaster, that does not share that
power with black aspirations for freedom and
human dignity. We are bound together in a single garment of destiny. The language, the cultural patterns, the music, the material prosperity, and even the food of America are an amalgam of black and white.[21]
While King never endorsed the slogan, his rhetoric sometimes came close to it. In his 1967 book Where Do We
Go From Here?, King wrote that power is not the white
mans birthright; it will not be legislated for us and delivered in neat government packages.[26]
2.15.4 Impact
SNCCs base of support was generally younger and more
working-class than that of the other Big Five[22] civil
rights organizations and became increasingly more militant and outspoken over time. As a result, as the Civil
Rights Movement progressed, increasingly radical, more
militant voices came to the fore to aggressively challenge
white hegemony. Increasing numbers of black youth,
particularly, rejected their elders moderate path of cooperation, racial integration and assimilation. They rejected
the notion of appealing to the publics conscience and religious creeds and took the tack articulated by another
black activist more than a century before, abolitionist
Frederick Douglass, who wrote:
Those who profess to favor freedom, and
yet depreciate agitation, are men who want
crops without plowing up the ground. They
want rain without thunder and lightning. They
want the ocean without the awful roar of its
many waters. ...Power concedes nothing without demand. It never did and it never will.[23]
Most early 1960s civil rights leaders did not believe in
physically violent retaliation. However, much of the
African-American rank-and-le, and those leaders with
strong working-class ties, tended to compliment nonviolent action with armed self-defense. For instance, prominent nonviolent activist Fred Shuttlesworth of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (and a leader of the
1963 Birmingham campaign), had worked closely with
an armed defense group that was led by Colonel Stone
Johnson. As Alabama historian Frye Gaillard writes,
Although the concept remained imprecise and contested

and the people who used the slogan ranged from business people who used it to push black capitalism to revolutionaries who sought an end to capitalism, the idea of
Black Power exerted a signicant inuence. It helped organize scores of community self-help groups and institutions that did not depend on Whites. It was used to force
black studies programs at colleges, to mobilize black voters to elect black candidates, and to encourage greater
racial pride and self-esteem.
One of the most spectacular and unexpected demonstrations for Black Power occurred at the 1968 Summer
Olympics in Mexico City. At the conclusion of the 200m
race, at the medal ceremony, United States gold medalist Tommie Smith and bronze medalist John Carlos wore
Olympic Project for Human Rights badges and showed
the raised st (see 1968 Olympics Black Power salute)
as the anthem played. Accompanying them was silver
medalist Peter Norman, a white Australian sprinter, who
also wore an OPHR badge to show his support for the two
African-Americans.
Impact on Black politics
Though the Black Power movement did not immediately

remedy the political problems faced by African Americans in the 1960s and 1970s, the movement did contribute to the development of black politics both directly
and indirectly. As a contemporary of and successor to
the Civil Rights Movement, the Black Power movement
created, what sociologist Herbert H. Haines refers to as
a positive radical ank eect" on political aairs of the
...these were the kind of men Fred
1960s. Though the nature of the relationship between the
Shuttlesworth admired, a mirror of
Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power movement is
the toughness he aspired to himcontested, Haines study of the relationship between black
selfThey went armed [during the
radicals and the mainstream civil rights movement indiFreedom Rides], for it was one
cates that Black Power generated a crisis in American inof the realities of the civil rights
stitutions which made the legislative agenda of 'polite, removement that however nonviolent
alistic, and businesslike' mainstream organizations more
it may have been at its heart, there
appealing to politicians. In this way, it can be argued
was always a current of 'any means
that the more strident and oppositional messages of the
necessary,' as the black power adBlack Power movement indirectly enhanced the bargainvocates would say later on.[24]
ing position of more moderate activists.[27] Black Power
activists approached politics with vitality, variety, wit,
During the March Against Fear, there was a division be- and creativity that shaped the way future generations aptween those aligned with Martin Luther King, Jr. and proached dealing with Americas societal problems (Mcthose aligned with Carmichael, marked by their respec- Cartney 188). These activists capitalized on the nations
tive slogans, Freedom Now and Black Power.[25]
recent awareness of the political nature of oppression, a
2.15. BLACK POWER
269
primary focus of the Civil Rights Movement, developing tural inequality, features emerging from the Black Power
numerous political action caucuses and grass roots com- movement.[32] Because the Black Power movement emmunity associations to remedy the situation [27]
phasized and explored a black identity, movement acThe National Black Political Convention, held March tivists were forced to confront issues of gender and class
1012, 1972, was a signicant milestone in black pol- as well. Many activists in the Black Power movement beitics of the Black Power era. Held in Gary, Indiana, came active in related movements. This is seen in the
a majorly black city, the convention included a diverse case of the second wave of womens right activism, a
group of black activists, although it completely excluded movement supported and orchestrated to a certain degree
by women working from within the coalition ranks of the
whites. The convention was criticized for its racial ex[33]
clusivity by Roy Wilkins of the NAACP, a group that Black Power movement. The boundaries between social movements became increasingly unclear at the end
supported integration. The delegates created a National
Black Political Agenda with stated goals including the of the 1960s and into the 1970s; where the Black Power
movement ends and where these other social movements
election of a proportionate number of black representatives to Congress, community control of schools, national begin is often unclear. It is pertinent to note that as the
movement expanded the variables of gender, class, and
health insurance, etc. Though the convention did not reof strategy and methodology in
sult in any direct policy, the convention advanced goals of only compounded issues
[34]
black
protest
thought.
the Black Power movement and left participants buoyed
by a spirit of possibility and themes of unity and selfdetermination. A concluding note to the convention, ad- Impact on African-American identity
dressing its supposed idealism, read: At every critical
moment of our struggle in America we have had to press
relentlessly against the limits of the 'realistic' to create
new realities for the life of our people. This is our challenge at Gary and beyond, for a new Black politics demands new vision, new hope and new denitions of the
possible. Our time has come. These things are necessary. All things are possible.[28] Though such political
activism may not have resulted in direct policy, they provided political models for later movements, advanced a
pro-black political agenda, and brought sensitive issues to
the forefront of American politics. In its confrontational
and often oppositional nature, the Black Power movement started a debate within the black community and
America as a nation over issues of racial progress, citizenship, and democracy, namely the nature of American
society and the place of the African American in it.[29]
The continued intensity of debate over these same social
and political issues is a tribute to the impact of the Black
Power movement in arousing the political awareness and
passions of citizens.[30]
Impact on other movements

Though the aims of the Black Power movement were
racially specic, much of the movements impact has
been its inuence on the development and strategies of
later political and social movements. By igniting and
sustaining debate on the nature of American society,
the Black Power movement created what other multiracial and minority groups interpreted to be a viable template for the overall restructuring of society.[31] By opening up discussion on issues of democracy and equality, the Black Power movement paved the way for a
diverse plurality of social justice movements, including black feminism, environmental movements, armative action, and gay and lesbian rights. Central to these
movements were the issues of identity politics and struc-
Protester raises his hand in black power salute, Ferguson, Missouri, 15 August 2014
Due to the negative and militant reputation of such auxiliaries as that of the Black Panther Party, many people felt that this movement of insurrection would soon
serve to cause discord and disharmony through the entire
U.S. Even Stokely Carmichael stated, When you talk of
Black Power, you talk of building a movement that will
smash everything Western civilization has created.[35]
270
Though Black Power at the most basic level refers to a
political movement, the psychological and cultural messages of the Black Power movement, though less tangible, have had perhaps a longer lasting impact on American society than concrete political changes. Indeed, xation on the 'political' hinders appreciation of the movements cultural manifestations and unnecessarily obscures
black cultures role in promoting the psychological well
being of the Afro-American people,[36] states William
L. Van Deburg, author of A New Day in Babylon, movement leaders never were as successful in winning power
for the people as they were in convincing people that
they had sucient power within themselves to escape
'the prison of self-deprecation'" [37] Primarily, the liberation and empowerment experienced by African Americans occurred in the psychological realm. The movement uplifted the black community as a whole by cultivating feelings of racial solidarity, often in opposition
to the world of white Americans, a world that had physically and psychologically oppressed Blacks for generations. Through the movement, Blacks came to understand
themselves and their culture by exploring and debating
the question, who are we?" in order to establish a unied and viable identity.[38]

sociation. Obi Egbuna, the spokesperson for the group,
claimed they had recruited 778 members in London during the previous seven weeks.[41] In 1968 Egbuni published Black Power or Death. He was also active with
CLR James and Calvin Hernton in the Antiuniversity of
London,[42] set up following the Dialectics of Liberation
Congress.
Afro-British who identied themselves as the British

Black Power Movement (BBMP) formed in the 1960s.
They worked with the U.S. Black Panther Party in 1967
- 1968, and 1968 - 1972.[43] The On March 2, 1970,
roughly one hundred people protested outside the U.S.
embassy in Grosvenor Square, London, in support of the
U.S. Black Panther founder Bobby Seale, who was on trial
for murder in New Haven, Connecticut.[43] They chanted
Free Bobby!" and carried posters proclaiming Free,
Free bobby Seale and You can kill a revolutionary but
not a revolution. [43] London police arrested sixteen of
the protestors that day, three women and thirteen men
with threatening and assaulting police ocers, distributing a ier entitled the Denition of Black Power., intending to incite a breach of the peace, and willful damage
to a police raincoat. The raincoat charge was dropped by
the judge, but the judge found ve of the accused guilty
Throughout the Civil Rights Movement and black his- of the remaining charges.[43]
tory, a tension has existed between those wishing to minimize and maximize racial dierence. W.E.B. Du Bois
and Martin Luther King Jr. often attempted to deem- Impact in Jamaica
phasize race in their quest for equality, while those advocating for separatism and colonization emphasized an ex- A Black Power movement arose in Jamaica in the late
treme and irreconcilable dierence between races. The 1960s. Though Jamaica had gained independence from
Black Power movement largely achieved an equilibrium the British Empire in 1962, and Prime Minister Hugh
of balanced and humane ethnocentrism.[38] The im- Shearer was black, many cabinet ministers (such as
pact of the Black Power movement in generating valu- Edward Seaga) and business elites were white. Large segable discussion about ethnic identity and black conscious- ments of the black majority population were unemployed
ness manifests itself in the relatively recent proliferation or did not earn a living wage. The Jamaica Labour Party
of academic elds such as American studies, Black Stud- government of Hugh Shearer banned Black Power literies, and Africana studies in both national and interna- ature such as The Autobiography of Malcolm X and the
tional institutions.[39] The respect and attention accorded works of Eldridge Cleaver and Stokely Carmichael.
to African Americans history and culture in both for- Guyanese academic Walter Rodney was appointed as a
mal and informal settings today is largely a product of lecturer at the University of the West Indies in January
the movement for Black Power in the 1960s and 1970s. 1968, and became one of the main exponents of Black
Power in Jamaica. When the Shearer government banned
Rodney from re-entering the country, the Rodney Riots
Impact in Britain
broke out. As a result of the Rodney aair, radical groups
and publications such as Abeng began to emerge, and the
Black Power got a foothold in Britain when Carmichael opposition Peoples National Party gained support. In the
came to London in July 1967 to attend the Dialectics 1972 election, the Jamaica Labour Party was defeated by
of Liberation Congress. As well as his address at the the Peoples National Party, and Michael Manley, who
Congress, he also made a speech at Speakers Corner. had expressed support for Black Power, became Prime
At that time there was no Black Power organization in Minister.[44]
Britain, although there was Michael X's Racial Adjustment Action Society.[40] However, this was more inuenced by the visit of Malcolm X in that year. Michael Black is beautiful
X also adopted Islam at this stage, whereas Black Power
was not organized around any religious institution. The Main article: Black is beautiful
Black Power Manifesto was launched on 10 November
1967, published by the Universal Coloured Peoples As- The cultivation of pride in the African-American race
2.15. BLACK POWER
271
was often summarized in the phrase "Black is Beautiful.

The phrase is rooted in its historical context, yet the relationship to it has changed in contemporary times. I don't
think its 'Black is beautiful' anymore. Its 'I am beautiful and I'm black.' Its not the symbolic thing, the afro,
power sign That phase is over and it succeeded. My
children feel better about themselves and they know that
they're black, stated a respondent in Bob Blauners longitudinal oral history of U.S. race relations in 1986.[45]
The outward manifestations of an appreciation and celebration of blackness abound: black dolls, natural hair,
black Santas, models and celebrities that were once rare
and symbolic have become commonplace.
to an American society that had previously been dominated by white artistic and cultural expressions. Black
power utilized all available forms of folk, literary, and
dramatic expression based in a common ancestral past to
promote a message of self-actualization and cultural selfdenition.[48] The emphasis on a distinctive black culture
during the Black Power movement publicized and legitimized a culture gap between Blacks and Whites that had
previously been ignored and denigrated. More generally,
in recognizing the legitimacy of another culture and challenging the idea of white cultural superiority, the Black
Power movement paved the way for the celebration of
multiculturalism in America today.
The Black is beautiful cultural movement aimed to dispel the notion that black people's natural features such as
skin color, facial features and hair are inherently ugly.[46]
John Sweat Rock was the rst to coin the phrase Black is
Beautiful, in the slavery era. The movement asked that
men and women stop straightening their hair and attempting to lighten or bleach their skin.[47] The prevailing idea
in American culture was that black features are less attractive or desirable than white features. The movement
is largely responsible for the popularity of the Afro.
The cultural concept of soul was fundamental to the image of African-American culture embodied by the Black
Power movement. Soul, a type of in-group cultural cachet, was closely tied to black Americas need for individual and group self-identication.[49] A central expression of the soulfulness of the Black Power generation
was a cultivation of aloofness and detachment, the creation of an aura or emotional invulnerability, a persona
that challenged their position of relative powerlessness in
greater society. The nonverbal expressions of this attitude, including everything from posture to handshakes,
were developed as a counterpoint to the rigid, up-tight
mannerisms of white people. Though the iconic symbol of black power, the arms raised with biceps exed
and clenched sts, is temporally specic, variants of the
multitude of handshakes, or giving and getting skin, in
the 1960s and 1970s as a mark of communal solidarity
continue to exist as a part of black culture.[50] Clothing
style also became an expression of Black Power in the
1960s and 1970s. Though many of the popular trends
of the movement remained conned to the decade, the
movement redened standards of beauty that were historically inuenced by Whites and instead celebrated a
natural blackness. As Stokely Carmichael said in 1966,
We have to stop being ashamed of being black. A broad
nose, thick lip and nappy hair is us and we are going to call
that beautiful whether they like it or not.[51] Natural
hair styles, such as the Afro, became a socially acceptable tribute to group unity and a highly visible celebration of black heritage. Though the same social messages
may no longer consciously inuence individual hair or
clothing styles in todays society, the Black Power movement was inuential in diversifying standards of beauty
and aesthetic choices. The Black Power movement raised
the idea of a black aesthetic that revealed the worth and
beauty of all black people.[52]
Impact on arts and culture
Three Proud People mural in Newtown, depicting the 1968

Olympics Black Power salute.
The Black Power movement produced artistic and cultural products that both embodied and generated pride
in blackness and further dened an African-American
identity that remains contemporary. Black Power is often seen as a cultural revolution as much as a political
revolution, with the goal of celebrating and emphasizing the distinctive group culture of African Americans
In developing a powerful identity from the most elemental

aspects of African-American folk life, the Black Power
movement generated attention to the concept of "soul
food, a fresh, authentic, and natural style of cooking
that originated in Africa. The avor and solid nourishment of the food was credited with sustaining African
Americans through centuries of oppression in America
and became an important aid in nurturing contemporary
272
racial pride.[53] Black Power advocates used the concept

of soul food to further distinguish between white and
black culture; though the basic elements of soul food were
not specic to African-American food, Blacks believed
in the distinctive quality, if not superiority, of foods prepared by Blacks. No longer racially specic, traditional
soul foods such as yams, collard greens, and deep-fried
chicken continue to hold a place in contemporary culinary
life.
Black Arts Movement Main article:
Movement
Black Arts
The Black Arts Movement or BAM, founded in Harlem

by writer and activist Amiri Baraka (born Everett LeRoy
Jones), can be seen as the artistic branch of the Black
Power movement.[54] This movement inspired black people to establish ownership of publishing houses, magazines, journals and art institutions. Other well-known
writers who were involved with this movement included
Nikki Giovanni; Don L. Lee, later known as Haki Madhubuti; Sonia Sanchez; Maya Angelou; Dudley Randall;
Sterling Plumpp; Larry Neal; Ted Joans; Ahmos ZuBolton; and Etheridge Knight. Several black-owned publishing houses and publications sprang from the BAM, including Madhubutis Third World Press, Broadside Press,
Zu-Boltons Energy Black South Press, and the periodicals Callaloo and Yardbird Reader. Although not strictly
involved with the Movement, other notable AfricanAmerican writers such as novelists Ishmael Reed and
Toni Morrison and poet Gwendolyn Brooks can be considered to share some of its artistic and thematic concerns.
BAM sought to link, in a highly conscious manner,
art and politics in order to assist in the liberation of
black people, and produced an increase in the quantity
and visibility of African-American artistic production.[55]
Though many elements of the Black Arts movement are
separate from the Black Power movement, many goals,
themes, and activists overlapped. Literature, drama, and
music of Blacks served as an oppositional and defensive
mechanism through which creative artists could conrm
their identity while articulating their own unique impressions of social reality.[56] In addition to acting as highly
visible and unifying representations of blackness, the
artistic products of the Black Power movement also utilized themes of black empowerment and liberation.[57]
For instance, black recording artists not only transmitted messages of racial unity through their music, they
also became signicant role models for a younger generation of African Americans.[58] Updated protest songs
not only bemoaned oppression and societal wrongs, but
utilized adversity as a reference point and tool to lead others to activism. Some Black Power era artists conducted
brief mini-courses in the techniques of empowerment. In
the tradition of cultural nationalists, these artists taught
that in order to alter social conditions, Blacks rst had
to change the way they viewed themselves; they had to

break free of white norms and strive to be more natural,
a common theme of African-American art and music.[59]
Musicians such as the Temptations sang lyrics such as I
have one single desire, just like you / So move over, son,
'cause I'm comin' through in their song Message From a
Black Man, they expressed the revolutionary sentiments
of the Black Power movement.[60]
Ishmael Reed, who is considered neither a movement
apologist nor advocate, said: I wasn't invited to participate because I was considered an integrationist but he
went on to explain the positive aspects of the Black Arts
Movement and the Black Power movement:
I think what Black Arts did was inspire a
whole lot of Black people to write. Moreover,
there would be no multiculturalism movement
without Black Arts. Latinos, Asian Americans,
and others all say they began writing as a result of the example of the 1960s. Blacks gave
the example that you don't have to assimilate.
You could do your own thing, get into your own
background, your own history, your own tradition and your own culture. I think the challenge
is for cultural sovereignty and Black Arts struck
a blow for that.[61]
By breaking into a eld typically reserved for white
Americans, artists of the Black Power era expanded opportunities for current African Americans. Todays writers and performers, writes William L. Van Deburg, recognize that they owe a great deal to Black Powers explosion of cultural orthodoxy.[62]
Controversies
Bayard Rustin, an elder statesman of the Civil Rights
Movement, was a harsh critic of Black Power in its earliest days. Writing in 1966, shortly after the March Against
Fear, Rustin said that Black Power not only lacks any real
value for the civil rights movement, but [...] its propagation is positively harmful. It diverts the movement from a
meaningful debate over strategy and tactics, it isolates the
Negro community, and it encourages the growth of antiNegro forces. He particularly criticized the Congress of
Racial Equality (CORE) and SNCC for their turn toward
Black Power, arguing that these two organizations once
awakened the country, but now they emerge isolated and
demoralized, shouting a slogan that may aord a momentary satisfaction but that is calculated to destroy them and
their movement.[63]
2.15.5 See also

Reverse racism
1968 Olympics Black Power salute
2.15. BLACK POWER

African independence movements
African-American Jewish relations#Black power
movement
Black anarchism
Black Consciousness Movement
Black feminism
Black Power (New Zealand), Mori gang
Black Power Revolution
Black pride
Eldridge Cleaver
Deacons for Defense and Justice
Marcus Garvey
Wadsworth Jarrell, one of the leading artists of the
Black Arts Movement
Obi Egbuna
273
[6] Matthew Duncan':Black Power salute by John Dominis1968.matthewduncan07 The Chateau Theme,7 November 2013.Web.7 November 2013
[7] Stokely Carmichael, King Encyclopedia, The Martin
Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute, Stanford University. Accessed 20 November 2006.
[8] Jeanne Theoharis, " 'I Don't Believe in Gradualism': Rosa
Parks and the Black Power Movement in Detroit Paper presented at the annual meeting of the 96th Annual
Convention of the Association for the Study of AfricanAmerican Life and History
[9] Clayborne Carson, Black Freedom Movement
[10] Premilla Nadasen The Black Freedom Movement City
University of New York
[11] Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom
Movement (University of North Carolina Press, 2003)
[12] Seale, Bobby. Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton. New York: Black Classic
Press, 1996, p. 72.
[13] Winston A. Van Horne, Sustaining Black Studies, Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 37, No. 3, (Jan., 2007)
Ngritude
[14] Van Horne Sustaining Black Studies (Jan., 2007)
New Black Panthers
[15] Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom (Litte, Brown,

and Co., 1994), p. 318
Huey P. Newton
Fred Hampton
Protests of 1968
Red Power movement
Republic of New Africa
Volksgemeinschaft
2.15.6
Notes
[1] Scott, James. Wilson. (1976). The black revolts: racial

stratication in the U.S.A. : the politics of estate, caste,
and class in the American society. Cambridge, Mass:
Schenkman Pub.
[2] Ogbar, J. O. G. (2005). Black power: radical politics and
African American identity. Reconguring American political history. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. Page 2.
[3] Appiah, A., & Gates, H. L. (1999). Africana: the encyclopedia of the African and African American experience.
New York: Basic Civitas Books, p. 262.
[4] Yale Book of Quotations (2006), Yale University Press,
edited by Fred R. Shapiro.
[5] Hasan Jeries (2010). Bloody Lowndes: Civil Rights and
Black Power in Alabamas Black Belt. NYU Press. p. 187.
[16] Timothy B. Tyson, Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,'

and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle, Journal of American History 85, No. 2 (Sep., 1998):
540-570
[17] Peniel Joseph, ed., Black Power Movement: Rethinking the
Civil Rights-Black Power Era (Routledge, 2013), p. 55-61
[18] James Baldwin, A Negro Assays the Negro Mood The
New York Times Magazine, March 12, 1961
[19] Ruth Feldstein, Nina Simone: The Antidote to the 'We
Shall Overcome' Myth of the Civil Rights Movement
History News Network (George Mason University)
[20] King, Martin Luther (August 16, 1967). Address to the
Southern Christian Leadership Conference. Stanford.
[21] King, Martin Luther (1967). Where Do We Go from Here:
Chaos or Community?.
[22] In addition to SNCC, the other Big Five organizations
of the civil rights movement were the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the Urban
League, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference,
and the Congress on Racial Equality.
[23] Douglass, Frederick. Letter to an abolitionist associate
(1857). In Organizing for Social Change: A Mandate For
Activity In The 1990s. Bobo, K.; Randall, J.; and Max, S.
(eds). Cabin John, Maryland: Seven Locks Press (1991).
[24] Frye Gaillard, Cradle of Freedom: Alabama and the
Movement That Changed America (University of Alabama
Press, 2004) pg 82-83
274
[25] Scott Saul, On the Lower Frequencies: Rethinking the

Black Power Movement, pp. 92-98, in Harpers, December 2006, p. 94
[26] Cited in Scott Saul, On the Lower Frequencies, p. 95.
[27] Van DeBurg, William L. New Day in Babylon: The
Black Power Movement and American Culture, 19651975. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992,
p. 306.
[28] American Experience | Eyes on the Prize | Milestones
|. PBS. 5 April 2009 <http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/
eyesontheprize/milestones/m13_nbpc.html>.
[29] McCartney, John T. Black Power Ideologies: An Essay in
African-American Political Thought. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992.
[30] McCartney, John T. Black, Power Ideologies: An Essay in
African-American Political Thought. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992.
[31] Joseph, Peniel E. Waiting 'til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America. New York: Henry
Holt and Company, 2006, p. xiv.
Holt and Company, 2006, p. 294.
[33] Williams, Hettie V. We Shall Overcome to We Shall Overrun: The Collapse of the Civil Rights Movement and the
Black Power Revolt (1962-1968). Lanham, MA: University Press of America, 2009, p. 92.
Holt and Company, 2006. p. 92
[35] Stephen, Curtis. Life of A Party. Crisis; Sep/Oct2006,
Vol. 113 Issue 5, p. 30-37, 8p.
[42] Jakobsen, Jakob (2012), Anti-University of Londin

Antihistory Tabloid, London: MayDay Rooms
[43] The Black Panthers in London, 1967 -- 1972: A Diasporic
Struggle Navigates the Black Atlantic.
[44] Waters, Anita (1985). Race, Class, and Political Symbols: Rastafari and Reggae in Jamaican Politics. New
Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. ISBN
0-88738-632-6.
Black Power Movement and American Culture, 19651975. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992.
p. 307.
[46] Some notes on the BLACK CULTURAL MOVEMENT
[47] Jamaica Says Black Is Beautiful
p. 192.
Black Power Movement and American Culture, 19651975. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992.
p.195.
p. 197.
p. 201.

p. 304.

p. 194.

p. 306.

Black Power Movement and American Culture, 19651975. Chicago: The University of Chicago P, 1992, p.
204.
[38] McCormack, Donald J. Black Power: Political Ideology?

Diss. University of New York at Albany, 1970. Ann
Arbor, MI: University Microlms International, 1984, p.
394.
[54] The Black Arts Repertory Theatre/School
[39] Williams, Hettie V. We Shall Overcome to We Shall Overrun: The Collapse of the Civil Rights Movement and the
Black Power Revolt (1962-1968). Lanham, MA: University Press of America, 2009, p. 92.
[40] Egbuna, Obi (1971), Destroy This Temple: the voice of
Black Power in Britain, London: MacGibbon & Kee, p.
16
[41] Marshall, Rita (11 November 1967). Black Power Men
Launch Credo. The Times.
Holt and Company, 2006, p. 256.
p. 249.
p. 280.
2.16. LGBT RIGHTS AT THE UNITED NATIONS
275

p. 208.
Website of Dr. Peniel E. Joseph, Professor of

African-American Studies - Scholar of African
American history and frequent commentator on civil
rights, race and democracy issues

p. 213.
Stokely-Carmichael.com - Focus on Carmichaels

life and rhetoric

p. 212.
Panther Party.com/ The ocial website of the New

Black Panther Party
Hubert Harrison
Ben Fletcher
[61] Black Arts Movement
A History of Harlem CORE

p. 308.
The Black Power Mixtape New Documentary Featuring Angela Davis, Huey P. Newton, & Stokely
Carmichael - video report by Democracy Now!
[63] Rustin, Bayard (1965). ""Black Power and Coalition

Politics. Commentary. PBS.
2.15.7
2.16 LGBT rights at the United

Nations
Further reading
Carmichael, Stokely/ Hamilton, Charles V., and

Ture, Kwame: Black Power. The Politics of Liberation in America, Vintage, New York, 1967. ISBN
9780307795274
Breitman, George. In Defense of Black Power.
International Socialist Review, JanuaryFebruary
1967, from Tamiment Library microlm archives.
Transcribed & marked up by Andrew Pollack for the
Encyclopaedia of Trotskyism On-Line. Retrieved LGBT rights at the United Nations
May 2, 2005.
v
Salas, Mario Marcel. Masters Thesis: Patterns of

t
Persistence: Paternal Colonialist Structures and the
Radical Opposition in the African American Com e
munity in San Antonio, 19372001, University of
Texas at San Antonio.
Discussions of LGBT rights at the United Nations
have mainly centered on resolutions in the United Na Brown, Scot, Fighting for US: Maulana Karenga, the
tions General Assembly and the United Nations Human
US Organization, and Black Cultural Nationalism,
Rights Council (UNHRC) regarding the topic. Since its
NYU Press, New York, 2003.
founding in 1945, the United Nations had not discussed
Ogbar, Jerey O. G. Black Power: Radical Politics LGBT rights (regarding equality regardless of sexual oriand African American Identity, The Johns Hopkins entation or gender identity) until December 2008, when
a Dutch/French-initiated, European Union-backed stateUniversity Press, Baltimore, 2004.
ment supporting LGBT rights was presented to the General Assembly. The statement, originally intended to be
adopted as resolution, prompted an Arab League-backed
statement opposing it. Both statements remain open for
Website of Dr. Christian Davenport, Director of the signature, and neither of them has been ocially adopted
Radical Information Project and Professor of Peace by the General Assembly.
Studies, Political Science and Sociology - University On June 17, 2011, South Africa initiated a resolution
in the UNHRC requesting that the United Nations High
of Notre Dame
276
Commissioner for Human Rights draft a report detailing the situation of LGBT citizens worldwide to follow
up and implementation of the Vienna Declaration and
Programme of Action.[1] The resolution passed 23 to 19,
with the three abstentions being Burkina Faso, China, and
Zambia. It was the rst such resolution and was hailed as
historic.[2]
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

declared that laws discriminating based on sexual orientation are in violation of human rights law.[6]
The report, which came out in December 2011, documented violations of the rights of LGBT people, including hate crimes, criminalization of homosexuality, and
discrimination. High Commissioner Navi Pillay called
for equitable ages of consent; comprehensive laws against
discrimination based on sexual orientation; prompt investigation and recording of hate crime incidents; the repeal
of laws criminalizing homosexuality; and other measures
to ensure the protection of LGBT rights.[3] The text of
the report from the UNHRC is dated on 17 November
2011.[4]
In 2006, with the eort of its founder, Louis George

Tin, International Day Against Homophobia (IDAHO)
launched a worldwide campaign to end the criminalisation of same-sex relationships. The campaign was supported by dozens of international public gures, including
Nobel laureates, academics, clergy, and celebrities.
In 2003, a number of predominantly European countries

put forward the Brazilian Resolution at the UNHRC, stating the intention that lesbian and gay rights be considered
as fundamental as the rights of all human beings.
In 2008, the 34 member countries of the Organization

of American States unanimously approved a declaration
arming that human rights protections extend to sexual
orientation and gender identity.[6]
Separately, it was announced in July 2014 that the United

Nations (as an employer) would extend equal benets to 2.16.2
its employees who have entered into same-sex unions in
jurisdictions where they are legal.
2.16.1
Background
v
t
e
Worldwide laws regarding homosexual relationships and
expression
Click on map to view an enlarged version where rings in various
locations become visible. These indicate places with local or
case-by-case applications of law.
Same-sex relationships are currently illegal in 76 countries and punishable by death in seven.[5] In the 1980s,
early United Nations reports on the HIV/AIDS pandemic
made some reference to homosexuality, and the 1986 Human Freedom Index did include a specic question, in
judging the human rights record of each nation, with regards to the existence of criminal laws against homosexuality.
In its 1994 decision in Toonen v. Australia, the
UNHRCwhich is responsible for the International
General Assembly resolution and

declaration
Following meetings between Louis George Tin and

French Minister of Human Rights and Foreign Aairs
Rama Yade in early 2008, Yade announced that she would
appeal at the UN for the universal decriminalization of
homosexuality; the appeal was quickly taken up as an international concern.[7] Co-sponsored by France (which
then held the rotating presidency of the EU) and the
Netherlands on behalf of the EU, the declaration had
been intended as a resolution; it was decided to use the
format of a declaration of a limited group of states because there was not enough support for the adoption of
an ocial resolution by the General Assembly as a whole.
The declaration was read out into the General Assembly
Record by Ambassador Jorge Argello of Argentina on
18 December 2008, and was the rst declaration concerning gay rights read in the General Assembly.[8][9]
The statement includes a condemnation of violence,
harassment, discrimination, exclusion, stigmatization,
and prejudice based on sexual orientation and gender
identity that undermine personal integrity and dignity. It
also includes condemnation of killings and executions,
torture, arbitrary arrest, and deprivation of economic,
social, and cultural rights on those grounds. The statement asserts: we recall the statement in 2006 before the
Human Rights Council by fty four countries requesting
the President of the Council to provide an opportunity,
at an appropriate future session of the Council, for discussing these violations. Additionally, it says we commend the attention paid to those issues by special procedures of the Human Rights Council and treaty bodies and
encourage them to continue to integrate consideration of
human rights violations based on sexual orientation and
gender identity within their relevant mandate, indicating the Yogyakarta Principles, which provide denitions
in detail on sexual orientation and on gender identity as

a document on international human rights law.[10] This
statement has been praised as a breakthrough for human
rights, breaking the previous taboo against speaking about
LGBT rights in the United Nations.
Support
277
In particular, the categories 'sexual orientation' and 'gender identity', used in the text, nd no recognition or clear
and agreed denition in international law. If they had to
be taken into consideration in the proclaiming and implementing of fundamental rights, these would create serious
uncertainty in the law as well as undermine the ability of
States to enter into and enforce new and existing human
rights conventions and standards.[17]
Several speakers addressing a conference on the declaraHowever, Archbishop Migliore also made clear the Vattion noted that in many countries laws against homosexicans opposition to legal discrimination against homouality stemmed as much from the British colonial past as
sexuals: The Holy See continues to advocate that every
from alleged religious or tradition reasons.[8]
sign of unjust discrimination towards homosexual perVoicing Frances support for the draft declaration, Rama sons should be avoided and urges States to do away with
Yade asked: How can we tolerate the fact that people are criminal penalties against them.[17]
stoned, hanged, decapitated and tortured only because of
In an editorial response, the Italian newspaper La Stampa
their sexual orientation?"[8]
called the Vaticans reasoning grotesque, claiming that
UK-based activist Peter Tatchell said of the declaration: the Vatican feared a chain reaction in favour of legally
recognised homosexual unions in countries, like Italy,
where there is currently no legislation.[18]
This was history in the making SeThe United States, citing conicts with US law,[5] origcuring this statement at the UN is the reinally opposed the adoption of the nonbinding measure,
sult of an inspiring collective global eort by
as did Russia, China, the Holy See, and members of the
many LGBT and human rights organisations.
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.[8] The Holy Sees
Our collaboration, unity and solidarity have
Permanent Observer Mission issued a statement saying
won us this success. As well as IDAHO, I
that the draft declaration challenges existing human
pay tribute to the contribution and lobbying
rights norms.[17] The Obama administration changed the
of Amnesty International; ARC International;
US position to support the measure in February 2009.[19]
Center for Womens Global Leadership; COC
Netherlands; Global Rights; Human Rights
An alternative statement, supported by 57 member naWatch; International Committee for IDAHO
tions, was read by the Syrian representative in the Gen(the International Day Against Homophobia);
eral Assembly.[20] The statement, led by the Organization
International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights
of the Islamic Conference, rejected the idea that sexual
Commission (IGLHRC); International Lesbian
orientation is a matter of genetic coding and claimed that
and Gay Association (ILGA); International
the declaration threatened to undermine the international
Service for Human Rights; Pan Africa ILGA;
framework of human rights,[8] adding that the statement
and Public Services International.[11]
delves into matters which fall essentially within the doSignatories 96 member-states of the United Nations
have sponsored the declaration in support of LGBT rights
in the General Assembly, in the UNHRC, or in both.
Sponsoring nations are listed below.[12][7][13][14]
Opposition
Among the rst to voice opposition for the declaration,
in early December 2008, was the Holy See's Permanent
Observer at the United Nations, Archbishop Celestino
Migliore, who claimed that the declaration could be used
to force countries to recognise same-sex marriage: If
adopted, they would create new and implacable discriminations. For example, states which do not recognise
same-sex unions as 'matrimony' will be pilloried and
made an object of pressure.[16]
mestic jurisdiction of states and could lead to the social

normalization, and possibly the legitimization, of many
deplorable acts including paedophilia (this is despite
that fact that scientic research has shown that homosexuals are no more likely to inict child abuse than are
heterosexuals[21] ).[5] The Organization failed in a related
attempt to delete the phrase sexual orientation from a
Swedish-backed formal resolution condemning summary
executions,[8] although recently the phrase was removed
with 79 votes to 70,[22] and then subsequently restored by
a vote of 93 to 55.[23]
Signatories 57 UN member nations had initially cosponsored the opposing statement in 2008:[24]
Some of these countries later switched their position to

support the original resolution backing LGBT rights in
2011, leaving 54 countries as continued sponsors of the
A key part of the Vatican opposition to the draft Decla- statement opposing LGBT rights. The countries which
ration relates to the concept of gender identity. In a state- removed themselves as co-sponsors of the statement opment on 19 December,[17] Archbishop Migliore noted: posing LGBT who all subsequently switched to sponsor-
278
ing the statement supporting LGBT rights are specically where they are legal. Under the new policy, sta who
noted below.
have married a same-sex spouse in a jurisdiction will receive the same benets and recognition as those in heterosexual marriages, regardless of whether same-sex mar2.16.3 UN Human Rights Council resolu- riage is legal in their country of citizenship.
tions and discussion
UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has supported a

move towards greater respect for gay rights over recent
years. He has stated: Human rights are at the core of
the mission of the United Nations. I am proud to stand
for greater equality for all sta, and I call on all members of our UN family to unite in rejecting homophobia as discrimination that can never be tolerated at our
workplace.[33]
A resolution submitted by South Africa requesting

a study on discrimination and sexual orientation
(A/HRC/17/L.9/Rev.1) passed, 23 to 19, with 3 abstentions, in the UNHRC on June 17, 2011.[25] This is
the rst time that any United Nations body approved a
resolution arming the rights of LGBT people.[26] The
resolution called on the oce of United Nations High
Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay to draw up
the rst UN report on challenges faced by LGBT people 2.16.5 See also
worldwide. The votes on this resolution were as follows:
Yogyakarta Principles in Action
The High Commissioners report, released December
2011, found that violence against LGBT persons remains
common, and conrmed that Seventy-six countries re- 2.16.6 References
tain laws that are used to criminalize people on the basis
of sexual orientation or gender identity (para. 40), and [1] Human Rights Council Resolution, 17th session
that In at least ve countries the death penalty may be
applied to those found guilty of oences relating to con- [2] Jordans, Frank (June 17, 2011). U.N. Gay Rights Protection Resolution Passes, Hailed As 'Historic Moment'".
sensual, adult homosexual conduct (para. 45).[27]
Associated Press.
The High Commissioners report led to a panel discussion by the Human Rights Council in March 2012. The
divided nature of the UN, and the Council members in
particular, was again evident. UN Secretary-General Ban
Ki-moon described violence and discrimination based on
sexual orientation as a monumental tragedy for those affected and a stain on the collective consciousness (para.
3), and many others voiced similar concerns. However,
A number of states had signaled their opposition to any
discussion of sexual orientation and gender identity by
leaving the Council chamber at the start of the meeting,
and A number voiced their opposition on cultural or religious grounds, or argued that sexual orientation and gender identity were new concepts that lay outside the framework of international human rights law (para. 11)[28]
The UNHRC adopted a second resolution related to sexual orientation and gender identity on September 26,
2014.[29][30] Among other things, the resolution calls a
report from the Oce of the High Commissioner for
Human Rights on best practices for combating discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity.
It passed by a vote of 25 to 14, marking the rst time
the UNHRC adopted a resolution on LGBT rights with
the majority of its members.[31][32] The second resolution
voting was as follows:
2.16.4
Treatment of UN sta
[3] UN issues rst report on human rights of gay and lesbian

people. United Nations. 15 December 2011.
[4] Discriminatory laws and practices and acts of violence
against individuals based on their sexual orientation and
gender identity, A.HRC/19/41
[5] State-sponsored Homophobia (PDF). The International
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association.
May 2010.
[6] United Nations: General assembly to address sexual orientation and gender identity - Statement arms promise
of Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Press release). Amnesty International. 12 December 2008. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
[7] UN: General Assembly statement arms rights for all
(PDF) (Press release). Amnesty International. 12 December 2008. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
[8] MacFarquhar, Neil (18 December 2008). In a First, Gay
Rights Are Pressed at the U.N.. New York Times. Retrieved 20 December 2008.
[9] UN General Assembly press report.
2008.
18 December
[10] The Preamble of The Yogyakarta Principles

[11] Tatchell, Peter (18 December 2008). 66 countries sign
UN gay rights statement. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
[12] http://geneva.usmission.gov/2011/03/22/lgbtrights/
In July 2014, it was announced that the United Nations (as

an employer) would extend equal benets to its employees [13] In turnaround, US signs UN gay rights document. Reuters.
who have entered into same-sex unions in jurisdictions
March 18, 2009
[14] http://m.hrw.org/news/2014/09/26/
un-landmark-resolution-anti-gay-bias
279
[15] Signed as "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia"

[16] Vatican criticised for opposing gay decriminalisation.
The Irish Times. 2 December 2008. Retrieved 20 March
2009.
[17] Statement of the Holy See Delegation at the 63rd Session of the General Assembly of the United Nations on
the Declaration on Human Rights, Sexual Orientation and
Gender Identity (Press release). Holy See. 18 December
2008. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
[18] Pullella, Philip; Reuters (2 December 2008). Vatican attacked for opposing gay decriminalisation. International
Herald Tribune. Retrieved 20 March 2009.
[19] Pleming, Sue (18 March 2009). In turnaround, U.S.
signs U.N. gay rights document. Reuters. Retrieved 20
March 2009.
BORN FREE AND EQUAL - Sexual orientation

and gender identity in international human rights
law, 2012 (OHCHR)
Xavier Colin (3 February 2013).
Droit
l'homosexualit : un monde de dirences ?"
(video). Geopolitis (in French) (Geneva, Switzerland: Radio tlvision suisse). La plante gay
Homosexualit et volution . Retrieved 5
February 2013. Quel est l'tat des droits des homosexuels dans le monde ? Quelles sont les tendances rgionales vers plus ou moins de respect
des homosexuels ? Geopolitis dcrypte la gopolitique du droit l'homosexualit. partir du minutage 07:35, interview de John Fisher, codirecteur
de l'ONG ARC International, une organisation qui
cherche promouvoir et dfendre le droit des homosexuels dans le monde.
[20] http://www.tjsl.edu/slomansonb/10.3_GLBT_UN.pdf
[21] Gregory M. Herek, Ph.D.: Facts About Homosexuality
and Child Molestation
[22] http://www.ishr.ch/general-assembly/
957-ga-third-committee-takes-backward-step-on-sexual-orientation-in-relation-to-extrajudicial-executions
[23] http://www.iglhrc.org/cgi-bin/iowa/article/pressroom/
pressrelease/1291.html
[24] General Assembly: 70th and 71st plenary meeting,
morning session, 02:32:00. United Nations. 18 December 2008. Retrieved 6 January 2008.
[25] UN Human Rights Council. 17 June 2011. Retrieved
17 June 2011.
[26] Jordans, Frank (2011-05-17). UN group backs gay rights
for the 1st time ever. Associated Press. Retrieved 201105-17.
[27] High Commissioner for Human Rights. Discriminatory
laws and practices and acts of violence against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity
(PDF). Retrieved 21 January 2013.
[28] Human Rights Council. Human Rights Council panel
on ending violence and discrimination against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity.
[29] http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/
un-passes-resolution-behalf-lgbt-citizens-around-the-globe
[30] http://www.rappler.com/nation/
70315-philippines-unhrc-lgbt-resolution
[31] http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/
un-passes-resolution-behalf-lgbt-citizens-around-the-globe
[32] http://www.rappler.com/nation/
70315-philippines-unhrc-lgbt-resolution
[33] United Nations will now recognize gay marriage
Chapter 3
Genocide, racism and surpression

3.1 Dictatorship
3.1.1 History
Dictatorship is a form of government where political authority is monopolized by a person (dictator) or political
entity, and exercised through various mechanisms to ensure the entitys power remains strong.[1][2]
Between the two world wars, four types of dictatorships

have been described: constitutional, communist (nominally championing dictatorship of the proletariat),
counterrevolutionary, and fascist, and many have questioned the distinctions among these prototypes. Since
World War II a broader range of dictatorships have been
recognized including Third World dictatorships, theocratic or religious dictatorships and dynastic or familybased dictatorships.[4]
A dictatorship is a type of authoritarianism, in which

politicians regulate nearly every aspect of the public and
private behavior of normal people. Dictatorships and totalitarianism generally employ political propaganda to decrease the inuence of proponents of alternative governing systems, as is the nature of nationalism of any gov3.1.2
erning system.
Roman Empire
In the Roman Empire, a Roman dictator was the incumbent of a political oce of legislate of the Roman Republic. Roman dictators were allocated absolute power
during times of emergency. Their power was originally
neither arbitrary nor unaccountable, being subject to law
and requiring retrospective justication. There were no
such dictatorships after the beginning of the 2nd century
BCE, and later dictators such as Sulla and the Roman Emperors exercised power much more personally and arbitrarily.
3.1.3 19th century Latin America caudillo

After the collapse of Spanish colonial rule, various dictators emerged in many liberated countries. Often leadChinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong meets with ing a private army, these caudillos or self-appointed
U.S. President Richard Nixon. Maos dictatorial rule from 1949 political-military leaders, attacked weak national governto 1976 is believed to have caused the deaths of an estimated 40 ments once they control a regional political and economic
to more than 70 million people.[3]
powers, with examples such as Antonio Lpez de Santa
Anna in Mexico and Juan Manuel de Rosas in Argentina.
Such dictators have been also referred to as proponents
[1]
The 19th and 20th centuries saw the gradual decline of of "personalismo" .
many traditional absolute monarchies, governments sim- The wave of military dictatorships in Latin America in
ilar to dictatorships, but usually associated with a ruler the second half of the twentieth century left a particuwho claims their power from a "divine right" and/or lar mark on Latin American culture. In Latin American
royal familial descent. Dictatorship and representative literature, the dictator novel challenging dictatorship and
democracy emerged as the worlds two major forms of caudillismo, and lms depicting Latin American military
government.[1]
dictatorships are signicant narrative genres.
280
3.1. DICTATORSHIP
3.1.4
281
Nazism and fascism in the 20th century dictatorships
Mobutu Sese Seko, Zaires longtime dictator.
ministers captured power by suppressing the opposition

and installing one-party rule, and some established military dictatorships through army.[1]
Adolf Hitler (right) and Benito Mussolini (left). Hitlers policies

and orders resulted in the death of about 11 million noncombatants .[5]
[6]
The often-cited exploitative dictator is the regime of

Mobutu Sese Seko, who ruled Zaire from 1965 to 1997,
embezzling over $5 billion from his country.[7] Another
classic case is the Philippines under the rule of Ferdinand
Marcos.[8] He is reputed to have stolen some US$510
billion.[9] More than $400 billion were stolen from the
treasury by Nigeria's leaders between 1960 and 1999.[10]
In the rst half of the 20th century, Nazi and fascist dictatorship regimes appeared in a variety of scientically
and technologically advanced countries, which are dis- 3.1.6 Democratization
tinct from the dictatorship in Latin America and the postcolonial dictatorships in Africa and Asia. Leading exam- The global dynamics of democratization has been a
ples of modern totalitarian dictatorship include: [1] .
central question for political scientists.[11][12] The Third
Wave Democracy was said to turn some dictatorships into
Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany, Benito Mussolini's democracies.[11] (see also the contrast between the two
Italy
gures of the DD index in 1988 and 2008).
Augusto Pinochet's Chile
3.1.7 Measuring dictatorships

3.1.5
Dictatorships of Africa and Asia afThe conceptual and methodological dierences in the
ter World War II
political science literature exist with regards to measuring
and classifying regimes into dictatorships and/or democracies, with prominent examples such as Freedom House,
Polity IV and DD index, and their validity and reliability
being discussed.[14]
After World War II, dictators established themselves in

the several new states of Africa and Asia, often at the
expense or failure of the constitutions inherited from the
colonial powers. These constitutions often failed to work
without a strong middle class or work against the preex- Roughly two research approaches exist: (1) the minimalisting autocratic rule. Some elected presidents and prime ist approach focuses on whether a country has contin-
282
CHAPTER 3. GENOCIDE, RACISM AND SURPRESSION
Democracy Index by the Economist Intelligence Unit, 2011.[13]

Countries that are more red are authoritarian, and most often
dictatorships. Most current dictatorships are in Africa and Asia.
ued elections that are competitive, and (2) the substantive approach expands the concept of democracy to include human rights, freedom of the press, the rule of law,
etc.[15][16][17] The DD index is seen as an example of the
minimalist approach, whereas the Polity data series, relatively more substantive.[18]
3.1.8
Types
Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna wearing Mexican military uni-
The most general term is despotism, a form of govern- forms

ment in which a single entity rules with absolute power.
That entity may be an individual, as in an autocracy, or
it may be a group,[19] as in an oligarchy. Despotism can Dictatorships may be classied in a number of ways, such
mean tyranny (dominance through threat of punishment as:
and violence), or absolutism; or dictatorship (a form of
Military dictatorship
government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator, not
[20]
restricted by a constitution, laws or opposition, etc.).
arbitrator and ruler types may be distinDictatorship may take the form of authoritarianism or
guished; arbitrator regimes are professional,
totalitarianism.
civilian-oriented, willing to give up power
Dictatorship is 'a form of government in which absolute
power is concentrated in a dictator or a small clique' or
'a government organisation or group in which absolute
power is so concentrated',[21] whereas democracy, with
which the concept of dictatorship is often compared, is
dened by most people as a form of government where
those who govern are selected through contested elections. Authoritarian dictatorships are those where there
is little political mobilization and a small group exercises
power within formally ill-dened limits but actually quite
predictable ones.[22] Totalitarian dictatorships involve a
single party led by a single powerful individual with a
powerful secret police and a highly developed ideology.
Here, the government has total control of mass communications and social and economic organizations.[23]
Hannah Arendt labelled totalitarianism a new and extreme form of dictatorship involving atomized, isolated
individuals in which ideology plays a leading role in
dening how the entire society should be organised.[24]
Juan Linz argues that the distinction between an authoritarian regime and a totalitarian one is that while an authoritarian one seeks to suocate politics and political
mobilization (depoliticization), a totalitarian one seeks to
control politics and political mobilization.[25]
once problems have been resolved, and support the existing social order; ruler types
view civilians as incompetent and have no
intention of returning power to them, are
politically organised, and have a coherent
ideology[26]
Civil-military dictatorship
An example is the Civic-military dictatorship
of Uruguay (197385)
Single-party state
weak and strong versions may be distinguished; in weak single-party states, at
least one other actor eclipses the role of the
party (like a single individual, the military,
or the president).[27] Mustafa Kemal Atatrk
and smet nn era in Turkey can be given as
example.[28]
Personalist
Hybrid
Some combination of the types above.
3.1. DICTATORSHIP
283
Origins of power
Elective dictatorship
Dictators may rise to power in a number of ways.
Far-left politics
Family dictatorship - inheriting power through family ties

Military dictatorship - through military force or
coup d'etat. In Latin America, military dictatorships
were often ruled by committees known as military
juntas.
Constitutional dictatorship - dictatorial powers provided for by constitutional means (often as a provison in case of emergency)
Self-coup - by suspending existing democratic
mechanisms after attaining oce by constitutional
means.
Far-right politics
Generalissimo
Hayeks views on Pinochets Chile
Kleptocracy
List of dictators
List of titles used by dictators
Maximum Leader
Nationalism
Nazism
Negative selection (politics)
Neo-fascism
Peoples democratic dictatorship
Plutocracy
Strongman
Ferdinand Marcos, the dictator of the Philippines
Stable dictatorship
Friedrich, Carl J.; Brzezinski, Zbigniew K. (1965).

Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (2nd ed.).
Praeger.
Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce; Smith, Alastair; Siverson, Randolph M.; Morrow, James D. (2003). The
Logic of Political Survival. The MIT Press. ISBN
0-262-63315-9.
A stable dictatorship is a dictatorship that is able to remain in power for long periods. Chile and Paraguay were
William J. Dobson (2013). The Dictators Learning
considered to be stable dictatorships in the 1970s.[29] It
Curve: Inside the Global Battle for Democracy. Anhas been argued that stable dictatorships behave dierchor. ISBN 978-0307477552.
ently than unstable dictatorships. For instance, Maria
Brouwer opines that "expansionary policies can fail and
undermine the authority of the leader. Stable dictators, 3.1.11 References
would therefore, be inclined to refrain from military aggression. This applies to imperial China, Byzantium and [1] dictatorship. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Chicago.
2013. 162240.
Japan, which refrained from expanding their empire at
some point in time. Emerging dictators, by contrast, want
[2] Margaret Power (2008). Dictatorship and Single-Party
to win the peoples support by promising them riches from
States. In Bonnie G. Smith. The Oxford Encyclopedia of
appropriating domestic or foreign wealth. They have not
Women in World History: 4 Volume Set. Oxford Univermuch to lose from failure, whereas success could elevate
sity Press. pp. 1. ISBN 978-0-19-514890-9. Retrieved
them to positions of wealth and power.[30]
14 December 2013.
3.1.9
See also
Benevolent dictatorship
Dictatorship of the majority
[3] Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. Worse Than War: Genocide,

Eliminationism, and the Ongoing Assault on Humanity.
PublicAairs, 2009. ISBN 1-58648-769-8 p. 53: "...the
Chinese communists murdering of a mind-boggling number of people, perhaps more than 70 million Chinese, included an additional 1.2 million Tibetans.
284
[4] Frank J. Coppa (1 January 2006). Encyclopedia of Modern Dictators: From Napoleon to the Present. Peter Lang.
p. xiv. ISBN 978-0-8204-5010-0. Retrieved 25 March
2014. In the period between the two world wars four types
of dictatorships were described by a number of scholars: constitutional, the communist (nominally championing dictatorship of the proletariat), the counterrevolutionary, and the fascist. Many have rightfully questioned the distinctions between these prototypes. In fact,
since World War II, we have recognized that the range of
dictatorship is much broader than earlier posited and includes so-called Third World dictatorships in Africa, Asia,
Latin America, and the Middle East and religious dictatorships....They are also family dictatorships ....
[5] Del Testa, David W; Lemoine, Florence; Strickland, John
(2003). Government Leaders, Military Rulers, and Political Activists. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 83. ISBN
978-1-57356-153-2.
[6]
[7] Mobutu dies in exile in Morocco
institutionelectionsto distinguish between dictatorships anddemocracies. Using a minimalist measure of

democracy rather than a substantive one betterallows for
the isolation of causal mechanisms (Cheibub, Gandhi and
Vreeland, 2010, 73)linking regime type to human rights
outcomes.
[19] Encyclopdia Britannica
[20] WordNet Search - 3.0
[21] Dictatorship - Denition and More from the Free
Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
Merriam-webster.com
(2012-08-31). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
[22] Juan Linz, quoted in Natasha M. Ezrow, Erica Frantz
(2011), Dictators and Dictatorships: Understanding Authoritarian Regimes and Their Leaders, Continuum International Publishing Group. p2
[23] Ezrow and Frantz (2011:2-3)
[24] Ezrow and Frantz (2011:3)
[8] "Top 15 Toppled Dictators". Time. 20 October 2011.
[9] Plundering politicians and bribing multinationals undermine economic development, says TI (PDF). Transparency International. 2004. Retrieved 16 October 2006.
[26] Ezrow and Frantz (2011:6-7)
[10] A Failure of Democracy in Nigeria. Time. 23 April

2007.
[11] Samuel P. Huntington (6 September 2012). The Third
Wave: Democratization in the Late 20th Century. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-8604-7.
[12] Nathan J. Brown (31 August 2011). The Dynamics of Democratization: Dictatorship, Development, and Diusion.
JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0088-4.
[13] Democracy Index 2011 (PDF). sida.se. Economist Intelligence Unit. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17
June 2012.
[14] William Roberts Clark; Matt Golder; Sona N Golder (23
March 2012). Chapter 5. Democracy and Dictatorship:
Conceptualization and Measurement. Principles of Comparative Politics. CQ Press. ISBN 978-1-60871-679-1.
[15] Chapter 5. Democracy and Dictatorship: Conceptualization and Measurement
[16] Jrgen Mller; Svend-Erik Skaaning (29 March 2012).
Requisites of Democracy: Conceptualization, Measurement, and Explanation. Routledge. pp. 78. ISBN 9781-136-66584-4. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
[17] William Roberts Clark; Matt Golder; Sona Nadenichek
Golder (September 2009). Principles of comparative politics. CQ Press. ISBN 978-0-87289-289-7.
[18] Divergent Incentives for Dictators: Domestic Institutions and (International Promises Not to) Torture
Appendix Unlike substantive measures of democracy
(e.g., Polity IV and Freedom House), the bi-nary conceptualization of democracy most recently described by
Cheibub, Gandhi and Vree-land (2010) focuses on one

[28] On the Peoples Democratic Dictatorship
[29] AG Cuzn (1986), Fiscal Policy, the Military, and Political
Stability in Iberoamerica (PDF), Behavioral Science
[30] M Brouwer (2006), Democracy and Dictatorship: The
Politics of Innovation (PDF), archived from the original
(PDF) on 7 September 2012
[31] Stalinism
[32] RC Thornton (1972), The Structure of Communist Politics,
World Politics, JSTOR 2010454
3.2 Crimes against humanity

Crimes against humanity are certain acts which are
committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack
directed against any civilian population. The rst prosecution for crimes against humanity took place at the
Nuremberg Trials. Crimes against humanity have since
been prosecuted by other international courts - such as
the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Court, as well
as in domestic prosecutions. The law of crimes against
humanity has primarily developed through the evolution
of customary international law. Unlike war crimes and
genocide, crimes against humanity are not codied in an
international convention, although there is currently an
international eort to establish such a treaty, led by the
Crimes Against Humanity Initiative.
Unlike war crimes, crimes against humanity can be committed during peace or war.[1] They are not isolated
3.2. CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY

or sporadic events, but are part either of a government policy (although the perpetrators need not identify themselves with this policy) or of a wide practice of atrocities tolerated or condoned by a government or a de facto authority. Murder; massacres;
dehumanization; extermination; human experimentation;
extrajudicial punishments; death squads; military use
of children; kidnappings; unjust imprisonment; slavery;
cannibalism, torture; rape; political, racial, or religious
persecution; and other inhumane acts may reach the
threshold of crimes against humanity if they are part of a
widespread or systematic practice.
3.2.1
285
Governments announce publicly to the
Sublime Porte that they will hold personally
responsible for these crimes all members of
the Ottoman Government, as well as those
of their agents who are implicated in such
massacres.[5]
At the conclusion of the war, an international war crimes
commission recommended the creation of a tribunal to
try violations of the laws of humanity. However, the
US representative objected to references to law of humanity as being imprecise and insuciently developed
at that time and the concept was not pursued.[6]
History of the term

Nuremberg trials
Abolition of the slave trade

There were several bilateral treaties in 1814 that foreshadowed the multilateral treaty of Final Act of the
Congress of Vienna (1815) that used wording expressing
condemnation of the slave trade using moral language.
For example the Treaty of Paris (1814) between Britain
and France included the wording principles of natural
justice"; and the British and United States plenipotentiaries stated in the Treaty of Ghent (1814) that the slave
trade violated the principles of humanity and justice.[2]
Main article: Nuremberg Trials

In the aftermath of the Second World War, the London
The multilateral Declaration of the Powers, on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, of 8 February 1815 (Which also
formed ACT, No. XV. of the Final Act of the Congress
of Vienna of the same year) included in its rst sentence
the concept of the principles of humanity and universal morality as justication for ending a trade that was
odious in its continuance.[3]
First use
Nuremberg Trials. Defendants in the dock. The main target of

the prosecution was Hermann Gring (at the left edge on the rst
row of benches), considered to be the most important surviving
ocial in the Third Reich after Hitler's death.
See also: Armenian Genocide

The term originated in the Second Hague Convention of
1899 preamble and was expanded in the Fourth Hague
Convention of 1907 preamble and their respective regulations, which were concerned with the codication of
new rules of international humanitarian law. The preamble of the two Conventions referenced the laws of humanity as an expression of underlying inarticulated humanistic values.[4] The term is part of what is known as
the Martens Clause.
On May 24, 1915, the Allied Powers, Britain, France,
and Russia, jointly issued a statement explicitly charging
for the rst time ever another government of committing
a crime against humanity. An excerpt from this joint
statement reads:
In view of these new crimes of Turkey
against humanity and civilization, the Allied
Charter of the International Military Tribunal was the decree that set down the laws and procedures by which the
post-War Nuremberg trials were to be conducted. The
drafters of this document were faced with the problem of
how to respond to the Holocaust and grave crimes committed by the Nazi regime. A traditional understanding
of war crimes gave no provision for crimes committed by
a power on its own citizens. Therefore, Article 6 of the
Charter was drafted to include not only traditional war
crimes and crimes against peace, but in paragraph 6 (c)
Crimes Against Humanity, dened as
Murder, extermination, enslavement,
deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population, before or
during the war, or persecutions on political,
racial or religious grounds in execution of
or in connection with any crime within the
jurisdiction of the Tribunal, whether or not in
286

violation of the domestic law of the country
where perpetrated.[7][8]
In the Tokyo Trial, Crimes against Humanity (Class C)

was not applied for any suspect.[10] Prosecutions related
to the Nanking Massacre were categorised as infringeIn the Judgment of the International Military Tribunal ments upon the Laws of War.[11]
for the Trial of German Major War Criminals it was also
War crimes charges against more junior personnel were
stated:
dealt with separately, in other cities throughout Far East
Asia, such as the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal and the
The Tribunal therefore cannot make a genKhabarovsk War Crimes Trials.
eral declaration that the acts before 1939 were
crimes against humanity within the meaning of
the Charter, but from the beginning of the war
3.2.2 Types of crime against humanity
in 1939 war crimes were committed on a vast
scale, which were also crimes against humanThe dierent types of crimes which may constitute
ity; and insofar as the inhumane acts charged in
crimes against humanity diers between denitions both
the Indictment, and committed after the begininternationally and on the domestic level. Isolated inning of the war, did not constitute war crimes,
humane acts of a certain nature committed as part of a
they were all committed in execution of, or in
widespread or systematic attack may instead constitute
connection with, the aggressive war, and theregrave infringements of human rights, or depending on
[9]
fore constituted crimes against humanity.
the circumstances war crimes, but are not classied as
crimes against humanity.[12]
Tokyo trials
See also: International Military Tribunal for the Far East Apartheid
The International Military Tribunal for the Far East
Main article: Crime of apartheid
The systematic persecution of one racial group by
another, such as occurred during the South African
apartheid government, was recognized as a crime against
humanity by the United Nations General Assembly in
1976.[13] The Charter of the United Nations (Article 13,
14, 15) makes actions of the General Assembly advisory
to the Security Council.[14] In regard to apartheid in particular, the UN General Assembly has not made any ndings, nor have apartheid-related trials for crimes against
humanity been conducted.
The defendants at the Tokyo International Tribunal. General
Tojo was one of the main defendants, and is in the centre of the
middle row
(IMTFE), also known as the Tokyo Trial, was convened

to try the leaders of the Empire of Japan for three types
of crimes: Class A (crimes against peace), Class B
(war crimes), and Class C (crimes against humanity),
committed during the Second World War.
The legal basis for the trial was established by the Charter
of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East
(CIMTFE) that was proclaimed on 19 January 1946. The
tribunal convened on May 3, 1946, and was adjourned on
November 12, 1948.
Rape and sexual violence

Neither the Nuremberg or Tokyo Charters contained an
explicit provision recognizing sexual and gender-based
crimes as war crimes or crimes against humanity, although Control Council Law No. 10 recognized rape as a
crime against humanity. The statutes of the International
Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda both included
rape as a crime against humanity. The ICC is the rst international instrument expressly to include various forms
of sexual and gender-based crimes including rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilisation, and other forms of sexual violence
as both an underlying act of crimes against humanity and war crime committed in international and/or noninternational armed conicts.[15]
A panel of eleven judges presided over the IMTFE,

one each from victorious Allied powers (United States,
Republic of China, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, the
Netherlands, Provisional Government of the French Republic, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, British India, In 2008 the U.N. Security Council adopted resolution
and the Philippines).
1820, which noted that rape and other forms of sex-
287
ual violence can constitute war crimes, crimes against hu- ous inhumane acts, i.e., murder, extermination, torture,
manity or a constitutive act with respect to genocide.[16] enslavement, persecution on political, racial, religious or
ethnic grounds, institutionalized discrimination, arbitrary
deportation or forcible transfer of population, arbitrary
3.2.3 Legal status of crimes against hu- imprisonment, rape, enforced prostitution and other inhuman acts committed in a systematic manner or on a
manity in international law
large scale and instigated or directed by a Government
Unlike genocide and war crimes, which have been or by any organization or group. This denition diers
widely recognized and prohibited in international crim- from the one used in Nuremberg, where the criminal acts
inal law since the establishment of the Nuremberg were to have been committed before or during the war,
principles,[17][18] there has never been a comprehensive thus establishing a nexus between crimes against humanconvention on crimes against humanity,[19] even though ity and armed conict.[29]
such crimes are continuously perpetrated worldwide in A report on the 200809 Gaza War by Richard Goldstone
numerous conicts and crises.[20][21][22] There are eleven accused Palestinian and Israeli forces of possibly commitinternational texts dening crimes against humanity, but ting a crime against humanity.[30] In 2011, Goldstone said
they all dier slightly as to their denition of that crime that he no longer believed that Israeli forces had targeted
and its legal elements.[23]
civilians or committed a crime against humanity.[31]
In 2008, the Crimes Against Humanity Initiative was
launched to address this gap in international law. The Initiative represents the rst concerted eort to address the
gap that exists in international criminal law by enumerating a comprehensive international convention on crimes
against humanity.[24]
On July 30, 2013, the United Nations International Law
Commission voted to include the topic of crimes against
humanity in its long-term program of work. In July 2014,
the Commission moved this topic to its active programme
of work[25][26] based largely on a report submitted by
Sean Murphy.[27] Professor Sean Murphy, the United
States Member on the United Nations International Law
Commission, has been named the Special Rapporteur for
Crimes Against Humanity. Sean Murphy attended the
2008 Experts Meeting held by the Crimes Against Humanity Initiative prior to this appointment.
There is some debate on what the status of crimes against
humanity under customary international law is. M.
Cherif Bassiouni argues that crimes against humanity are
part of jus cogens and as such constitute a non-derogable
rule of international law.[23]
3.2.4
United Nations
The United Nations has been primarily responsible for

the prosecution of crimes against humanity since it was
chartered in 1948.[28]
After Nuremberg, there was no international court with
jurisdiction over crimes against humanity for almost 50
years. Work continued on developing the denition of
crimes against humanity at the United Nations, however.
In 1947, the International Law Commission was charged
by the United Nations General Assembly with the formulation of the principles of international law recognized
and reinforced in the Nuremberg Charter and judgment,
and with drafting a code of oenses against the peace and
security of mankind. Completed fty years later in 1996,
the Draft Code dened crimes against humanity as vari-
On 21 March 2013, at its 22nd session, the United Nations Human Rights Council established the Commission
of Inquiry on human rights in the Democratic Peoples
Republic of Korea (DPRK). The Commission is mandated to investigate the systematic, widespread and grave
violations of human rights in the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, with a view to ensuring full accountability, in particular for violations which may amount to
crimes against humanity.[32] The Commission dealt with
matters relating to crimes against humanity on the basis
of denitions set out by customary international criminal
law and in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.[33] The 2014 Report by the commission found
the body of testimony and other information it received
establishes that crimes against humanity have been committed in the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea,
pursuant to policies established at the highest level of
the State... These crimes against humanity entail extermination, murder, enslavement, torture, imprisonment,
rape, forced abortions and other sexual violence, persecution on political, religious, racial and gender grounds,
the forcible transfer of populations, the enforced disappearance of persons and the inhumane act of knowingly causing prolonged starvation. The commission further nds that crimes against humanity are ongoing in
the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea because the
policies, institutions and patterns of impunity that lie at
their heart remain in place. Additionally, the commission found that crimes against humanity have been committed against starving populations, particularly during
the 1990s, and are being committed against persons from
other countries who were systematically abducted or denied repatriation, in order to gain labour and other skills
for the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea.[33]
Security Council
UN Security Council Resolution 1674, adopted by the
United Nations Security Council on 28 April 2006,
rearms the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of
288
the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document regarding the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against
humanity.[34] The resolution commits the Council to action to protect civilians in armed conict.
This denition of crimes against humanity revived the

original Nuremberg nexus with armed conict, connecting crimes against humanity to both international and
non-international armed conict. It also expanded the
list of criminal acts used in Nuremberg to include im[36]
Cherif Bassiouni has
In 2008 the U.N. Security Council adopted resolution prisonment, torture and rape.
argued
that
this
denition
was
necessary
as the conict
1820, which noted that rape and other forms of sexin
the
former
Yugoslavia
was
considered
to be a conual violence can constitute war crimes, crimes against huict of both an international and non-international nature.
[16]
manity or a constitutive act with respect to genocide.
Therefore, this adjusted denition of crimes against humanity was necessary to aord the tribunal jurisdiction
over this crime.[37]
3.2.5
International courts and criminal

tribunals
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda

After the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials of 1945-1946, the
next international tribunal with jurisdiction over crimes
against humanity was not established for another ve
decades. In response to atrocities committed in the
1990s, multiple ad hoc tribunals were established with
jurisdiction over crimes against humanity. The statutes
of the International Criminal Court, the International
Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugolavia and for
Rwanda each contain dierent denitions of crimes
against humanity.[35]
Main article: International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
The UN Security Council established the International

Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in 1994 following the
Rwandan Genocide. Under the ICTR Statute, the link
between crimes against humanity and an armed conict of any kind was dropped. Rather, the requirement was added that the inhumane acts must be part of
a systematic or widespread attack against any civilian
population on national, political, ethnic, racial or religious grounds.[38] Unlike the conict in the former YuInternational Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia
goslavia, the conict in Rwanda was deemed to be nonMain article: International Criminal Tribunal for Yu- international, so crimes against humanity would likely not
have been applicable if the nexus to armed conict had
goslavia
been maintained.
In 1993, the UN Security Council established the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia Special Court for Sierra Leone
(ICTY), with jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute
three international crimes which had taken place in the Main article: Special Court for Sierra Leone
former Yugoslavia: genocide, war crimes and crimes
against humanity. Article 5 of the ICTY Statute states
that
Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
(ECCC)
The International Tribunal shall have the
power to prosecute persons responsible for the
Main article: Cambodia Tribunal
following crimes when committed in armed
conict, whether international or internal in
character, and directed against any civilian
population:[36]
International Criminal Court
(a) murder;
(b) extermination;
(c) enslavement;
(d) deportation;
(e) imprisonment;
(f) torture;
(g) rape;
(h) persecutions on political, racial
and religious grounds;
(i) other inhumane acts.
Main article: International Criminal Court

In 2002, the International Criminal Court (ICC) was
established in The Hague (Netherlands) and the Rome
Statute provides for the ICC to have jurisdiction over
genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. The
denition of what is a crime against humanity for ICC
proceedings has signicantly broadened from its original
legal denition or that used by the UN.[39] Essentially,
the Rome Statute employs the same denition of crimes
against humanity that the ICTR Statute does, minus the
requirement that the attack was carried out on national,
289
(k) Other inhumane acts of a similar character intentionally causing
great suering, or serious injury
to body or to mental or physical
health;
The Rome Statute Explanatory Memorandum states that
crimes against humanity
The current headquarters of the ICC in The Hague
political, ethnic, racial or religious grounds. In addition,

the Rome Statute denition oers the most expansive
list of specic criminal acts that may constitute crimes
against humanity to date.
Article 7 of the treaty stated that:
For the purpose of this Statute, crime
against humanity means any of the following
acts when committed as part of a widespread or
systematic attack directed against any civilian
population, with knowledge of the attack:[40]
(a) Murder;
(b) Extermination;
(c) Enslavement;
(d) Deportation or forcible transfer
of population;
(e) Imprisonment or other severe
deprivation of physical liberty in violation of fundamental rules of international law;
(f) Torture;
(g) Rape, sexual slavery, enforced
prostitution, forced pregnancy,
enforced sterilization, or any
other form of sexual violence of
comparable gravity;
(h) Persecution against any identiable group or collectivity on political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural,
religious, gender as dened in paragraph 3, or other grounds that are
universally recognized as impermissible under international law, in
connection with any act referred
to in this paragraph or any crime
within the jurisdiction of the Court;
(i) Enforced disappearance of persons;
(j) The crime of apartheid;
are particularly odious oenses in that they

constitute a serious attack on human dignity
or grave humiliation or a degradation of one
or more human beings. They are not isolated
or sporadic events, but are part either of a
government policy (although the perpetrators
need not identify themselves with this policy)
or of a wide practice of atrocities tolerated
or condoned by a government or a de facto
authority. However, murder, extermination,
torture, rape, political, racial, or religious
persecution and other inhumane acts reach the
threshold of crimes against humanity only if
they are part of a widespread or systematic
practice. Isolated inhumane acts of this nature
may constitute grave infringements of human
rights, or depending on the circumstances,
war crimes, but may fall short of meriting the
stigma attaching to the category of crimes
under discussion. On the other hand, an
individual may be guilty of crimes against
humanity even if he perpetrates one or two of
the oences mentioned above, or engages in
one such oense against only a few civilians,
provided those oenses are part of a consistent
pattern of misbehavior by a number of persons
linked to that oender (for example, because
they engage in armed action on the same side
or because they are parties to a common plan
or for any similar reason.) Consequently when
one or more individuals are not accused of
planning or carrying out a policy of inhumanity, but simply of perpetrating specic
atrocities or vicious acts, in order to determine
whether the necessary threshold is met one
should use the following test: one ought to
look at these atrocities or acts in their context
and verify whether they may be regarded as
part of an overall policy or a consistent pattern
of an inhumanity, or whether they instead
constitute isolated or sporadic acts of cruelty
and wickedness.[12]
To fall under the Rome Statute, a crime against humanity which is dened in Article 7.1 must be part of a
widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population. Article 7.2.a states For the purpose of
290
paragraph 1: Attack directed against any civilian popdenes rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostituulation means a course of conduct involving the multition, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization
ple commission of acts referred to in paragraph 1 against
or any other form of sexual violence of comany civilian population, pursuant to or in furtherance of
parable gravity, as crimes against humanity.
a State or organizational policy to commit such attack.
Furthermore, Article 8 of the Statute denes
This means that an individual crime on its own, or even
rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution,
a number of such crimes, would not fall under the Rome
forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization or
Statute unless they were the result of a State policy or
any other form of sexual violence as a serious
an organizational policy. This was conrmed by Luis
breach of the Geneva Conventions and as war
Moreno Ocampo in an open letter publishing his conclucrimes.[46]
sions about allegations of crimes committed during the
invasion of Iraq in March 2003 which might fall under the
ICC. In a section entitled Allegations concerning Geno- The Holodomor has been recognized as a crime against
cide and Crimes against Humanity he states that the humanity by the European Parliament.[47]
available information provided no reasonable indicator of
the required elements for a crime against humanity, i.e.
'a widespread or systematic attack directed against any 3.2.7 See also
civilian population'".[41]
Charter of the United Nations
The ICC can only prosecute crimes against humanity
in situations under which it has jurisdiction. The ICC
only has jurisdiction over crimes contained in its statute
- genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity which have been committed on the territory of a State
party to the Rome Statute, when a non-party State refers
a situation within its country to the court or when the
United Nation Security Council refers a case to the
ICC.[42] In 2005 the UN referred to the ICC the situation in Darfur. This referral resulted in an indictment of Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes in 2008.[43]
When the ICC President reported to the UN regarding
its progress handling these crimes against humanity case,
Judge Phillipe Kirsch said The Court does not have the
power to arrest these persons. That is the responsibility
of States and other actors. Without arrests, there can be
no trials.[44]
Crimes against humanity under communist regimes

The Crimes Against Humanity Initiative
Customary international law
Historical revisionism (negationism)
Honor killing
Human rights
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action
War crimes
3.2.8 References
3.2.6
Council of Europe
The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on

30 April 2002 issued a recommendation to the member
states, on the protection of women against violence. In
the section Additional measures concerning violence in
conict and post-conict situations, states in paragraph
69 that member states should: penalize rape, sexual slavery, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization or any other
form of sexual violence of comparable gravity as an intolerable violation of human rights, as crimes against humanity and, when committed in the context of an armed
conict, as war crimes;"[45]
In the Explanatory Memorandum on this recommendation when considering paragraph 69:
[1] Margaret M. DeGuzman,Crimes Against Humanity

RESEARCH HANDBOOK ON INTERNATIONAL
CRIMINAL LAW, Bartram S. Brown, ed., Edgar Elgar
Publishing, 2011
[2] Martin, Francisco Forrest (2007). The Constitution as
Treaty: The International Legal Constructionalist Approach to the U.S. Constitution. Cambridge University
Press. p. 101. ISBN 9781139467186.
[3] Plenipotentiaries of the treaty (1816). The Parliamentary
Debates from the Year 1803 to the Present Time 32. s.n.
p. p. 200.
[4] Cherif Bassiouni, M. Crimes against Humanity: Historical Evolution and Contemporary Application. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. p. 86
[5] 1915 declaration
Reference should be made to the Statute

of the International Criminal Tribunal adopted
in Rome in July 1998. Article 7 of the Statute
Armation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution 106th Congress,2nd
Session, House of Representatives

Armation of the United States Record on
the Armenian Genocide Resolution (Introduced
in House of Representatives) 109th Congress,
1st Session, H.RES.316, June 14, 2005. 15
September 2005 House Committee/Subcommittee:
International Relations actions. Status: Ordered to
be Reported by the Yeas and Nays: 407.
Crimes Against Humanity, 23 British Yearbook
of International Law (1946) p. 181
Schabas References pp. 16-17
Original source of the telegram sent by the Department of State, Washington containing the French,
British and Russian joint declaration
[6] Cryer, Robert; Hakan Friman; Darryl Robinson; Elizabeth Wilmshurst (2007). An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure. Cambridge University Press. p. 188.
291
[18] The Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional

Protocols International Committee of the Red Cross
[19] Zgonec-Roej, Mia (July 2013). International Criminals: Extradite or Prosecute?" (PDF). Brieng Papers.
Chatham House. p. 16.
[20] Explained: Election Pledge on New Crimes Against Humanity Initiative AEGIS
[21] International Prosecutors Call for Convention on Crimes
Against Humanity The Jurist
[22] Richard, Goldstone (2011). Foreword.
[23] M. Cherif Bassiouni,Crimes Against Humanity The
Crimes of War Project
[24] Evans, Gareth, Crimes Against Humanity and the Responsibility to Protect International Crisis Group
[7] Nuremberg Trial Proceedings Vol. 1 Charter of the International Military Tribunal contained in the Avalon Project
archive at Yale Law School
[25] Cecilia Marcela Bailliet, UN International Law Commission to Elaborate New Global Convention on Crimes
Against Humanity IntLawGrrls
[8] Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartoek, Jean-Louis Pann, JeanLouis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stphane Courtois,
The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, 858 pages, ISBN 0-67407608-7, page 6.
[26] William A. Schabas, International Law Commission to

Work on Draft Articles on Crimes Against Humanity
PhD studies in human rights
[9] Judgement : The Law Relating to War Crimes and Crimes

Against Humanity contained in the Avalon Project archive
at Yale Law School
[10] Yoshinobu
Higurashi,Tokyo
Saiban(Tokyo
Trial),Kodansya-Gendai-Shinsho,Kodansha
Limited,2008,p.26,pp.116-119.Hirohumi Hayashi,BC
kyu Senpan Saiban,Iwanami Shoten Publishers,2005,p.33.
[27] Murphy, Sean (February 2013). Proposal for New Topic:

Crimes Against Humanity, Working Group on the LongTerm Program of Work. International Law Commission,
Sixty-fth session. p. 2
[28] http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/
NR0/044/31/IMG/NR004431.pdf?OpenElement
[29] http://www.internationalcrimesdatabase.org/Crimes/
CrimesAgainstHumanity#_ftnref1
[11] Yoshinobu Higurashi,op.cit.,pp.116-119.
[30] UN condemns 'war crimes in Gaza. BBC News. 16

September 2009. Retrieved 30 April 2010.
[12] As quoted by Guy Horton in Dying Alive - A Legal Assessment of Human Rights Violations in Burma April 2005,
co-Funded by The Netherlands Ministry for Development
Co-Operation. See section 12.52 Crimes against humanity, Page 201. He references RSICC/C, Vol. 1 p. 360
[31] Goldstone, Richard (2011-04-01). Reconsidering the

Goldstone Report on Israel and War Crimes. The Washington Post. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
[13] International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid dopted and opened
for signature, ratication by General Assembly resolution
3068 (XXVIII) of 30 November 1973. Entry into force
18 July 1976, in accordance with article X (10)
[32] Resolution A/HRC/RES/22/13: Situation of human

rights in the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Human Rights Council
[14] Charter of the United Nations
[33] Report of the commission of inquiry on human rights

in the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea A/HRC/25/63, available at: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/
HRBodies/HRC/CoIDPRK/Pages/Documents.aspx
[15] ICC Prosecutors Policy Paper on Sexual and GenderBased Crimes June 2014
[34] Resolution 1674 (2006) Archived February 23, 2009 at

the Wayback Machine
[16] SECURITY COUNCIL DEMANDS IMMEDIATE

AND COMPLETE HALT TO ACTS OF SEXUAL
VIOLENCE AGAINST CIVILIANS IN CONFLICT
ZONES, UNANIMOUSLY ADOPTING RESOLUTION 1820 (2008)". Un.org. Retrieved 2013-02-01.
[35] Burns, Peter, Aspect of Crimes Against Humanity and

the International Criminal Court International Centre for
Criminal Law Reform and Criminal Justice Policy. p. 6.
[17] Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the

Crime of Genocide Oce of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Human Rights.
[37] Cherif Bassiouni, M. Crimes against Humanity: Historical Evolution and Contemporary Application. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. p. 186
[36] ICTY Statute Article 5
292
[38] ICTR Statute Article 3

[39] Cherif Bassiouni. Crimes Against Humanity. Retrieved
2006-07-23.
[40] Rome statute of the International Cral Court Article 7:
Crimes against humanity.
[41] Luis Moreno Ocampo OTP letter to senders re Iraq at the
Wayback Machine (archived February 25, 2006) 9 February 2006. Page 4
Crimes Against Humanity -- Bibliographies on the

topics of the International Law Commission & International Law Seminar (UNOG Library)
3.3 Genocide
This article is about the crime.
Genocide (disambiguation).
For other uses, see
[42] Archived April 12, 2011 at the Wayback Machine

[43] International Criminal Court, 14 July 2008. ICC Prosecutor presents case against Sudanese President, Hassan
Ahmad AL BASHIR, for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes in Darfur at the Wayback Machine
(archived July 15, 2008). Accessed 14 July 2008.
Genocide is the systematic elimination of all or a signicant part of a racial, ethnic, religious, cultural or national
group. Well-known examples of genocide include the
Holocaust, the Armenian Genocide, 1971 Bangladesh
Genocide, and more recently the Rwandan Genocide.
[44] Judge Philippe Kirsch (President of the International

Criminal Court) Address to the United Nations General
Assembly at the Wayback Machine (archived June 6,
2007) (PDF) website ICC, 9 October 2006. P. 3
3.3.1 Etymology
[45] Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe:

Recommendation (2002) 5 Paragraph 69
[46] Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe:
Recommendation (2002) 5 Paragraph 100
[47] MEPs recognize Ukraines famine as crime against humanity. Russian News & Information Agency. 200810-23. Retrieved 2008-10-23.
3.2.9
Further reading
Macleod, Christopher (2010). Towards a Philosophical Account of Crimes Against Humanity.

European Journal of International Law 21 (2): 281
302. doi:10.1093/ejil/chq031.
Sadat, Leila Nadya (2013). Crimes Against
Humanity in the Modern Age (PDF). American
Journal of International Law 107 (2): 334377.
doi:10.5305/amerjintelaw.107.2.0334. Retrieved
11 December 2013.
Schabas, William A. (2000). Genocide in International Law: The Crimes of Crimes. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78262-7.
3.2.10
External links
Crimes of War project

Rule of Law in Armed Conicts Project
What is a Crime Against Humanity? an online
video
Genocide & Crimes Against Humanity a learning resource, highlighting the cases of Myanmar,
Bosnia, the DRC, and Darfur
Genocide became an ocial term used in international

relations. The word genocide was not in use before
1944. Before this was established, Winston Churchill
referred to it as a crime with no name. In that year, a
Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raphael Lemkin described
the policies of systematic murder founded by the Nazis as
genocide. The word genocide is the combination of the
Greek word "geno" (meaning tribe or race) and caedere
(the Latin word for to kill). The word is dened as a specic set of violent crimes that are committed against a
certain group with the attempt to remove the entire group
from existence or to destroy them.
The word genocide was later included as a descriptive
term to the process of indictment, but not yet as a formal
legal term[1] According to Lemkin, genocide was dened
as a coordinated strategy to destroy a group of people, a
process that could be accomplished through total annihilation as well as strategies that eliminate key elements of
the groups basic existence, including language, culture,
and economic infrastructure. He created a concept of
mobilizing much of the international relations and community, to working together and preventing the occurrence of such events happening within history and the international society.[2] The study of genocide has mainly
been focused towards the legal aspect of the term. By
formally recognizing the act of genocide as a crime, involves the undergoing prosecution that begins with not
only seeing genocide as outrageous past any moral standpoint but also may be a legal liability within international
relations. When genocide is looked at in a general aspect
it is viewed as the deliberate killing of a certain group.
Yet is commonly seen to escape the process of trial and
prosecution due to the fact that genocide is more often
than not committed by the ocials in power of a state or
area. In 1648 before the term genocide had been coined,
the Peace of Westphalia was established to protect ethnic,
national, racial and in some instances religious groups.
During the 19th century humanitarian intervention was
3.3. GENOCIDE
293
needed due to the fact of conict and justication of some

of the actions executed by the military.[3]
Raphael Lemkin, in his work Axis Rule in Occupied Europe (1944), or possibly in 1943, coined the term genocide by combining Greek genos (), race, people
and Latin caedere to kill.[4]
Lemkin dened genocide as follows:
Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of
a nation, except when accomplished by mass
killings of all members of a nation. It is intended rather to signify a coordinated plan of
dierent actions aiming at the destruction of
essential foundations of the life of national
groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups
themselves. The objectives of such a plan
would be the disintegration of the political and
social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, and the destruction of
the personal security, liberty, health, dignity,
and even the lives of the individuals belonging
to such groups.
Buchenwald concentration camp was not an extermination camp,

though it was responsible for a vast number of deaths
General Assembly adopted a resolution that armed

that genocide was a crime under international law, but
did not provide a legal denition of the crime. In 1948,
the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) which dened the crime of genocide for the rst
time.[9]
The preamble to the Genocide Convention (CPPCG)

notes that instances of genocide have taken place throughout history,[5] but it was not until Lemkin coined the term
and the prosecution of perpetrators of the Holocaust at
the Nuremberg trials that the United Nations dened the
crime of genocide under international law in the Genocide Convention.
The CPPCG was adopted by the UN General Assembly

on 9 December 1948 and came into eect on 12 January
1951 (Resolution 260 (III)). It contains an internationally recognized denition of genocide which has been incorporated into the national criminal legislation of many
countries, and was also adopted by the Rome Statute of
the International Criminal Court, which established the
During a video interview with Raphael Lemkin for the International Criminal Court (ICC). Article II of the ConCBS, news commentator Quincy Howe asked him about vention denes genocide as:
how he came to be interested in the crime of genocide.
He replied:
...any of the following acts committed with
intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national,
I became interested in genocide because it
ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:
happened so many times. It happened to the
(a) Killing members of the group;
Armenians, then after the Armenians, Hitler
(b) Causing serious bodily or mentook action.[6][7]
tal harm to members of the group;
(c) Deliberately inicting on the
Lemkin was also a close relative of genocide victims, losgroup conditions of life calculated
ing 49 relatives in the Holocaust. However, his work on
to bring about its physical destrucdening genocide as a crime dates to 1933, and it was
tion in whole or in part;
prompted by the Simele massacre in Iraq.[8]
(d) Imposing measures intended to
prevent births within the group;
3.3.2 As a crime
(e) Forcibly transferring children of
the group to another group.
International law
After the Holocaust, which had been perpetrated by the
Nazi Germany and its allies prior to and during World
War II, Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal
acceptance of international laws dening and forbidding
genocide. In 1946, the rst session of the United Nations
The rst draft of the Convention included political

killings, but these provisions were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise following objections
from some countries, including the USSR, a permanent
security council member.[10][11] The USSR argued that
294
the Conventions denition should follow the etymology of the term,[11] and may have feared greater international scrutiny of its own Great Purge.[10] Other nations feared that including political groups in the denition would invite international intervention in domestic politics.[11] However leading genocide scholar William
Schabas states: Rigorous examination of the travaux
fails to conrm a popular impression in the literature that
the opposition to inclusion of political genocide was some
Soviet machination. The Soviet views were also shared
by a number of other States for whom it is dicult to
establish any geographic or social common denominator:
Lebanon, Sweden, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela, the Philippines, the Dominican Republic, Iran, Egypt, Belgium,
and Uruguay. The exclusion of political groups was in
fact originally promoted by a non-governmental organization, the World Jewish Congress, and it corresponded
to Raphael Lemkins vision of the nature of the crime of
genocide. [12]
UN Commission of Experts that examined violations of international humanitarian

law committed in the territory of the former
Yugoslavia.[15]
Specic provisions
Intent to destroy In 2007 the European Court of
Human Rights (ECHR), noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. Germany case that in 1992 the majority of legal
scholars took the narrow view that intent to destroy in
the CPPCG meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group and that this was still the
majority opinion. But the ECHR also noted that a minority took a broader view and did not consider biologicalphysical destruction was necessary as the intent to destroy
a national, racial, religious or ethnic group was enough to
qualify as genocide.[16]
The conventions purpose and scope was later described

In the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgeby the United Nations Security Council as follows:
ments of several international and municipal courts
judgements. It noted that International Criminal TriThe Convention was manifestly adopted
bunal
for the Former Yugoslavia and the International
for humanitarian and civilizing purposes. Its
Court
of Justice had agreed with the narrow interpretaobjectives are to safeguard the very existence
tion,
that
biological-physical destruction was necessary
of certain human groups and to arm and emfor
an
act
to
qualify as genocide. The ECHR also noted
phasize the most elementary principles of huthat
at
the
time
of its judgement, apart from courts in
manity and morality. In view of the rights
Germany
which
had
taken a broad view, that there had
involved, the legal obligations to refrain from
been
few
cases
of
genocide
under other Convention States
genocide are recognized as erga omnes.
municipal
laws
and
that
There
are no reported cases in
When the Convention was drafted, it was alwhich
the
courts
of
these
States
have dened the type of
ready envisaged that it would apply not only to
group
destruction
the
perpetrator
must have intended in
then existing forms of genocide, but also to
[17]
order
to
be
found
guilty
of
genocide.
any method that might be evolved in the future
with a view to destroying the physical existence
of a group.[13] As emphasized in the preamble
to the Convention, genocide has marred all periods of history, and it is this very tragic recognition that gives the concept its historical evolutionary nature.
The Convention must be interpreted in good
faith, in accordance with the ordinary meaning
of its terms, in their context, and in the light of
its object and purpose. Moreover, the text of
the Convention should be interpreted in such
a way that a reason and a meaning can be attributed to every word. No word or provision
may be disregarded or treated as superuous,
unless this is absolutely necessary to give effect to the terms read as a whole.[14]
Genocide is a crime under international law
regardless of whether committed in time of
peace or in time of war (art. I). Thus, irrespective of the context in which it occurs (for
example, peace time, internal strife, international armed conict or whatever the general
overall situation) genocide is a punishable international crime.
Armenian Genocide victims
In part The phrase in whole or in part has been

subject to much discussion by scholars of international
humanitarian law.[18] The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v.
Radislav Krstic Trial Chamber I Judgment IT-98-33
(2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001)[19] that Genocide had been
committed. In Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic Appeals
3.3. GENOCIDE
Chamber Judgment IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April
2004)[20] paragraphs 8, 9, 10, and 11 addressed the issue
of in part and found that the part must be a substantial
part of that group. The aim of the Genocide Convention
is to prevent the intentional destruction of entire human
groups, and the part targeted must be signicant enough
to have an impact on the group as a whole. The Appeals
Chamber goes into details of other cases and the opinions
of respected commentators on the Genocide Convention
to explain how they came to this conclusion.
The judges continue in paragraph 12, The determination of when the targeted part is substantial enough to
meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations. The numeric size of the targeted part of the group
is the necessary and important starting point, though not
in all cases the ending point of the inquiry. The number of individuals targeted should be evaluated not only
in absolute terms, but also in relation to the overall size
of the entire group. In addition to the numeric size of
the targeted portion, its prominence within the group can
be a useful consideration. If a specic part of the group
is emblematic of the overall group, or is essential to its
survival, that may support a nding that the part qualies as substantial within the meaning of Article 4 [of the
Tribunals Statute].[21][22]
In paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators access to the victims: The historical examples
of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators
activity and control, as well as the possible extent of their
reach, should be considered. ... The intent to destroy
formed by a perpetrator of genocide will always be limited by the opportunity presented to him. While this factor alone will not indicate whether the targeted group is
substantial, it canin combination with other factors
inform the analysis.[20]
CPPCG coming into force
The Convention came into force as international law on
12 January 1951 after the minimum 20 countries became
parties. At that time, however, only two of the ve permanent members of the UN Security Council were parties to
the treaty: France and the Republic of China. The Soviet
Union ratied in 1954, the United Kingdom in 1970, the
Peoples Republic of China in 1983 (having replaced the
Taiwan-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971),
and the United States in 1988. This long delay in support
for the Convention by the worlds most powerful nations
caused the Convention to languish for over four decades.
Only in the 1990s did the international law on the crime
of genocide begin to be enforced.
295
rearms the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of
the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document regarding the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against
humanity.[23] The resolution committed the Council to
action to protect civilians in armed conict.[24]
In 2008 the UN Security Council adopted resolution
1820, which noted that rape and other forms of sexual violence can constitute war crimes, crimes against humanity or a constitutive act with respect to genocide.[25]
Municipal law
Main article: Genocide under municipal laws
Since the Convention came into eect in January 1951
about 80 United Nations member states have passed legislation that incorporates the provisions of CPPCG into
their municipal law.[26]
3.3.3 Criticisms of the CPPCG and other

denitions of genocide
See also: Genocide denitions
William Schabas has suggested that a permanent body as
recommended by the Whitaker Report to monitor the implementation of the Genocide Convention, and require
States to issue reports on their compliance with the convention (such as were incorporated into the United Nations Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture), would make the convention more eective.[27]
Writing in 1998 Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Bjrnson
stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting
from a diplomatic compromise. As such the wording of
the treaty is not intended to be a denition suitable as a
research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as
it has an international legal credibility that others lack,
other denitions have also been postulated. Jonassohn
and Bjrnson go on to say that none of these alternative
denitions have gained widespread support for various
reasons.[28]
Jonassohn and Bjrnson postulate that the major reason

why no single generally accepted genocide denition has
emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus
to emphasise dierent periods and have found it expedient to use slightly dierent denitions to help them interpret events. For example, Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn studied the whole of human history, while Leo Kuper and R. J. Rummel in their more recent works concentrated on the 20th century, and Helen Fein, Barbara Har
UN Security Council on genocide
and Ted Gurr have looked at post World War II events.
Jonassohn and Bjrnson are critical of some of these studUN Security Council Resolution 1674, adopted by the ies, arguing that they are too expansive, and conclude that
United Nations Security Council on 28 April 2006, the academic discipline of genocide studies is too young
296
to have a canon of work on which to build an academic mass destruction, Adrian Gallagher dened genocide as
paradigm.[28]
'When a source of collective power (usually a state) inThe exclusion of social and political groups as targets of tentionally uses its power base to implement a process of
genocide in the CPPCG legal denition has been criti- destruction in order to destroy a group (as dened by the
in substantial part, dependent
cized by some historians and sociologists, for example perpetrator), in whole or [39]
upon
relative
group
size'.
The denition upholds the
M. Hassan Kakar in his book The Soviet Invasion and
centrality
of
intent,
the
multidimensional
understanding
[29]
argues that the inthe Afghan Response, 19791982
of
destroy,
broadens
the
denition
of
group
identity be[30]
ternational denition of genocide is too restricted, and
yond that of the 1948 denition yet argues that a substanthat it should include political groups or any group so
dened by the perpetrator and quotes Chalk and Jonas- tial part of a group has to be destroyed before it can be
classied as genocide (dependent on relative group size).
sohn: Genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in
which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group, A major criticism of the international communitys reas that group and membership in it are dened by the sponse to the Rwandan Genocide was that it was reacperpetrator.[31] While there are various denitions of the tive, not proactive. The international community has determ, Adam Jones states that the majority of genocide veloped a mechanism for prosecuting the perpetrators of
scholars consider that intent to destroy is a requirement genocide but has not developed the will or the mechafor any act to be labelled genocide, and that there is grow- nisms for intervening in a genocide as it happens. Critics
ing agreement on the inclusion of the physical destruction point to the Darfur conict and suggest that if anyone is
criterion.[32]
found guilty of genocide after the conict either by prosBarbara Har and Ted Gurr dened genocide as the pro- ecutions brought in the International Criminal Court or in
motion and execution of policies by a state or its agents an ad hoc International Criminal Tribunal, this will conwhich result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a rm this perception.
group ...[when] the victimized groups are dened primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnic3.3.4 International prosecution of genoity, religion or nationality.[33] Har and Gurr also diercide
entiate between genocides and politicides by the characteristics by which members of a group are identied by
the state. In genocides, the victimized groups are dened By ad hoc tribunals
primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e.,
ethnicity, religion or nationality. In politicides the victim
groups are dened primarily in terms of their hierarchical
position or political opposition to the regime and dominant groups.[34][35] Daniel D. Polsby and Don B. Kates,
Jr. state that "... we follow Hars distinction between
genocides and 'pogroms,' which she describes as 'shortlived outbursts by mobs, which, although often condoned
by authorities, rarely persist.' If the violence persists for
long enough, however, Har argues, the distinction between condonation and complicity collapses.[36][37]
According to R. J. Rummel, genocide has 3 dierent
meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or
religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the Convention on
the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.
This also includes non-killings that in the end eliminate
the group, such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group. A generalized meaning of genocide is similar to the ordinary
meaning but also includes government killings of political
opponents or otherwise intentional murder. It is to avoid
confusion regarding what meaning is intended that Rummel created the term democide for the third meaning.[38]
Nuon Chea, the Khmer Rouges chief ideologist, before the

Cambodian Genocide Tribunal on 5 December 2011.
All signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and
wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement
dicult. In particular, some of the signatoriesnamely,
Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines,
Singapore, the United States, Vietnam, Yemen, and
former Yugoslaviasigned with the proviso that no
claim of genocide could be brought against them at the
International Court of Justice without their consent.[40]
Despite ocial protests from other signatories (notably
Highlighting the potential for state and non-state actors Cyprus and Norway) on the ethics and legal standing
to commit genocide in the 21st century, for example, in of these reservations, the immunity from prosecution
failed states or as non-state actors acquire weapons of they grant has been invoked from time to time, as when
the United States refused to allow a charge of genocide
3.3. GENOCIDE
297
brought against it by former Yugoslavia following the

1999 Kosovo War.[41]
It is commonly accepted that, at least since World War II,
genocide has been illegal under customary international
law as a peremptory norm, as well as under conventional
international law. Acts of genocide are generally dicult to establish for prosecution, because a chain of accountability must be established. International criminal
courts and tribunals function primarily because the states
involved are incapable or unwilling to prosecute crimes
of this magnitude themselves.
Nuremberg Tribunal (19451946)

Nuremberg Trials
Main article:
Because the universal acceptance of international laws

which in 1948 dened and forbade genocide with the
promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), those
criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the Holocaust were found
guilty of crimes against humanity and other more specic crimes like murder. Nevertheless, the Holocaust is
universally recognized to have been a genocide and the
term, that had been coined the year before by Raphael
Lemkin,[42] appeared in the indictment of the 24 Nazi
leaders, Count 3, which stated that all the defendants had
conducted deliberate and systematic genocidenamely,
the extermination of racial and national groups...[43]
A boy at a grave during the 2006 funeral of genocide victims
On 26 February 2007, the International Court of Justice

(ICJ), in the Bosnian Genocide Case upheld the ICTYs
earlier nding that the Srebrenica massacre in Srebrenica
and Zepa constituted genocide, but found that the Serbian
government had not participated in a wider genocide on
the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war,
as the Bosnian government had claimed.[47]
On 12 July 2007, European Court of Human Rights when

dismissing the appeal by Nikola Jorgi against his conviction for genocide by a German court (Jorgic v. Germany)
noted that the German courts wider interpretation of
genocide has since been rejected by international courts
considering similar cases.[48][49][50] The ECHR also noted
that in the 21st century Amongst scholars, the majority
have taken the view that ethnic cleansing, in the way in
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yu- which it was carried out by the Serb forces in Bosnia and
goslavia (1993 to present) See also: Bosnian Geno- Herzegovina in order to expel Muslims and Croats from
cide and List of Bosnian genocide prosecutions
their homes, did not constitute genocide. However, there
The term Bosnian Genocide is used to refer either to are also a considerable number of scholars who have suggested that these acts did amount to genocide, and the
ICTY has found in the Momcilo Krajisnik case that the
actus reu, of genocide was met in Prijedor With regard
to the charge of genocide, the Chamber found that in
spite of evidence of acts perpetrated in the municipalities which constituted the actus reus of genocide.[51]
The cemetery at the Srebrenica-Potoari Memorial and Cemetery

to Genocide Victims
the genocide committed by Serb forces in Srebrenica in

1995,[44] or to ethnic cleansing that took place during the
19921995 Bosnian War.[45]
In 2001, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) judged that the 1995 Srebrenica
massacre was an act of genocide.[46]
About 30 people have been indicted for participating in

genocide or complicity in genocide during the early 1990s
in Bosnia. To date, after several plea bargains and some
convictions that were successfully challenged on appeal
two men, Vujadin Popovi and Ljubia Beara, have been
found guilty of committing genocide, Zdravko Tolimir
has been found guilty of committing genocide and conspiracy to commit genocide, and two others, Radislav
Krsti and Drago Nikoli, have been found guilty of aiding and abetting genocide. Three others have been found
guilty of participating in genocides in Bosnia by German
courts, one of whom Nikola Jorgi lost an appeal against
his conviction in the European Court of Human Rights. A
further eight men, former members of the Bosnian Serb
security forces were found guilty of genocide by the State
298
Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina (See List of Bosnian Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambogenocide prosecutions).
dia (2003 to present) Main articles: Killing Fields and
Slobodan Miloevi, as the former President of Serbia Khmer Rouge Tribunal
and of Yugoslavia, was the most senior political gure to The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, Ta Mok and other
stand trial at the ICTY. He died on 11 March 2006 during
his trial where he was accused of genocide or complicity
in genocide in territories within Bosnia and Herzegovina,
so no verdict was returned. In 1995, the ICTY issued a
warrant for the arrest of Bosnian Serbs Radovan Karadi
and Ratko Mladi on several charges including genocide.
On 21 July 2008, Karadi was arrested in Belgrade, and
he is currently in The Hague on trial accused of genocide among other crimes.[52] Ratko Mladi was arrested
on 26 May 2011 by Serbian special police in Lazarevo,
Serbia.[53]
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994 Rooms of the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum contain thousands
to present) See also: Rwandan Genocide
of photos taken by the Khmer Rouge of their victims.
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
Rwandan Genocide Victims
is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for the

prosecution of oenses committed in Rwanda during the
genocide which occurred there during April 1994, commencing on 6 April. The ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the Security Council of the United Nations
in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of
genocide and other serious violations of the international
law performed in the territory of Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31
December 1994.
So far, the ICTR has nished nineteen trials and convicted twenty seven accused persons. On 14 December
2009 two more men were accused and convicted for their
crimes. Another twenty ve persons are still on trial.
Twenty-one are awaiting trial in detention, two more
added on 14 December 2009. Ten are still at large.[54]
The rst trial, of Jean-Paul Akayesu, began in 1997. In
October 1998, Akayesu was sentenced to life imprisonment. Jean Kambanda, interim Prime Minister, pled
guilty.
Skulls in the Choeung Ek.
leaders, organized the mass killing of ideologically suspect groups. The total number of victims is estimated at
approximately 1.7 million Cambodians between 1975
1979, including deaths from slave labour.[55]
On 6 June 2003 the Cambodian government and the
United Nations reached an agreement to set up the
(ECCC) which would focus exclusively on crimes committed by the most senior Khmer Rouge ocials during
the period of Khmer Rouge rule of 19751979.[56] The
judges were sworn in early July 2006.[57][58][59]
The genocide charges related to killings of Cambodias Vietnamese and Cham minorities, which is estimated to make up tens of thousand killings and possibly
more[60][61]
The investigating judges were presented with the names
of ve possible suspects by the prosecution on 18 July
2007.[57][62]
Kang Kek Iew was formally charged with war crime
3.3. GENOCIDE
299
and crimes against humanity and detained by the Darfur, Sudan Main article: War in Darfur
Tribunal on 31 July 2007. He was indicted on There has been much debate over categorizing the sitcharges of war crimes and crimes against humanity
on 12 August 2008.[63] His appeal against his conviction for war crimes and crimes against humanity
was rejected on 3 February 2012, and he is serving
a sentence of life imprisonment.[64]
Nuon Chea, a former prime minister, who was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes
against humanity and several other crimes under
Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was
transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 19
September 2007. His trial, which is ongoing, started
on 27 June 2011.[65][66]
Khieu Samphan, a former head of state, who was
indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes
transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 19
September 2007. His trial, which is ongoing, started
on 27 June 2011.[65][66]
Ieng Sary, a former foreign minister, who was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes
transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 12 A mother with her sick baby at Abu Shouk IDP camp in North
Darfur
November 2007. His trial started on 27 June 2011,
and ended with his death on 14 March 2013. He was
uation in Darfur as genocide.[69] The ongoing conict
never convicted.[65][66]
in Darfur, Sudan, which started in 2003, was declared
Ieng Thirith, a former minister for social aairs and a genocide by United States Secretary of State Colin
wife of Ieng Sary, who was indicted on charges of Powell on 9 September 2004 in testimony before the
[70]
genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Since that time
several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 however, no other permanent member of the UN SecuSeptember 2010. She was transferred into the cus- rity Council followed suit. In fact, in January 2005, an
tody of the ECCC on 12 November 2007. Pro- International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, authoceedings against her have been suspended pending rized by UN Security Council Resolution 1564 of 2004,
issued a report to the Secretary-General stating that the
a health evaluation.[66][67]
Government of the Sudan has not pursued a policy of
genocide.[71] Nevertheless, the Commission cautioned
There has been disagreement between some of the
that The conclusion that no genocidal policy has been
international jurists and the Cambodian government
pursued and implemented in Darfur by the Government
over whether any other people should be tried by the
authorities, directly or through the militias under their
Tribunal.[62]
control, should not be taken in any way as detracting from
the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region. International oences such as the crimes against humanity
By the International Criminal Court
and war crimes that have been committed in Darfur may
[71]
Since 2002, the International Criminal Court can exer- be no less serious and heinous than genocide.
cise its jurisdiction if national courts are unwilling or unable to investigate or prosecute genocide, thus being a
court of last resort, leaving the primary responsibility to
exercise jurisdiction over alleged criminals to individual
states. Due to the United States concerns over the ICC,
the United States prefers to continue to use specially convened international tribunals for such investigations and
potential prosecutions.[68]
In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred

the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, taking into account the
Commission report but without mentioning any specic crimes.[72] Two permanent members of the Security
Council, the United States and China, abstained from the
vote on the referral resolution.[73] As of his fourth report
to the Security Council, the Prosecutor has found rea-
300
sonable grounds to believe that the individuals identied

[in the UN Security Council Resolution 1593] have committed crimes against humanity and war crimes, but did
not nd sucient evidence to prosecute for genocide.[74]
the promotion of vastly dierent versions of the event in

question.
On 14 July 2008, prosecutors at the International Criminal Court (ICC), led ten charges of war crimes against
Sudans President Omar al-Bashir: three counts of genocide, ve of crimes against humanity and two of murder. The ICCs prosecutors claimed that al-Bashir masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part three tribal groups in Darfur because of their
ethnicity.
William Rubinstein argues that the origin of 20th century

genocides can be traced to the collapse of the elite structure and normal modes of government in parts of Europe
following the First World War:
Revisionist attempts to challenge or arm claims of

genocide are illegal in some countries. For example,
In April 2007, the Judges of the ICC issued arrest war- several European countries ban denying the Holocaust,
rants against the former Minister of State for the Inte- while in Turkey referring to mass killings of Armenians,
rior, Ahmad Harun, and a Militia Janjaweed leader, Ali Greeks and Assyrians as a genocide may be prosecuted
Kushayb, for crimes against humanity and war crimes.[75] under Article 301.[78]
On 4 March 2009, the ICC issued a warrant of arrest

for Omar Al Bashir, President of Sudan as the ICC PreTrial Chamber I concluded that his position as head of
state does not grant him immunity against prosecution before the ICC. The warrant was for war crimes and crimes
against humanity. It did not include the crime of genocide because the majority of the Chamber did not nd
that the prosecutors had provided enough evidence to include such a charge.[76]
3.3.5
Genocide in history
The 'Age of Totalitarianism' included

nearly all of the infamous examples of genocide in modern history, headed by the Jewish
Holocaust, but also comprising the mass murders and purges of the Communist world, other
mass killings carried out by Nazi Germany and
its allies, and also the Armenian genocide of
1915. All these slaughters, it is argued here,
had a common origin, the collapse of the elite
structure and normal modes of government of
much of central, eastern and southern Europe
as a result of the First World War, without
which surely neither Communism nor Fascism
would have existed except in the minds of unknown agitators and crackpots.
William Rubinstein, Genocide: a
history[79]
3.3.6 Stages of genocide, inuences leading to genocide, and eorts to prevent it
Naked Soviet POWs held by the Nazis in Mauthausen concentration camp. "... the murder of at least 3.3 million Soviet POWs
is one of the least-known of modern genocides; there is still no
full-length book on the subject in English. Adam Jones[77]
Main article: Genocides in history

The preamble to the CPPCG states that genocide is a
crime under international law, contrary to the spirit and
aims of the United Nations and condemned by the civilized world, and that at all periods of history genocide
has inicted great losses on humanity.
In many cases where accusations of genocide have circulated, partisans have ercely disputed such an interpretation and the details of the event. This often leads to
For genocide to happen, there must be certain preconditions. Foremost among them is
a national culture that does not place a high
value on human life. A totalitarian society,
with its assumed superior ideology, is also a
precondition for genocidal acts.[80] In addition,
members of the dominant society must perceive their potential victims as less than fully
human: as pagans, savages, uncouth barbarians, unbelievers, eete degenerates,
ritual outlaws, racial inferiors, class antagonists, counterrevolutionaries, and so on.[81]
In themselves, these conditions are not enough
for the perpetrators to commit genocide. To do
thatthat is, to commit genocidethe perpetrators need a strong, centralized authority and
bureaucratic organization as well as pathological individuals and criminals. Also required
is a campaign of vilication and dehumanization of the victims by the perpetrators, who are
usually new states or new regimes attempting
3.3. GENOCIDE
301
to impose conformity to a new ideology and its

model of society.[80]
M. Hassan Kakar[82]
contribute to the probability that the violence develops

into genocide.[87] Intense conict between groups that is
unresolved, becomes intractable and violent can also lead
to genocide. The conditions that lead to genocide provide
guidance to early prevention, such as humanizing a devalIn 1996 Gregory Stanton, the president of Genocide ued group, creating ideologies that embrace all groups,
Watch, presented a brieng paper called The 8 Stages of and activating bystander responses. There is substantial
Genocide at the United States Department of State.[83] research to indicate how this can be done, but informaIn it he suggested that genocide develops in eight stages tion is only slowly transformed into action.[88]
that are predictable but not inexorable.[83][84]
The Stanton paper was presented to the State Depart3.3.7 See also
ment, shortly after the Rwandan Genocide and much of
its analysis is based on why that genocide occurred. The
Autogenocide
preventative measures suggested, given the brieng papers original target audience, were those that the United
Countervalue
States could implement directly or indirectly by using its
inuence on other governments.
Crimes against humanity
In April 2012, it was reported that Stanton would soon
Ethnic cleansing
be ocially adding two new stages, Discrimination and
Persecution, to his original theory, which would make for
Forensic osteology
a 10-stage theory of genocide.[85]
In a paper for the Social Science Research Council Dirk
Moses criticises the Stanton approach concluding:
In view of this rather poor record of ending
genocide, the question needs to be asked why
the genocide studies paradigm cannot predict
and prevent genocides with any accuracy and
reliability. The paradigm of genocide studies, as currently constituted in North America in particular, has both strengths and limitations. While the moral fervor and public activism is admirable and salutary, the paradigm
appears blind to its own implication in imperial projects that are themselves as much part
of the problem as they are part of the solution.
The US government called Darfur a genocide
to appease domestic lobbies, and because the
statement cost it nothing. Darfur will end when
it suits the great powers that have a stake in the
region.
Dirk Moses[86]
Gendercide
Genocidal rape
Great Famine (Ireland)
The Holocaust (Shoah)
Holodomor
Indian massacre
Indonesian killings of 196566
Infanticide
List of genocides
Local extinction
Mass murder
Moriori people
Policide
Other authors have focused on the structural conditions

Population growth#Human population growth rate
leading up to genocide and the psychological and social
processes that create an evolution toward genocide. Ervin
Social cleansing
Staub showed that economic deterioration and political
confusion and disorganization were starting points of in Utilitarian genocide
creasing discrimination and violence in many instances
of genocides and mass killing. They lead to scapegoating a group and ideologies that identied that group as an Research
enemy. A history of devaluation of the group that becomes the victim, past violence against the group that be The Center for the Study of Genocide, Conict Rescomes the perpetrator leading to psychological wounds,
olution, and Human Rights
authoritarian cultures and political systems, and the passivity of internal and external witnesses (bystanders) all
International Association of Genocide Scholars
302
3.3.8
Notes
[1] What Is Genocide?" United States Holocaust Memorial

Museum. United States Holocaust Memorial Council, 20
June 2014. Web. 24 Feb. 2015. <http://www.ushmm.
org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007043>.
[2] Rothenberg, Daniel. Genocide. Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity. Ed. Dinah L. Shelton. Vol. 1. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005.
395-397. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 4 Mar.
2015.
[3] Schabas, William A. United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law. United Nations Audiovisual
Library of International Law. National University of Ireland, n.d. Web. 04 Mar. 2015. <http://legal.un.org/avl/
ha/cppcg/cppcg.html>.
[4] genocide in the Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed.
"1944 R. Lemkin Axis Rule in Occupied Europe ix. 79
By genocide we mean the destruction of a nation or of
an ethnic group.
[5] Oce of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide Archived 2 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
[6] Video interview with Raphael Lemkin - CBS News on
YouTube
[7] Stanley, Alessandra (Apr 17, 2006). A PBS Documentary Makes Its Case for the Armenian Genocide, With or
Without a Debate. New York Times. Retrieved Aug 7,
2012.
[8] William Korey, Raphael Lemkin: 'The Unocial Man',
Midstream, JuneJuly 1989, p. 4548
[9] Rubinstein, W. D. (2004). Genocide: a history. Pearson
Education. p. 308. ISBN 0-582-50601-8.
[10] Robert Gellately & Ben Kiernan (2003). The Specter of
Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 267. ISBN
0-521-52750-3.
[11] Staub, Ervin (31 July 1992). The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-52142214-0.
[12] Genocide in International Law - The Crime of Crimes Second Edition - William A. Schabas, pg 160
[13] From a statement made by Mr. Morozov, representative
of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, on 19 April
1948 during the debate in the Ad Hoc Committee on
Genocide (E/AC.25/SR.12).
[14] See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, opened for
signature on 23 May 1969, United Nations Treaty Series,
vol. 1155, No. I-18232.
[15] Mandate, structure and methods of work: Genocide I of

the UN Commission of Experts to examine violations of
international humanitarian law committed in the territory
of the former Yugoslavia, created by Security Council resolution 780 (1992) of 6 October 1992.
[16] European Court of Human Rights Judgement in Jorgic
v. Germany (Application no. 74613/01) paragraphs 18,
36,74
[17] European Court of Human Rights Judgement in Jorgic v.
Germany (Application no. 74613/01) paragraphs 4346
[18] What is Genocide? McGill Faculty of Law (McGill University)
[19] Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic Trial Chamber I Judgment IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001)
[20] Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic Appeals Chamber Judgment IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004)
[21] Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic Appeals Chamber Judgment IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004) See
Paragraph 6: Article 4 of the Tribunals Statute, like the
Genocide Convention, covers certain acts done with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical,
racial or religious group, as such.
[22] Statute of the International Tribunal for the Prosecution
of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of
the Former Yugoslavia since 1991, U.N. Doc. S/25704 at
36, annex (1993) and S/25704/Add.1 (1993), adopted by
Security Council on 25 May 1993, Resolution 827 (1993).
[23] Resolution Resolution 1674 (2006)
[24] Security Council passes landmark resolution world has
responsibility to protect people from genocide Oxfam
Press Release 28 April 2006
[25] http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2008/sc9364.doc.
htm
[26] The Crime of Genocide in Domestic Laws and Penal
Codes website of prevent genocide international.
[27] William Schabas War crimes and human rights: essays
on the death penalty, justice and accountability, Cameron
May 2008 ISBN 1-905017-63-4, ISBN 978-1-90501763-8. p. 791
[28] Kurt Jonassohn & Karin Solveig Bjrnson, Genocide and
Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective: In Comparative Perspective, Transaction Publishers,
1998, ISBN 0-7658-0417-4, ISBN 978-0-7658-0417-4.
pp. 133135
[29] M. Hassan Kakar Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and
the Afghan Response, 19791982 University of California
press 1995 The Regents of the University of California.
[30] M. Hassan Kakar 4.
The Story of Genocide in
Afghanistan: 13. Genocide Throughout the Country
[31] Frank Chalk, Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology
of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies, Yale University
Press, 1990, ISBN 0-300-04446-1
3.3. GENOCIDE
[32] Jones, Adam. Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction,

Routledge/Taylor & Francis Publishers, 2006. ISBN
0-415-35385-8. Chapter 1: The Origins of Genocide
pp.2021
[33] What is Genocide? McGill Faculty of Law (McGill University) source cites Barbara Har and Ted Gurr Toward
empirical theory of genocides and politicides, International
Studies Quarterly, 37:3, 1988
[34] Origins and Evolution of the Concept in the Science Encyclopedia by Net Industries. states Politicide, as [Barbara]
Har and [Ted R.] Gurr dene it, refers to the killing of
groups of people who are targeted not because of shared
ethnic or communal traits, but because of 'their hierarchical position or political opposition to the regime and
dominant groups (p. 360)". But does not give the book
title to go with the page number.
[35] Sta. There are NO Statutes of Limitations on the Crimes
of Genocide! On the website of the American Patriot
Friends Network. Cites Barbara Har and Ted Gurr Toward empirical theory of genocides and politicides, International Studies Quarterly 37, 3 [1988].
[36] Polsby, Daniel D.; Kates, Don B., Jr. (3 November 1997).
OF HOLOCAUSTS AND GUN CONTROL. Washington University Law Quarterly 75 (Fall): 1237. (cites
Har 1992, see other note)
[37] Har, Barbara (1992). Fein, Helen, ed. Recognizing
Genocides and Politicides. Genocide Watch (New Haven,
CT: Yale University Press) 27: 37, 38.
[38] Domocide versus genocide; which is what?
[39] Adrian Gallagher, Genocide and Its Threat to Contemporary International Order (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013) p.
37.
[40] United Nations Treaty Collection (As of 9 October 2001):
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide on the web site of the Oce of the
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
[41] (See for example the submission by Agent of the United
States, Mr. David Andrews to the ICJ Public Sitting, 11
May 1999)
[42] Oxford English Dictionary: 1944 R. Lemkin Axis Rule
in Occupied Europe ix. 79 By 'genocide' we mean the
destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group.
[43] Oxford English Dictionary Genocide citing Sunday
Times 21 October 1945
[44] Sta. Bosnian genocide suspect extradited, BBC, 2 April
2002
[45] European Court of Human Rights. Jorgic v. Germany
Judgment, 12 July 2007. 47
[46] The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic Trial
Chamber I Judgment IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001) that genocide had been committed. (see paragraph 560 for name of group in English on whom the
genocide was committed). It was upheld in Prosecutor v.
303
Radislav Krstic Appeals Chamber Judgment IT-98-33

(2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004)
[47] Courte: Serbia failed to prevent genocide, UN court
rules. The San Francisco Chronicle. Associated Press.
26 February 2007.
[48] ECHR Jorgic v. Germany. 42 citing Prosecutor v.
Krstic, IT-98-33-T, judgment of 2 August 2001, 580
[49] ECHR Jorgic v. Germany Judgment, 12 July 2007.
44 citing Prosecutor v. Kupreskic and Others (IT-95-16T, judgment of 14 January 2000), 751. In 14 January
2000, the ICTY ruled in the Prosecutor v. Kupreskic and
Others case that the killing of 116 Muslims in order to
expel the Muslim population from a village amounted to
persecution, not genocide.
[50] ICJ press release 2007/8 26 February 2007
[51] http://icty.org/x/cases/krajisnik/cis/en/cis_krajisnik_en.
pdf
[52] Sta (5 November 2009). Q&A: Karadzic on trial.
BBC News. Retrieved 28 January 2010.
[53] Sta (26 May 2011). Q&A: Ratko Mladic arrested:
Bosnia war crimes suspect held. BBC News. Retrieved
28 May 2011.
[54] These gures need revising they are from the ICTR page
which says see www.ictr.org
[55] Cambodian Genocide Program, Yale University's
MacMillan Center for International and Area Studies
[56] A/RES/57/228B (PDF). 2003-05-022. Retrieved 11
December 2010. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[57] Doyle, Kevin. Putting the Khmer Rouge on Trial, Time,
26 July 2007
[58] MacKinnon, Ian Crisis talks to save Khmer Rouge trial,
The Guardian, 7 March 2007
[59] The Khmer Rouge Trial Task Force, Royal Cambodian
Government
[60] Case 002 The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of
Cambodia. Retrieved 14 August 2014
[61] Former Khmer Rouge leaders begin genocide trial BBC.
30 July 2014
[62] Buncombe, Andrew (11 October 2011). Judge quits
Cambodia genocide tribunal. The Independent (London).
[63] Ker Munthit (12 August 2008). Cambodian tribunal indicts Khmer Rouge jailer. USA Today. Associated Press.
Retrieved April 2012.
[64] Kaing Guek Eav alias Duch Sentenced to Life Imprisonment by the Supreme Court Chamber. Extraordinary
Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia. 3 February 2012.
[65] Case 002. Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of
Cambodia. Retrieved April 2012.
304
[66] 002/19-09-2007: Closing Order (PDF). Extraordinary

Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia. 15 September
2010. Retrieved April 2012.
[80] M. Hassan Kakar Chapter 4. The Story of Genocide

in Afghanistan Footnote 9. Citing Horowitz, quoted in
Chalk and Jonassohn, Genocide, 14.
[67] 002/19-09-2007: Decision on immediate appeal against

Trial Chambers order to release the accused Ieng Thirith
(PDF). Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia. 13 December 2011. Retrieved April 2012.
[81] M. Hassan Kakar Chapter 4. The Story of Genocide in

Afghanistan Footnote 10. Citing For details, see Carlton,
War and Ideology.
[68] Statement by Carolyn Willson, Minister Counselor for International Legal Aairs, on the Report of the ICC, in the
UN General Assembly PDF (123 KB) 23 November 2005
[69] Jafari, Jamal and Paul Williams (2005) Word Games:
The UN and Genocide in Darfur JURIST
[70] POWELL DECLARES KILLING IN DARFUR
'GENOCIDE', The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, 9
September 2004
[71] Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on
Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General PDF
(1.14 MB), 25 January 2005, at 4
[82] M. Hassan Kakar, Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and

the Afghan Response, 19791982, University of California
Press, 1995.
[83] Gregory Stanton. The 8 Stages of Genocide, Genocide
Watch, 1996
[84] The FBI has found somewhat similar stages for hate
groups.
[85] http://aipr.wordpress.com/2012/04/19/
genprev-in-the-news-19-april-2012/
[86] Dirk Moses Why the Discipline of Genocide Studies
Has Trouble Explaining How Genocides End?, Social Science Research Council, 22 December 2006
[72] Security Council Resolution 1593 (2005) PDF (24.8 KB)

[73] SECURITY COUNCIL REFERS SITUATION IN
DARFUR, SUDAN, TO PROSECUTOR OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, UN Press Release
SC/8351, 31 March 2005
[74] Fourth Report of the Prosecutor of the International
Criminal Court, to the Security Council pursuant to
UNSC 1593 (2005) PDF (597 KB), Oce of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, 14 December
2006.
[75] Statement by Mr. Luis Moreno Ocampo, Prosecutor
of the International Criminal Court, to the United Nations Security Council pursuant to UNSCR 1593 (2005),
International Criminal Court, 5 June 2008
[76] ICC issues a warrant of arrest for Omar Al Bashir, President of Sudan (ICC-CPI-20090304-PR394), ICC press
release, 4 March 2009
[77] Adam Jones (2010), Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction (2nd ed.), p.271. "'" Next to the Jews in Europe, wrote Alexander Werth', the biggest single German crime was undoubtedly the extermination by hunger,
exposure and in other ways of . . . Russian war prisoners. Yet the murder of at least 3.3 million Soviet POWs
is one of the least-known of modern genocides; there is
still no full-length book on the subject in English. It also
stands as one of the most intensive genocides of all time:
a holocaust that devoured millions, as Catherine Merridale acknowledges. The large majority of POWs, some
2.8 million, were killed in just eight months of 194142,
a rate of slaughter matched (to my knowledge) only by the
1994 Rwanda genocide.
[78] Pair guilty of 'insulting Turkey', BBC News, 11 October
2007.
[79] Rubinstein, W. D. (2004). Genocide: a history. Pearson
Education. p.7. ISBN 0-582-50601-8
[87] Staub, E (1989). The roots of evil: The origins of genocide and other group violence. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
[88] Staub, E. (2011) Overcoming evil: Genocide, violent
conict and terrorism New York: Oxford University
Press.page needed]
3.3.9 References
Kakar, M. Hassan. Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 19791982. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. ISBN 0520-08591-4.
Lemkin, Raphael (1944). Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation Analysis of Government
Proposals for Redress. Washington, D.C: Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace.

Articles
The Genocide in Darfur is Not What It Seems Christian Science Monitor
(in Spanish) Aizenstatd, Najman Alexander. Origen y Evolucin del Concepto de Genocidio. Vol.
25 Revista de Derecho de la Universidad Francisco
Marroqun 11 (2007). ISSN 1562-2576
No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust? Assessing
Risks of Genocide and Political Mass Murder since
1955 American Political Science Review. Vol. 97,
No. 1. February 2003.
3.3. GENOCIDE
305
Har, B. and T. R. Gurr (1988). Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identication and Measurement of Cases since 1945. International Studies Quarterly 32: 359371.
Corradi, Juan, Patricia Weiss Fagen, and Manuel

Antonio Garreton, eds. 1992. Fear at the Edge:
State Terror and Resistance in Latin America.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
(in Spanish) Marco, Jorge. Genocidio y Genocide

Studies: Deniciones y debates, en: Arstegui,
Julio, Marco, Jorge y Gmez Bravo, Gutmaro (coord.): De Genocidios, Holocaustos, Exterminios..., Hispania Nova, 10 (2012). Vase
Elliot, G. (1972). Twentieth Century Book of the

Dead. New York, C. Scribner.
What Really Happened in Rwanda? Christian Davenport and Allan C. Stam.

Reyntjens, F. (2004). Rwanda, Ten Years On:
From Genocide to Dictatorship. African Aairs
103(411): 177210.
Brysk, Alison. 1994. The Politics of Measurement: The Contested Count of the Disappeared in
Argentina. Human Rights Quarterly 16: 67692.
Davenport, C. and P. Ball (2002). Views to a Kill:
Exploring the Implications of Source Selection in
the Case of Guatemalan State Terror, 19771996.
Journal of Conict Resolution 46(3): 427450.
Krain, M. (1997). State-Sponsored Mass Murder:
A Study of the Onset and Severity of Genocides and
Politicides. Journal of Conict Resolution 41(3):
331360.
Books
Andreopoulos, George J., ed. (1994). Genocide:
Conceptual and Historical Dimensions. University
of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3249-6.
Ball, P., P. Kobrak, and H. Spirer (1999). State Violence in Guatemala, 19601996: A Quantitative
Reection. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Bloxham, Donald & Moses, A. Dirk [editors]: The
Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. [Interdisciplinary Contributions about Past & Present Genocides]. Oxford University Press, second edition
2013. ISBN 978-0-19-967791-7
Chalk, Frank; Kurt Jonassohn (1990). The History
and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04446-1.
Charny, Israel W. (1 December 1999). Encyclopedia of Genocide. ABC-Clio Inc. ISBN 0-87436928-2.
Conversi, Daniele (2005).
Genocide, ethnic
cleansing, and nationalism. In Gerard Delanty, Krishan Kumar (eds). Handbook of Nations and Nationalism. vol. 1. London: Sage Publications. pp.
319333. ISBN 1-4129-0101-4.
Goldhagen, Daniel (2009). Worse Than War: Genocide, Eliminationism, and the Ongoing Assault on
Humanity. PublicAairs. p. 672. ISBN 1-58648769-8.
Har, Barbara (August 2003). Early Warning of
Communal Conict and Genocide: Linking Empirical Research to International Responses. Westview
Press. ISBN 0-8133-9840-1.
Hochschild, Adam (1998). King Leopolds Ghost:
A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial
Africa. Houghton Miin Harcourt. ISBN 0-39575924-2.
Horowitz, Irving (2001). Taking Lives: Genocide
and State Power (5th ed.). Transaction Publishers.
ISBN 0-7658-0094-2.
Horvitz, Leslie Alan; Catherwood, Christopher
(2011). Encyclopedia of War Crimes & Genocide
(Hardcover) 2 (Revised ed.). New York: Facts on
File. ISBN 978-0816080830. ISBN 0816080836
Jonassohn, Kurt; Karin Bjrnson (1998). Genocide
and Gross Human Rights Violations. Transaction
Publishers. ISBN 1-56000-314-6.
Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive
Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-48619-X.
Kelly, Michael J. (2005). Nowhere to Hide: Defeat of the Sovereign Immunity Defense for Crimes
of Genocide & the Trials of Slobodan Milosevic and
Saddam Hussein. Peter Lang. ISBN 0-8204-78350.
Kiernan, Ben (2007). Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to
Darfur. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-100981.
Laban, Alexander (2002). Genocide: An Anthropological Reader. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-63122355-X.
Lemarchand, Ren (1996). Burundi: Ethnic Conict
and Genocide. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0-521-56623-1.
Levene, M. (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation State. New York, Palgrave Macmillan.
306
MacKinnon, Catharine A. (2006). Are Women Human?: And Other International Dialogues. The
Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN
0-674-02555-5.

Sunga, Lyal S. (1992). Individual Responsibility in
International Law for Serious Human Rights Violations. Springer. ISBN 0-7923-1453-0.
Lewy, Guenter (2012). Essays on Genocide and Humanitarian Intervention. University of Utah Press.
ISBN 978-1-60781-168-8.
Tams, Christian J.; Berster, Lars; Schibauer, Bjrn

(2014). Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide: A Commentary. Munich: C.H. Beck. ISBN 978-3-406-60317-4.
Mamdani, M. (2001). When Victims Become

Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide
in Rwanda. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University
Press.
Totten, Samuel; William S. Parsons; Israel W.

Charny (2008). Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts (3rd ed.). Routledge.
ISBN 0-415-99085-8.
Power, Samantha (2003). A Problem from Hell":

America and the Age of Genocide. Harper Perennial.
ISBN 0-06-054164-4.
Valentino, Benjamin A. (2004). Final Solutions:

Mass Killing and Genocide in the 20th Century.
Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3965-5.
Rosenfeld, Gavriel D. (1999). The Politics of

Uniqueness: Reections on the Recent Polemical Turn in Holocaust and Genocide Scholarship.
Holocaust and Genocide Studies 13 (1): 2861.
doi:10.1093/hgs/13.1.28.
Van den Berghe, P. L. (1990). State Violence and

Ethnicity. Niwot, Colo., University of Colorado
Press.
Rotberg, Robert I.; Thomas G. Weiss (1996). From

Massacres to Genocide: The Media, Public Policy,
and Humanitarian Crises. Brookings Institution
Press. ISBN 0-8157-7590-3.
Rummel, R.J. (1994). Death by Government: Genocide and Mass Murder in the Twentieth Century.
Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1-56000-927-6.
Sagall, Sabby (2013). Final Solutions: Human Nature, Capitalism and Genocide. Pluto Press. p. 309.
ISBN 978-0-7453-2653-5.
Schabas, William A. (2009). Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes (second edition). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-052-171900-1.
Schmid, A. P. (1991). Repression, State Terrorism,
and Genocide: Conceptual Clarications. State Organized Terror: The Case of Violent Internal Repression. P. T. Bushnell. Boulder, Colo.: Westview
Press. 312 p.
Weitz, Eric D. (2003). A Century of Genocide:

Utopias of Race and Nation. Princeton University
Press. p. 360. ISBN 0-691-12271-7.
Preventing Genocide and Mass Killing: The Challenge for the United Nations (PDF). Archived from
the original (PDF) on 3 July 2007. PDF (366 KB),
report by Minority Rights Group International, 2006
Overviews
Institute for the Study of Genocide/International Association of Genocide Scholars
Genocide Intervention Network
OneWorld Perspectives Magazine: Preventing
Genocide (April/May 2006)- global human rights
and development network looks at genocide from a
variety of perspectives
Committee on Conscience of the United States
Holocaust Memorial Museum; Responding to
Threats of Genocide
Shaw, Martin (2007). What is Genocide?. Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 0-7456-3182-7.
Sta, The Crime of Genocide in Domestic Laws and

Penal Codes, Prevent Genocide International
Staub, Ervin (1989). The roots of evil: The origins

of genocide and other group violence. New York:
Cambridge University Press. 978-0521-42214-7
Voices of the Holocausta learning resource at the

British Library
Staub, Ervin (2011). Overcoming Evil: Genocide,

violent conict and terrorism. New York: Oxford
University Press. 978-0-19-538204-4
Sunga, Lyal S. (1997). The Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Developments in Codication and Implementation. Kluwer. ISBN 90-4110472-0.
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide at Law-Ref.orgfully indexed and crosslinked with other documents
Documents and Resources on War, War Crimes and
Genocide
International Network of Genocide Scholars (INoGS)
3.4. GENOCIDES IN HISTORY
307
Genocide Watch at the Wayback Machine (archived

June 18, 2007) stages of genocide
Genocide & Crimes Against Humanitya learning resource, highlighting the cases of Myanmar,
Bosnia, the DRC, and Darfur
Whitaker Report
Resources
Auschwitz Institute for Peace and Reconciliation
Skulls of victims of the Rwandan Genocide
USA for UNHCR Web site
3.4 Genocides in history

Research programs
Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction, in
Centre for the Study of Genocide and Mass Vio- whole or in part, of an ethnic, racial, religious or national
lence, Sheeld, United Kingdom
group. The term was coined in 1944 by Raphael Lemkin.
It is dened in Article 2 of the Convention on the Preven Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Ams- tion and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG)
terdam, the Netherlands
of 1948 as any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical,
Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Univerracial or religious group, as such: killing members of the
sity of Minnesota
group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inicting on the groups
Genocide Studies Program, Yale University
conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical
GenoDynamics: Understanding Genocide Through destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures inTime and Space by Christian Davenport (Kroc In- tended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly
stitute University of Notre Dame) and Allan Stlam transferring children of the group to another group.[1]
(University of Michigan)
The preamble to the CPPCG states that genocide is a
Montreal Institute for Genocide Studies, Concordia crime under international law, contrary to the spirit and
aims of the United Nations and condemned by the civiUniversity
lized world and that at all periods of history genocide
[1]
Minorities at Risk project at the University of Mary- has inicted great losses on humanity.
land
Determining what historical events constitute a genocide
and which are merely criminal or inhuman behavior is
The Inforce Foundation (International Forensic
not a clear-cut matter. In nearly every case where accuCentre of Excellence), UK
sations of genocide have circulated, partisans of various
Foundation for the International Prevention of sides have ercely disputed the details and interpretation
of the event, often to the point of depicting wildly difGenocide and Mass Atrocities, Hungary
ferent versions of the facts. Alleged genocides should be
Master of Arts in Holocaust & Genocide, Stockton understood in this context and such allegations cannot be
University
regarded as the nal word.
3.3.11
External links
3.4.1 Alternate denitions
Goldhagen, Daniel (14 April 2010). Genocide:

See also: Genocide denitions
Worse Than War. PBS.
Ethnocide by Barbara Lukunka in the encyclopedia Legally, genocide is dened as any conict that the
of mass violence
International Criminal Court has so designated. Many
conicts that have been labeled genocide in the popular
Dening the Terms: Genocide at Yad Vashem web- press have not been so designated.[2]
site
M. Hassan Kakar[3] argued that the denition should in Genocide and Democide
clude political groups or any group so dened by the per-
308
petrator. He prefers the denition Chalk and Jonassohn: Before 1490

Genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which
a state or other authority intends to destroy a group so
See also: Destruction under the Mongol Empire
dened by the perpetrator.[4]
Some critics of the international denition argued that
the denition was inuenced by Joseph Stalin to exclude Scholars of antiquity dierentiate between genocide and
gendercide, in which males were killed but the children
political groups.[5][6]
(particularly the girls) and women were incorporated into
According to R. J. Rummel, genocide has multiple mean- the conquering group. Jones notes, Chalk and Jonassohn
ings. The ordinary meaning is murder by a government provide a wide-ranging selection of historical events such
of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or reli- as the Assyrian Empire's root-and branch depredations in
gious group membership. The legal meaning is dened by the rst half of the rst millennium BCE, and the destrucCCPG. This includes actions such as preventing births or tion of Melos by Athens during the Peloponnesian War
forcibly transferring children to another group. Rummel (fth century BCE), a gendercidal rampage described by
created the term democide to include assaults on political Thucydides in his 'Melian Dialogue'".[12] The Old Testagroups.[7]
ment documents the destruction of the Midianites, takIn this article, atrocities that have been called genocide ing place during the life of Moses in the 2nd millennium
by some reliable source are included, whether or not they BC. The Book of Numbers chapter 31 recounts that an
match one of these denitions. The acts may involve army of Israelites kill every Midianite man but capture
mass killings, mass deportations, withholding of food the women and children as plunder. These are later killed
and/or other necessities of life, death by invasive infec- at the command of Moses, with the exception of girls who
tious disease agents or combinations of these, whether or have not slept with a man. The total number killed is not
not specic evidence documents an intent by the perpe- recorded but the number of surviving girls is recorded as
thirty two thousand.
trators to destroy a people.
Jared Diamond suggested that genocidal violence may
have caused the Neanderthals to go extinct.[13] Ronald
Wright also suggested such a genocide.[14] However, several scholars have formed alternative ideas as to why the
Neanderthals died o, with there being no clear consen3.4.2 PreWorld War I
sus viewpoint in the scientic community. Some academics have theorized that the beings were overly sensiSee also: Genocide of indigenous peoples Pre-1948 tive to the massive climate changes taking place, lacking
advantages against cold that humans had.[15]
examples
Ben Kiernan, a Yale scholar, has labelled the destruction
According to Adam Jones, if a dominant group of peo- of Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War (149146
[12]
ple has little in common with a marginalized group of BC) The First Genocide.
people, it is easy for the dominant group to dene the A 2010 study suggests that a group of Anasazi in the
other as subhuman. As a result, the marginalized group American Southwest were killed in a genocide that took
might be labeled as a threat that must be eliminated.[8] place circa 800 AD.[16][17]
Jones continues: The diculty, as Frank Chalk and Kurt
Raphael Lemkin, well known as the coiner of the term
Jonassohn pointed out in their early study, is that such historical records as exist are ambiguous and undependable. 'genocide', referred to the 1209-1220 Albigensian Crusade ordered by Pope Innocent III against the heretical
While history today is generally written with some fealty
to 'objective' facts, most previous accounts aimed rather Cathar population of the French Languedoc region as
most conclusive cases of genocide in religious
to praise the writers patron (normally the leader) and to one of the
[18]
history.
emphasize the superiority of ones own gods and religious
Quoting Eric Margolis, Jones observes that in the 13th
beliefs.[9]
Genghis Khan
Chalk and Jonassohn: Historically and anthropologi- century the Mongol horsemen of Temjin
[11]
were
genocidal
killers
(gnocidaires)
who
were known
cally peoples have always had a name for themselves.
to
kill
whole
nations,
leaving
nothing
but
empty
ruins
In a great many cases, that name meant 'the people' to
[19]
He
ordered
the
extermination
of
the
Tata
and
bones.
set the owners of that name o against all other people
Kankalis
males
in
Bukhara
taller
than
a
Mongols,
and
all
who were considered of lesser quality in some way. If
[20]
wheel
using
a
technique
called
measuring
against
the
the dierences between the people and some other soto the Mongols rule of
ciety were particularly large in terms of religion, lan- linchpin. Rosanne Klass referred
[21]
Afghanistan
as
genocide.
guage, manners, customs, and so on, then such others
were seen as less than fully human: pagans, savages, or Similarly, the Turko-Mongol conqueror Tamerlane was
known for his extreme brutality and his conquests were
even animals.[10][11]

accompanied by genocidal massacres.[22] William Rubinstein wrote: In Assyria (13934) Tamerlane got
around he killed all the Christians he could nd, including everyone in the, then, Christian city of Tikrit, thus
virtually destroying Christianity in Mesopotamia. Impartially, however, Tamerlane also slaughtered Shi'ite Muslims, Jews and heathens.[23]
309
a brutal scorched earth campaign led by German General
Lothar von Trotha. Between 24,000 and 100,000 Herero
perished along with 10,000 Nama.[33][34]
A copy of Trothas Extermination Order survives in the

Botswana National Archives. The order states every
Herero, with or without a gun, with or without cattle, will
be shot. I will no longer accept women or children, I will
drive them back to their people [to die in the desert] or
let them be shot at.[35] Olusoga and Erichsen write: It
1490 to 1914
is an almost unique document: an explicit, written declaration of intent to commit genocide.[36] These mass
Africa
killings were named as the rst example of a 20th-century
genocide in the 1985 Whitaker Report, commissioned
Congo Main articles: Congo Free State and Congolese but never adopted by the now defunct United Nations subGenocide
committee ECOSOC.[37]
The Congo Free State (French: tat indpendant du
Congo) was a large area in Central Africa that was privately controlled by Leopold II of Belgium. Leopold extracted a fortune from the Congo, initially by the collection of ivory, and after a rise in the price of rubber in
the 1890s, by forced labor from the natives to harvest
and process rubber. Under his regime there were 2 to 15
million deaths among the Congolese people.[24][25][26][27]
Robert Weisbord stated in the 2003 Journal of Genocide
Research in the article The King, the Cardinal and the
Pope: Leopold IIs genocide in the Congo and the Vatican that attempting to eliminate a portion of the population is enough to qualify as genocide under the UN convention. In the case of the Congo Free State, the unbearable conditions would qualify as a genocide. Weisbord,
Robert G. (2003). Human rights abuses under his regime
were a signicant cause of the excess deaths. Reports of
the deaths and abuse led to a major international scandal in the early 20th century, and Leopold was ultimately
forced in 1908 by the Belgian government to relinquish
control of the colony to the civil administration.
Americas See also: Population history of indigenous

peoples of the Americas
From the 1490s when Christopher Columbus landed
in the Americas to the end of the 19th century, the
indigenous population of the Western Hemisphere declined, mostly from disease, to 1.8 million from around
50 million, a decline of 96%.[38] In Brazil alone, the
indigenous population declined from a pre-Columbian
high of an estimated 3 million to some 300,000
(1997).[39][40] Estimates of how many people were living in the Americas when Columbus arrived have varied
tremendously; 20th century scholarly estimates ranged
from 8.4 million to 112.5 million.[41] However, Robert
Royal stated, estimates of pre-Columbian population gures have become heavily politicized with scholars who
are particularly critical of Europe and/or Western civilization often favoring wildly higher gures.[42]
Epidemic disease was the overwhelming direct cause of

the population decline of the American natives.[43][44]
After rst contacts with Europeans and Africans, the
Zulu Kingdom See also: Mfecane
death of 90 to 95 percent of the native population of
the Americas was caused by Old World diseases such as
Between 1810 and 1828, the Zulu kingdom under Shaka smallpox and measles.[45] Some estimates indicate that
Zulu laid waste to large parts of present-day South Africa smallpox had an 8090% fatality rate in Native Ameriand Zimbabwe. Zulu armies often aimed not only at de- can populations.[46]
feating enemies but at their total destruction. Those exBritish commander Jeery Amherst may have authorized
terminated included prisoners of war, women, children
the intentional use of disease as a biological weapon
[14]
and even dogs. (Controversial) estimates for the death
against indigenous populations during the Siege of Fort
[28][29][30][31]
toll range from 1 million to 2 million.
Pitt.[47][48] It was the only documented case of germ warfare and it is uncertain whether it successfully infected the
German South-West Africa Further information: target population.[49]
Genocide of indigenous peoples Herero and Namaqua Some historians argue that genocide, as a crime of intent,
genocide
does not describe the colonization experience. Staord
The Herero and Namaqua Genocide in German SouthWest Africa (present-day Namibia) occurred between
1904 and 1907.[32] Eighty percent of the Herero population and 50 percent of the Nama population were killed in
Poole, a research historian, wrote: There are other terms

to describe what happened in the Western Hemisphere,
but genocide is not one of them. It is a good propaganda
term in an age where slogans and shouting have replaced
reection and learning, but to use it in this context is to
310
cheapen both the word itself and the appalling experiences of the Jews and Armenians, to mention but two of
the major victims of this century.[50] Holocaust scholar
and political scientist Guenter Lewy rejects the label of
genocide and views the depopulation of the Americas as
not a crime but a tragedy.[51] Likewise, Noble David
Cook writing about the Black Legend wrote There were
too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were
reported to have died in the rst century after Old and
New World contact.[52]

ing and or stealing land and in self defence. The state of
Sonora then oered a bounty on Apache scalps in 1835.
Beginning in 1837 Chihuahua state also oered a bounty
of 100 pesos per warrior, 50 pesos per woman and 25
pesos per child.[62]
Peru The indigenous rebellions of Tpac Amaru II and
Tpac Katari against the Spanish between 1780 and 1782,
cost over 100,000 colonists lives in Peru and Upper Peru
(present-day Bolivia).[63]
By contrast, David Stannard argued that the destruction

of the American aboriginals from 76 million down to a
quarter-million over 4 centuries, in a string of genocide United States
campaigns, killing countless tens of millions, was the
most massive genocide in world history.[53] Several works
Conquest of Natives Further information: Genocide
on the subject were released around the year 1992 to coof indigenous peoples United States colonization and
incide with the 500th anniversary of Columbus voyage.
westward expansion
In 2003, Venezuelan President Hugo Chvez urged Latin
Americans to not celebrate the Columbus Day holiday.
Authors, such as David Cesarani, argued that United
Chavez blamed Columbus for leading to the alleged
States government policies in furtherance of its so-called
[54]
genocide.
Manifest Destiny constituted genocide.[64]
David Quammen likened colonial American practices toStatistics regarding deaths due to armed conict between
ward Native Americans to those of Australia toward its
Native Americans and Europeans are sparse, as in many
aboriginal populations, calling both genocide.[55]
cases there were no records kept.[23] A study by Gregory
Michno concluded that of 21,586 tabulated casualties in
Argentina Main articles: Conquest of the Desert and a selected 672 battles and skirmishes, military personnel and settlers accounted for 6,596 (31%), while indigeParaguayan War
nous casualties totaled about 14,990 (69%) for the period 185090. Michnos study almost exclusively uses
The Conquest of the Desert was a military campaign Army estimates. His follow-up book Forgotten Battles
directed mainly by General Julio Argentino Roca in and Skirmishes covers over 300 additional ghts not inthe 1870s, which established Argentine dominance over cluded in these statistics.[65] According to the U.S. Bureau
Patagonia, then inhabited by indigenous peoples, killing of the Census (1894), The Indian wars under the govmore than 1,300.[56]
ernment of the United States have been more than 40 in
Contemporary sources indicate that it was a deliberate number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white
genocide by the Argentine government.[57] Others per- men, women and children, including those killed in inceived the campaign as intending to suppress only groups dividual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians.
of aboriginals that refused to submit to the government The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must
be very much higher than the given... Fifty percent addiand carried out attacks on European settlements.[58][59]
tional would be a safe estimate...[66]
Chalk and Jonassohn claimed that the deportation of
the Cherokee tribe along the Trail of Tears would almost certainly be considered an act of genocide today.[67]
The Indian Removal Act of 1830 led to the exodus. About 17,000 Cherokeesalong with approximately 2,000 Cherokee-owned black slaveswere removed from their homes.[68] The number of people who
died as a result of the Trail of Tears has been variously esMexico The Caste War of Yucatn (approx. 1847 timated. American doctor and missionary Elizur Butler,
1901) against the population of European descent, called who made the journey with one party, estimated 4,000
Yucatecos, who held political and economic control of deaths.[69]
the region. Adam Jones wrote: Genocidal atrocities on The native population of the United States has been difboth sides cost up to 200,000 killed.[61]
cult to pin down due to the lack of reliable source maHaiti Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the rst ruler of an independent Haiti, ordered the killing of the white population of French creoles on Haiti, which culminated in
the 1804 Haiti Massacre. According to Philippe Girard,
when the genocide was over, Haitis white population
was virtually non-existent.[60]
In 1835, Don Ignacio Zuniga, commander of the pre- terials. Historian and Information Scientist Dr. David
sidios of northern Sonora, asserted that since 1820 the Henige asserts that the modern trend of high populaApaches had killed at least ve thousand settlers for tak- tion estimates is pseudo-scientic number-crunching.
311
While he does not advocate a low population estimates, Central Highlands

he argues that the scarce and uncomprehensive nature of
the evidence renders broad estimates(eg.as high as the entire population of the US at the onset of World War I) to
be somewhat suspect, saying Examining the methodolo- Japanese colonization of Hokkaido See also:
gies used by 'high counters have been particularly agrant Shakushains Revolt and Menashi-Kunashir Rebellion
in their misuse of sources.[70]
Credible evidence exists that epidemic disease was the
overwhelming cause of the population decline of the
American natives because of their lack of immunity to
new diseases brought from Europe.[71][72][73] Contemporaneous accounts of the eects of smallpox, among the
native population suggest an 80% to 95% mortality rate of
the entire population eected. Governor William Bradford wrote, in 1633, about the second reported outbreak
(e.g. 1617, 1633) in New England: "... for it pleased
God to visit these Indians with a great sickness, and such
a mortality that of a 1000. above 900. and a half of them
died, and many of them did rot above ground for want of
burial....[74][75]
The Ainu are an indigenous people in Japan

(Hokkaid).[79] In a 2009 news story, Japan Today
reported, Many Ainu were forced to work, essentially
as slaves, for Wajin (ethnic Japanese), resulting in the
breakup of families and the introduction of smallpox,
measles, cholera and tuberculosis into their community.
In 1869, the new Meiji government renamed Ezo
Hokkaido and unilaterally incorporated it into Japan.
It banned the Ainu language, took Ainu land away,
and prohibited salmon shing and deer hunting.[80]
Roy Thomas wrote: Ill treatment of native peoples
is common to all colonial powers, and, at its worst,
leads to genocide. Japans native people, the Ainu,
have, however, been the object of a particularly cruel
hoax, because the Japanese have refused to accept them
Slave Rebellions Main article: Slave rebellions
ocially as a separate minority people.[81] In 2004 the
small Ainu community living in Russia wrote a letter
Some slave rebellions in American History have showed to Vladimir Putin, urging him to recognize Japanese
genocidal aspects, usually a goal of killing all whites, or behavior against the Ainu people as genocide, which
all members of an other enemy ethnic group. An exam- Putin declined to do.[82]
ple of a genocidal slave rebellion was Nat Turners slave
rebellion in which the goal was to kill all whites. [61]
Newfoundland Main
Twillingate
articles:
Beothuk
Qing empire Further information:

and indigenous peoples Qing Dynasty
Genocide of
The Dzungar (or Zunghar), Oirat Mongols who lived in

an area that stretched from the west end of the Great
Wall of China to present-day eastern Kazakhstan and
from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia
(most of which is located in present-day Xinjiang), were
the last nomadic empire to threaten China, which they
did from the early 17th century through the middle of
the 18th century.[83] After a series of inconclusive military conicts that started in the 1680s, the Dzungars
were subjugated by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1644
1911) in the late 1750s. According to Qing scholar
Wei Yuan, 40 percent of the 600,000 Zunghar people
were killed by smallpox, 20 percent ed to Russia or
sought refuge among the Kazakh tribes and 30 percent
were killed by the Qing army of Manchu Bannermen
and Khalkha Mongols.[84][85] Historian Michael Edmund
Asia and Oceania
Clarke has argued that the Qing campaign in 175758
amounted to the complete destruction of not only the
[86]
HisSiberia Further information: Genocide of indigenous Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people.
torian
Peter
Perdue
has
attributed
the
decimation
of
the
peoples Russian Empires conquest of Siberia
Dzungars to a deliberate use of massacre and has described it as an ethnic genocide.[87] Mark Levene, a historian of genocide,[88] has stated that the extermination of
Vietnam Further information: Genocide of indige- the Dzungars was arguably the eighteenth century genonous peoples Vietnamese conquest of Champa and the cide par excellence.[89]
The Beothuks attempted to avoid contact with Europeans in Newfoundland by moving from their traditional settlements.[76] The Beothuks were put into a
position where they were forced from their traditional
land and lifestyle into ecosystems that could not support them and that led to undernourishment and eventually starvation.[77] While some scholars believe that the
Beothuk primarily died out due to the elements noted
above, another theory is that Europeans conducted a
sustained campaign of genocide against them.[78] They
were ocially declared extinct after the death of
Shanawdithit in 1829 in the capital, St. Johns, where she
had been taken.
312
Australia Further information: Australian genocide 400 more warriors on 5 December 1835. They proceeded
debate and Genocide of indigenous peoples Coloniza- to enslave some Moriori and kill and cannibalise othtion of Australia and Tasmania
ers. Parties of warriors armed with muskets, clubs and
tomahawks, led by their chiefs, walked through Moriori
According to research published from 2009, in 1789 the tribal territories and settlements without warning, perBritish deliberately spread smallpox from the First Fleet mission or greeting. If the districts were wanted by the
to counter overwhelming native tribes near Sydney in invaders, they curtly informed the inhabitants that their
taken and the Moriori living there were
New South Wales. In his book An Indelible Stain, land had been
now vassals.[105]
[90]
Henry Reynolds described this act as genocide. Many
scholars disagree that the initial smallpox was the result A council of Moriori elders was convened at the setof deliberate biological warfare and have suggested other tlement called Te Awapatiki. Despite knowing of the
causes.[91][92][93]
Mori predilection for killing and eating the conquered,
The Black War was a period of conict between British and despite the admonition by some of the elder chiefs
colonists and Tasmanian Aborigines in Van Diemens that the principle of Nunuku was not appropriate now,
Land (now Tasmania) in the early 19th century. The contwo chiefsTapata and Toreadeclared that the law
ict, in combination with introduced diseases and other of Nunuku was not a strategy for survival, to be varied
[106]
factors, had such devastating impacts on the Tasmanian as conditions changed; it was a moral imperative.
Aboriginal population that it was reported the Tasmanian A Moriori survivor recalled: "[The Maori] commenced
Aborigines had been exterminated.[94][95] Historian Ge- to kill us like sheep.... [We] were terried, ed to the
orey Blainey wrote that by 1830, Disease had killed bush, concealed ourselves in holes underground, and in
most of them but warfare and private violence had also any place to escape our enemies. It was of no avail; we
been devastating.[96] In the 19th century, smallpox was were discovered and killed men, women and children
indiscriminately. A Mori conqueror explained, We
the principal cause of Aboriginal deaths.[97]
took possession... in accordance with our customs and
Lemkin and most other comparative genocide scholars we caught all the people. Not one escaped...[107]
present the extinction of the Tasmanian Aborigines as
After the invasion, Moriori were forbidden to marry
a textbook example of a genocide, while the majority
of Australian experts are more circumspect.[98][99] De- Moriori, or to have children with each other. All became
slaves of the invaders. Many Moriori women had chiltailed studies of the events surrounding the extinction
have raised questions about some of the details and in- dren by their Maori masters. A small number of Moriterpretations in earlier histories.[100][101] Curthoys con- ori women eventually married either Maori or European
cluded, It is time for a more robust exchange between men. Some were taken from the Chathams and never reof a population of about
genocide and Tasmanian historical scholarship if we are turned. Only 101 Moriori out
[108]
2,000
were
left
alive
by
1862.
Although the last Mori[98]
to understand better what did happen in Tasmania.
ori of unmixed ancestry, Tommy Solomon,[109] died in
On the Australian continent during the colonial pe- 1933 several thousand mixed ancestry Moriori are alive
riod (17881901), the population of 500,000750,000 today.
Australian Aborigines was reduced to fewer than
50,000.[102][103] Most were devastated by the introduction
of alien diseases after contact with Europeans, while per- Europe
haps 20,000 were killed by massacres and ghting with
colonists.[102]
France Main article: War in the Vende
In 1986, Reynald Secher argued that the actions of the
New Zealand In the early 19th Century Ngti Mutunga
and Ngti Tama (local Mori tribes) massacred the Moriori people. The Moriori were the indigenous people of
the Chatham Islands (Rekohu in Moriori, Wharekauri
in Mori), east of the New Zealand archipelago in the
Pacic Ocean. These people lived by a code of nonviolence and passive resistance (see Nunuku-whenua),
which led to their near-extinction at the hands of Taranaki
Mori invaders in the 1830s.[104]
In 1835, some Ngti Mutunga and Ngti Tama from the
Taranaki region of North Island invaded the Chathams.
On 19 November 1835, the Rodney, a European ship
hired by the Mori, arrived carrying 500 Mori armed
with guns, clubs, and axes, followed by another ship with
Mass shootings at Nantes, 1793
French republican government during the revolt in the

Vende (17931796), a popular mostly Catholic uprising
against the anti-clerical Republican government during
313
the French Revolution was the rst modern genocide.[110]

Sechers claims caused a minor uproar in France and
mainstream authorities rejected Sechers claims.[111][112]
Timothy Tackett countered that the Vende was a
tragic civil war with endless horrors committed by both
sidesinitiated, in fact, by the rebels themselves. The
Vendeans were no more blameless than were the republicans. The use of the word genocide is wholly inaccurate and inappropriate.[113] However, historians Frank
Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn consider the Vende a case of
genocide.[114] Historian Pierre Chaunu called the Vende
the rst ideological genocide.[115] Adam Jones estimates
that 150,000 Vendeans died in what he also considers to
be genocide.[116]
Ireland
War of the Three Kingdoms See also: Cromwellian
conquest of Ireland and Cromwellian Plantation
Toward the end of the War of the Three Kingdoms
(16391651) the English Rump Parliament sent the New
Model Army to Ireland to subdue and take revenge on
the Catholic population of the country and to prevent
Royalists loyal to Charles II from using Ireland as a
base to threaten England. The force was initially under
the command of Oliver Cromwell and later under other
parliamentary generals. The Army sought to secure the
country, but also to conscate lands of Irish families involved in the ghting. This became a continuation of
the Elizabethan policy of encouraging Protestant settlement of Ireland, because the Protestant New Model army
soldierscould be paid in conscated lands rather than in
cash.[117]
Great Irish Famine
man cost in Ireland where one-third of the population

was entirely dependent on the potato for food was exacerbated by a host of political, social, and economic factors
that remain the subject of historical debate.[122][123]
During the Famine, Ireland produced enough food, ax,
and wool to feed and clothe double its nine million
people.[124] When Ireland had experienced a famine in
178283, ports were closed to keep Irish-grown food in
Ireland to feed the Irish. Local food prices promptly
dropped. Merchants lobbied against the export ban,
but government in the 1780s overrode their protests.
There was no such export ban in the 1840s.[125] Some
historians[126][127] have argued that in this sense the
famine was articial, caused by the British governments
choice not to stop exports.[124]
During the Interregnum (16511660), this policy was enhanced with the passing of the Act of Settlement of Ireland in 1652. Its goal was a further transfer of land from
Irish to English hands.[117] The immediate war aims and
the longer term policies of the English Parliamentarians
resulted in an attempt by the English to transfer the native population to the western fringes to make way for
Protestant settlers. This policy was reected in a phrase
attributed to Cromwell: To Hell or to Connaught and
has been described by historians as ethnic cleansing, if Francis A. Boyle claimed that the governments actions
violated sections (a), (b), and (c) of Article 2 of the CPnot genocide.[118]
PCG and constituted genocide in a formal legal opinion to
the New Jersey Commission on Holocaust Education on
Great Irish Famine Main article: Great Irish Famine 2 May 1996.[128][129][130] Charles E. Rice issued another
formal opinion, also based on Article 2, alleging that the
[131]
During the Irish Potato Famine (18451852), approxi- British had committed genocide.
mately 1 million people died and a million more emigrated from Ireland,[119] causing the islands population
to fall by between 20% and 25%.[120] The proximate
cause of famine was a potato disease commonly known
as potato blight.[121] Although blight ravaged potato crops
throughout Europe during the 1840s, the impact and hu-
The claims were contested by Peter Gray, who concluded

that UK government policy was not a policy of deliberate
genocide, but a dogmatic refusal to admit that the policy
was wrong. James S. Donnelly, Jr., split the dierence,
writing, while genocide was not in fact committed, what
happened ... had the look of genocide to a great many
314
Irish.[132]
of the European Parliament a letter with a request to recCecil Woodham-Smith claimed that while the export pol- ognize the genocide.
icy embittered the Irish, this did not implicate the policy On 5 July 2005 the Circassian Congress, an organisation
in genocide, but rather in excessive parsimony obtuse- that unites representatives of the various Circassian peoness, short-sightedness, and ignorance.[133]
ples in the Russian Federation, called on Moscow to ac[138]
Irish historian Cormac O' Grada rejects the term, stat- knowledge and apologize for the genocide.
ing that the English exhibited no desire to exterminate
the Irish and that the challenges for providing relief were
3.4.3
enormous.[126][134]
W.D. Rubinstein also rejected the genocide claim.[23]
Twentieth century (from World War

I)
World War I through World War II

Russian Empire Main article: Ethnic cleansing of In 1915, during World War I, the concept of crimes
Circassians
against humanity was introduced into international relations for the rst time when the Allied Powers sent a letter
The Russian Tsarist Empire waged war against Circassia to the government of the Ottoman Empire, a member of
in the Northwest Caucasus for more than one hundred the Central Powers, protesting massacres that were taking
[139]
years, trying to replace Circassias hold along the Black place within the Empire.
Sea coast. After a century of insurgency and war and
failure to end the conict, the Tsar ordered the expulsion
of most of the Muslim population of the North Cauca- Ottoman Empire/Turkey Main articles: Armenian
sus. Many Circassians, Western historians, Turks and Genocide, Assyrian Genocide, Greek genocide and
Chechens claimed that the events of the 1860s constituted Dersim Massacre
one of the rst modern genocides, in that a whole population was eliminated to satisfy the desires (in this case On 24 May 1915, the Allied Powers (Britain, France,
economic) of a powerful country.
and Russia) jointly issued a statement that for the rst
Antero Leitzinger agged the aair as the 19th centurys time ever explicitly charged a government with comlargest genocide.[135] Some estimates cite that approxi- mitting a "crime against humanity" in reference to that
minorities, including
mately 1-1.5 million Circassians were killed and most regimes persecution of its Christian[140]
Armenians,
Assyrians
and
Greeks.
Many researchers
of the Muslim population was deported. Ossete Musconsider
these
events
to
be
part
of
the
policy
of planned
lims and Kabardins generally did not leave. The modethnoreligious
purication
of
the
Turkish
state
advanced
ern Circassians and Abazins descend from those who
[141] [142][143][144][145]
by
the
Young
Turks.
managed to escape the onslaught and later returned another 1.5 million Circassians and others. This eectively annihilated (or deported) 90% of the nation.[136]
Tsarist documents recorded more than 400,000 Circassians killed, 497,000 forced to ee and only 80,000 were
left in their native area.[137] Circassians were viewed as
tools by the Ottoman government, and settled in restive
areas whose populations had nationalist yearnings- Armenia, the Arab regions and the Balkans. Many more Circassians were killed by the policies of the Balkan states,
primarily Serbia and Bulgaria, which became independent at that time. Still more Circassians were forcefully
assimilated by nationalist Muslim states (Turkey, Syria,
Iraq, etc.) who looked upon non-Turk/Arab ethnicity as
a foreign presence and a threat.
This joint statement stated, "[i]n view of these new crimes

of Turkey against humanity and civilization, the Allied
Governments announce publicly to the Sublime Porte that
they will hold personally responsible for these crimes all
members of the Ottoman Government, as well as those of
their agents who are implicated in such massacres.[139]
In May 1994, the then Russian President Boris Yeltsin admitted that resistance to the tsarist forces was legitimate,
but he did not recognize the guilt of the tsarist government for the genocide.[137] In 1997 and 1998, the leaders
of Kabardino-Balkaria and of Adygea sent appeals to the
Duma to reconsider the situation and to apologize, without response. In October 2006, the Adygeyan public or- Armenian civilians, escorted by armed Ottoman soldiers, are
ganizations of Russia, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Syria, the marched through Kharpert to a prison in the nearby Mezireh disUSA, Belgium, Canada and Germany sent the president trict, April 1915.

Armenian The Armenian Genocide (Armenian:
, translit.: Hayots
Tseaspanoutyoun; Turkish:
Ermeni Soykrm and
Ermeni Kym) refers to the deliberate and systematic
destruction of the Armenian population of the Ottoman
Empire during and just after World War I. It was implemented through wholesale massacres and deportations,
with the deportations consisting of forced marches under
conditions designed to lead to the death of the deportees.
The total number of resulting deaths is generally held to
have been between one and one and a half million.[146]
The genocide began on 24 April 1915, when Ottoman
authorities arrested some 250 Armenian intellectuals and
community leaders in Constantinople. Thereafter, the
Ottoman military uprooted Armenians from their homes
and forced them to march for hundreds of miles, without food and water, to the desert of what is now Syria.
Massacres ignored age and gender, with rape and other
acts of sexual abuse being commonplace.[147] The majority of Armenian diaspora communities were founded as a
result of these events. Mass killings continued under the
Republic of Turkey during the TurkishArmenian War
phase of Turkish War of Independence.[148]
Modern Turkey succeeded the Ottoman Empire in 1923
and vehemently denies that a genocide took place. It has
resisted calls in recent years by scholars, countries and international organizations to acknowledge the crime. The
Armenian genocide is the second most-studied case of
genocide after the Holocaust. Lemkin coined genocide
with the Holocaust in mind.[149]
315
British Foreign Oce, among other diplomats, noted the
massacres and deportations of Greeks during the postArmistice period.[158] They killed an estimate of 348,000
Anatolian Greeks.[159]
Dersim Kurds The Dersim Massacre refers to the

depopulation of Dersim in Turkish Kurdistan, in
193738, in which approximately 13,000-40,000 Alevi
Kurds[160][161] were killed and thousands more were
driven into exile. A key component of the Turkication
process was a policy of massive population resettlement.
The main document, the 1934 Law on Resettlement,
was used to target the region of Dersim as one of its
rst test cases, with disastrous consequences for the local population.[162]
Many Kurds and some ethnic Turks consider the events
that took place in Dersim to constitute genocide. A
prominent proponent of this view is smail Beiki.[163]
Under international laws, the actions of the Turkish authorities were arguably not genocide, because they were
not aimed at the extermination of a people, but at resettlement and suppression.[164] A Turkish court ruled in 2011
that the events could not be considered genocide because
they were not directed systematically against an ethnic
group.[165] Scholars such as Martin van Bruinessen, have
instead talked of an ethnocide directed against the local
language and identity.[164]
Soviet Union Main articles: Human rights in the

Soviet Union, Population transfer in the Soviet Union,
Assyrian The Assyrian Genocide (also known as Sayfo Famines in Russia and USSR, Decossackization, Great
or Seyfo; Aramaic:
or
, Purge, Gulag, Holodomor, Srgn and Polish operation
Turkish:
Sryani Soykrm) was committed against of the NKVD
the Assyrian population of the Ottoman Empire during the First World War by the Young Turks.[150] The Multiple documented instances of unnatural mass death
Assyrian population of northern Mesopotamia (Tur Ab- occurred in the Soviet Union. These include Union-wide
din, Hakkari, Van, Siirt region in modern-day southeast- famines in the early 1920s and early 1930s and deportaern Turkey and Urmia region in northwestern Iran) was tions of ethnic minorities.
forcibly relocated and massacred by Ottoman (Turkish
Soviet diplomatic eorts removed the extermination of
and allied Kurdish) forces between 1914 and 1920.[151]
political groups from the United Nations Convention on
This genocide paralleled the Armenian Genocide and
Genocide. This left many of the Soviet atrocities outGreek genocide.[152][153] The Assyro-Chaldean National
side the United Nations denition of genocide, because
Council stated in a 4 December 1922, memorandum that
the atrocities targeted political or economic groups rather
the total death toll is unknown, but it estimated that about
than the ethnic, racial, religious, or national groups listed
750,000 Assyrians died between 1914 and 1918.[154]
in the UN convention.
Greek The Greek genocide[155] refers to the fate of the
Greek population of the Ottoman Empire during and in
the aftermath of World War I (191418). Like Armenians and Assyrians, the Greeks were subjected to various forms of persecution including massacres, expulsions,
and death marches by Young Turks.[156][153] Mass killing
of Greeks continued under the Turkish National Movement during the Greco-Turkish War phase of the Turkish War of Independence.[157] George W. Rendel of the
Decossackization Main article: Decossackization

During the Russian Civil War the Bolsheviks engaged in a genocidal campaign against the Don Cossacks.[166][167][168][169][170] The most reliable estimates indicate that out of a population of three million, between
300,000 and 500,000 were killed or deported in 1919
20.[171]
316
Holodomor Main article: Holodomor

During the Soviet famine of 193233 that aected A few scholars argue that the killing, on the basis of nationality and politics, of more than 120,000 ethnic Poles
in the Soviet Union from 193738 was genocide.[180]
Chechnya
Main article: Operation Lentil (Caucasus)
On 26 February 2004 the plenary assembly of the European Parliament recognized the deportation of Chechen
people during Operation Lentil (23 February 1944), as an
act of genocide, on the basis of the 1907 IV Hague Convention: The Laws and Customs of War on Land and the
CPPCG.[181]
The event began on 23 February 1944, when the entire
population of Checheno-Ingushetia was summoned to loStarved peasants on a street in Kharkiv, 1933.
cal party buildings where they were told they were to
be deported as punishment for their alleged collaboraUkraine, Kazakhstan and some densely populated regions tion with the Germans. The inhabitants were rounded
of Russia, the scale of death in Ukraine is referred to as up and imprisoned in Studebaker trucks and sent to
the Holodomor and is recognized as genocide by the gov- Siberia.[182][183]
ernments of Australia, Argentina, Georgia, Estonia, Italy,
Canada, Lithuania, Poland, the USA and Hungary. The
Many times, resistance was met with slaughter, and
famine was caused by the conscation of the whole 1933
in one such instance, in the aul of Khaibakh, about
harvest in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, the Kuban (a densely
700 people were locked in a barn and burned to
populated Russian region), and some other parts of the
death. By the next summer, Checheno-Ingushetia
Soviet Union, leaving the peasants too little to feed themwas dissolved; a number of Chechen and Ingush plaselves. As a result, an estimated ten million died, incenames were replaced with Russian ones; mosques
cluding over seven million in Ukraine, one million in the
and graveyards were destroyed, and a massive cam[172]
North Caucasus and one million elsewhere.
American
paign to burn numerous historical Chechen texts was
historian Timothy Snyder wrote of 3.3 million Soviet
nearly complete.[184]
citizens (mostly Ukrainians) deliberately starved by their
own government in Soviet Ukraine in 19321933[173]
[185] Throughout the North Caucasus, about 700,000
(according to Dalkhat Ediev, 724297,[186] of which
In addition to the requisitioning of crops and livestock
the majority, 412,548, were Chechens, along with
in Ukraine, all food was conscated by Soviet authori96,327 Ingush, 104,146 Kalmyks, 39,407 Balkars
ties. Any and all aid and food was prohibited from enand 71,869 Karachais). Many died on the trip,
tering the Ukrainian republic. Ukraines Yuschenko adof exposure in Siberias extremely harsh environministration recognized the Holodomor as an act of genoment. The NKVD, supplying the Russian percide and pushed international governments to acknowlspective, gives the statistic of 144,704 killed in
edge this.[174] This move was opposed by the Russian gov19441948 alone (with a death rate of 23.5% for
ernment and some members of the Ukrainian parliament,
all groups). Estimates for Chechen deaths alone
especially the Communists. A Ukrainian court found
(excluding the NKVD statistic), range from about
Joseph Stalin, Vyacheslav Molotov, Lazar Kaganovich,
170,000 to 200,000,[187][188] thus ranging from over
Stanislav Kosior, Pavel Postyshev, Vlas Chubar and
a third of the total Chechen population to nearly half
Mendel Khatayevich posthumously guilty of genocide
being killed (of those that were deported, not counton 13 January 2010.[175][176] As of 2010, the Rusing those killed on the spot) in those 4 years alone.
sian governments ocial position was that the famine
Both the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria and the Eutook place, but was not an ethnic genocide;[174] former
ropean Union Parliament marked it as genocide in
Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych supported this
2004.[189]
position.[177][178] A ruling of 12 January 2010 by Kyivs
Court of Appeal declared the Soviet leaders guilty of
'genocide against the Ukrainian national group in 1932
33 through the articial creation of living conditions in- Deportations of Lithuanians, Latvians and Estonians The mass deportations of up to 17,500 Lithuanitended for its partial physical destruction.'"[179]
ans, 17,000 Latvians and 6,000 Estonians carried out by
Stalin were allegedly the start of another genocide. Added
Polish Russia Main article: The Polish Operation of to the killing of the Forest Brethren and the renewed
the NKVD (19371938)
Dekulakization that followed the Soviet reconquest of
317
the Baltic states at the end of World War Two, the total
number deported to Siberia was 118,559 from Lithuania, 52,541 from Latvia, and 32,540 from Estonia.[190]
The high death rate of deportees during the rst few
years of exile, caused by the failure of Soviet authorities to provide suitable clothing and housing at the destination, led some sources to label the aair an act of
genocide.[191] Based on the Martens Clause and the principles of the Nuremberg Charter, the European Court
of Human Rights held that the March deportation constituted a crime against humanity.[192][193] According to
Erwin Oberlander, these deportations are a crime against
humanity, rather than genocide.[194]
Lithuania began trials for genocide in 1997. Latvia and
Estonia followed in 1998.[195] Latvia has since convicted
four security ocers and in 2003 sentenced a former Major deportation routes to the extermination camps in Europe.
KGB agent to ve years. Estonia tried and convicted ten
men and is investigating others. In Lithuania by 2004 23
[204][205]
Many scholars
cases were before the courts, but as of the end of the year in Germany led by Adolf Hitler.
do
not
include
other
groups
in
the
denition
of the Holo[196]
none had been convicted.
caust, reserving the term to refer only to the genocide of
In 2007 Estonia charged Arnold Meri (then 88 years old), the Jews,[206]
a former Soviet Communist Party ocial and highly decorated former Red Army soldier, with genocide. Shortly
The Holocaust: Denition and Preliminary Discusafter the trial opened, it was suspended because of Meris
sion, Yad Vashem, The Holocaust, as presented in
[197][198]
frail health and then abandoned when he died.
A
this resource center, is dened as the sum total of
memorial in Vilnius, Lithuania, is dedicated to genociall anti-Jewish actions carried out by the German
[199]
dal victims of Stalin and Hitler,
and the Museum of
regime between 1933 and 1945: from stripping the
Genocide Victims in Lithuania, which opened on 14 OcGerman Jews of their legal and economic status in
tober 1992 in the former KGB headquarters, chronicles
the 1930s, to segregating and starving Jews in the
[200]
the imprisonment and deportation of Lithuanians.
various occupied countries, to the murder of close to
six million Jews in Europe. The Holocaust is part of
a broader aggregate of acts of oppression and murJapan During the Nanking Massacre in the period of
der of various ethnic and political groups in Europe
the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese engaged in
by the Germans.
mass killings of Chinese. Bradley Campbell described
the Nanking Massacre as a genocide, because the Chinese
were unilaterally killed by the Japanese en masse during
the aftermath, despite the successful and certain outcome
of their battle.[201]
[204][207][208][209][210]
or what the Germans called the

"Final Solution of the Jewish Question".
Holocaust The Nazi Holocaust is universally recognized as genocide. The term appeared in the indictment
of 24 German leaders. Count three of the indictment
stated that all the defendants had conducted deliberate
and systematic genocide namely, the extermination of
racial and national groups....[203]
The Holocaust was accomplished in stages. Legislation to

remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II. Concentration camps
were established in which inmates were used as slave laborers until they died. Where the Third Reich conquered
new territory in eastern Europe, specialized units called
Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in
mass shootings.[211] Jews and Romani were crammed into
ghettos before being transported in box cars by freight
train to extermination camps where, if they survived the
journey, the majority were killed in gas chambers. Every
arm of Germanys bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one
Holocaust scholar has called a genocidal nation.[212]
The term the Holocaust (from the Greek hlos, whole

and kausts, burnt) is often used to describe the killing
of approximately six million European Jews, as part of
a program of deliberate extermination planned and executed by the National Socialist German Workers Party
This gives a total of over 3.8 million; of these, 8090%

were estimated to be Jews. These seven camps thus accounted for half the total number of Jews killed in the
entire Nazi Holocaust. Virtually the entire Jewish population of Poland died in these camps.[213]
Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe Main articles:

The Holocaust, Racial policy of Nazi Germany, Nazi
crimes against ethnic Poles and Generalplan Ost
318

and Austria in 1933, only about a quarter survived. Although many German Jews emigrated before 1939, the
majority of these ed to Czechoslovakia, France or the
Netherlands, from where they were later deported to their
deaths.
Men are forced to dig their own graves before being shot by SS
troops. iauliai, Lithuania, July 1941
Since 1945, the most commonly cited gure for the total number of Jews killed has been six million. The Yad
Vashem Holocaust Martyrs and Heroes Remembrance
Authority in Jerusalem, writes that there is no precise gure for the number of Jews killed,[222] but has been able to
nd documentation of more than three million names of
Jewish victims killed,[223] which it displays at its visitors
center. The gure most commonly used is the six million
attributed to Adolf Eichmann, a senior SS ocial.[224]
In Czechoslovakia, Greece, the Netherlands, and Yugoslavia, over 70 percent were killed. 50 to 70 percent were killed in Romania, Belgium and Hungary. It
is likely that a similar proportion were killed in Belarus
and Ukraine, but these gures are less certain. Countries with notably lower proportions of deaths include
Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Italy, and Norway. Albania
was the only country occupied by Germany that had a
signicantly larger Jewish population in 1945 than in
1939. About two hundred native Jews and over a thousand refugees were provided with false documents, hidden when necessary, and generally treated as honored
guests in a country whose population was roughly 60%
Muslim.[227] Additionally, Japan, as an Axis member,
had its own unique response to German policies regarding
Jews; see Shanghai Ghetto.
In addition to those who died in extermination camps, at
least half a million Jews died in other camps, including
the major concentration camps in Germany. These were
not extermination camps, but had large numbers of Jewish prisoners at various times, particularly in the last year
of the war as the Nazis withdrew from Poland. About
a million people died in these camps, and although the
proportion of Jews is not known with certainty, it was
estimated to be at least 50 percent. Another 800,000
to one million Jews were killed by the Einsatzgruppen
in the occupied Soviet territories (an approximate gure, since the Einsatzgruppen killings were frequently
undocumented).[228] Many more died through execution
or of disease and malnutrition in the ghettos of Poland
before they could be deported.
In the 1990s, the opening of government archives in Eastern Europe resulted in the adjustment of the death tolls
published in the pioneering work by Hilberg, Dawidowicz and Gilbert (e.g. compare Gilberts estimation of two
million deaths in Auschwitz-Birkenau with the updated
gure of one million in the Extermination Camp data
box). As pointed out above, Wolfgang Benz has been
carrying out work on the more recent data. He concluded
in 1999:
Members of the Sonderkommando burn corpses in the re pits at

Auschwitz II-Birkenau.[225]
There were about eight to ten million Jews in the territories controlled directly or indirectly by Germany (the
uncertainty arises from the lack of knowledge about how
many Jews there were in the Soviet Union). The six million killed in the Holocaust thus represent 60 to 75 percent of these Jews. Of Polands 3.3 million Jews, about
90 percent were killed.[226] The same proportion were
killed in Latvia and Lithuania, but most of Estonia's Jews
were evacuated in time. Of the 750,000 Jews in Germany
The goal of annihilating all of the Jews

of Europe, as it was proclaimed at the conference in the villa Am Grossen Wannsee in
January 1942, was not reached. Yet the six
million murder victims make the holocaust a
unique crime in the history of mankind. The
number of victimsand with certainty the
following represent the minimum number in
each casecannot express that adequately.
Numbers are just too abstract. However they
must be stated in order to make clear the
319
Men hanged as partisans somewhere in the Soviet Union.
Jewish Holocaust death toll as a percentage of the total pre-war

Jewish population
dimension of the genocide: 165,000 Jews

from Germany, 65,000 from Austria, 32,000
from France and Belgium, more than 100,000
from the Netherlands, 60,000 from Greece,
the same number from Yugoslavia, more than
140,000 from Czechoslovakia, half a million
from Hungary, 2.2 million from the Soviet
Union, and 2.7 million from Poland. To these
numbers must be added all those killed in
the pogroms and massacres in Romania and
Transitrien (over 200,000) and the deported
and murdered Jews from Albania and Norway,
Denmark and Italy, from Luxembourg and
Bulgaria.
Benz, Wolfgang The Holocaust: A German
Historian Examines the Genocide[229]
Non-Jewish victims Some scholars broaden the denition to include other German killing policies during the
war, including the mistreatment of Soviet POWs, crimes
against ethnic Poles, euthanasia of mentally and physically disabled Germans, persecution of Jehovahs Witnesses, the killing of Romani, and other crimes committed against ethnic, sexual, and political minorities.[242]
Using this denition, the total number of Holocaust victims is 11 million people. Donald Niewyk suggests that
the broadest denition, including Soviet deaths due to
war-related famine and disease, would produce a death
toll of 17 million. Overall, about 5.7 million (78 percent)
of the 7.3 million Jews in occupied Europe perished.[243]
This was in contrast to the ve to 11 million (1.4 percent
to 3.0 percent) of the 360 million non-Jews in Germandominated Europe.[244][245]
Tanya Savicheva Diary
Soviet civilians In 1995 a paper published by M. V.

Philimoshin at the Russian Academy of Science put the
civilian death toll in the regions occupied by Germany
at 13.7 million. Philimoshin cited sources from the Soviet era to support his gures, he used the terms genocide and premeditated extermination when referring
to the deaths of 7.4 million civilians in the occupied
USSR caused by the direct, intentional actions of violence. Civilians killed in reprisals during the Soviet
partisan war account for a major part of the huge toll.
The report of Philimoshin lists the deaths of civilian
forced laborers in Germany as totaling 2,164,313. G.
I. Krivosheev in the report on military casualties gives a
total of 1,103,300 dead POWs. The total of these two
gures is 3,267,613, which is in close agreement with estimates by western historians of about 3 million deaths of
prisoners in German captivity. In the occupied regions
Nazi Germany had a policy of forced conscation of food
that resulted in the famine deaths of an estimated 6% of
the population, 4.1 million persons.[246]
Croatia After the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia, Nazis
and fascists established the Croatian state known as the
Nezavisna Drava Hrvatska (Independent State of Croatia) or NDH. Immediately afterwards, the NDH began a
terror campaign against Serbs, Jews and Romani people.
From 1941 to 1945, when Josip Broz Tito's partisans liberated Croatia, the Ustae regime killed approximately
320
300,000 to 350,000 people,[252] mostly Serbs and almost the entire Jewish and Romani population, many
of them in the Jasenovac concentration camp. Helen
Fein estimated that the Ustae killed virtually every Romani in the country.[253] The Ustae enacted a policy that
called for a solution to the Serbian problem in Croatia.
The solution was to kill one-third of the Serbs, expel
one-third, and convert one-third.[254] According to the
United States Holocaust Museum, 320,000340,000 ethnic Serbs were murdered under Ustae rule.[255] The Yad
Vashem World Holocaust Museum and Research Center
concludes that more than 500,000 Serbs were murdered
in horribly sadistic ways, 250,000 were expelled, and another 200,000 were forced to convert.[256] The Ustae
killed nearly 80,000 Roma and 35,000 Jews.

genocide.[265] However, according to Katchanovski, the
actions in Volhynia lacked evidence of an intent to eliminate all or part of the Polish population, and the antiPolish action was mostly limited to a small region.
Romani people Main article: Porajmos
The treatment of the Romani was not consistent in the
Some historians consider the crimes of the Chetniks in

Bosnia against non-Serbs to constitute genocide.[257][258]
Map of persecution of the Roma
dierent areas that Nazi Germany conquered. In some

areas (e.g. Luxembourg and the Baltic countries), the
Nazis killed virtually the entire Romani population. In
other areas (e.g. Denmark, Greece), there is no record of
Romanis being subjected to mass killings.[266]
Massacres of Poles in Volhynia in 1943. Most Poles of Volhynia

(now in Ukraine) had either been murdered or had ed the area
Donald Niewyk and Frances Nicosia write that the death

toll was at least 130,000 of the nearly one million Romani in Nazi-controlled Europe.[267] Michael Berenbaum
writes that serious scholarly estimates lie between 90,000
and 220,000.[268] A study by Sybil Milton, senior historian at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, calculated a death toll of at least 220,000 and possibly
closer to 500,000, but this study explicitly excluded the
Independent State of Croatia where the genocide of Romanies was intense.[234][269] Martin Gilbert estimates a
total of more than 220,000 of the 700,000 Romani in
Europe.[270] Ian Hancock, Director of the Program of
Romani Studies and the Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas at Austin, has argued in favor of a much higher gure of between 500,000
and 1,500,000, claiming the Romani toll proportionally
equaled or exceeded that of Jewish victims.[235][271]
Volhynia and Eastern Galicia The massacres of Poles

in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia were part of an ethnic
cleansing operation carried out by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) West in the Nazi-occupied regions
of Eastern Galicia (Nazi created Distrikt Galizien in
General Government), and UPA North in Volhynia (in
Nazi created Reichskommissariat Ukraine), from March
1943 until the end of 1944. The peak took place
in July/August 1943 when a senior UPA commander,
Dmytro Klyachkivsky, ordered the liquidation of the entire male Polish population between 16 and 60 years of
age.[259][260] Despite this, most were women and chil- Disabled and mentally ill Main articles: Nazi eudren. The UPA killed 40,00060,000 Polish civilians genics, Action T4, Erbkrank, Law for the Prevention
in Volhynia,[261] from 25,000[262] to 30,00040,000 in of Hereditarily Diseased Ospring and Schloss Hartheim
Eastern Galicia.[261] The killings were directly linked with
the policies of the Bandera fraction of the Organization
of Ukrainian Nationalists, whose goal, specied at the
Our starting-point is not the individual,
Second Conference of the OUN-B, was to remove nonand
we do not subscribe to the view that one
Ukrainians from a future Ukrainian state.[263]
should feed the hungry, give drink to the
The massacres are recognized in Poland as ethnic cleansthirsty or clothe the nakedthose are not
ing with marks of genocide.[264] According to IPN
our objectives. Our objectives are entirely
prosecutor Piotr Zajc, the crimes have a character of
dierent. They can be put most crisply in the
321
30,000.[283] The events are usually classied as population

transfer,[284][285] or as ethnic cleansing.[286][287][288][289]
Felix Ermacora, among a minority of legal scholars,
equated ethnic cleansing with genocide,[290][291] and
stated that the expulsion of the Sudeten Germans there[292]
Between 1939 and 1941, 80,000 to 100,000 mentally ill fore constituted genocide.
adults in institutions were killed; 5,000 children in institutions; and 1,000 Jews in institutions.[273] Outside the mental health institutions, the gures are estimated to number Dominican Republic In 1937, Dominican dictator
20,000 (according to Dr. Georg Renno, the deputy direc- Rafael Trujillo ordered the execution of Haitians living in
tor of Schloss Hartheim, one of the euthanasia centers) the Dominican Republic. The Parsley Massacre, known
or 400,000 (according to Franz Ziereis, the commandant in the Dominican Republic as El Corte (the Cutting),
of Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp).[273] Another lasted approximately ve days. Trujillo had his soldiers
300,000 were forcibly sterilized.[274] Overall it has been show parsley to suspected Haitians and ask, What is
estimated that over 270,000 individuals[233] with mental this?" Spanish-speaking Dominicans would be able to
disorders of all kinds were put to death, although their pronounce the Spanish word for parsley (perejil) permass murder has received relatively little historical at- fectly. In Haitian Creole, the word for parsley is pertention. Along with the physically disabled, people suf- sil. Those who mispronounced perejil were assumed
fering from dwarsm were persecuted as well. Many to be Haitian and slaughtered. The program resulted in
[293]
were put on display in cages and experimented on by the deaths of 20,000 to 30,000 people.
the Nazis.[275] Despite not being formally ordered to take
part, psychiatrists and psychiatric institutions were at the
center of justifying, planning and carrying out the atroc- Republic of China and Tibet The Kuomintang's
ities at every stage, and constituted the connection to Republic of China government supported Muslim
the later annihilation of Jews and other undesirables warlord Ma Bufang when he launched seven expediin the Holocaust.[276] After strong protests by the Ger- tions into Golog, causing the deaths of thousands of
[294]
Uradyn Erden Bulag called the events that
man Catholic and Protestant churches on 24 August 1941 Tibetans.
followed genocidal, while David Goodman called them
Hitler ordered the cancellation of the T4 program.[277]
ethnic cleansing. One Tibetan counted the number of
The program was named after Tiergartenstrae 4, the ad- times Ma attacked him, remembering the seventh attack
dress of a villa in the Berlin borough of Tiergarten, the that made life impossible.[295] Ma was anti-communist
headquarters of the General Foundation for Welfare and and he and his army wiped out many Tibetans in northInstitutional Care,[278] led by Philipp Bouhler, head of east and eastern Qinghai and destroyed Tibetan Buddhist
Hitlers private chancellery (Kanzlei des Fhrer der NS- Temples.[296][297] Ma also patronized the Panchen Lama,
DAP) and Karl Brandt, Hitlers personal physician.
who was exiled from Tibet by the Dalai Lama's governBrandt was tried in December 1946 at Nuremberg, along ment.
with 22 others, in a case known as United States of America vs. Karl Brandt et al., also known as the Doctors Trial.
1951 to 2000
He was hanged at Landsberg Prison on 2 June 1948.
sentence: we must have a healthy people in
order to prevail in the world.
Joseph Goebbels, 1938.[272]
The CPPCG was adopted by the UN General Assembly

Flight and on 9 December 1948 and came into eect on 12 January 1951 (Resolution 260 (III)). After the necessary 20
countries became parties to the Convention, it came into
force as international law on 12 January 1951. At that
After WWII ended about 11 million to at least 12
time however, only two of the ve permanent members
[279][280][281]
Germans ed or were expelled from
million
of the UN Security Council (UNSC) were parties to the
Germanys former eastern provinces or migrated from
treaty, which caused the Convention to languish for over
other countries to what remained of Germany, the largest
four decades.
transfer of a single European population in modern his[279][280]
Estimates of the total number of dead range
tory.
from 500,000 to 2,000,000, where the higher gures include unsolved cases of persons reported as missing Australia 19001969 Further information: Stolen
and presumed dead. Many German civilians were sent Generation, History wars and Bringing them home
to internment and labor camps, where they died. Rummel estimated that 1,585,000 Germans were killed in Sir Ronald Wilson was once the president of Australias
Poland and 197,000 were killed in Czechoslovakia.[282] Human Rights Commission. He stated that Australias
The German-Czech Historians Commission, on the other program in which 20-25,000 Aboriginal children were
hand, established a death toll for Czechoslovakia of 15- forcibly separated from their natural families[298] was
Expulsion of Germans Main article:
expulsion of Germans (19441950)
322
genocide, because it was intended to cause the Aboriginal people to die out. The program ran from 1900 to
1969.[299] The nature and extent of the removals have
been disputed within Australia, with opponents questioning the ndings contained in the Commission report and
asserting that the size of the Stolen Generation had been
exaggerated. The intent and eects of the government
policy were also disputed.[298]
Zanzibar In 1964, towards the end of the Zanzibar
Revolutionwhich led to the overthrow of the Sultan
of Zanzibar and his mainly Arab government by local
African revolutionariesJohn Okello claimed in radio
speeches to have killed or imprisoned tens of thousands
of the Sultans enemies and stooges,[300] but estimates
of the number of deaths vary greatly, from hundreds to
20,000. The New York Times and other Western newspapers gave gures of 2-4,000;[301][302] the higher numbers possibly were inated by Okellos own broadcasts
and exaggerated media reports.[300][303][304] The killing
of Arab prisoners and their burial in mass graves was
documented by an Italian lm crew, lming from a helicopter, in Africa Addio.[305] Many Arabs ed to safety
in Oman[303] and by Okellos order no Europeans were
harmed.[306] The violence did not spread to Pemba.[304]
Leo Kuper described the killing of Arabs in Zanzibar as
genocide.[307]
Guatemala 19811983
civil war
Main article:
Guatemalan
crimes committed during the Guatemalan Civil War.[311]

In May 2013, Rios Montt was found guilty of genocide
for killing 1,700 indigenous Ixil Mayans during 1982
83 by a Guatemalan court and sentenced to 80 years in
prison.[312] However, on 20 May 2013, the Constitutional
Court of Guatemala overturned the conviction, voiding
all proceedings back to 19 April and ordering that the trial
be reset to that point, pending a dispute over the recusal
of judges.[313][314] Ros Montts trial was supposed to resume in January 2015,[315] but it was suspended after a
judge was forced to recuse herself.[316] Doctors declared
Ros Montt unt to stand trial on 8 July 2015, noting that
he would be unable to understand the charges brought
against him.[317]
India (Sikh Genocide of 1984) The 1984 anti-Sikh riots or the 1984 Sikh Massacre or the 1984 genocide of
Sikhs was a series of pogroms directed against Sikhs in
India, by anti-Sikh mobs, most notably by members of
the Congress party, in response to the assassination of
Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards. There were about
2800 deaths all over India, including 2100 in Delhi.The
Central Bureau of Investigation, the main Indian investigating agency, is of the opinion that the acts of violence
were organized with the support of the then Delhi police
and some central government ocials. Rajiv Gandhi was
sworn in as Prime Minister after his mothers death and,
when asked about the riots, he said when a big tree falls,
the earth shakes.
Pakistan (Bangladesh War of 1971) Main articles:

During the Guatemalan civil war, some thousands of 1971 Bangladesh genocide, Operation Searchlight and
people died and more than one million ed their homes Bangladesh Liberation War
and hundreds of villages were destroyed. The ocially
chartered Historical Clarication Commission attributed An academic consensus holds that the events that took
more than 93% of all documented human rights viola- place during the Bangladesh Liberation War constituted
tions to Guatemalas military government; and estimated genocide.[318] During the nine-month-long conict an esthat Maya Indians accounted for 83% of the victims.[308] timated 300,000 to 3 million people were killed and
Although the war lasted from 1960 to 1996, the His- that Pakistani armed forces raped between 200-400,000
torical Clarication Commission concluded that geno- Bangladeshi women and girls in an act of genocidal
cide might have occurred between 1981 and 1983, when rape.[319]
the government and guerrilla had the ercest and bloodicombatants and
est combats and strategies, especially in the oil-rich area According to Sarmila Bose, 50-100,000
[320]
civilians
were
killed
by
both
sides.
Boses
work and
[309]
The total
of Ixcn on the northern part of Quich.
[321]
A
2008
study
methodology
were
heavily
critiqued.
numbers of mortal victims was estimated to be around
estimated
that
up
to
269,000
civilians
died
in
the
conict;
200,000, although this is an extrapolation that was done
noted that this is far higher than two earlier
by the Historical Clarication Commission based on the the authors
[322]
estimates.
According to Serajur Rahman, the ocial
cases that they documented, and there were no more than
Bangladeshi
estimate
of 3 lahks" (300,000) was wrongly
[310]
50,000.
translated into English as 3 million.[323]
In 1999, Nobel peace prize winner Rigoberta Mench
brought a case against the military leadership in a Spanish A case was led in the Federal Court of Australia on 20
Court. Six ocials, among them Efran Ros Montt and September 2006 for alleged war crimes, crimes against
by the Pakistani
scar Humberto Meja Victores, were formally charged humanity and genocide during 1971
[324]
Armed
Forces
and
its
collaborators:
on 7 July 2006 to appear in the Spanish National Court after Spains Constitutional Court ruled in 2005 that Span- On 21 May 2007, at the request of the applicant the case
ish courts could exercise universal jurisdiction over war was discontinued.[325]
323
Burundi 1972 and 1993 Main article:

genocide
Burundi tured and tried for genocide and other crimes along with
10 others. All were found guilty, four received terms of
imprisonment and Nguema and the other six were exe[336]
After Burundi's independence in 1962, two events were cuted on 29 September.
called genocide. The 1972 mass-killings of Hutu by the John B. Quigley noted at Macas Nguemas trial that
Tutsi army[326] and the 1993 killing of Tutsi by the Hutu Equatorial Guinea had not ratied the Genocide convenpopulation that is recognized as an act of genocide in tion and that records of the court proceedings show that
the nal report of the International Commission of In- there was some confusion over whether Nguema and his
quiry for Burundi presented to the United Nations Secu- co-defendants were tried under the laws of Spain (the forrity Council in 2002.[327]
mer colonial government) or whether the trial was justied on the claim that the Genocide Convention was part
of customary international law. Quigley stated, The MaNorth Korea Main articles: Human rights in North cias case stands out as the most confusing of domestic
Korea and Prisons in North Korea
genocide prosecutions from the standpoint of the applicable law. The Macias conviction is also problematic from
[337]
Several million in North Korea have died of starvation the standpoint of the identity of the protected group.
since the mid-1990s, with aid groups and human rights
NGOs stating often that the North Korean governIndonesia Main article: Indonesian occupation of East
ment has systematically and deliberately prevented food
Timor
aid from reaching the areas most devastated by food
shortages.[328] A further one million have died in North
Koreas political prison camps that detain dissidents and
their entire families, including children, for perceived po- East Timor East Timor was occupied by Indonesia
litical oences.[329]
from 1975 to 1999 as an annexed territory with provinIn 2004, Yad Vashem called on the international com- cial status. A detailed statistical report prepared for
munity to investigate political genocide in North the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation
in East Timor cited a lower range of 102,800 conictKorea.[329]
related deaths in the period 19741999, namely, apIn September 2011, a Harvard International Review arti- proximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 excess deaths
cle argued that North Korea was violating the UN Geno- from hunger and illness, including the Indonesian milcide Convention by its systematic killing of half-Chinese itary using starvation as a weapon to exterminate the
babies and members of religious groups.[330] North Ko- East Timorese,[338] most of which occurred during
reas Christian population, which included 2530% of the Indonesian occupation.[339][340] Earlier estimates of
the inhabitants of Pyongyang and was considered to be deaths during the occupation ranged from 60,000 to
the center of Christianity in East Asia in 1945, has been 200,000.[341]
systematically massacred and persecuted; as of 2012
50,00070,000 Christians were imprisoned in North Ko- According to Sian Powell a UN report conrmed that the
Indonesian military used starvation as a weapon and emreas concentration camps.[331]
ployed Napalm and chemical weapons, which poisoned
the food and water supply.[340] Ben Kiernan wrote:
Equatorial Guinea Francisco Macas Nguema was the
the crimes committed ... in East Timor,
rst President of Equatorial Guinea, from 1968 until his
[332]
with
a toll of 150,000 in a population of
overthrow in 1979.
During his presidency, his coun650,000,
clearly meet a range of sociologitry was nicknamed the Auschwitz of Africa. Nguemas
cal
denitions
of genocide ...[with] both politregime was characterized by its abandonment of all govical
and
ethnic
groups as possible victims of
ernment functions except internal security, which was acgenocide.
The
victims
in East Timor included
complished by terror; he acted as chief judge and sennot
only
that
substantial
'part' of the Timorese
tenced thousands to death. This led to the death or exile
'national
group'
targeted
for destruction beof up to 1/3 of the countrys population. From a popucause
of
their
resistance
to
Indonesian annexlation of 300,000, an estimated 80,000 had been killed,
ation...but
also
most
members
of the twentyin particular those of the Bubi ethnic minority on Bioko
[333]
thousand
strong
ethnic
Chinese
minority.[342]
associated with relative wealth and education.
Uneasy around educated people, he had killed everyone who
wore spectacles. All schools were ordered closed in 1975. West New Guinea/West Papua
An estimated
The economy collapsed and skilled citizens and foreign- 100,000+ Papuans have died since Indonesia took coners emigrated.[334]
trol of West New Guinea from the Dutch Government
On 3 August 1979, he was overthrown by Teodoro in 1963.[343] An academic report alleged that contemObiang Nguema Mbasogo.[335] Macas Nguema was cap- porary evidence set out [in this report] suggests that the
324
Indonesian government has committed proscribed acts
with the intent to destroy the West Papuans as such,
in violation of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide and the
customary international law prohibition this Convention
embodies.[344]

age of the 1965 slaughters into a false image of a massive genocidal anti Chinese pogrom where it is falsely
claimed that hundreds of thousands or millions of Chinese died.[347]
Coppel noted that this same false portrayal played out in

the later May 1998 riots of Indonesia, where the Volunteer Team for Humanity noted that non-Chinese looters
made up the majority of those who were killed in the res
Popular misconceptions about alleged genocide that were set in the Chinese-owned stores and Coppel
of Chinese in Indonesia Main articles: Indonesian noted that like the 1965 killings, the reports of genokillings of 196566 and May 1998 riots of Indonesia
cidal intent towards Chinese were incorrect and massively distorted by the false image of the riots spreading
[359]
It is a popular misconception that the 1965 mass killings around.
in Indonesia were a genocide targeted at Chinese, when in Most of the deaths that occurred when Chinese owned
fact most of the victims were not Chinese, leading com- supermarkets in Jakarta were targeted for looting in May
mentators to mistakenly claim that hundreds of thousands 1998 were not suered by the Chinese, but by the Inof Chinese Indonesians were killed in the Indonesian donesian looters themselves, who were burnt to death by
killings of 196566, but this number is certainly in- the hundreds when a re broke out, the total death toll
correct. The killings targeted members of the Com- was around 1,000.[360][361][362][363][364][365]
munist Party of Indonesia, and few Chinese IndoneThe majority of the anti-Chinese violence that occurred
sians were members. The best estimate is that around
in previous riots also involved only Indonesians looting
2000 Chinese Indonesians were killed (out of a total
Chinese shops and property without killing the Chinese
death toll of 500,000), with documented massacres takthemselves.[360] Most Indonesians did not want to drive
ing place in Makassar and Medan and on the island of
out the Chinese or murder them, but they falsely believed
Lombok.[345] Robert Cribb and Charles A. Coppel noted
that the Chinese possessed an innite supply of prodthat relatively few Chinese were actually killed during
ucts so when they looted and stole from Chinese shops,
the purge while the majority of the dead were Indonethey thought that the shops would be open again in the
sian Communists.[346] The death toll for Chinese was in
future.[366][367]
the thousands while the death toll for non-Chinese Indonesians was in the hundreds of thousands. Balinese Many graphic photos of victims of other riots that ocand Javanese made up the majority of people who were curred in Indonesia such as the Maluku sectarian conict in Ambon, killings of Islamic clerics and suspected
massacred.[347]
witches in Banyuwangi, massacres of Madurese Muslims
Charles A. Coppel pointed out that westerners delibin Kalimantan at the hands of Dayaks and Malays during
erately misplayed the 1965 massacres as anti-Chinese
the Sambas riots and Sampit conict, 2000 Walisongo
when in fact they were anti-communist because the
school massacre in Sulawesi were mislabeled as photos
western media did not want to admit the politically
of Chinese victims of the May 1998 riots and circulated
anti-communist nature of the killings in its Cold War
around the Chinese internet.
context but instead deliberately sought to blame it
[348]
on Indonesian racism.
Western powers, including Many false pictures of alleged Chinese rape victims were
Great Britain, Australia and the United States, aided circulated on the internet.[368][369] Overseas Chinese led
and abetted the mass killings.[349][350][351][352] U.S. Em- an internet based campaign with some fake photos and
bassy ocials provided kill lists to the Indonesian mil- testimonies of the rapes in order to raise awareness about
itary which contained the names of 5,000 suspected the riots.[370]
high-ranking members of the Indonesian Communist Fake pictures of Chinese women getting gang raped were
Party.[353][354][355][356][357] Many of those accused of be- actually from East Timor, a gory photo exhibit, and a porn
ing Communists were journalists, trade union leaders and website.[371][372][373][374][375][376][377]
intellectuals.[357] Methods of killing included beheading,
Pictures of East Timorese women tortured by the Indoneevisceration, dismemberment and castration.[358]
sian military were mislabeled as Chinese gang rape vicIn the 1965 massacres the majority of people slaughtered tims by overseas Chinese, and fake testimonies were also
were not Chinese but were in fact Balinese and Javanese spread around.[378][379]
who both were killed in higher absolute numbers and in
a higher proportion than were Chinese to the eect that Fake pictures taken from the website Sexy Asian Schoolhundreds of thousands of non-Chinese Indonesians were girls dated to 4 December 1997, were also mislabeled as
[380][381][382]
The website was
killed while only a few thousand Chinese were killed, and Chinese gang rape victims.
[383]
a
porn
site.
the slaughters were political killings aimed not at Chinese but at eliminating Communists, however, the media Some Chinese Indonesians were furious that overseas
and even academia have nearly completely twisted the im-

Chinese websites were spreading fake rape photos, warning that it was causing hatred and division against ethnic
Chinese in Indonesia.[384] Many Islamic Indonesians reacted angrily to an alleged rape testimony allegedly given
by a girl under the name Vivi who claimed that the
rapists allegedly shouted "Allahu Akbar", which falsely
portrayed the riot as a religious issue.[372] The Beijing
Review warned of a backlash against Chinese because
of the fake rape photos.[385]
Charles A. Coppel pointed out the hypocrisy of people
trying to separate all the other violence in Indonesia and
zoom in on specic anti-Chinese violence noting that the
same people did not speak about the sexual assaults on
East Timorese women and Acehnese women and that
some of the violence against Chinese may not have been
motivated by ethnicity but by religion and class, like attacks on Chinese Christian Churches due to religion and
attacks on Chinese employers due to working conditions
and were not motivated by race.[386]
325
instead based his ndings on 11 December 1946 United
Nations General Assembly Resolution 96 barring acts
of genocide when racial, religious, political and other
groups have been destroyed, entirely or in part (which
passed unanimously), because he considered the original
UN denition to be more legitimate than the politically
compromised CPPCG denition.[391]
Ethiopia Ethiopia's former Soviet-backed Marxist dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam was tried in an Ethiopian
court, in absentia, for his role in mass killings. Mengistus
charge sheet and evidence list covered 8,000 pages. The
evidence against him included signed execution orders,
videos of torture sessions and personal testimonies.[392]
The trial began in 1994 and on 12 December 2006
Mengistu was found guilty of genocide and other offences. He was sentenced to life in prison in January
2007.[393][394] Ethiopian law includes attempts to annihilate political groups in its denition of genocide.[395]
106 Derg ocials were accused of genocide during the
trials, but only 36 of them were present. Several former Derg members have been sentenced to death.[396]
Zimbabwe refused to respond to Ethiopias extradition request for Mengistu, which permitted him to avoid a life
sentence. Mengistu supported Robert Mugabe, the longstanding President of Zimbabwe, during his leadership of
Ethiopia.[397]
Laos The communist Pathet Lao overthrew the royalist

government of Laos in December 1975, establishing the
Lao Peoples Democratic Republic.[387] The conict between Hmong rebels and the Pathet Lao continued in isolated pockets. The Unrepresented Nations and Peoples
Organization accused the government of Laos in collaboration with Vietnam of committing genocide against the
Hmong,[388] with up to 100,000 killed out of a population Michael Clough, a US attorney and longtime Ethiopia obof 400,000.[389] [390]
server told Voice of America in a statement released on
13 December 2006,[398]
Commemoration in Argentina
Argentina In September 2006, Miguel Osvaldo

Etchecolatz, who had been the police commissioner
of the province of Buenos Aires during the Dirty War
(19761983), was found guilty of six counts of murder,
six counts of unlawful imprisonment and seven counts of
torture in a federal court. The judge who presided over
the case, Carlos Rozanski, described the oences as
part of a systematic attack that was intended to destroy
parts of society that the victims represented and as such
was genocide. Rozanski noted that CPPCG does not
include the elimination of political groups (because
that group was removed at the behest of Stalin), but
The biggest problem with prosecuting

Mengistu for genocide is that his actions did
not necessarily target a particular group. They
were directed against anybody who was opposing his government, and they were generally
much more political than based on any ethnic
targeting. In contrast, the irony is the Ethiopian
government itself has been accused of genocide based on atrocities committed in Gambella. I'm not sure that they qualify as genocide
either. But in Gambella, the incidents, which
were well documented in a human rights report
of about 2 years ago, were clearly directed at a
particular group, the tribal group, the Anuak.
An estimated 150,000 university students, intellectuals
and politicians were killed during Mengistus rule.[399]
Amnesty International estimates that up to 500,000 people were killed during the Ethiopian Red Terror[400]
Human Rights Watch described the Red Terror as one
of the most systematic uses of mass murder by a state
ever witnessed in Africa.[392] During his reign it was not
uncommon to see students, suspected government critics
or rebel sympathisers hanging from lampposts. Mengistu
himself is alleged to have murdered opponents by garroting or shooting them, saying that he was leading by
326
example.[401]
Iraq See also: 1988 Anfal campaign

On 23 December 2005 a Dutch court ruled in a case
brought against Frans van Anraat for supplying chemicals
to Iraq, that "[it] thinks and considers it legally and convincingly proven that the Kurdish population meets the
requirement under the genocide conventions as an ethnic group. The court has no other conclusion than that
these attacks were committed with the intent to destroy
the Kurdish population of Iraq. Because van Anraat supplied the chemicals before 16 March 1988, the date of the
Halabja poison gas attack he was guilty of a war crime but
not guilty of complicity in genocide.[402][403]

Brazil The Helmet Massacre of the Tikuna people
took place in 1988 and was initially treated as homicide.
During the massacre four people died, nineteen were
wounded, and ten disappeared. Since 1994 the episode
has been treated by Brazilian courts as genocide. Thirteen men were convicted of genocide in 2001. In November 2004, after an appeal was led before Brazils federal
court, the man initially found guilty of hiring men to carry
out the genocide was acquitted, and the killers had their
initial sentences of 1525 years reduced to 12 years.[414]
In November 2005 during an investigation code-named
Operation Rio Pardo, Mario Lucio Avelar, a Brazilian
public prosecutor in Cuiab, told Survival International
that he believed that there were sucient grounds to prosecute for genocide of the Rio Pardo Indians. In November 2006 twenty-nine people were arrested with others
implicated, such as a former police commander and the
governor of Mato Grosso state.[415]
In 2006 the [Brazilian] Supreme Federal Court (STF)

unanimously rearmed that the crime known as the
Haximu Massacre [perpetrated on the Yanomami Indians in 1993][416] was a genocide and that the decision of
a federal court to sentence miners to 19 years in prison
for genocide in connection with other oenses, such as
The report of the International Commission of Jurists smuggling and illegal mining, was valid.[416][417]
(1960) claimed that there was 'only' cultural genocide.
ICJ Report (1960) page 346: The committee found that
acts of genocide had been committed in Tibet in an at- Democratic Republic of Congo During the Congo
tempt to destroy the Tibetans as a religious group, and Civil War (19982003), Pygmies were hunted down and
that such acts are acts of genocide independently of any eaten by both sides in the conict, who regarded them
[418]
Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of
conventional obligation. The committee did not nd that as subhuman.
there was sucient proof of the destruction of Tibetans Mbuti pygmies, asked the UN Security Council to recas a race, nation or ethnic group as such by methods that ognize cannibalism as a crime against humanity and also
as an act of genocide.[419] Minority Rights Group Intercan be regarded as genocide in international law.
national reported evidence of mass killings, cannibalism
However cultural genocide is also contested by academics
and rape. The report, which labeled these events as a
such as Barry Sautman.[405] Tibetan is the everyday lancampaign of extermination, linked the violence to beliefs
guage of the Tibetan people.[406]
about special powers held by the Bambuti.[420] In Ituri
The Central Tibetan Administration and other Tibetan in district, rebel forces ran an operation code-named Efexile media claimed that approximately 1.2 million Ti- facer le tableau (to wipe the slate clean). The aim of the
betans have died of starvation, violence, or other indirect operation, according to witnesses, was to rid the forest of
causes since 1950.[407] White states In all, over one mil- pygmies.[421]
lion Tibetans, a fth of the population, had died as a result of Chinese occupation up until the end of the Cultural
Revolution.[408] This gure has been denied by Patrick Hutu In 2010 a report accused Rwanda's Tutsi-led
French, the former Director of the Free Tibet Campaign army of committing genocide against ethnic Hutus. The
report accused the Rwandan Army and allied Congolese
in London.[409]
rebels of killing tens of thousands of ethnic Hutu refugees
Jones argued that the struggle sessions after the 1959
from Rwanda and locals in systematic attacks between
Tibetan uprising may be considered genocide, based on
1996 and 1997. The government of Rwanda rejected the
the claim that the conict resulted in 92,000 deaths.[410]
accusation.[422]
However, according to tibetologist Tom Grunfeld, the
veracity of such a claim is dicult to verify.[411]
Tibet On 5 June 1959 Shri Purshottam Trikamdas, Senior Advocate, Supreme Court of India, presented a report on Tibet to the International Commission of Jurists
(an NGO). The press conference address on the report
states in paragraph 26:
In 2013 Spains top criminal court decided to hear a

case brought by Tibetan rights activists who allege that
Chinas former President Hu Jintao committed genocide
in Tibet.[412] Spains High Court dropped this case in June
2014.[413]
Somalia In 2007 attacks on Somalias Bantu population and Jubba Valley dwellers from 1991 onwards were
reported, noting that Somalia is a rare case in which
genocidal acts were carried out by militias in the utter
absence of a governing state structure.[423]
327
Sri Lanka See also: Alleged war crimes during the Sri tional investigation.[436]
Lankan Civil War
In January 2010 a Permanent Peoples Tribunal (PPT)
The Sri Lankan military was accused of human rights held in Dublin, Ireland found Sri Lanka guilty of war
crimes and crimes against humanity, but found insucient evidence to justify the charge of genocide.[437][438]
The tribunal requested a thorough investigation as some
of the evidence indicated possible acts of genocide.[437]
Its panel found Sri Lanka guilty of genocide at its 7
10 December 2013 hearings in Berman, Germany. It
also found that the US and UK were guilty of complicity. A decision on whether India, and other states, had
also acted in complicity was withheld. PPT reported that
LTTE could not be accurately characterized as terrorist,
stating that movements classied as terrorist because of
their rebellion against a state, can become political entities recognized by the international community.[439][440]
The International Commission of Jurists stated that the
camps used to intern nearly 300,000 Tamils after the
Bodies of Female minors killed in an Sri Lankan air raid on an wars end may have breached the convention against genoorphanage
cide.[441]
In 2015, Sri Lankas Tamil majority Northern Provincial Council (NPC) passed a strongly worded resolution accusing successive governments in the island nation of committing 'genocide' against Tamils. [442] The
resolution asserts that Tamils across Sri Lanka, particularly in the historical Tamil homeland of the NorthEast,
have been subject to gross and systematic human rights
violations, culminating in the mass atrocities committed
in 2009. Sri Lankas historic violations include over 60
years of state sponsored anti-Tamil pogroms, massacres,
sexual violence, and acts of cultural and linguistic destruction perpetrated by the state. These atrocities have
Bruce Fein alleged that Sri Lankas leaders commit- been perpetrated with the intent to destroy the Tamil peoted genocide,[426] along with Tamil Parliamentarian ple, and therefore constitute genocide.[443]
Suresh Premachandran.[427] Refugees escaping Sri Lanka
The Sri Lankan government denied the allegations of
also stated that they ed from genocide,[428] and vargenocide and war crimes.[444]
ious Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora groups echoed these
accusations.[429]
violations during Sri Lanka's 26-year civil war.[424] A
United Nations Panel of Experts looking into these alleged violations found credible allegations, which if
proven, indicate that serious violations of international
humanitarian law and international human rights law
were committed both by the Government of Sri Lanka
and the LTTE, some of which would amount to war
crimes and crimes against humanity.[425] Some activists
and politicians also accused the Sri Lankan government
of carrying out genocide against the minority Sri Lankan
Tamil people during and after the war.
In 2009 thousands of Tamils protested in cities all over

the world against the atrocities.[430] Various diaspora
activists formed a group called Tamils Against Genocide to continue the protest.[431] Legal action against Sri
Lankan leaders for alleged genocide has been initiated.
Norwegian human rights lawyer Harald Stabell led a
case in Norwegian courts against Sri Lankan President
Rajapaksa and other ocials.[432]
Bangladesh
Bangladesh
Main article: Persecution of Biharis in
Immediately following Bangladesh independence war of

1971 there have been also Biharis who were known to
Bengali as traitor or pro pakistani have been killed
at an estimate of 1,000 to 150,000[445][446] Biharis have
faced many suerings in Bangladesh over four decades
Politicians in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu also made and treated with equality [447]
genocide accusations.[433] In 2008 and 2009 the Chief
Minister of Tamil Nadu M. Karunanidhi repeatedly appealed to the Indian government to intervene to stop 3.4.4 International prosecution
the genocide of Tamils,[434] while his successor J. Jayalalithaa called on the Indian government to bring Ra- Ad hoc tribunals
japaksa before international courts for genocide.[435] The
womens wing of the Communist Party of India, passed In 1951 only two of the ve permanent members of the
a resolution in August 2012 nding that Systematic sex- UN Security Council (UNSC) were parties to the CPual violence against Tamil women by Sri Lankan forces PCG: France and the Republic of China. The CPPCG
constituted genocide, calling for an independent interna- was ratied by the Soviet Union in 1954, the United King-
328
dom in 1970, the Peoples Republic of China in 1983
(having replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China on
the UNSC in 1971), and the United States in 1988. In
the 1990s the international law on the crime of genocide
began to be enforced.

In 2010, Vujadin Popovi, Lieutenant Colonel and the
Chief of Security of the Drina Corps of the Bosnian Serb
Army, and Ljubia Beara, Colonel and Chief of Security of the same army, were convicted of genocide, extermination, murder and persecution by the ICTY for their
role in the Srebrenice massacre and sentenced to a life in
prison.[459]
Bosnia and Herzegovina See also: Srebrenica masGerman courts handed down convictions for genocide
sacre
In July 1995 Serbian forces killed more than during the Bosnian War. Novislav Djajic was indicted for
participation in genocide, but the Higher Regional Court
failed to nd that there was sucient certainty for a criminal conviction for genocide. Nevertheless, Djajic was
found guilty of 14 cases of murder and one case of attempted murder.[460] At Djajics appeal on 23 May 1997,
the Bavarian Appeals Chamber found that acts of genocide were committed in June 1992, conned within the
administrative district of Foca.[461] The Higher Regional
Court (Oberlandesgericht) of Dsseldorf, in September
1997, handed down a genocide conviction against Nikola
Jorgic, a Bosnian Serb from the Doboj region who was
the leader of a paramilitary group located in the Doboj
region. He was sentenced to four terms of life imprisonment for his involvement in genocidal actions that took
place in regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, other than
Srebrenica;[462] and On 29 November 1999, the Higher
Male mourners at the reburial ceremony for an exhumed victim
Regional Court (Oberlandesgericht) of Dsseldorf conof the Srebrenica massacre.
demned Maksim Sokolovic to 9 years in prison for aiding
[448][449]
and for grave breaches
8,000
Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims), mainly and abetting the crime of genocide
[463]
of
the
Geneva
Conventions.
men and boys, in and around the town of Srebrenica
during the Bosnian War. The killing was perpetrated
by units of the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS)
under the command of General Ratko Mladi. The
Secretary-General of the United Nations described the
mass murder as the worst crime on European soil since
the Second World War.[450][451] A paramilitary unit from
Serbia known as the Scorpions, ocially part of the
Serbian Interior Ministry until 1991, participated in the
massacre,[452][453] along with several hundred Russian
and Greek volunteers.[454]
Rwanda The International Criminal Tribunal for

Rwanda (ICTR) is a court under the auspices of the
United Nations for the prosecution of oenses committed
in Rwanda during the genocide that occurred there during April and May 1994, commencing on 6 April. The
ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the UN Security Council to resolve claims in Rwanda, or by Rwandan
citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994. Over the course of approximately 100 days
In 2001 the International Criminal Tribunal for the For- from the assassination of President Juvnal Habyarimana
mer Yugoslavia (ICTY) delivered its rst conviction for on 6 April through mid-July, at least 800,000 people were
the crime of genocide, against General Krsti for his role killed, according to a Human Rights Watch estimate.
in the 1994 Srebrenica massacre (on appeal he was found
As of mid-2011, the ICTR had convicted 57 people and
not guilty of genocide but guilty of aiding and abetting
acquitted 8. Another ten persons were still on trial while
[455]
genocide).
one is awaiting trial. Nine remain at large.[464] The rst
In February 2007 the International Court of Justice (ICJ) trial, of Jean-Paul Akayesu, ended in 1998 with his conreturned a judgement in the Bosnian Genocide Case. It viction for genocide and crimes against humanity.[465]
upheld by the ndings by the ICTY that genocide had This was the worlds rst conviction for genocide, as debeen committed in and around Srebrenica but did not nd ned by the 1948 Convention. Jean Kambanda, interim
that genocide had been committed on the wider territory Prime Minister during the genocide, pled guilty.
of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war. The ICJ also
ruled that Serbia was not responsible for the genocide nor
for aiding and abetting it, although it ruled that Serbia Cambodia See also: The Killing Fields, Autogenocide,
could have done more to prevent the genocide and that Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum and Cambodian genocide
Serbia failed to punish the perpetrators.[456] Before this denial
ruling the term Bosnian Genocide had been used by some The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, Ta Mok and other
academics[457] and human rights ocials.[458]
leaders, organized the mass killing of ideologically sus-
329
Skulls at Choeung Ek memorial in Cambodia
pect groups, ethnic minorities such as ethnic Vietnamese,

Chinese (or Sino-Khmers), Chams and Thais, former
civil servants, former government soldiers, Buddhist
monks, secular intellectuals and professionals, and former city dwellers. Khmer Rouge cadres defeated in factional struggles were also liquidated in purges. Manmade famine and slave labor resulted in many hundreds
of thousands of deaths.[466] Craig Etcheson suggested that
the death toll was between 2 and 2.5 million, with a
most likely gure of 2.2 million. After 5 years of researching 20,000 grave sites, he concluded that these
mass graves contain the remains of 1,386,734 victims of
execution.[467] However, some scholars argued that the
Khmer Rouge were not racist and had no intention of exterminating ethnic minorities or the Cambodian people;
in this view, their brutality was the product of an extreme
version of communist ideology.[468]
On 6 June 2003 the Cambodian government and the
United Nations reached an agreement to set up the
(ECCC), which would focus exclusively on crimes committed by the most senior Khmer Rouge ocials during
the period of Khmer Rouge rule from 1975 to 1979.[469]
The judges were sworn in in early July 2006.[470]
Khieu Samphan at a public hearing before the Pre-Trial

Cambodia Tribunal on 3 July 2009.
Khieu Samphan, a former head of state, was indicted

on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against
humanity and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred
into the custody of the ECCC on 19 September
2007. His trial also began on 27 June 2011.[474][475]
Ieng Sary, a former foreign minister, was indicted on
charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and several other crimes under Cambodian
law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into
the custody of the ECCC on 12 November 2007.
His trial began on 27 June 2011.[474][475] He died in
March 2013.
Ieng Thirith, wife of Ieng Sary and a former minister for social aairs, was indicted on charges of
genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and
several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15
September 2010. She was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 12 November 2007. Proceedings against her have been suspended pending
a health evaluation.[475][476]
The investigating judges were presented with the names

of ve possible suspects by the prosecution on 18 July
Some of the international jurists and the Cambodian gov2007.[470][471]
ernment disagreed over whether any other people should
be tried by the Tribunal.[471]
Kang Kek Iew was formally charged with war crimes
and crimes against humanity and detained by the
Tribunal on 31 July 2007. He was indicted on International Criminal Court
charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity on 12 August 2008.[472] His appeal was rejected See also: International Criminal Court
on 3 February 2012, and he continued serving a sentence of life imprisonment.[473]
The ICC can prosecute only crimes committed on or after
1 July 2002.[477]
Nuon Chea, a former prime minister, was indicted
on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against
humanity and several other crimes under Cambo- Darfur, Sudan See also: Second Sudanese Civil War
dian law on 15 September 2010. He was trans- and Darfur conict
ferred into the custody of the ECCC on 19 Septem- The ongoing racial[478][479] conict in Darfur, Sudan,
ber 2007. His trial began on 27 June 2011.[474][475] which started in 2003, was declared genocide by United
330

for al-Bashirs arrest for crimes against humanity and war
crimes, but not genocide. This is the rst warrant issued
by the ICC against a sitting head of state.[487]
3.4.5 See also

Anti-Mongolianism#State-sponsored genocide by
Russia
Black genocide the notion that African Americans
have been subject to genocide
Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir, wanted by the ICC
Democide murder by government, includes historical genocide and politicide
Command responsibility
States Secretary of State Colin Powell on 9 September
Crime against humanity
2004 in testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations
Committee.[480] Since that time however, no other per Human rights
manent member of the UN Security Council has followed
suit. In January 2005, an International Commission of In International humanitarian law
quiry on Darfur, authorized by UN Security Council Res International law
olution 1564 of 2004, issued a report to the SecretaryGeneral stating that the Government of the Sudan has
Mass killings under Communist regimes
not pursued a policy of genocide.[481] Nevertheless, the
Commission cautioned that The conclusion that no geno List of genocides by death toll
cidal policy has been pursued and implemented in Darfur by the Government authorities, directly or through the
militias under their control, should not be taken in any 3.4.6 Notes
way as detracting from the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region. International oences such as the [1] Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide. Note: ethnical, although unusual,
crimes against humanity and war crimes that have been
is found in several dictionaries
committed in Darfur may be no less serious and heinous
than genocide.[481]
[2] Debate continues over what constitutes genocide. Blogwatch. Worldfocus. 5 February 2009. Retrieved 17
In March 2005, the Security Council formally reNovember 2012.
ferred the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the
International Criminal Court (ICC), taking into account [3] M. Hassan Kakar Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and
the Commission report but without mentioning any spethe Afghan Response, 19791982 University of Califorcic crimes.[482] Two permanent members of the Security
nia press 1995 The Regents of the University of California.
Council, the United States and China, abstained from the
[483]
vote on the referral resolution.
As of his fourth report
[4] Chalk & Jonassohn 1990.
to the Security Council, the Prosecutor found reasonable
grounds to believe that the individuals identied [in the [5] Robert Gellately & Ben Kiernan (2003). The Specter of
Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective. CamUN Security Council Resolution 1593] have committed
bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 267. ISBN
crimes against humanity and war crimes, but did not nd
[484]
0-521-52750-3.
sucient evidence to prosecute for genocide.
In April 2007, the Judges of the ICC issued arrest warrants against the former Minister of State for the Interior, Ahmad Harun, and a Militia Janjaweed leader,
Ali Kushayb, for crimes against humanity and war
crimes.[485]
[6] Staub, Ervin. The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide

and Other Group Violence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
[7] Rummel 1998, p. Democide versus genocide; which is
what?.
On 14 July 2008, ICC prosecutors led ten charges of war [8] Jones 2006, p. 3 footnote 5 cites Helen Fein, Genocide: A
crimes against Sudans President Omar al-Bashir, three
Sociological Perspective, (London: Sage, 1993), p. 26
counts of genocide, ve of crimes against humanity and
two of murder. The prosecutors claimed that al-Bashir [9] Jones 2006, p. 3.
masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in sub[10] Chalk & Jonassohn 1990, p. 28.
stantial part three tribal groups in Darfur because of their
ethnicity.[486] On 4 March 2009 the ICC issued a warrant [11] Jones 2006, p. 3, footnote 4.
331
[12] Jones 2006, p. 5.
[30] Encyclopdia Britannica, 15th edition
[13] Diamond, Jared (1992). The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal. Harper Perennial.
ISBN 0-06-098403-1.
[31] Victor Hanson (18 December 2007). Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power.
Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 313. ISBN 9780-307-42518-8.
[14] Jones 2006.
[32] Cooper, Allan D. (3 August 2006). Reparations for the

[15] http://phys.org/news/
Herero Genocide: Dening the limits of international lit2014-02-neanderthals-extinction-modern-humans-emerged.
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113126. doi:10.1093/afraf/adl005.
[16] Potter, James M.; Jason P. Chuipka (2010). Perimortem
[33]
Jeremy Sarkin-Hughes (30 November 2008).
mutilation of human remains in an early village in the
Colonial Genocide and Reparations Claims in the
American Southwest: A case for ethnic violence (PDF).
21st Century: The Socio-Legal Context of Claims
Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 29 (4): 507523.
under International Law by the Herero against
doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2010.08.001. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
Germany for Genocide in Namibia, 19041908:
The Socio-Legal Context of Claims under Inter[17] How genocide wiped out a Native American population.
national Law by the Herero against Germany for
Msnbc.com. 20 September 2010. Archived from the origGenocide in Namibia, 19041908. ABC-CLIO.
inal on 23 September 2010.
ISBN 978-0-313-36257-6.
[18] https://books.google.com.au/books?id=Z9pkney_
Schaller 2008, p. 296
zw8C&pg=PA81&lpg=PA81&dq=albigensian+
Sara Friedrichsmeyer; Sara Lennox; Susanne Zancrusade+lemkin&source=bl&ots=_5Z7xsvcC6&
top (1998). The Imperialist Imagination: German
sig=CcbNAyfv7jGLf0ivu1lTIkaNN3c&hl=en&
Colonialism and Its Legacy. University of Michigan
sa=X&ei=tDVlVbWUD4ru8gXZ2ICwAg&ved=
Press. p. 87. ISBN 0-472-06682-X.
0CBwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=albigensian%
20crusade%20lemkin&f=false
Marie-Aude Baronian; Stephan Besser; Yolande
Jansen (2007). Diaspora and Memory: Figures of
[19] Jones 2006, p. 4 note 12.
Displacement in Contemporary Literature, Arts and
Politics. Rodopi. p. 33. ISBN 90-420-2129-2.
[20] Paul Kahn (1 January 1998). The Secret History of the
Mongols: The Origin of Chinghis Khan (expanded Edi[34] Walter Nuhn: Sturm ber Sdwest. Der Hereroaufstand
tion) : an Adaptation of the Yan Ch'ao Pi Shih, Based
von 1904. Bernard & Graefe-Verlag, Koblenz 1989.
Primarily on the English Translation by Francis Woodman
ISBN 3-7637-5852-6.
Cleaves. Cheng & Tsui. ISBN 978-0-88727-299-8.
[21] The Encyclopedia of Genocide, ABC-CLIO, 1999, page
48, article Afghanistan, Genocide of
[35] Olusoga & Erichsen 2010, p. 1501.
[22] Totten, Bartrop & Jacobs 2008, p. Genocides in history at

Google Books.
[37] Whitaker Report: Page 17, Prevent Genocide International, Retrieved 2009-05-15
[23] Rubinstein 2004, p. Genocides in history at Google Books.
[38] Alan Taylor (2002). American colonies; Volume 1 of The

Penguin history of the United States, History of the United
States Series. Penguin. p. 40. ISBN 9780142002100.
[24] Forbath, Peter (1977). The River Congo: The Discovery,

Exploration and Exploitation of the Worlds Most Dramatic
Rivers. Harper & Row. p. 278. ISBN 978-0-06-1224904.
[25] Wertham, Fredric (1968). A Sign For Cain: An Exploration of Human Violence. ISBN 978-0-7091-0232-8.
[26] Hochschild, Adam (2006). King Leopolds Ghost: A Story
of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa. ISBN
978-1-74329-160-3.
[27] Weisbord, Robert G. (2003). The King, the Cardinal
and the Pope: Leopold IIs genocide in the Congo and
the Vatican. Journal of Genocide Research 5: 3545.
doi:10.1080/14623520305651.
[28] Eugene Walter, Terror and Resistance (1969)
[29] Major Charters, Royal Artillery, Notices Of The Cape
And Southern Africa, Since The Appointment, As Governor, Of Major-Gen. Sir Geo. Napier. United Service
Journal and Naval and Military Magazine, London: W.
Clowes and Son, 1839, Part III, p.24
[36] Olusoga & Erichsen 2010, p. 151.
[39] '500 Years of Brazils Discovery'

[40] Brazil urged to protect Indians
[41] Henige, David (1998). Numbers from nowhere: the American Indian contact population debate. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 179. ISBN 0-8061-3044-X.
[42] Jennings, p. 83; Royals quote
[43] Smallpox: Eradicating the Scourge
[44] Maddison, Angus (2001). The world economy: a millennial perspective. OECD Publishing. p. 233. ISBN 92-6418608-5.
[45] The Story of... Smallpox
[46] Arthur C. Aufderheide, Conrado Rodrguez-Martn, Odin
Langsjoen (1998). The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology. Cambridge University Press. p.205.
ISBN 0-521-55203-6
332
[47] Henderson, Donald A. et al.

Smallpox as a Biological Weapon.
Medical and Public Health
Management.
JAMA 1999, 281(22):21272137.
doi:10.1001/jama.281.22.2127
[59] Civilizacin o genocidio, un debate que nunca se cierra

by Cacho Fernndez Qollasuyu Tawaintisuyu Indymedia
(Spanish)
[60] Robins & Jones 2009.
[48] d'Errico, Peter. Jerey Amherst and Smallpox Blankets.

[49]
David Dixon (2005). Never Come to Peace Again:

Pontiacs Uprising and the Fate of the British Empire
in North America. University of Oklahoma Press.
pp. 15255. ISBN 978-0-8061-3656-1.
Michael N. McConnell (1992). A Country Between:
The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 17241774.
U of Nebraska Press. pp. 19596. ISBN 0-80328238-9.
Gregory Evans Dowd (27 January 2004). War under Heaven: Pontiac, the Indian Nations, and the
British Empire. Johns Hopkins University Press. p.
190. ISBN 978-0-8018-7892-3.
For historians who believe the attempt at infection was
successful, see:
William R. Nester (1 January 2000). Haughty
Conquerors": Amherst and the Great Indian Uprising of 1763. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 112.
ISBN 978-0-275-96770-3.
Francis Jennings (1990). Empire of Fortune:
Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War
in America. Norton. pp. 44748. ISBN 978-0393-30640-8.
[50] Staord Poole, quoted in Robert Royal (1992). 1492 and

all that: political manipulations of history. Ethics and Public Policy Center. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-89633-174-7.
[51] Guenter Lewy (2007). Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide?". History News Network. Retrieved
2013-08-28.
[52] Noble David Cook (13 February 1998). Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 14921650. Cambridge
University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-521-62730-6.
[53] Stannard 1993, pp. 1467.
[54] Columbus 'sparked a genocide'". BBC News. 12 October 2003. Retrieved 2006-10-21.
[55] Quammen, David (2003). Monster of God: the maneating predator in the jungles of history and the mind. New
York: W.W. Norton. p. 252. ISBN 0-393-05140-4.
[56] Carlos A. Floria and Csar A. Garca Belsunce, 1971.
Historia de los Argentinos I and II; ISBN 84-599-5081-6.
[57] Andermann, Jens. Argentine Literature and the 'Conquest
of the Desert', 18721896, Birkbeck, University of London. It is this sudden acceleration, this abrupt change
from the discourse of 'defensive warfare' and 'merciful
civilization' to that of 'oensive warfare' and of genocide,
which is perhaps the most distinctive mark of the literature of the Argentine frontier.
[58] David Rock (2002). State Building and Political Movements in Argentina, 18601916. Stanford University
Press. pp. 9394. ISBN 978-0-8047-4466-9.
[61] Robins & Jones 2009, p. 50.

[62] James L. Haley (1981). Apaches: A History and Culture Portrait. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 5051.
ISBN 0806129786
[63] Robins & Jones 2009, p. 1.
[64] David Cesarani; Sarah Kavanaugh (1 January 2004).
Holocaust: Critical Concepts in Historical Studies. Psychology Press. p. 381. ISBN 978-0-415-27510-1.
[65] Michno, Gregory (2003). Encyclopedia of Indian wars:
western battles and skirmishes, 18501890. Mountain
Press Publishing. p. 353. ISBN 0-87842-468-7.
[66] Russell Thornton (1987). American Indian Holocaust and
Survival: A Population History Since 1492. University of
Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-2220-5.
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ve categoriesby implication an even larger body
of 'passive' supporters of the rebellionwere to be
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The rise of the West and the coming of Genocide p. 118 [119] Ross, David (2002). Ireland: History of a Nation. New
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[117] To Hell or to Connaught Oliver Cromwells Settlement
[121] Grda 2000, p. 7.
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[118] genocidal or near-genocidal:
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248. ISBN 978-0-521-48098-7. Oliver Cromwell
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could go 'To Hell or to Connaught!'
Tim Pat Coogan (5 January 2002). The Troubles: Irelands Ordeal and the Search for Peace.
Palgrave Macmillan. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-31229418-2. The massacres by Catholics of Protestants, which occurred in the religious wars of the
1640s, were magnied for propagandist purposes to
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[122] Woodham-Smith 1964, p. 19.

[123] Kinealy 1995, pp. xviii, 23.
[124] Finnegan & McCarron 2000.
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4] While no academic historian takes seriously any more
the claim of 'genocide', the issue of blame remains controversial. [page 68] In sum the Great Famine of the 1840s,
instead of being inevitable and inherent in the potato economy, was a tragic ecological accident. Irelands experience during these years supports neither the complacency
exemplied by the Whig view of political economy nor the
genocide theories formerly espoused by a few nationalist
historians.
Peter Berresford Ellis (9 February 2007).

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ISBN 978-0-470-05312-6. It was to be the
justication for Cromwells genocidal campaign
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And, while few, if any, historians in
habitants at the onset of the Irish wars in 1641, to
Ireland
today
would
endorse
the idea of British genocide
no more than 850,000 eleven years later represents
(in the sense of conscious intent to slaughter), this does
an absolutely devastating demographic catastrophe.
not mean that government policies, whether adopted or
Undoubted the largest proportion of this massive
rejected, had no impact on starvation, disease, mortality
death toll did not arise from direct massacre but
and emigration.
from hunger and then bubonic plagues, especially
from the outbreak between 1649 and 1652. Even
so, the relationship to the worst years of the ghting is all too apparent.
[The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English,
and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic
cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not
include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed
to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed
expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the
lethal determination of its makers and more about
the political, structural and nancial weakness of
the early modern English state. For instance, though
the Act begins rather ominously by claiming that it
was not its intention to extirpate the whole Irish nation, it then goes on to list ve categories of people who, as participators in or alleged supporters
of the 1641 rebellion and its aftermath, would automatically be forfeit of their lives. It has been
suggested that as many as 100,000 people would
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(from the Hebrew word for catastrophe or total

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[208] Paulson, Steve, A View of the Holocaust, BBC, The Holocaust was the Germans assault on the Jews between 1933
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to be applied primarily to the destruction of the
Jews of Europe under the German regime, and it
is also employed in describing the annihilation of
other groups of people in World War II. The mass
extermination of Jews has become the archetype of
GENOCIDE, and the terms sho'ah and holocaust
have become linked to the attempt by the German
state to destroy European Jewry during World War
II... One of the rst to use the term in the historical perspective was the Jerusalem historian BenZion Dinur (Dinaburg), who, in the spring of 1942,
stated that the Holocaust was a catastrophe that
symbolized the unique situation of the Jewish people among the nations of the world.
Holocaust, List of denitions, The Center for
Holocaust and Genocide Studies, A term for the
state-sponsored, systematic persecution and annihilation of European Jewry by Germany and its collaborators between 1933 and 1945.
[205] Also see The Holocaust, Encyclopdia Britannica,

2007: the systematic state-sponsored killing of six mil- [210] The Holocaust, Compact Oxford English Dictionary, the
lion Jewish men, women and children, and millions of
mass murder of Jews under the German regime in World
others, by Germany Germany and its collaborators during
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New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 10
[207] Holocaust, Encyclopdia Britannica, 2007, the systematic state-sponsored killing of six million Jewish men,
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called this the nal solution to the Jewish question.
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[418] Pygmies struggle to survive
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[421] Pygmies today in Africa
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[430] Taylor, Lesley Ciarula (31 January 2009). Thousands
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[448] Potocari Memorial Center PRELIMINARY LIST of

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[467] Sharp, Bruce (1 April 2005). Counting Hell: The Death
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[456] Courte: Serbia failed to prevent genocide, UN court
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[457] University of California Riverside:
[471] Buncombe, Andrew (11 October 2011). Judge quits

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[472] Ker Munthit (12 August 2008). Cambodian tribunal indicts Khmer Rouge jailer. USA Today. Associated Press.
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2009-02-06.
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[479] Al-Bashir Arrest Warrant Issued By International Criminal Court. Hungton Post. 4 March 2009.
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[480] Powell Declares Killing in Darfur 'Genocide', The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, 9 September 2004
[481] Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on
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348
3.4.8
External links
3.5.2 Denitions
Combat Genocide Association website

Genocide Studies Program, Yale University.
King Leopold II of Belgium
3.5 Ethnic cleansing

This article is about the general process. For the video
game, see Ethnic Cleansing (video game).
Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of
ethnic or religious groups from a given territory by a more
powerful ethnic group, with the intent of making it ethnically homogeneous.[1] The forces applied may be various
forms of forced migration (deportation, population transfer), intimidation, as well as mass murder.
Ethnic cleansing is usually accompanied with the eorts
to remove physical and cultural evidence of the targeted
group in the territory through the destruction of homes,
social centers, farms, and infrastructure, and by the dese- The Chios Massacre refers to the slaughter of tens of thousands
cration of monuments, cemeteries, and places of worship. of Greeks on the island of Chios by Ottoman troops in 1822.[9]
Initially used by the perpetrators during the Yugoslav
Wars and cited in this context as a euphemism akin
to that of the "nal solution", by the 1990s the term
gained widespread acceptance in academic discourse in
its generic meaning.[2]
3.5.1
Ethnic cleansing vs. genocide
The crimes committed during an ethnic cleansing are

similar to those of genocides, but while genocide includes
an intent at complete or partial destruction of the target group, ethnic cleansing may involve murder only to
the point of mobilizing the target group out of the territory. Hence there may be varied degrees of mass murder
in an ethnic cleansing, often subsiding when the target
group appears to be leaving the desired territory, while
during genocide the mass murder is ubiquitous and constant throughout the process, continuing even while the
target group tries to ee.[3][4]
Ethnic cleansing is not to be confused with genocide;
however, academic discourse considers both as existing in
a spectrum of assaults on nations or religio-ethnic groups.
Ethnic cleansing is similar to forced deportation or population transfer whereas genocide is the intentional murder
of part or all of a particular ethnic, religious, or national
group.[5] Some academics consider genocide as a subset
of murderous ethnic cleansing.[6] Thus, these concepts
are dierent, but related; literally and guratively, ethnic
cleansing bleeds into genocide, as mass murder is committed in order to rid the land of a people.[7]
Synonyms include ethnic purication.[8]
The Final Report of the Commission of Experts established pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 dened ethnic cleansing as a purposeful policy designed
by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent
and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic
areas.[3] In its previous, rst interim report it noted,
"[b]ased on the many reports describing the policy and
practices conducted in the former Yugoslavia, [that] 'ethnic cleansing' has been carried out by means of murder,
torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, extra-judicial executions, rape and sexual assaults, connement of civilian population in ghetto areas, forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian population, deliberate
military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and wanton destruction of property. Those
practices constitute crimes against humanity and can be
assimilated to specic war crimes. Furthermore, such
acts could also fall within the meaning of the Genocide
Convention.[10]
The ocial United Nations denition of ethnic cleansing is rendering an area ethnically homogeneous by using
force or intimidation to remove from a given area persons
of another ethnic or religious group.[11]
As a category, ethnic cleansing encompasses a continuum
or spectrum of policies. In the words of Andrew BellFialko:
[E]thnic cleansing [...] dees easy denition. At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population
3.5. ETHNIC CLEANSING

exchange while at the other it merges with
deportation and genocide. At the most general
level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the expulsion of a population from a
given territory.[12]
349
para. 562), yet '[a] clear distinction must be
drawn between physical destruction and mere
dissolution of a group. The expulsion of a
group or part of a group does not in itself
suce for genocide.
ECHR quoting the ICJ.[14]
Terry Martin has dened ethnic cleansing as the forcible

removal of an ethnically dened population from a given
territory and as occupying the central part of a continuum between genocide on one end and nonviolent pres- 3.5.3 Origins of the term
sured ethnic emigration on the other end.[13]
In reviewing the International Court of Justice (ICJ) As early as 1914, a Carnegie Endowment report on the
Bosnian Genocide Case in the judgement of Jorgic v. Balkan Wars points out that village-burning and ethnic
Germany on July 12, 2007 the European Court of Human cleansing had traditionally accompanied Balkan wars, reRights quoted from the ICJ ruling on the Bosnian Geno- gardless of the ethnic group in power. During the Balkan
cide Case to draw a distinction between ethnic cleansing Wars thousands of Albanians were massacred during the
Serbian occupation of Kosovo, Macedonia and northern
and genocide.
and central Albania. However, the term cleanse was
probably used rst in reference to removing ethnic groups
The term 'ethnic cleansing' has frequently
from an area by Vuk Karadi in describing what hapbeen employed to refer to the events in Bosnia
pened to the Turks in Belgrade when the city was capand Herzegovina which are the subject of this
tured by the Karadjordje's forces in 1806.[15] Konstantin
case ... General Assembly resolution 47/121
Nenadovi wrote, in his biography of the famous Serreferred in its Preamble to 'the abhorrent
bian leader published in 1883, that after the ghting the
policy of 'ethnic cleansing', which is a form
Serbs, in their bitterness (after 500 years of Turkish ocof genocide', as being carried on in Bosnia
cupation), slit the throats of the Turks everywhere they
and Herzegovina. ... It [i.e. ethnic cleansing]
found them, sparing neither the wounded, nor the woman,
can only be a form of genocide within the
nor the Turkish children.[16]
meaning of the [Genocide] Convention, if
it corresponds to or falls within one of the
categories of acts prohibited by Article II
of the Convention. Neither the intent, as a
matter of policy, to render an area ethnically
homogeneous, nor the operations that may
be carried out to implement such policy, can
as such be designated as genocide: the intent
that characterizes genocide is to destroy,
in whole or in part a particular group, and
deportation or displacement of the members
of a group, even if eected by force, is not
necessarily equivalent to destruction of that
group, nor is such destruction an automatic
consequence of the displacement. This is not
to say that acts described as 'ethnic cleansing'
may never constitute genocide, if they are
such as to be characterized as, for example,
'deliberately inicting on the group conditions
of life calculated to bring about its physical
destruction in whole or in part', contrary to
Article II, paragraph (c), of the Convention,
provided such action is carried out with the
necessary specic intent (dolus specialis), that
is to say with a view to the destruction of
the group, as distinct from its removal from
the region. As the ICTY has observed, while
'there are obvious similarities between a genocidal policy and the policy commonly known
as 'ethnic cleansing' ' (Krsti, IT-98-33-T,
Trial Chamber Judgment, August 2, 2001,
1941.
During World War II, Mile Budak .

(June 30, 1941), Stevan Moljevi (a lawyer from Banja
Luka who was also an ideologue of the Chetniks), published a booklet with the title On Our State and Its Borders. Moljevi asserted:
One must take advantage of the war conditions and at a suitable moment seize the territory marked on the map, cleanse [oistiti] it
before anybody notices and with strong battalions occupy the key places (...) and the territory
surrounding these cities, freed of non-Serb elements. The guilty must be promptly punished
350

and the others deported the Croats to (signicantly amputated) Croatia, the Muslims to
Turkey or perhaps Albania while the vacated
territory is settled with Serb refugees now located in Serbia.[17][18][19]
However, the concept of ethnic cleansing was not restricted to Yugoslavia during this period. The Russian
phrase (ochistka granits cleansing of
borders) was used in Soviet Union documents of the
early 1930s to refer to the forced resettlement of Polish
people from the 22 km border zone in the Byelorussian
SSR and Ukrainian SSR. This process was repeated on
an even larger and wider scale in 19391941, involving many other ethnicities with allegedly external loyalties: see Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union and
Population transfer in the Soviet Union.[13]
Most notoriously, the Nazi administration in Germany
under Adolf Hitler applied a similar term to their systematic replacement of the Jewish people. When an area
under Nazi control had its entire Jewish population removed, by driving the population out, by deportation to
Concentration Camps and/or murder, that area was declared judenrein (lit. Jew Clean): cleansed of Jews
(cf. racial hygiene).
3.5.4
Herzeg-Bosnia). Serb forces were also judged to have

committed genocide in Srebrenica and Zepa at the end of
the war.[22]
Mass expulsion of Poles in 1939 as part of the German ethnic

cleansing of western Poland annexed to the Reich.
Based on the evidence of numerous attacks by Croat

forces against Bosnian Muslims (Bosniaks), the ICTY
Trial Chamber concluded in the Kordi and erkez case
that by April 1993, the Croat leadership from Bosnia and
Herzegovina had a designated plan to ethnically cleanse
Bosniaks from the Lava Valley in Central Bosnia. Dario
Kordi, the local political leader, was found to be the
instigator of this plan.[23]
Ethnic cleansing as a military, politIn the same year (1993), ethnic cleansing was also ocical and economic tactic
The 12th anniversary exhibition of ethnic cleansing in Abkhazia,

which was held in Tbilisi in 2005.
In 1946 Knigsberg was renamed Kaliningrad. The survivors of the German population were forcibly expelled
and the city was repopulated with Soviet citizens. In the
1990s Bosnian war, ethnic cleansing was a common phenomenon. It typically entailed intimidation, forced expulsion and/or killing of the undesired ethnic group, as well
as the destruction or removal of key physical and cultural
elements. These included places of worship, cemeteries,
works of art and historic buildings. According to numerous ICTY verdicts, both Serb[20] and Croat[21] forces performed ethnic cleansing of their intended territories in order to create ethnically pure states (Republika Srpska and
curring in another country. During the Georgian-Abkhaz

conict, the armed Abkhaz separatist insurgency implemented a campaign of ethnic cleansing against the large
population of ethnic Georgians. This was actually a case
of trying to drive out a majority, rather than a minority,
since Georgians were the single largest ethnic group in
pre-war Abkhazia, with a 45.7% plurality as of 1989.[24]
As a result of this deliberate campaign by the Abkhaz separatists, more than 250,000 ethnic Georgians were forced
to ee, and approximately 30,000 people were killed during separate incidents involving massacres and expulsions
(see Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia).[25][26]
This was recognized as ethnic cleansing by Organization
for Security and Co-operation in Europe conventions, and
was also mentioned in UN General Assembly Resolution
GA/10708.[27]
As a tactic, ethnic cleansing has a number of systemic

impacts. It enables a force to eliminate civilian support
for resistance by eliminating the civilians recognizing Mao Zedong's dictum that guerrillas among a civilian population are sh in water, it removes the sh by
draining the water. When enforced as part of a political settlement, as happened with the forced resettlement
of ethnic Germans to the new Germany after 1945, it
can contribute to long-term stability.[28] Some individuals of the large German population in Czechoslovakia
and prewar Poland had encouraged Nazi jingoism before
the Second World War, but this was forcibly resolved.[29]
It thus establishes "facts on the ground" radical demo-
351
graphic changes which can be very hard to reverse.
3.5.5
Since that time, the term has been used by other ethnically
oriented groups for situations that they perceive to be similar examples include both sides in Ireland's Troubles,
Ethnic cleansing as a crime under in- and the expulsion of ethnic Germans from former German territories during and after World War II.
ternational law
Some observers, however, assert that the term should only
be used to denote population changes that do not occur
as the result of overt violent action, or at least not from
more or less organized aggression the absence of such
stressors being the very factor that makes it silent, although some form of coercion is still used. The United
States practiced this during the Indian Wars of the 19th
century.
3.5.7 Instances
French troops arriving at Beirut to stop the ethnic cleansing of
Lebanese Maronites by the Ottoman Turks, Druze and Sunni
Muslims
There is no formal legal denition of ethnic cleansing.[30]

However, ethnic cleansing in the broad sense the
forcible deportation of a population is dened as a crime
against humanity under the statutes of both International
Criminal Court (ICC) and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY).[31] The gross
human-rights violations integral to stricter denitions of
ethnic cleansing are treated as separate crimes falling under the denitions for genocide or crimes against humanity of the statutes.[32]
Main article: List of ethnic cleansings

In many cases where accusations of ethnic cleansings
have circulated, partisans have ercely disputed such an
interpretation and the details of the events which have
been described as ethnic cleansing by academic or legal
experts. This often leads to the promotion of vastly different versions of the event in question.
3.5.8 Criticism of the term
Gregory Stanton, the founder of Genocide Watch, has

criticised the rise of the term and its use for events that
The UN Commission of Experts (established pursuant he feels should be called genocide": as ethnic cleansing
to Security Council Resolution 780) held that the prac- has no legal denition, its media use can detract attention
tices associated with ethnic cleansing constitute crimes from events that should be prosecuted as genocide.[36][37]
against humanity and can be assimilated to specic war
crimes. Furthermore ... such acts could also fall within In 1992, the term ethnic cleansing (German: Ethnische
the meaning of the Genocide Convention. The UN Gen- Suberung) was named German Un-Word of the Year
eral Assembly condemned ethnic cleansing and racial by the Gesellschaft fr deutsche Sprache due to its euphemistic, inappropriate nature.[38]
hatred in a 1992 resolution.[33]
There are however situations, such as the expulsion of
Germans after World War II, where ethnic cleansing has 3.5.9 See also
taken place without legal redress (see Preussische Treuhand v. Poland). Timothy V. Waters argues that if simi Identity cleansing
lar circumstances arise in the future, this precedent would
Communal violence
allow the ethnic cleansing of other populations under in[34]
ternational law.
Crime against humanity
3.5.6
Silent ethnic cleansing
Silent ethnic cleansing is a term coined in the mid1990s by some observers of the Yugoslav wars. Apparently concerned with Western media representations
of atrocities committed in the conict which generally focused on those perpetrated by the Serbs
atrocities committed against Serbs were dubbed silent,
on the grounds that they were not receiving adequate
coverage.[35]
Ethnic Cleansing, a computer game.

Ethnocide
Genocidal massacre
Monoethnicity
Population transfer
Religious cleansing
Rule of Law in Armed Conicts Project (RULAC)
352
Social cleansing
Transmigration program
White ight
3.5.10
Notes
[1] The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography, James M. Rubenstein

[2] Thum, Gregor (20062007). Ethnic Cleansing in Eastern Europe after 1945. Contemporary European History
19 (1): 7581. doi:10.1017/S0960777309990257.
[3] Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780
(1992), May 27, 1994 (S/1994/674), English page=33,
Paragraph 130
[15] Judah, Tim (1997). The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia. New Haven and London: Yale
[16] Mirko Grmek, Marc Gjidara, Neven Simac (1993). Le
Nettoyage ethnique: Documents historiques sur une idologie serbe (in French). Paris. p. 24.
[17] The Moljevic Memorandum. Retrieved 13 November
2014.
[18] Nicholas A. Robins, Adam Jones (2009), Genocides by
the oppressed: subaltern genocide in theory and practice,
Indiana University Press, ISBN 978-0-253-22077-6, p.
106
[19] Steven L. Jacobs, Confronting genocide: Judaism, Christianity, Islam, pp. 158159, Lexington Books, 2009
[20] ICTY: Radoslav Branin judgement. Archived from the
original on July 16, 2012.
[4] Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 13 November

2014.
[21] ICTY: Kordi and erkez verdict. Archived from the

original on August 16, 2014.
[5] [Schabas W. A., 2000, Genocide in International Law,

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.]
[22] ICTY; Address by ICTY President Theodor Meron, at

Potoari Memorial Cemetery The Hague, June 23, 2004
Archived October 17, 2012 at the Wayback Machine
[6] [Mann M., 2005,The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.]
[7] [Naimark, N. 2007, Theoretical Paper: Ethnic Cleansing,
Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence]
[8] Drazen Petrovic, Ethnic Cleansing An Attempt at
Methodology, European Journal of International Law,
Vol. No. 3. Retrieved May 20, 2006.
[9] Dadrian, Vahakn N. (1999). Warrant for Genocide: Key
Elements of Turko-Armenian Conict. New Brunswick:
Transaction Publishers. p. 153. ISBN 1-56000-389-8.
[10] Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780
(1992), May 27, 1994 (S/1994/674), English page=33,
Paragraph 129
[11] Hayden, Robert M. (1996) Schindlers Fate: Genocide,
Ethnic Cleansing, and Population Transfers. Slavic Review
55 (4), 727-48.
[12] Andrew Bell-Fialko, "A Brief History of Ethnic Cleansing", Foreign Aairs 72 (3): 110, Summer 1993. Retrieved May 20, 2006. Archived October 20, 2014 at the
Wayback Machine
[13] Martin, Terry (1998). The Origins of Soviet Ethnic
Cleansing. The Journal of Modern History 70 (4), 813
861. pg. 822
[14] ECHR Jorgic v. Germany 45 citing Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro (Case concerning the
application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide) the International
Court of Justice (ICJ) found under the heading of intent
and 'ethnic cleansing'" 190 Archived July 23, 2014 at
the Wayback Machine
[23] ICTY: Kordi and erkez verdict IV. Attacks on towns

and villages: killings C. The April 1993 Conagration
in Vitez and the Lava Valley 3. The Attack on Ahmii
(Paragraph 642)". Archived from the original on October
10, 2014.
[24] US State Department, Country Reports on Human Rights
Practices for 1993, Abkhazia case.
[25] Chervonnaia, Svetlana Mikhailovna. Conict in the Caucasus: Georgia, Abkhazia, and the Russian Shadow.
Gothic Image Publications, 1994.
[26] US State Department, Country Reports on Human Rights
Practices for 1993, February 1994, Chapter 17.
[27] General Assembly Adopts Resolution Recognizing Right
Of Return By Refugees, Internally Displaced Persons To
Abkhazia, Georgia
[28] Judt, Tony. Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 Penguin Press, 2005
[29] Tony Judt Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 Penguin Press, 2005.
[30] Ward Ferdinandusse, The Interaction of National and International Approaches in the Repression of International
Crimes, The European Journal of International Law Vol.
15 no.5 (2004), p. 1042, note 7. Archived July 5, 2008 at
the Wayback Machine
[31] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Article
7; Updated Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal
for the Former Yugoslavia, Article 5. Archived October
30, 2012 at the Wayback Machine
[32] Daphna Shraga and Ralph Zacklin The International
Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, The European Journal of International Law Vol. 15 no.3 (2004).
Archived September 27, 2007 at the Wayback Machine
[33] A/RES/47/80 ""Ethnic cleansing and racial hatred

United Nations. December 16, 1992. Retrieved on 2006,
0903
[34] Timothy V. Waters, On the Legal Construction of Ethnic Cleansing, Paper 951, 2006, University of Mississippi
School of Law. Retrieved on 2006, 1213
[35] Krauthammer, Charles: When Serbs Are 'Cleansed,'
Moralists Stay Silent, International Herald Tribune, August 12, 1995.
[36] Blum, Rony; Stanton, Gregory H.; Sagi, Shira; Richter,
Elihu D. (2007). "'Ethnic cleansing' bleaches the atrocities of genocide. European Journal of Public Health
18 (2): 204209. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckm011. PMID
17513346.
[37] See also "'Ethnic Cleansing and Genocidal Intent: A Failure of Judicial Interpretation?", Genocide Studies and
Prevention 5, 1 (April 2010), Douglas Singleterry
[38] Spiegel Online: Ein Jahr, ein (Un-)Wort! (in German).
3.5.11
References
353
Douglas, R.M.: Orderly and Humane. The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World
War. Yale University Press, 2012. ISBN 9780300166606.
Milton-Edwards, Beverley (2008). The IsraeliPalestinian Conict: A Peoples War (Illustrated
ed.). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-41043-6.
ISBN 9780415410434.
Gerteiny (2007). The terrorist conjunction: the
United States, the Israeli-Palestinian conict, and
al-Q'ida. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN
9780275996437. |rst1= missing |last1= in Authors
list (help)
Honderich, Ted (2006). Right and Wrong, and
Palestine, 9-11, Iraq, 7-7 ... Seven Stories Press.
ISBN 1-58322-736-9. ISBN 9781583227367.
Jackson Preece, Jennifer (1998). Ethnic Cleansing As An Instrument of Nation-State Creation. Human Rights Quarterly 20 (4): 359.
doi:10.1353/hrq.1998.0039.
Anderson, Gary Clayton. Ethnic Cleansing and the

Indians: The Crime that Should Haunt America.
Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014.
Jacoby, Tami Amanda (2007). Bridging the barrier: Israeli unilateral disengagement (Illustrated
ed.). Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0754649695.
ISBN 9780754649694.
Bell-Fialko, Andrew (1993). A Brief History of

Ethnic Cleansing. Foreign Aairs 72 (3): 110121.
doi:10.2307/20045626. JSTOR 20045626.
Howard Sachar, A History of Israel From the Rise

of Zionism to our Time, Knopf, 2007.
Bowker, Robert P. G. (2003). Palestinian Refugees:

Mythology, Identity, and the Search for Peace.
Lynne Rienner Publishers. ISBN 1-58826-202-2.
Kimmerling, Baruch (2003). Politicide: Ariel

Sharons war against the Palestinians. Verso. ISBN
1-85984-517-7. ISBN 9781859845172.
de Zayas, Alfred M.: Nemesis at Potsdam, Routledge, London 1977.
McDowall, David (1989). Palestine and Israel: The

Uprising and Beyond. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1-85043289-9.
de Zayas, Alfred M.: A Terrible Revenge. Palgrave/Macmillan, New York, 1994. ISBN 1-40397308-3.
Naimark, Norman: Fires of Hatred. Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2001.
de Zayas, Alfred M.: Die deutschen Vertriebenen.

Leopold Stocker, Graz, 2006. ISBN 3-902475-153.
Papp Ilan, The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine, 2006

ISBN 978-1-85168-555-4
de Zayas, Alfred M.: Heimatrecht ist Menschenrecht.

Universitas, Mnchen 2001. ISBN 3-8004-1416-3.
de Zayas, Alfred M.: The Right to Ones Homeland, Ethnic Cleansing and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Criminal
Law Forum (2005)
de Zayas, Alfred M.: Forced Population Transfer
in Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International
Law, Oxford online 2010.
Carmichael, Cathie (2002). Ethnic cleansing in the
Balkans: nationalism and the destruction of tradition
(Illustrated ed.). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-27416-8.
ISBN 9780415274166.
Prauser, Steen and Rees, Arfon: The Expulsion of

the German Communities from Eastern Europe at
the End of the Second Century. Florence, Italy, European University Institute, 2004.
Petrovic, Drazen (1998). Ethnic Cleansing An
Attempt at Methodology (PDF). European Journal
of International Law 5 (4): 817.
Sundhaussen, Holm (2010). Forced Ethnic Migration. European History Online.
Porteous, John Douglas; Smith, Sandra Eileen
Domicide: the global destruction of
(2001).
home: Top 250 Red Series Maps Series (Illustrated ed.). McGill-Queens Press MQUP. ISBN
9780773522589.
354
Yiftachel, Oren (2006). Ethnocracy: land and iden- 3.6.2 Early modern period
tity politics in Israel/Palestine, Part 797 (Illustrated
c.1492-1614 AD: Spain expelled its Jews in 1492,
ed.). University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0then its Muslims in 1502, forcibly Christianizing
8122-3927-X.
the remaining Muslims.[3] The descendents of these
converted Muslims were called Moriscos. After
the 1571 suppression of the Morisco Revolt in the
Alpujarras region, almost 80,000 Moriscos were expelled from there to other parts of Spain and some
Genocide of The Ethnic Germans in Yugoslavia
270 villages and hamlets were repopulated with set19441948
tlers brought in from Northern Spain. This was followed by the overall Expulsion of the Moriscos from
Photojournalists Account Images of ethnic cleansthe entire Spanish realm in 16091614.
ing in Sudan
Timothy V. Waters, On the Legal Construction of
Ethnic Cleansing, Paper 951, 2006, University of
Mississippi School of Law (PDF)
Dump the ethnic cleansing jargon, group implores
May 31, 2007, World Science
Ethnic cleansing: Revival of an old tradition
3.6 List of ethnic cleansings

This article lists incidents that have been termed ethnic
cleansing by some academic or legal experts. Not all experts agree on every case, particularly since there are a variety of denitions for the term ethnic cleansing. Where
claims of ethnic cleansing originate from non-experts
(e.g., journalists or politicians) this is noted.
3.6.1
Ancient and Medieval periods
c.350 AD: Ancient Chinese texts record that General Ran Min ordered the extermination of the Wu
Hu, especially the Jie people, during the WeiJie
war in the fourth century AD. People with racial
characteristics such as high-bridged noses and bushy
beards were killed; in total, 200,000 were reportedly
massacred.[1]
c.1250-1500 AD: From the 13th to the 16th centuries many European countries expelled the Jews
from their territory on at least 15 occasions. Spain
was preceded by England, France and some German
states, among many others, and succeeded by at least
ve more expulsions.
c.1652 AD: After the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland and Act of Settlement in 1652, the whole postwar Cromwellian settlement of Ireland has been
characterised by historians such as Mark Levene and
Alan Axelrod as ethnic cleansing, in that it sought
to remove Irish Catholics from the eastern part of
the country, but others such as the historian Tim Pat
Coogan have described the actions of Cromwell and
his subordinates as genocide.[4]
c.1740 AD: In the 1740s, the British government, following the Jacobite Rebellion, instituted
the 'Highland Clearances' in Scotland which essentially depopulated much of the Scottish Highlands.
c.1750 AD: About ten years later, during the French
and Indian War, they instituted a systematic removal
of the French Catholic Acadian population of Nova
Scotiaeventually removing thousands of settlers
from the region and relocating them to New England and elsewhere. Some moved eventually to New
Orleans and became known as Cajuns. The subsequent death of over 50% of the deported Acadian
population, has been described by many scholars as
being an act of ethnic cleansing [5]
c.1290 AD: Edward I of England expelled all Jews

living in England in 1290. Hundreds of Jewish el3.6.3
ders were executed.[2]
c. 1282 Sicilian Vespers (Italian: Vespri siciliani;
Sicilian: Vespiri siciliani) is the name given to the
successful rebellion on the island of Sicily that broke
out on the Easter of 1282 against the rule of the
French/Capetian king Charles I, who had ruled the
Kingdom of Sicily since 1266. Within six weeks,
three thousand French men and women were slain
by the rebels, and the government of King Charles
lost control of the island. It was the beginning of the
War of the Sicilian Vespers.
19th century
Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the rst ruler of an independent Haiti, ordered the killing of the remaining
white population of French creoles on Haiti by instigating the 1804 Haiti Massacre.[6]
On May 26, 1830, president Andrew Jackson of the
United States signed the Indian Removal Act which
resulted in the Trail of Tears.[7][8][9][10]
Michael Mann, basing his gures on those provided
by Justin McCarthy, states that between 1821 and
3.6. LIST OF ETHNIC CLEANSINGS
355
1922, a large number of Muslims were expelled

from south-eastern Europe as Bulgaria, Greece and
Serbia gained their independence from the Ottoman
Empire. Mann describes these events as murderous ethnic cleansing on a stupendous scale not previously seen in Europe. These countries sought to
expand their territory against the Ottoman Empire,
which culminated in the Balkan Wars of the early
20th century.[11]
The Bolshevik regime killed or deported an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 Don Cossacks during
the Russian Civil War, in 19191920.[20] Georey
Hosking stated It could be argued that the Red policy towards the Don Cossacks amounted to ethnic
cleansing. It was short-lived, however, and soon
abandoned because it did not t with normal Leninist theory and practice.[21]
The nomadic Roma people have been expelled from

European countries several times.[13]
The Iraqi army launches a campaign against

Assyrian villages in northern Iraq with the help of
Kurdish and Arab tribes. The number of deaths
ranged from 6003,000. Around one third of the
Assyrians later sought refuge in Syria.[34]
The Destruction of the Ottoman Armenian pop In 2005, the historian Gary Clayton Anderson of
ulation took place during and after World War I
the University of Oklahoma published The Conquest
and was implemented in two phases: the wholesale
of Texas: Ethnic Cleansing in the Promised Land,
killing of the able-bodied male population through
18301875. This book repudiates traditional hismassacre and forced labor, and the deportation of
torians, such as Walter Prescott Webb and Rupert
women, children, the elderly and inrm on death
N. Richardson, who viewed the settlement of Texas
marches to the Syrian Desert.[22][23] The total numby the displacement of the native populations as a
ber of people killed as a result has been estimated to
healthful development. Anderson writes that at the
range from 600,000 to 1,500,000.
time of the outbreak of the American Civil War,
In the course of several Armenian-Azerbaijani
when the population of Texas was nearly 600,000,
conicts (190507, 191820), hundreds of thouthe still-new state was a very violent place. ... Texsands of Armenians and Azerbaijanis were resetans mostly blamed Indians for the violence an untled by force and/or many of them were killed and
fair indictment, since a series of terrible droughts
injured.[24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33]
had virtually incapacitated the Plains Indians, mak[12]
ing them incapable of extended warfare.
The
Conquest of Texas was nominated for a Pulitzer 1920s1930s
Prize.
3.6.4
20th century
During 1920-21, The Greek army in the YalovaGemlik Peninsula burned dozens of Turkish/Muslim villages with large scale violence
and ethnic cleansing[35]
The 1923 Population exchange between Greece and
Turkey has been described as ethnic cleansing.[36]
Deportation of the Armenians in the Baghdad railway, 1910s
1900s1910s
The Destruction of the Thracian Bulgarians during
and shortly after the Second Balkan War in 1913.
German Empire during First World War plans to
annex up to 35,000 square kilometers of pre-war
Congress Poland and ethnically cleanse between 2
to 3 million Poles and Jews out of these territories to
make room for German settlers.[14][15][16][17][18][19]
Greek refugees from Smyrna, 1922
The Burning of 'The Negro Wall St,' also known

as the 'Tulsa Race Riot': in which the wealthiest African-American community in the USA was
356

burned to the ground. During the 16 hour offensive, over 800 people were hospitalized, more
than 6,000 Greenwood District residents were arrested and detained in a prison camp, and 35 city
blocks composed of 1,256 residences were destroyed by re caused by bombing resulting in an
estimated 10,000 African-American Residents left
homeless.[37] Property damage totaled $1.5 million
(1921).[37] Although the ocial death toll claimed
that 26 blacks and 13 whites died during the ghting,
most estimates are considerably higher. At the time
of the riot, the American Red Cross listed 8,624 persons in need of assistance, in excess of 1,000 homes
and businesses destroyed, and the delivery of several
stillborn infants.[38]
ethnic cleansing of ethnic Ukrainians in Soviet

Ukraine. Food and grain were forcibly seized from
villages, internal borders between Soviet Ukraine
and the Russian SSR were sealed to prevent population movement; movement was also restricted between villages and urban centers. Stalins destruction of ethnic Ukrainians also extended to a widescale purge of Ukrainian intelligentsia, political elite
and Party ocials before and after the famine. A
ban on the Ukrainian language and widespread Russication was also instilled. An estimated 2.5 to 8
million Ukrainians were exterminated in the famine.
After liquidation, Stalin repopulated the territory
with ethnic Russians.
Second Sino-Japanese War, in which the Imperial 1940s

Japanese Army invaded China in the 1930s. Millions of Chinese were killed, civilians and military
personnel alike. The Three Alls Policy that was used
by the Imperial Japanese Army resulted in the deaths
of many of these Chinese. The Three Alls Policy
was Kill all, Burn all Seize all.
Wilno
Gdask
Szczecin
Baranowicze
Pacication of Libya, Italian authorities committed

ethnic cleansing in the Cyrenaica region of Libya
by forcibly removing and relocating 100,000 people
of the Cyrenaican indigenous population from their
valuable land property that was slated to be given to
Italian settlers.[39]
The Chinese Kuomintang Generals Ma Qi and Ma
Bufang launched campaigns of expulsion in Qinghai
and Tibet against ethnic Tibetans. The actions of
these Generals have been called Genocidal by some
authors.
However, that was not the last Labrang saw of General Ma. Ma Qi launched a war against the Tibetan
Ngoloks, which author Dinesh Lal calls genocidal, in 1928, inicting a defeat upon them and seizing the Labrang Buddhist monastery. The Muslim
forces looted and ravaged the monastery again.[40]
Authors Uradyn Erden Bulag called the events that
follow genocidal and David Goodman called them
ethnic cleansing: The Republic of China government supported Ma Bufang when he launched seven
extermination expeditions into Golog, eliminating
thousands of Tibetans.[41] Some Tibetans counted
the number of times he attacked them, remembering
the seventh attack which made life impossible.[42]
Ma was highly anti-communist, and he and his army
wiped out many Tibetans in the northeast and eastern Qinghai, and also destroyed Tibetan Buddhist
Temples.[43][44][45]
The Holodomor (1932-1933) is considered by many
historians as a genocidal famine perpetrated on
the orders of Josef Stalin that involved widespread
Biaystok
Pozna
WARSZAWA
Brze
1947
border
d
Lublin
Wrocaw
Curzon
line "B"
Krakw
Lww
annexed by
Poland in 1945
Stanisaww
THE CURZON LINE
annexed by
Soviet Union in 1945
Westward shift of Poland after World War II. The respective

German, Polish and Ukrainian populations were expelled, or ethnically cleansed.
The Population transfers in the Soviet Union

The Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany and the
Soviet Union following the defeat of Poland in the
September Campaign
The deportation of Romanians from Bessarabia and
Northern Bukovina (19401941, 19441951), by
the USSR to Siberia and Central Asia.
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, The United
States government forced the Japanese residing in
the United States, including American Citizens,
to be brought to an internment camp. Approximately 110 000 to 120 000 Japanese were relocated
and incarcerated during World War II. President
Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized the deportation
and incarceration with Executive Order 9066, issued on February 19, 1942, which allowed local military commanders to designate military areas from
which any or all persons may be excluded.
357
The Deportation of the Crimean Tatars on May 18,

1944 to the Uzbek SSR and other parts of the Soviet
Union.
The expulsion of 14 million ethnic Germans
from the Former eastern territories of Germany
after World War II. This policy was decided
at the Potsdam Conference by the victorious
powers.[46][47][48]
The Nazi German governments persecutions and
expulsions of Jews in Germany, Austria and other
Nazi-controlled areas prior to the initiation of mass
genocide. The estimated number of those who died
Massacres of Poles in Volhynia in 1943. Most Poles of Volhynia
in the process is approximately 6 million Jews.[49]
(now in Ukraine) had either been murdered or had ed the area.
In the last months of the Second World War, ethnic

Germans were ethnically cleansed from Yugoslavia,
Poland and Czechoslovakia, beginning in the fall of
1944 and going through the spring and summer of
1945. At the Potsdam Conference July 17 August 2, 1945 the Allies agreed to transferring the rest
(article XIII of the Potsdam communiqu). In all
14 million ethnic Germans were expelled and it has
been asserted that as many as two million might have
perished in the process.[50] Due to horrifying revelations of Nazi genocidal practices at the same period,
and to the collaboration of many ethnic Germans
with Nazi occupation in various countries, their expulsion was mostly tolerated by international public opinion at the time. Historians such as Thomas
Kamusella, Piotr Pikle, Steen Prauser and Arfon
Rees all describe it as ethnic cleansing. Kamusella
links it to the development of ethnic nationalism in
central and eastern Europe.[51]
At least 330,000 Serbs, 30,000 Jews and 30,000
Roma were killed during the NDH (see Jasenovac
concentration camp) (today Croatia and Bosnia and
Herzegovina).[52][53] The same number of Serbs
were forced out of the NDH, from May 1941 to May
1945. The Croatian Fascist regime managed to kill
more than 45 000 Serbs, 12 000 or more Jews and
approximately 16,000 Roma at the Jasenovac Concentration Camp.[54][55]
Serbian Chetnik atrocities against Bosniaks and Croats
in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1941-1945,
under the command of Draza Mihailovic, have been characterised as organised ethnic cleansing. It is estimated
that around 32,000 Croats (20,000 from Croatia, and
12,000 from Bosnia) and 33,000 Bosniak Muslims were
killed.
At least 40,000 Hungarians civilians were killed by
Serbians in Vojvodina as a revenge (so called Cold
Days), in 1944.[56]
During World War II, in Kosovo & Metohija, approximately 10,000 Serbs were killed by Nazi German soldiers and Albanian colloborators,[57][58] and
about 80[57] to 100,000[57][59] or more[58] were ethnically cleansed.[59] After World War II, the new
communist authorities of Yugoslavia banned Serbians and Montenegrins expelled during the war
from returning to their abandoned estates.[60]
During the four years of wartime occupation from
19411944, the Axis (German, Hungarian and
NDH) forces committed numerous war crimes
against the civilian population of Serbs, Roma and
Jews in the former Yugoslavia: about 50,000 people in Vojvodina (north Serbia) (see Occupation of
Vojvodina, 19411944) were murdered and about
280,000 were arrested, raped or tortured.[61] The total number of people killed under Hungarian occupation in Baka was 19,573, in Banat 7,513 (under
German occupation) and in Syrmia 28,199 (under
Croatian occupation).[62]
During the Axis occupation of Albania (1943
1944), the Albanian collaborationist organization
Balli Kombtar with Nazi German support mounted
a major oensive in southern Albania (Northern
Epirus) with devastating results: over 200 Greek
populated towns and villages were burned down
or destroyed, 2,000 ethnic Greeks were killed,
5,000 imprisoned and 2,000 forced to concentration camps. Moreover, 30,000 people had to ee
to nearby Greece during and after this period.[63][64]
Towards the end of World War II, nearly 30,000
ethnic Albanian Muslims were expelled from the
coastal region of Epirus in northwestern Greece, an
area known among Albanians as Chameria.
During the Partition of India 6 million Muslims ed
ethnic violence taking place in India to settle in what
became Pakistan and 5 million Hindus and Sikhs
ed from what became Pakistan to settle in India.
358

The events which occurred during this time period
Foibe killings against Italians
have been described as ethnic cleansing by Ishtiaq
Ahmed[65][66] and by Barbara and Thomas R. Met1950s
calf.[67]
The 1948 Palestinian exodus of approximately

700,000 Palestinian Arabs who either ed or were
expelled during the 1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine and later the 1948 Arab-Israeli War
that accompanied the establishment of the State of
Israel.[68][69][70][71][72] The causes of this displacement, and its description as ethnic cleansing, is disputed by scholars.[73][74][75][76][77]
On September 5 and 6, 1955 the Istanbul Pogrom or

Septembrian"/"", secretly backed
by the Turkish government, was launched against
the Greek population of Istanbul. The mob also
attacked some Jewish and Armenian residents of
the city. The event contributed greatly to the gradual extinction of the Greek minority in the city
and throughout the entire country, which numbered
100,000 in 1924 after the Turko-Greek population
exchange treaty. By 2006 there were only 2,500
Greeks living in Istanbul.[83]
Between 19571962 President Gamal Abdel Nasser
of Egypt carried out an Anti-European policy,
which resulted in the expulsion of 100200,000
Greeks from Alexandria and the rest of Egypt.
Many other Europeans were expelled, such as
Italians and French.
1960s
About 14.5 million lost their homes as a result of the partition of

India in 1947.
After the Republic of Indonesia achieved independence from the Netherlands in 1949, around
300,000 people, predominantly Indos, or people of
mixed Indonesian and Dutch ancestry, ed or were
expelled.[78]
In the aftermath of the 1949 Durban Riots (an interracial conict between Zulus and Asians in South
Africa), hundreds of Indians ed Cato Manor.[79]
Mario Roatta's war on the ethnic Slovene civil population in the Province of Ljubljana during Fascist
Italy's occupation of Yugoslavia in accord with the
1920s speech by Benito Mussolini's speech:
When dealing with such a race as
Slavic - inferior and barbarian - we
must not pursue the carrot, but the stick
policy.... We should not be afraid of new
victims.... The Italian border should run
across the Brenner Pass, Monte Nevoso
and the Dinaric Alps.... I would say we
can easily sacrice 500,000 barbaric
Slavs for 50,000 Italians....
Benito Mussolini, speech held in
Pula, 22 February 1922[80][81][82]
On July 5, 1960, ve days after the Congo gained

independence from Belgium, the Force Publique
garrison near Lopoldville mutinied against its
white ocers and attacked numerous European targets. This caused fear amongst the approximately
100,000 whites still resident in the Congo and led to
their mass exodus from the country.[84]
Ne Wins rise to power in 1962 and his relentless
persecution of resident aliens (immigrant groups
not recognised as citizens of the Union of Burma)
led to an exodus of some 300,000 Burmese Indians.
They migrated to escape racial discrimination and
wholesale nationalisation of private enterprises a few
years later in 1964.[85][86]
The creation of the apartheid system in South
Africa, which began in 1948 but reached its full
owering in the 1960s and 1970s, involved some
ethnic cleansing, including the separation of blacks,
Coloureds, and whites into separate residential areas and private spheres. The government created
Bantustans, which involved forced removals of nonwhite populations to reserved lands.[87][88]
As the FLN fought for the independence of Algeria
from France, it expelled the pied-noir population of
European descent and Jews; most ed to France,
where they had citizenship. In just a few months in
1962, 900,000 of these European descendants and
native Jewish people left the country.[89][90]
Zanzibar expelled Arabs and Indians from the nation
in 1964.[91][92]

In 1966, there was unrest in the northern part of
Nigeria that led to the death of about 80,000 people.
Those killed were originally from the South Eastern
region of the country and this act was seen as an
attack on the Igbo people. This led C. Odumegwu
Ojukwu, the military governor of the Eastern region,
to declare that region a Sovereign state, Biafra. The
Nigerian Civil War began on July 6, 1967, but ended
in 1970 with the help of the United Kingdom and
China. Although there is relative peace in Nigeria,
today, there is still some religious unrest in the North
being caused by the Boko Haram group.
By 1969, more than 350,000 Salvadorans were living in Honduras. In 1969, Honduras enacted a new
land reform law. This law took land away from Salvadoran immigrants and redistributed this land to
native-born Honduran peoples. Thousands of Salvadorans were displaced by this law (see Football
War).
1970s
Shortly after Muammar Gadda gained power in
Libya, the Libyan government forcibly expelled
some 150,000 Italians living in the country on October 7, 1970, in retaliation for Italys 1911 colonization of the country. The expulsion is known in Libya
as the "Day of Vengeance".[93]
During the Bangladesh War of Independence of
1971, the military of Pakistan carried out genocide killing between 100,000 to 3 million people
and around 10 million Bengalis, mainly Hindus, ed
the country. Furthermore, many intellectuals and
other religious minorities were targeted by death
squads and razakars. Thousands of temples were
desecrated and hundreds of women were raped.[94]
(see1971 Bangladesh atrocities)
Idi Amin's regime forced the expulsion in 1972 of
Uganda's entire ethnic Asian population, mostly of
Indian descent.[95]
The ethnic cleansing in 197476 of the Greek population of the areas under Turkish military occupation in Cyprus during and after the Turkish Invasion
of Cyprus.[96]
Following the U.S. withdrawal from South Vietnam
in 1973 and the communist victory two years later,
the Kingdom of Laos's coalition government was
overthrown by the communists. The Hmong people, who had actively supported the anti-communist
government, became targets of retaliation and persecution. The government of Laos has been accused
of committing genocide against the Hmong,[97][98]
with up to 100,000 killed.[99]
359
The Communist Khmer Rouge government in
Cambodia disproportionately targeted ethnic minority groups, including ethnic Chinese, Vietnamese
and Thais. In the late 1960s, an estimated 425,000
ethnic Chinese lived in Cambodia; by 1984, as a result of Khmer Rouge genocide and emigration, only
about 61,400 Chinese remained in the country. The
small Thai minority along the border was almost
completely exterminated, only a few thousand managing to reach safety in Thailand. The Cham Muslims suered serious purges with as much as half
of their population exterminated. A Khmer Rouge
order stated that henceforth The Cham nation no
longer exists on Kampuchean soil belonging to the
Khmers" (U.N. Doc. A.34/569 at 9).[100][101]
Subsequent waves of hundreds of thousands of
Rohingya ed Burma and many refugees inundated neighbouring Bangladesh including 250,000
in 1978 as a result of the King Dragon operation in
Arakan.[102][103]
The Sino-Vietnamese War resulted in the discrimination and consequent migration of Vietnam's
ethnic Chinese. Many of these people ed as "boat
people".[104] In 197879, some 250,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat as refugees (many ofcially encouraged and assisted) or were expelled
across the land border with China.[105][106]
1980s
In the aftermath of Indira Gandhi's assassination in
1984, the ruling party Indian National Congress supporters formed large mobs and killed around 3000
Sikhs around Delhi in what is known as the 1984
anti-Sikh riots during the next four days. The mobs
acting with the support of ruling party leaders used
the Election voting list to identify Sikhs and kill
them.
In the 1987 and 1988 Al-Anfal Campaign, the Iraqi
government under Saddam Hussein and headed
by Ali Hassan al-Majid launched Al-Anfal against
Kurdish civilians in Northern Iraq. The Iraqi
government Massacred 100,000 to 182,000 noncombatant civilians including women and children;,
and destroyed about 4,000 villages (out of 4,655)
in Iraqi Kurdistan. Between April 1987 and August 1988, 250 towns and villages -were exposed
to chemical weapons;, 1,754 schools were destroyed, along with 270 hospitals, 2,450 mosques,
27 churches; and around 90% of all Kurdish villages
in the targeted areas were wiped out .
Between March 1617, 1988, the Iraqi government
under Saddam Hussein carried out a poison gas attack in the Kurdish town of Halabja in Iraqi Kurdistan. Between 3,200 and 5,000 civilians died instantly, and between 7,000 and 10,000 civilians were
360

injured, and thousands more would die in the following years from complications, diseases, and birth
defects caused by the attack.
* The forced assimilation campaign during 1984

1985 directed against ethnic Turks by the Bulgarian
State resulted in the mass emigration of some
360,000 Bulgarian Turks to Turkey in 1989 has been
characterized as ethnic cleansing.[107][108]
The Nagorno Karabakh conict has resulted in
the displacement of populations from both sides.
Among the displaced are 700,000 Azerbaijanis and
several thousand Kurds from Armenian-controlled
territories including ares of Nagorno-Karabakh,[109]
and 185,000[110] to 250,000 Azerbaijanis,[111] A boy at a grave during the 2006 funeral of genocide victims
18,000 Kurds and 3,500 Russians ed from
Armenia to Azerbaijan from 1987 to 1989.[112]
280,000 to 304,000[110] personsvirtually all ethnic Armeniansed Azerbaijan during the 1988
1993 war over the disputed region of NagornoKarabakh.[113]
Since April 1989,
some 70,000 black
Mauritaniansmembers of the Fula, Toucouleur,
Wolof, Soninke and Bambara ethnic groupshave
been expelled from Mauritania by the Mauritanian
government.[114]
In 1989, after bloody pogroms against the
Meskhetian Turks by Uzbeks in Central Asias Bhutanese refugees in Nepal
Ferghana Valley, nearly 90,000 Meskhetian Turks
left Uzbekistan.[115][116]
remove a largely Hindu population and preserve its
Buddhist culture and identity.[118]
1990s
The cemetery at the Srebrenica-Potoari Memorial and Cemetery

to Genocide Victims
In 1990, inter-ethnic tensions escalated in Bhutan,

resulting in the ight of many Lhotshampa, or ethnic
Nepalis, from Bhutan to Nepal, many of whom were
expelled by the Bhutanese military. By 1996, over
100,000 Bhutanese refugees were living in refugee
camps in Nepal. Many have since been resettled
in Western nations.[117] One reason for this expulsion was the desire of the Bhutanese government to
In 1991, following a crackdown on Rohingya Muslims in Burma, 250,000 refugees took shelter in the
Coxs Bazar district of neighboring Bangladesh.[119]
After the Gulf War in 1991, Kuwait conducted a
campaign of expulsion against the Palestinians living
in the country, who before the war had numbered
400,000. Some 200,000 who had ed during the
Iraqi occupation were banned from returning, while
the remaining 200,000 were pressured into leaving
by the authorities, who conducted a campaign of terror, violence, and economic pressure to get them
to leave.[120] The Palestinians expelled from Kuwait
moved to Jordan, where they had citizenship.[121]
The policy which partly led to this exodus was a response to the alignment of PLO leader Yasser Arafat
with Saddam Hussein.
As a result of the 19911992 South Ossetia War,
about 100,000 ethnic Ossetians ed South Ossetia
and Georgia proper, most across the border into
North Ossetia. A further 23,000 ethnic Georgians
ed South Ossetia and settled in other parts of
Georgia.[122]
According to Helsinki Watch, the campaign of

ethnic-cleansing was orchestrated by the Ossetian
militants, during the events of the OssetianIngush
conict, which resulted in the expulsion of approximately 60,000 Ingush inhabitants from Prigorodny
District.[123]
361
In the aftermath of Kosovo War between 200,000
and 250,000 Serbs and other non-Albanians ed
Kosovo.[133][134][135] At least one additional thousand of Serbs ed their homes during the 2004 unrest in Kosovo and numerous religious and cultural
object were burned down.[136][137]
The forced displacement and ethnic-cleansing of
more than 250,000 people, mostly Georgians but
some others too, from Abkhazia during the conict
and after in 1993 and 1998.[138]
The 1994 massacre of nearly 1,000,000 Tutsis by
Hutus, known as the Rwandan Genocide[139]
The mass expulsion of southern Lhotshampas
(Bhutanese of Nepalese origin) by the northern
Druk majority in Bhutan in 1990.[140] The number
of refugees is approximately 103,000.[141]
Ethnic cleansing of a Croatian home
The widespread ethnic cleansing accompanying the

Croatian War of Independence that was committed
by Serb-led JNA and rebel militia in the occupied areas of Croatia (self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian
Krajina) (19911995). Large numbers of Croats
and non-Serbs were removed, either by murder, deportation or by being forced to ee. According to
the ICTY indictment against Slobodan Milosevic,
there was an expulsion of around 170,000 Croats
and other non-Serbs from their homes.[124]
In February 1992, hundreds of ethnic Azeris and
Meskhetian Turks are massacred as Armenian
troops capture the city of Khojaly in NagornoKarabakh.[125][126]
Following the abrogation of Krajina, around
200,000 Serbs[127] ed Croatia during or after
Operation Storm
Widespread ethnic cleansing accompanied the War
in Bosnia (19921995). Large numbers of Croats
and Bosniaks were forced to ee their homes by
the Army of the Republika Srpska.[128] Beginning
in 1991, political upheavals in the Balkans displaced about 2,700,000 people by mid-1992, of
which over 700,000 sought asylum in other parts of
Europe.[129][130]
Ethnic cleansing of non-Croats in the breakaway
state the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia [131]
More than 800,000 Kosovo Albanians ed their
homes in Kosovo between 1998 and 1999 during the
Kosovo War.[132]
In October 1990, the militant Liberation Tigers of

Tamil Eelam (LTTE), forcibly expelled the entire
Muslim population (approx 65,000) from the Northern Province of Sri Lanka. The Muslims were given
48 hours to vacate the premises of their homes while
their properties were subsequently looted by LTTE.
Those who refused to leave were killed. This act of
ethnic cleansing was carried out so the LTTE could
facilitate their goal of creating a mono-ethnic Tamil
state in Northern Sri Lanka.[142]
In Jammu and Kashmir, a separatist insurgency has
targeted the Hindu Kashmiri Pandit minority and
400,000 have been displaced, and 1,200 have been
killed since 1991. Islamic terrorists inltrated the
region in 1989 and began an ethnic cleansing campaign to convert Kashmir to a Muslim state. Since
that time, over 400,000 Kashmiri Hindus have either been murdered or forced from their homes.[143]
This has been condemned and labeled as ethnic
cleansing in a 2006 resolution passed by the United
States Congress.[144] Also in 2009 the Oregon Legislative Assembly introduced a resolution to recognize September 14, 2007, as Martyrs Day to acknowledge the ethnic cleansing and the campaigns
of terror inicted on the non-Muslim minorities of
Jammu and Kashmir by militants seeking to establish an independent Kashmir, and also to recognize
the region as Indian territory rather than as a disputed territory - the resolution failed to pass.[145]
Separatist regime policy of proscription of nonChechens (mostly Russians) from Chechnya in the
1990s. Before the First Chechen War tens of thousands of people of non-Chechen ethnicity had left
the republic, and thousands of other people were
turned into slaves or killed. Since 1996 the violence against non-Chechens has continued and almost all of them have left Chechnya up to this
362

moment.[146][147][148][149] The tactics used to implement this policy of ethnic cleansing include the ignoring of widespread acts of lawlessness committed against non-Chechens (especially acts of violence committed against Russians) and they are
accompanied by the distribution of nationalistic
propaganda.[150]
The Jakarta riots of May 1998 targeted many

Chinese Indonesians.
Suering from looting
and arson many Chinese Indonesians ed from
Indonesia.[151][152]
There have been serious outbreaks of inter-ethnic
violence on the island of Kalimantan since 1997,
involving the indigenous Dayak peoples and immigrants from the island of Madura. In 2001 in the
Central Kalimantan town of Sampit, at least 500
Madurese were killed and up to 100,000 Madurese
were forced to ee. Some Madurese bodies were decapitated in a ritual reminiscent of the headhunting
tradition of the Dayaks of old.[153]
3.6.5
21st century
2000s
In 2003, Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti
Pygmies, told the UNs Indigenous Peoples Forum
that during the Congo Civil War, his people were
hunted down and eaten as though they were game
animals. Both sides of the war regarded them as
subhuman and some say their esh can confer
magical powers. Makelo asked the UN Security
Council to recognise cannibalism as a crime against
humanity and an act of genocide.[154][155]
From the late 1990s to the early 2000s,
Indonesian paramilitaries organized and armed
by Indonesian military and police killed or
expelled large numbers of civilians in East
Timor.[156][157][158][159][160][161][162] After the East
Timorese people voted for independence in a 1999
referendum, Indonesian paramilitaries retaliated,
murdering some supporters of independence and
levelling most towns. More than 200,000 people
either ed or were forcibly taken to Indonesia
before East Timor achieved full independence.[163]
Since the mid-1990s the central government of
Botswana has been trying to move Bushmen out of
the Central Kalahari Game Reserve. As of October 2005, the government has resumed its policy of forcing all Bushmen o their lands in the
Game Reserve, using armed police and threats of
violence or death.[164] Many of the involuntarily displaced Bushmen live in squalid resettlement camps
and some have resorted to prostitution and alcoholism, while about 250 others remain or have surreptitiously returned to the Kalahari to resume their
independent lifestyle.[165] How can we continue to

have Stone Age creatures in an age of computers?"
asked Botswanas president Festus Mogae.[166][167]
Since 2003, Sudan has been accused of carrying out a campaign against several black ethnic
groups in Darfur, in response to a rebellion by
Africans alleging mistreatment. Sudanese irregular militia known as the Janjaweed and Sudanese
military and police forces have killed an estimated
450,000, expelled around two million, and burned
800 villages.[168][169] A July 14, 2007 article notes
that in the past two months up to 75,000 Arabs
from Chad and Niger crossed the border into Darfur. Most have been relocated by the Sudanese government to former villages of displaced non-Arab
people. Some 450,000 have been killed and 2.5
million have now been forced to ee to refugee
camps in Chad after their homes and villages were
destroyed.[170] Sudan refuses to allow their return, or
to allow United Nations peacekeepers into Darfur.
During the Iraq Civil War and consequent Iraqi insurgency (2011-present), entire neighborhoods in
Baghdad are being ethnically cleansed by Shia and
Sunni militias.[171][172] Some areas are being evacuated by every member of a particular group due to
lack of security, moving into new areas because of
fear of reprisal killings. As of 21 June 2007, the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
estimated that 2.2 million Iraqis had been displaced
to neighboring countries, and 2 million were displaced internally, with nearly 100,000 Iraqis eeing
to Syria and Jordan each month.[173][174][175]
Assyrian exodus from Iraq from 2003 until present
is often described as ethnic cleansing. Although
Iraqi Christians represent less than 5% of the total Iraqi population, they make up 40% of the
refugees now living in nearby countries, according
to UNHCR.[176][177] In the 16th century, Christians
constituted half of Iraqs population.[178][dead link] In
1987, the last Iraqi census counted 1.4 million
Christians.[179] Following the 2003 invasion and
the reusltant growth of militant Islamism, Christians total numbers slumped to about 500,000, of
whom 250,000 live in Baghdad.[180] Furthermore,
the Mandaean and Yazidi communities are at the
risk of elimination due to the ongoing atrocities by
Islamic extremists.[181][182] A 25 May 2007 article
notes that in the past 7 months only 69 people from
Iraq have been granted refugee status in the United
States.[183]
In October 2006, Niger announced that it would
deport Arabs living in the Dia region of eastern
Niger to Chad.[184] This population numbered about
150,000.[185] Nigerien government forces forcibly
rounded up Arabs in preparation for deportation,
during which two girls died, reportedly after eeing

government forces, and three women suered miscarriages. Nigers government eventually suspended
the plan.[186][187]
In 1950, the Karen had become the largest of 20 minority groups participating in an insurgency against
the military dictatorship in Burma. The conict continues as of 2008. In 2004, the BBC, citing aid
agencies, estimates that up to 200,000 Karen have
been driven from their homes during decades of war,
with 120,000 more refugees from Burma, mostly
Karen, living in refugee camps on the Thai side of
the border. Many accuse the military government
of Burma of ethnic cleansing.[188] As a result of the
ongoing war in minority group areas more than two
million people have ed Burma to Thailand.[189]
Civil unrest in Kenya erupted in December
2007.[190] By January 28, 2008, the death toll
from the violence was at around 800.[191] The
United Nations estimated that as many as 600,000
people have been displaced.[192][193] A government
spokesman claimed that Odingas supporters were
engaging in ethnic cleansing.[194]
363
that most Western historians view as amounting to a
genocide.[200] At a conference of Hellenes victims of
ethnic cleansing, held in February 2011 in Nicosia,
an apology was demanded [201]
In August 2008, the 2008 South Ossetia war broke
out when Georgia launched a military oensive
against South Ossetian separatists, leading to military intervention by Russia, during which Georgian
forces were expelled from the separatist territories
of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. During the ghting,
15,000[202] ethnic Georgians living in South Ossetia
were forced to ee to Georgia proper, and Ossetian
militia burned their villages to prevent their return.
2010s
The 2008 attacks on North Indians in Maharashtra began on February 3, 2008. Incidences of
violence against North Indians and their property were reported in Mumbai, Pune, Aurangabad,
Beed, Nashik, Amravati, Jalna and Latur. Nearly
25,000 North Indian workers ed Pune,[195][196] and
another 15,000 ed Nashik in the wake of the Refugees of the ghting in the Central African Republic, January
attacks.[197][198]
19, 2014
South Africa Ethnic Cleansing erupted on May 11,
2008 within three weeks 80 000 were displaced
the death toll was 62, with 670 injured in the violence when South Africans ejected non-nationals in
a nationwide ethnic cleansing/xenophobic outburst.
The most aected foreigners have been Somalis,
Ethiopians, Indians, Pakistanis, Zimbabweans and
Mozambiqueans. Local South Africans have also
been caught up in the violence. Refugee camps a
mistake Arvin Gupta, a senior UNHCR protection
ocer, said the UNHCR did not agree with the City
of Cape Town that those displaced by the violence
should be held at camps across the city.[199] During the 2010 FIFA world cup, rumors were reported
that xenophobic attacks will be commenced after the
nal. A few incidents occurred where foreign individuals were targeted, but the South African police claims that these attacks can not be classied
as xenophobic attacks but rather as regular criminal activity in the townships. Elements of the South
African Army were sent into the aected townships
to assist the police in keeping order and preventing
continued attacks.
In December 2008 200 Turkish intellectuals and
academics issued an apology for the ethnic cleansing of Armenians during World War I, an event
The killings of hundreds of ethnic Uzbeks in Kyrgyzstan during the 2010 South Kyrgyzstan riots resulting in the ight of thousands of Uzbek refugees
to Uzbekistan have been called ethnic cleansing by
the Organization for Security and Co-operation in
Europe and international media.[203][204]
Members of the Azusa 13 gang, associated with the
Mexican Maa, were accused of attempting a racial
cleansing of African Americans in Azusa, California.[205]
2012 Rakhine State riots. An estimated 90,000 people have been displaced in the recent sectarian violence between Rohingya Muslims and Buddhists in
Burma's western Rakhine State.[102][206]
Approximately 400,000 people have been displaced
in the 2012 Assam ethnic violence between indigenous Bodos and Bengali-speaking Muslims in
Assam, India.[207]
Sources inside the Syrian Orthodox Church have reported that an ongoing ethnic cleansing of Syrian
Christians is being carried out by anti-government
jihadist rebels.[208][209]
364
Central African Republic conict (2012

present).[210] More than 1 million have been
internally displaced.
2013 Burma anti-Muslim riots
[211]
South Sudanese conict (2013present).[212] More

than 700,000 have been internally displaced. Part
of Ethnic violence in South Sudan.
3.6.6
[1]
References
Jin
,
Shu
,
Original
,
,
text
[2] Richards, Eric (2004). Britannias children: emigration

from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland since 1600.
Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 24. ISBN
1-85285-441-3.
[3] A brief History of Ethnic Cleansing, by Andrew BellFialko, p. 4
[4]
Albert Breton (Editor, 1995). Nationalism and Rationality. Cambridge University Press 1995. Page
248. Oliver Cromwell oered Irish Catholics a
choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer
Ukrainian Quarterly. Ukrainian Society of America 1944. Therefore, we are entitled to accuse the
England of Oliver Cromwell of the genocide of the
Irish civilian population..
David Norbrook (2000).Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 16271660. Cambridge University Press. 2000. In interpreting Andrew Marvells contemporarily expressed views on
Cromwell Norbrook says; He (Cromwell) laid the
foundation for a ruthless programme of resettling
the Irish Catholics which amounted to large scale
ethnic cleansing..
Frances Stewart (2000). War and Underdevelopment: Economic and Social Consequences of Conict v. 1 (Queen Elizabeth House Series in Development Studies), Oxford University Press. 2000. p.
51 Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with
Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell
had returned to England, the English Commissary,
General Henry Ireton, adopted a deliberate policy
of crop burning and starvation, which was responsible for the majority of an estimated 600,000 deaths
out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000.
Alan Axelrod (2002). Proles in Leadership,
Prentice-Hall. 2002. Page 122. As a leader
Cromwell was entirely unyielding. He was willing
to act on his beliefs, even if this meant killing the
king and perpetrating, against the Irish, something
very nearly approaching genocide
Tim Pat Coogan (2002). The Troubles: Irelands
Ordeal and the Search for Peace. ISBN 978-0312-29418-2. p 6. The massacres by Catholics
of Protestants, which occurred in the religious wars
of the 1640s, were magnied for propagandist purposes to justify Cromwells subsequent genocide.
Peter Berresford Ellis (2002). Eyewitness to Irish
History, John Wiley & Sons Inc. ISBN 978-0-47126633-4. p. 108 It was to be the justication for
Cromwells genocidal campaign and settlement.
John Morrill (2003). Rewriting Cromwell A Case
of Deafening Silences, Canadian Journal of History.
Dec 2003. Of course, this has never been the Irish
view of Cromwell.
Most Irish remember him as the man responsible
for the mass slaughter of civilians at Drogheda and
Wexford and as the agent of the greatest episode
, of ethnic, cleansing ever attempted in Western Europe as, within a decade, the percentage of land possessed by Catholics born in Ireland dropped from
sixty to twenty. In a decade, the ownership of twofths of the land mass was transferred from several thousand Irish Catholic landowners to British
Protestants. The gap between Irish and the English
views of the seventeenth-century conquest remains
unbridgeable and is governed by G.K. Chestertons
mirthless epigram of 1917, that it was a tragic necessity that the Irish should remember it; but it was
far more tragic that the English forgot it.
James M Lutz, Brenda J Lutz, (2004). Global Terrorism, Routledge:London, p.193: The draconian
laws applied by Oliver Cromwell in Ireland were an
early version of ethnic cleansing. The Catholic Irish
were to be expelled to the northwestern areas of the
island. Relocation rather than extermination was
the goal.
Mark Levene (2005). Genocide in the Age of the
Nation State: Volume 2. ISBN 978-1-84511-057-4
Page 55, 56 & 57. A sample quote describes the
Cromwellian campaign and settlement as a conscious attempt to reduce a distinct ethnic population.
Mark Levene (2005). Genocide in the Age of the
Nation-State, I.B.Tauris: London:
[The Act of Settlement of Ireland],
and the parliamentary legislation which
succeeded it the following year, is the
nearest thing on paper in the English, and
more broadly British, domestic record,
to a programme of state-sanctioned and
systematic ethnic cleansing of another
people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that
it failed to put into practice the vast
majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the
lethal determination of its makers and
more about the political, structural and
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are derive[d] from McCarthy (1995: I 91, 1624, 339),
who is often viewed as a scholar on the Turkish side of
the debate. Yet even if we reduce his gures by 50 percent, they would still horrify. He estimates that between
1812 and 1922 somewhere around 5 million Muslims
were driven out of Europe and 5 million more were killed
or died of disease or starvation while eeing. ... In the
nal Balkan wars of 191213 he estimates that 62 percent of Muslims (27 percent dead, 35 percent refugees)
disappeared from the lands conquered by Greece, Serbia,
and Bulgaria. This was murderous ethnic cleansing on a
stupendous scale not previously seen in Europe, ...
365
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[203]
caste, or religious stereotypes.[4][8] One view holds that

racism is best understood as 'prejudice plus power' because without the support of political or economic power,
prejudice would not be able to manifest as a pervasive cultural, institutional or social phenomenon.[9][10][11]
[204] Kyrgyzstan riots led to ethnic cleansing; government

blames Bakiyev. CSMonitor.com (2010-06-16). Retrieved on 2013-07-18.
[205] Ng, Christina (9 June 2011). Latino Gang Charged
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[206]
[207]
[208]
[209]
While race and ethnicity are considered to be separate phenomena in contemporary social science, the two
terms have a long history of equivalence in popular usBurma unrest: UN body says 90,000 displaced by vio- age and older social science literature. Racism and racial
lence. BBC. 20 June 2012.
discrimination are often used to describe discrimination
on an ethnic or cultural basis, independent of whether
Harris, Gardiner (July 28, 2012). As Tensions in India
these dierences are described as racial. According to
Turn Deadly, Some Say Ocials Ignored Warning Signs.
the United Nations convention, there is no distinction beThe New York Times.
tween the terms racial discrimination and ethnic discrimiPutz, Ulrike (2012-07-25). Christians Flee from Radical nation, superiority based on racial dierentiation is scienRebels in Syria - SPIEGEL ONLINE. Spiegel.de.
tically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust and
dangerous, and there is no justication for racial discrimChurch fears 'ethnic cleansing' of Christians in Homs,
ination, in theory or in practice, anywhere.[12]
Syria. Los Angeles Times. March 23, 2012.
[210] 100 Day Plan for Priority Humanitarian Action in the

Central African Republic, 24 December 2013 - 2 April
2014. ReliefWeb. December 24, 2013.
[211] Rights group accuses Myanmar of 'ethnic cleansing'".
CNN.com. April 22, 2013.
[212] HRW accuses South Sudan, rebels of ethnic cleaning.
Press TV. December 19, 2013.
3.7 Racism
Historically, racism has been a driving force behind slavery and racial segregation. Racism has also
played a role in genocides such as the Holocaust, the
Armenian genocide, and colonial projects like the European colonization of the Americas, Africa, and Asia.
Indigenous peoples have been and are often subject to
racist attitudes. 19th and 20th century racism in Western
culture is particularly well documented and constitutes a
reference point in studies and discourses about racism.
Practices and ideologies of racism are condemned by the
United Nations in the Declaration of Human Rights.[13]
Racism consists of ideologies and practices that seek to 3.7.1

justify, or cause, the unequal distribution of privileges,
rights, or goods amongst, or otherwise exhibit hatred or
prejudice towards, dierent racial groups. It is often
based on a desire to dominate or a belief in the inferiority of another race.[1][2] Modern variants are often based
in social perceptions of biological dierences between
peoples. These can take the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems that consider dierent races to be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to
each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits,
abilities, or qualities. It may also hold that members of
dierent races should be treated dierently.[3][4][5]
Among the questions about how to dene racism are the
question of whether to include forms of discrimination
that are unintentional, such as making assumptions about
preferences or abilities of others based on racial stereotypes, whether to include symbolic or institutionalized
forms of discrimination such as the circulation of ethnic
stereotypes through the media, and whether to include the
sociopolitical dynamics of social stratication that sometimes have a racial component.
Etymology
1902 use of the word racism.
In the 19th century, some scientists subscribed to

the belief that the human population is divided into
races,[14] that some races were inferior to others, and
that dierential treatment of races was consequently
justied.[15][16][17] Such theories are generally termed
In sociology and psychology, some denitions include scientic racism.
only consciously malignant forms of discrimination.[6][7] Today, most biologists, anthropologists, and sociologists
Some denitions of racism also include discriminatory reject a taxonomy of races in favor of more specic
behaviors and beliefs based on cultural, national, ethnic, and/or empirically veriable criteria, such as geography,
3.7. RACISM
ethnicity, or a history of endogamy.[18]
The updated entry in the Oxford English Dictionary
(2008) denes racialism simply as An earlier term than
racism, but now largely superseded by it, and cites it in
a 1902 quote.[19] The revised Oxford English Dictionary
cites the shortened term racism in a quote from the following year, 1903.[20][21][22] It was rst dened by the
OED as "[t]he theory that distinctive human characteristics and abilities are determined by race, which gives
1936 as the rst recorded use. Additionally, the OED
records racism as a synonym of racialism: belief in the
superiority of a particular race. By the end of World
War II, racism had acquired the same supremacist connotations formerly associated with racialism: racism now
implied racial discrimination, racial supremacism and a
harmful intent. (The term race hatred had also been
used by sociologist Frederick Hertz in the late 1920s.)
371
Legal
The UN does not dene racism"; however, it does dene
racial discrimination": According to the United Nations
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Racial Discrimination,
the term racial discrimination shall mean
any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or
eect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural
or any other eld of public life.[26]
This denition does not make any dierence between

discrimination based on ethnicity and race, in part because the distinction between the two remains debatable
among anthropologists.[27] Similarly, in British law the
3.7.2 Denitions
phrase racial group means any group of people who are
dened by reference to their race, colour, nationality (inAs its etymology indicates, the rst use of the word cluding citizenship) or ethnic or national origin.[28]
racism is relatively recenti.e., the 1900s, most literally the 1930s. Linguistically, as the word is a gen- In Norway, the word race has been removed from naeral abstraction that does not in and of itself connote a tional laws concerning discrimination as the use of the
[29][30]
great deal of positive or negative meaning without addi- phrase is considered problematic and unethical.
tional context (i.e., racism = noun of action/condition The Norwegian Anti-Discrimination Act bans discrimregarding race), its denition and semantics are not en- ination based on ethnicity, national origin, descent and
[31]
tirely settled. Nonetheless, the term is commonly used, skin color.
often negatively as a pejorative (e.g., racist), and is
associated with race-based prejudice, violence, dislike, Sociological
discrimination, or oppression.
Dictionaries dene the word as follows:
The Oxford English Dictionary denes racism as the

belief that all members of each race possess characteristics, abilities, or qualities specic to that race,
especially so as to distinguish it as inferior or superior to another race or races and the expression of
such prejudice,[23][24]
Websters Dictionary denes it as a belief that race is

the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial dierences produce an inherent
superiority or inferiority of a particular racial group,
and alternatively that it is also the prejudice based on
such a belief.[25]
The Macquarie Dictionary denes racism as: the

belief that human races have distinctive characteristics which determine their respective cultures, usually involving the idea that ones own race is superior
and has the right to rule or dominate others.
Some sociologists have dened racism as a system of categorical privilege. In Portraits of White Racism, David
Wellman dened racism as culturally sanctioned beliefs, which, regardless of intentions involved, defend
the advantages whites have because of the subordinated
position of racial minorities.[32] Sociologists Nol A.
Cazenave and Darlene Alvarez Maddern dene racism
as "... a highly organized system of 'race'-based group
privilege that operates at every level of society and is
held together by a sophisticated ideology of color/'race'
supremacy. Sellers and Shelton (2003) found that a relationship between racial discrimination and emotional
distress was moderated by racial ideology and public regard beliefs. That is, racial centrality appears to promote the degree of discrimination African American
young adults perceive whereas racial ideology may buer
the detrimental emotional eects of that discrimination.
Racist systems include, but cannot be reduced to, racial
bigotry,.[33]
Some sociologists have also argued that, in some instances, racism has changed from blatant to more covert
expression. The newer (more hidden and less easily detectable) forms of racismwhich can be considered as
embedded in social processes and structuresare more
372
dicult to explore as well as challenge. It has been Thomas Schelling's models of segregation and subsequent
suggested that, while in many countries overt and ex- work.
plicit racism has become increasingly taboo, even in those
who display egalitarian explicit attitudes, an implicit or
aversive racism is still maintained subconsciously. CITE?
3.7.3 Types
Xenophobia
Racial discrimination
Main article: Xenophobia
Racial discrimination refers to the separation of people through a process of social division into categories
not necessarily related to races for purposes of dierential treatment. Racial segregation policies may formalize it, but it is also often exerted without being legalized. Researchers Marianne Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan, at the University of Chicago and MIT found in
a 2004 study that there was widespread discrimination in
the workplace against job applicants whose names were
merely perceived as sounding black. These applicants
were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having
white-sounding names to receive callbacks for interviews. Devah Pager, a sociologist at Princeton University,
sent matched pairs of applicants to apply for jobs in Milwaukee and New York City, nding that black applicants
received callbacks or job oers at half the rate of equally
qualied whites.[41][42] In contrast, institutions and courts
have upheld discrimination against whites when it is done
to promote a diverse work or educational environment,
even when it was shown to be to the detriment of qualied applicants.[43][44] The researchers view these results
as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the
United States long history of discrimination (e.g., Jim
Crow laws, etc.)[45]
Dictionary denitions of xenophobia include: intense or

irrational dislike or fear of people from other countries
(Oxford Dictionaries),[34] unreasonable fear and hatred
of strangers or foreigners or of anything that is strange
or foreign (Merriam-Webster)[35] The Dictionary of Psychology denes it as a fear of strangers.[36]
Supremacism
Main article: Supremacism
Centuries of European colonialism of the Americas,
Africa and Asia was often justied by white supremacist
attitudes.[37] During the early 20th century, the phrase
"The White Mans Burden" was widely used to justify imperialist policy as a noble enterprise.[38][39]
Institutional
A rally against school integration in 1959.
Segregationism
Main article: Racial segregation
Racial segregation is the separation of humans into
socially-constructed racial groups in daily life. It may
apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a bath room, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home.[40] Segregation is generally outlawed,
but may exist through social norms, even when there is
no strong individual preference for it, as suggested by
Further information: Institutional racism, State racism,

Armative action, Racial proling and Racism by country
Institutional racism (also known as structural racism,
state racism or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, religions, or educational institutions or other large organizations with the
power to inuence the lives of many individuals. Stokely
Carmichael is credited for coining the phrase institutional
racism in the late 1960s. He dened the term as the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their
colour, culture or ethnic origin.[46]
Maulana Karenga argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion, and human possibility and that the eects of racism were the morally
monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redening African humanity to the world, poisoning past,
present and future relations with others who only know
us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly
human relations among peoples.
3.7. RACISM
373
Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses, Germany, 1933
Students protesting against racial quotas in Brazil. The sign

reads: Want vacancy? Pass the entry exam!"
Economic
Further information: Racial wage gap in the United States
and Racial wealth gap in the United States
Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be
a form of discrimination caused by past racism and historical reasons, aecting the present generation through
decits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in previous generations, and through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the
general population.
In 2011, Bank of America agreed to pay $335 million to
settle a federal government claim that its mortgage division, Countrywide Financial, discriminated against black
and Hispanic homebuyers.[47]
During the Spanish colonial period, Spaniards developed
a complex caste system based on race, which was used
for social control and which also determined a persons
importance in society.[48] While many Latin American
countries have long since rendered the system ocially illegal through legislation, usually at the time of their independence, prejudice based on degrees of perceived racial
distance from European ancestry combined with ones socioeconomic status remain, an echo of the colonial caste
system.[49]
Symbolic/Modern
Main article: Symbolic racism
Some scholars argue that in the US earlier violent and
aggressive forms of racism have evolved into a more
subtle form of prejudice in the late 20th century. This
new form of racism is sometimes referred to as modern racism and characterized by outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes,
displaying subtle prejudiced behaviors such as actions informed by attributing qualities to others based on racial
stereotypes, and evaluating the same behavior dierently
based on the race of the person being evaluated.[50] This
view is based on studies of prejudice and discriminatory
behavior, where some people will act ambivalently towards black people, with positive reactions in certain,
more public contexts, but more negative views and expressions in more private contexts. This ambivalence may
also be visible for example in hiring decisions where job
candidates that are otherwise positively evaluated may
be unconsciously disfavored by employers in the nal
decision because of their race.[51][52][53] Some scholars
consider modern racism to be characterized by an explicit rejection of stereotypes, combined with resistance
to changing structures of discrimination for reasons that
are ostensibly non-racial, an ideology that considers opportunity at a purely individual basis denying the relevance of race in determining individual opportunities and
the exhibition of indirect forms of micro-aggression toward and/or avoidance of people of other races.[54]
374
Cultural
Cultural racism is a term used to describe and explain new
racial ideologies and practices that have emerged since
World War II. It can be dened as societal beliefs and
customs that promote the assumption that the products
of a given culture, including the language and traditions
of that culture are superior to those of other cultures. It
shares a great deal with xenophobia, which is often characterised by fear of, or aggression toward, members of an
outgroup by members of an ingroup.
Cultural racism exists when there is a widespread acceptance of stereotypes concerning dierent ethnic or population groups.[55] Where racism can be characterised by
the belief that one race is inherently superior to another,
cultural racism can be characterised by the belief that one
culture is inherently superior to another.[56]
Color blindness
Main article: Color blindness (race) in the United States
Color blindness is held to be the disregard of racial
characteristics in social interaction. Eduardo BonillaSilva argues that color blind racism arises from an abstract liberalism, biologization of culture, naturalization
of racial matters, and minimization of racism.[57] Color
blind practices are subtle, institutional, and apparently
nonracial[58] because race is explicitly ignored in decision making. If race is disregarded in predominately
white populations, for example, whiteness becomes the
normative standard, whereas people of color are othered,
and the racism these individuals experience may be minimized or erased.[59][60] At an individual level, people
with color blind prejudice reject racist ideology, but
also reject systemic policies intended to x institutional
racism.[60]
Othering
Main article: Other
Othering is the term used by some to describe a system of
discrimination whereby the characteristics of a group are
used to distinguish them as separate from the norm.[61]

further entrenching the gap.[63]
Much of the process of othering relies on imagined difference, or the expectation of dierence. Spatial dierence can be enough to conclude that we are here and
the others are over there.[62] Imagined dierences
serve to categorize people into groups and assign them
characteristics that suit the imaginers expectations.[64]
3.7.4 Declarations and international law

against racial discrimination
In 1919, a proposal to include a racial equality provision
in the Covenant of the League of Nations was supported
by a majority, but not adopted in the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. In 1943, Japan and its allies declared work
for the abolition of racial discrimination to be their aim
at the Greater East Asia Conference.[65] Article 1 of the
1945 UN Charter includes promoting and encouraging
respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms
for all without distinction as to race as UN purpose.
In 1950, UNESCO suggested in The Race Question
a statement signed by 21 scholars such as Ashley Montagu, Claude Lvi-Strauss, Gunnar Myrdal, Julian Huxley, etc. to drop the term race altogether and instead speak of ethnic groups". The statement condemned
scientic racism theories that had played a role in the
Holocaust. It aimed both at debunking scientic racist
theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning
the race question, and morally condemned racism as
contrary to the philosophy of the Enlightenment and its
assumption of equal rights for all. Along with Myrdals
An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944), The Race Question inuenced
the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court desegregation decision in
"Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka".[66] Also in
1950, the European Convention on Human Rights was
adopted, widely used on racial discrimination issues.[67]
The United Nations use the denition of racial discrimination laid out in the International Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,
adopted in 1966:
... any distinction, exclusion, restriction or
preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or
eect of nullifying or impairing the recognition,
enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of
human rights and fundamental freedoms in the
political, economic, social, cultural or any other
eld of public life.(Part 1 of Article 1 of the
U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination)[68]
Othering plays a fundamental role in the history and continuation of racism. By objectifying a culture as something dierent, exotic or underdeveloped is to generalize
that it is not like 'normal' society. Europes colonial attitude towards the Orient exemplies this as it was thought
that the East was the opposite of the West; feminine
where the West was masculine, weak where the West was
strong and traditional where the West was progressive.[62] In 2001, the European Union explicitly banned racism,
By making these generalizations and othering the East, along with many other forms of social discrimination,
Europe was simultaneously dening herself as the norm, in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European
3.7. RACISM
375
Union, the legal eect of which, if any, would necessarily

be limited to Institutions of the European Union: Article
21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground
such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other
opinion, membership of a national minority, property,
disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality.[69]
3.7.5
Ideology
A racist political campaign poster from the 1866 Pennsylvania

gubernatorial election
Racism existed during the 19th century as "scientic

racism", which attempted to provide a racial classication of humanity.[70] Johann Blumenbach in 1775, advocating polygenism, divided the worlds population into
ve groups according to skin color (Caucasians, Mongols,
etc.). The archetypical form of racism is, perhaps, found
with the polygenist Christoph Meiners. He split mankind
into two divisions which he labeled the beautiful White
race and the ugly Black race. In Meinerss book, The
Outline of History of Mankind, Meiners claimed that a
main characteristic of race is either beauty or ugliness.
He viewed only the white race as beautiful. He considered ugly races as inferior, immoral and animal-like.
Anders Retzius demonstrated that neither Europeans nor
others are one pure race, but of mixed origins. While
discredited, derivations of Blumenbachs taxonomy are
still widely used for classication of the population in
USA. H. P. Steensby, while strongly emphasizing that all
humans today are of mixed origins, in 1907 claimed that
the origins of human dierences must be traced extraordinarily far back in time, and conjectured that the purest
race today would be the Australian Aboriginals.[71]
Scientic racism fell strongly out of favor in the early
20th Century, but the origins of fundamental human and
societal dierences are still researched within academia,
in elds such as human genetics including paleogenetics,
social anthropology, comparative politics, history of re-
A sign on a racially segregated beach during the Apartheid in

South Africa
ligions, history of ideas, prehistory, history, ethics, and

psychiatry. There is widespread rejection of any methodology based on anything similar to Blumenbachs races.
It is more unclear to which extent and when ethnic and
national stereotypes are accepted.
Although after World War II and the Holocaust, racist
ideologies were discredited on ethical, political and scientic grounds, but racism and racial discrimination have
remained widespread around the world.
Du Bois observed that it is not so much race that we
think about, but culture: "... a common history, common
laws and religion, similar habits of thought and a conscious striving together for certain ideals of life.[72] Late
19th century nationalists were the rst to embrace contemporary discourses on race, ethnicity, and "survival
of the ttest" to shape new nationalist doctrines. Ultimately, race came to represent not only the most important traits of the human body, but was also regarded as
decisively shaping the character and personality of the
nation.[73] According to this view, culture is the physical
manifestation created by ethnic groupings, as such fully
determined by racial characteristics. Culture and race became considered intertwined and dependent upon each
376
other, sometimes even to the extent of including nationality or language to the set of denition. Pureness of race
tended to be related to rather supercial characteristics
that were easily addressed and advertised, such as blondness. Racial qualities tended to be related to nationality
and language rather than the actual geographic distribution of racial characteristics. In the case of Nordicism,
the denomination Germanic was equivalent to superiority of race.
Bolstered by some nationalist and ethnocentric values and
achievements of choice, this concept of racial superiority
evolved to distinguish from other cultures that were considered inferior or impure. This emphasis on culture corresponds to the modern mainstream denition of racism:
Racism does not originate from the existence of 'races.
It creates them through a process of social division into
categories: anybody can be racialised, independently of
their somatic, cultural, religious dierences.[74]
This denition explicitly ignores the biological concept
of race, still subject to scientic debate. In the words of
David C. Rowe A racial concept, although sometimes in
the guise of another name, will remain in use in biology Eugne Delacroix's Scene of the massacre at Chios (1824);
Greek families awaiting death or slavery
and in other elds because scientists, as well as lay persons, are fascinated by human diversity, some of which is
captured by race.[75]
pearance with the invention of the leve en masse by the
Racial prejudice became subject to international legisFrench revolutionaries, thus inventing mass conscription
lation. For instance, the Declaration on the Eliminain order to be able to defend the newly founded Republic
tion of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted by
against the Ancien Rgime order represented by the Eurothe United Nations General Assembly on November 20,
pean monarchies. This led to the French Revolutionary
1963, address racial prejudice explicitly next to discrimiWars (17921802) and then to the Napoleonic conquests,
nation for reasons of race, colour or ethnic origin (Article
and to the subsequent European-wide debates on the con[76]
I).
cepts and realities of nations, and in particular of nationRacism has been a motivating factor in social discrimina- states. The Westphalia Treaty had divided Europe into
tion, racial segregation, hate speech and violence (such as various empires and kingdoms (Ottoman Empire, Holy
pogroms, genocides and ethnic cleansings). Despite the Roman Empire, Swedish Empire, Kingdom of France,
persistence of racial stereotypes in humor and epithets in etc.), and for centuries wars were waged between princes
some everyday language, racial discrimination is illegal (Kabinettskriege in German).
in many countries.
Modern nation-states appeared in the wake of the French
Some claim that anti-racism is a political instrument of Revolution, with the formation of patriotic sentiments for
abuse. In a reversal of values, anti-racism is claimed to be the rst time in Spain during the Peninsula War (1808
propagated by despots in the service of obscurantism and 1813, known in Spain as the Independence War). Dethe suppression of women. Philosopher Pascal Bruckner spite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815
claimed that "[a]nti-racism in the UN has become the Congress of Vienna, the nationalities question became
ideology of totalitarian regimes who use it in their own the main problem of Europe during the Industrial Era,
interests.[77]
leading in particular to the 1848 Revolutions, the Italian
unication completed during the 1871 Franco-Prussian
War, which itself culminated in the proclamation of the
German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of
Ethnic nationalism
Versailles, thus achieving the German unication.
Further information: Ethnic nationalism and Romantic
nationalism
After the Napoleonic Wars, Europe was confronted with
the new "nationalities question, leading to recongurations of the European map, on which the frontiers between the states had been delimited during the 1648
Peace of Westphalia. Nationalism had made its rst ap-
Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire, the "sick man of Europe", was confronted with endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the AustrianHungarian Empire, would lead to the creation after World
War I of the various nation-states of the Balkans, with
national minorities" in their borders.[78] Ethnic nationalism, which advocated the belief in a hereditary member-
3.7. RACISM
377
ship of the nation, made its appearance in the historical Charles Maurras (18681952), founder of the monarchist
context surrounding the creation of the modern nation- Action franaise movement, theorized the anti-France,
states.
composed of the four confederate states of Protestants,
One of its main inuences was the Romantic nation- Jews, Freemasons and foreigners (his actual word for the
alist movement at the turn of the 19th century, repre- latter being the pejorative mtques). Indeed, to him the
sented by gures such as Johann Herder (17441803), rst three were all internal foreigners, who threatened
Johan Fichte (17621814) in the Addresses to the Ger- the ethnic unity of the French people.
man Nation (1808), Friedrich Hegel (17701831), or
also, in France, Jules Michelet (17981874). It was opposed to liberal nationalism, represented by authors such
as Ernest Renan (18231892), who conceived of the nation as a community, which, instead of being based on
the Volk ethnic group and on a specic, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together
(the nation is a daily plebiscite", 1882) or also John
Stuart Mill (18061873).[79] Ethnic nationalism blended
with scientic racist discourses, as well as with continental imperialist" (Hannah Arendt, 1951[80] ) discourses, for
example in the pan-Germanism discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German Volk. The PanGerman League (Alldeutscher Verband), created in 1891,
promoted German imperialism, "racial hygiene" and was
opposed to intermarriage with Jews. Another popular
current, the Vlkisch movement, was also an important
proponent of the German ethnic nationalist discourse,
which combined with modern antisemitism. Members
of the Vlkisch movement, in particular the Thule Society, would participate in the founding of the German
Workers Party (DAP) in Munich in 1918, the predecessor of the NSDAP Nazi party. Pan-Germanism and
played a decisive role in the interwar period of the 1920s
1930s.[80]
3.7.6 Ethnic conicts

Further information: Ethnicity
Debates over the origins of racism often suer from a
lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term racism
to refer to more general phenomena, such as xenophobia
and ethnocentrism, although scholars attempt to clearly
distinguish those phenomena from racism as an ideology
or from scientic racism, which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia. Others conate recent forms of racism
with earlier forms of ethnic and national conict. In
most cases, ethno-national conict seems to owe itself
to conict over land and strategic resources. In some
cases, ethnicity and nationalism were harnessed to rally
combatants in wars between great religious empires (for
example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic AustroHungarians).
These currents began to associate the idea of the nation

with the biological concept of a "master race" (often the
"Aryan race" or "Nordic race") issued from the scientic
racist discourse. They conated nationalities with ethnic
groups, called races, in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses that posited the existence of a race
struggle inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying
ethnic cleansing in order to achieve racial purity and Picture showing Armenians killed during the Armenian Genocide
of 1915.
also to achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state.
Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were
not, however, limited to pan-Germanism. In France, the
transition from Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made nationalism a characteristic
of far-right movements in France, took place during the
Dreyfus Aair at the end of the 19th century. During
several years, a nationwide crisis aected French society, concerning the alleged treason of Alfred Dreyfus, a
French Jewish military ocer. The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by mile
Zola, who wrote J'accuse in defense of Alfred Dreyfus,
and the other represented by the nationalist poet, Maurice
Barrs (18621923), one of the founders of the ethnic nationalist discourse in France.[81] At the same time,
Notions of race and racism often have played central roles

in such ethnic conicts. Throughout history, when an adversary is identied as other based on notions of race or
ethnicity (in particular when other is construed to mean
inferior), the means employed by the self-presumed
superior party to appropriate territory, human chattel,
or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more
brutal, and less constrained by moral or ethical considerations. According to historian Daniel Richter, Pontiacs
Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conict
of the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,'
that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one
side must unite to destroy the other.[82] Basil Davidson
insists in his documentary, Africa: Dierent but Equal,
378
that racism, in fact, only just recently surfacedas late

as the 19th century, due to the need for a justication for
slavery in the Americas.
The idea of slavery as an equal-opportunity employer
was denounced with the introduction of Christian theory
in the West. Maintaining that Africans were subhuman
was the only loophole in the then accepted law that men
are created equal that would allow for the sustenance
of the Triangular Trade. New peoples in the Americas,
possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately
subdued, but, then, due to European diseases, their populations drastically decreased. Through both inuences,
theories about race developed, and these helped many
to justify the dierences in position and treatment of people whom they categorized as belonging to dierent races
(see Eric Wolfs Europe and the People without History).
Juan Gins de Seplveda argued that, during the
Valladolid controversy in the middle of the 16th century,
the Native Americans were natural slaves because they
had no souls. In Asia, the Chinese and Japanese Empires were both strong colonial powers, with the Chinese
making colonies and vassal states of much of East Asia
throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in
the 19th20th centuries. In both cases, the Asian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially
preferenced too.
3.7.7
Academic variants
Scottish philosopher and economist David Hume said, I

am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to
the Whites. There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of
that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either
in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture
among them, no arts, no sciences.[83] German philosopher Immanuel Kant stated: The yellow Indians do have
a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at
the lowest point are a part of the American people.[84]
Drawings from Josiah C. Nott and George Gliddon's Indigenous

races of the earth (1857), which suggested black people ranked
between white people and chimpanzees in terms of intelligence.
of Decision Spengler denounced the 'happy ending' of

an empty existence, the boredom of which has brought
to jazz music and Negro dancing to perform the Death
March for a great Culture.[87] During the Nazi era, German scientists rearranged academia to support claims of
a grand Aryan agent behind the splendors of all human
civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt.[84]
In the 19th century, the German philosopher, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, declared that Africa is no historical part of the world. Hegel further claimed that Scientic variants
blacks had no sense of personality; their spirit sleeps,
remains sunk in itself, makes no advance, and thus par- Main article: Scientic racism
allels the compact, undierentiated mass of the African Further information: Unilineal evolution
continent.[85]
Fewer than 30 years before Nazi Germany instigated
World War II, the Austrian, Otto Weininger, claimed:
A genius has perhaps scarcely ever appeared amongst
the negroes, and the standard of their morality is almost
universally so low that it is beginning to be acknowledged in America that their emancipation was an act of
imprudence.[86]
The modern biological denition of race developed in the

19th century with scientic racist theories. The term scientic racism refers to the use of science to justify and
support racist beliefs, which goes back to the early 18th
century, though it gained most of its inuence in the mid19th century, during the New Imperialism period. Also
known as academic racism, such theories rst needed to
The German conservative, Oswald Spengler, remarked overcome the Church's resistance to positivist accounts of
on what he perceived as the culturally degrading inu- history and its support of monogenism, the concept that
ence of Africans in modern Western culture: in The Hour all human beings were originated from the same ances-
3.7. RACISM
379
etc.), the British school of social anthropology (Bronisaw
Malinowski, Alfred Radclie-Brown, etc.), the French
school of ethnology (Claude Lvi-Strauss, etc.), as well
as the discovery of the neo-Darwinian synthesis, such
sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from
outward, physical appearances.
The neo-Darwinian synthesis, rst developed in the
1930s, eventually led to a gene-centered view of evolution
in the 1960s. According to the Human Genome Project,
the most complete mapping of human DNA to date indicates that there is no clear genetic basis to racial groups.
While some genes are more common in certain populations, there are no genes that exist in all members of one
population and no members of any other.[90]
Heredity
Eugenics
People Show (a human zoo) (Vlkerschau) in Stuttgart (Germany) in 1928.
tors, in accordance with creationist accounts of history.

These racist theories put forth on scientic hypothesis
were combined with unilineal theories of social progress,
which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the idea of "survival of the ttest", a
term coined by Herbert Spencer in 1864, associated with
ideas of competition, which were named social Darwinism in the 1940s. Charles Darwin himself opposed the
idea of rigid racial dierences in The Descent of Man
(1871) in which he argued that humans were all of one
species, sharing common descent. He recognised racial
dierences as varieties of humanity, and emphasised the
close similarities between people of all races in mental
faculties, tastes, dispositions and habits, while still contrasting the culture of the lowest savages with European
civilization.[88][89]
and
eugenics
Further
information:
The rst theory of eugenics was developed in 1869 by

Francis Galton (18221911), who used the then popular concept of degeneration. He applied statistics to
study human dierences and the alleged "inheritance of
intelligence", foreshadowing future uses of "intelligence
testing" by the anthropometry school. Such theories
were vividly described by the writer mile Zola (1840
1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle, Les Rougon-Macquart, where he linked heredity to
behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons
as those involved in politics (Son Excellence Eugne
Rougon) and medicine (Le Docteur Pascal) and the lowborn Macquarts as those fatally falling into alcoholism
(L'Assommoir), prostitution (Nana), and homicide (La
Bte humaine).
During the rise of Nazism in Germany, some scientists

in Western nations worked to debunk the regimes racial
theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence
of biological races. However, in the elds of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the
mid-20th century.[91] According to the 1950 UNESCO
statement, The Race Question, an international project to
debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus,
At the end of the 19th century, proponents of scientic in 1950, UNESCO declared that it had resumed:
racism intertwined themselves with eugenics discourses
of "degeneration of the race and blood heredity.
up again, after a lapse of fteen years,
Henceforth, scientic racist discourses could be dened
a project that the International Committee on
as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, soIntellectual Cooperation has wished to carry
cial Darwinism and eugenism. They found their scienthrough but that it had to abandon in deference
tic legitimacy on physical anthropology, anthropometry,
to the appeasement policy of the pre-war period.
craniometry, phrenology, physiognomy, and others now
The race question had become one of the pivdiscredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejuots of Nazi ideology and policy. Masaryk and
dices.
Bene took the initiative of calling for a conBefore being disqualied in the 20th century by the
American school of cultural anthropology (Franz Boas,
ference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race
380

... Nazi propaganda was able to continue its
baleful work unopposed by the authority of an
international organisation.
and social classes, considering that the French upper class

was a representation of the Homo europaeus, while the
lower class represented the Homo alpinus. Applying Galtons eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouges
selectionism aimed rst at achieving the annihilation of
trade unionists, considered to be a degenerate"; second,
creating types of man each destined to one end, in order
to prevent any contestation of labour conditions. His anthroposociology thus aimed at blocking social conict by
establishing a xed, hierarchical social order[92]
The Third Reichs racial policies, its eugenics programs

and the extermination of Jews in the Holocaust, as well as
Romani people in the Porrajmos (the Romani Holocaust)
and others minorities led to a change in opinions about
scientic research into race after the war. Changes within
scientic disciplines, such as the rise of the Boasian
school of anthropology in the United States contributed
The same year, William Z. Ripley used identical racial
to this shift. These theories were strongly denounced in
classication in The Races of Europe (1899), which would
the 1950 UNESCO statement, signed by internationally
have a great inuence in the United States. Other scienrenowned scholars, and titled The Race Question.
tic authors include H.S. Chamberlain at the end of the
19th century (a British citizen who naturalized himself as
Polygenism and racial typologies Further informa- German because of his admiration for the Aryan race)
and Madison Grant, a eugenicist and author of The Passtion: Polygenism and Typology (anthropology)
Works such as Arthur de Gobineau's An Essay on the In- ing of the Great Race (1916). Madison Grant provided
statistics for the Immigration Act of 1924, which severely
restricted immigration of Jews, Slavs, and southern Europeans, who were subsequently hindered in seeking to
escape Nazi Germany.[93]
Madison Grants map, from 1916, charting the present distribution of European races, with the Nordics in red, the Alpines in
green, and the Mediterraneans in yellow.
Human zoos Human zoos (called People Shows),

were an important means of bolstering popular racism
by connecting it to scientic racism: they were both
objects of public curiosity and of anthropology and
anthropometry.[94][95] Joice Heth, an African American
slave, was displayed by P.T. Barnum in 1836, a few years
after the exhibition of Saartjie Baartman, the Hottentot
Venus, in England. Such exhibitions became common
in the New Imperialism period, and remained so until
World War II. Carl Hagenbeck, inventor of the modern
zoos, exhibited animals beside humans who were considered savages.[96][97]
equality of the Human Races (18531855) may be considered as one of the rst theorizations of this new racism,
founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed
the former racial discourse, of Boulainvilliers for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality,
which changed over time. Gobineau, thus, attempted to
frame racism within the terms of biological dierences
among humans, giving it the legitimacy of biology. He
was one of the rst theorists to postulate polygenism, stating that there were, at the origins of the world, various
discrete races.
Congolese pygmy Ota Benga was displayed in 1906 by

eugenicist Madison Grant, head of the Bronx Zoo, as an
attempt to illustrate the missing link between humans
and orangutans: thus, racism was tied to Darwinism, creating a social Darwinist ideology that tried to ground itself in Darwin's scientic discoveries. The 1931 Paris
Colonial Exhibition displayed Kanaks from New Caledonia.[98] A Congolese village was on display as late as
1958 at the Brussels World Fair.
Gobineaus theories would be expanded, in France, by

Georges Vacher de Lapouge (18541936)'s typology of
races, who published in 1899 The Aryan and his Social Role, in which he claimed that the white, "Aryan
race, "dolichocephalic", was opposed to the brachycephalic race, of whom the "Jew" was the archetype.
Vacher de Lapouge thus created a hierarchical classication of races, in which he identied the "Homo europaeus (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "Homo alpinus"
(Auvergnat, Turkish, etc.), and nally the "Homo mediterraneus" (Neapolitan, Andalus, etc.) He assimilated races
3.7.8 Evolutionary theories about the origins of racism

See also: Ethnocentrism
Biologists John Tooby and Leda Cosmides were puzzled
by the fact that in the US race is one of the three characteristics most often used in brief descriptions of individuals (the others are age and sex). They reasoned that
natural selection would not have favoured the evolution of
an instinct for using race as a classication, because for
most of human history, humans almost never encountered
3.7. RACISM
381
3.7.9 Research on inuencing factors
Sociological model of ethnic and racial conict.
members of other races. Tooby and Cosmides hypothesized that modern people use race as a proxy (rough-andready indicator) for coalition membership, since a betterthan-random guess about which side another person is
on will be helpful if one does not actually know in advance.
Their colleague Robert Kurzban designed an experiment
whose results appeared to support this hypothesis. Using the Memory confusion protocol, they presented subjects with pictures of individuals and sentences, allegedly
spoken by these individuals, which presented two sides
of a debate. The errors that the subjects made in recalling who said what indicated that they sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker of the same race as the
correct speaker, although they also sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker on the same side as
the correct speaker. In a second run of the experiment,
the team also distinguished the sides in the debate by
clothing of similar colors; and in this case the eect of
racial similarity in causing mistakes almost vanished, being replaced by the color of their clothing. In other words,
the rst group of subjects, with no clues from clothing,
used race as a visual guide to guessing who was on which
side of the debate; the second group of subjects used the
clothing color as their main visual clue, and the eect of
race became very small.[99]
Some research suggests that ethnocentric thinking may
have actually contributed to the development of cooperation. Political scientists Ross Hammond and Robert
Axelrod created a computer simulation wherein virtual
individuals were randomly assigned one of a variety of
skin colors, and then one of a variety of trading strategies: be color-blind, favor those of your own color, or
favor those of other colors. They found that the ethnocentric individuals clustered together, then grew until all
the non-ethnocentric individuals were wiped out.[100]
In The Selsh Gene, evolutionary biologist Richard
Dawkins writes that Blood-feuds and inter-clan warfare
are easily interpretable in terms of Hamilton's genetic theory. Dawkins writes that racial prejudice, while not evolutionarily adaptive, could be interpreted as an irrational
generalization of a kin-selected tendency to identify with
individuals physically resembling oneself, and to be nasty
to individuals dierent in appearance.[101] Simulationbased experiments in evolutionary game theory have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of
ethnocentric-strategy phenotypes.[102]
Research has examined factors inuencing tolerance,

in particular ethnic tolerance, prejudice, and trust.
Authoritarian personality has been associated with prejudice and intolerance. Education has an inverse association which is stronger in established democracies than
in emerging. Dierent groups are viewed dierently and
including illegal groups in tolerance surveys may reduce
tolerance levels in all countries except the United States.
Increased contact with other groups increase tolerance.
Increased perception of threat, including from the home
land of an ethnic minority, reduces tolerance. Competition over jobs reduces tolerance and occupational
segregation reduced ethnic conicts and ethnic prejudice
in studies in the United States and Yugoslavia. Tolerance
is increased by democratic stability and a federal system.
Increased ethnic heterogeneity increases tolerance up to
a point but beyond this tolerance decreases. The negative eect of increased ethnic heterogeneity is stronger
when looking at larger areas such as nations compared
to smaller areas such as neighborhoods. This may be
due to the contact eect being relatively more important
at local levels while the threat eect becomes more important in larger areas.[103] One study, published by Carl
Bell, revealed that racist attitudes may be indicative of
a narcissistic personality disorder or of a regression to
primitive narcissistic functioning secondary to environmental forces.[104]
3.7.10 History
In Antiquity
Edith Sanders in 1969 cited the Babylonian Talmud,
which divides mankind between the three sons of Noah,
stating that the descendants of Ham are cursed by being black, and [it] depicts Ham as a sinful man and his
progeny as degenerates.[105] Although the curse of Ham
has been used as an explanation for the origin of darkskinned people since the 3rd century A.D., David M.
Goldenberg (2005) writes that this was based on a theory that dierent climates and sun exposure eect semen
composition and through this the physical composition
of descendants. Furthermore, the earliest appearance of
dark skin as a punishment for the descendants of Ham
directly related to Black Africans does not appear until the 9th or 10th century (in the Pirqei de-Rabbenu haQadosh). Earlier sources assign the punishment of blackness to Ham himself and make no mention of the people
of Kush or their skin being a curse. As well, Goldenberg
goes on to explain that the earlier (3rd century) sources
understood dark skin to include not only sub-Saharan
Africa but also:
... the Copts, Fezzan, Zaghawa, Brbr, Indians, Arabs, the people of Marw, the inhabitants of the islands in the Indian Ocean,
382

Racism rests on two basic assumptions:
that a correlation exists between physical characteristics and moral qualities; that mankind
is divisible into superior and inferior stocks.
Racism, thus dened, is a modern conception,
for prior to the XVIth century there was virtually nothing in the life and thought of the West
that can be described as racist. To prevent misunderstanding a clear distinction must be made
between racism and ethnocentrism ... The Ancient Hebrews, in referring to all who were not
Hebrews as Gentiles, were indulging in ethnocentrism, not in racism. ... So it was with the
Hellenes who denominated all non-Hellenes
whether the wild Scythians or the Egyptians
whom they acknowledged as their mentors in
the arts if civilizationBarbarians, the term
denoting that which was strange or foreign.[111]
Middle Ages and Renaissance
Further information: Limpieza de sangre
In some interpretations of the biblical story of Noah, Ham and

his descendants were cursed with black skin
even the Chinese, as well as the Ethiopians

(Habash), Zanj, Buja, and Nubians. In other
words, the coloured people of the world.[106]
Bernard Lewis has cited the Greek philosopher Aristotle
who, in his discussion of slavery, stated that while Greeks
are free by nature, 'barbarians' (non-Greeks) are slaves
by nature, in that it is in their nature to be more willing to submit to despotic government.[107] Though Aristotle does not specify any particular races, he argues that
people from outside Greece are more prone to the burden of slavery than those from Greece.[108] Such protoracism and ethnocentrism must be looked at within context, because a modern understanding of racism based on
hereditary inferiority (modern racism based in: eugenics
and scientic racism) was not yet developed and it is unclear whether Aristotle believed the natural inferiority of
Barbarians was caused by environment and climate (like
many of his contemporaries) or by birth.[109] While Aristotle makes remarks about the most natural slaves being
those with strong bodies and slave souls (unt for rule,
unintelligent) which would seem to imply a physical basis for discrimination, he also explicitly states that the
right kind of souls and bodies don't always go together,
implying that the greatest determinate for inferiority and
natural slaves versus natural masters is the soul, not the
body.[110] This proto-racism is seen as an important precursor to modern racism by classicist Benjamin Isaac.
In the Middle East and North Africa region, racist opinions were expressed within the works of some of its historians and geographers[112] including Al-Muqaddasi, AlJahiz, Al-Masudi, Abu Rayhan Biruni, Nasir al-Din alTusi, and Ibn Qutaybah.[112] In the 14th century CE, the
Tunisian scholar Ibn Khaldun wrote:
- :"beyond [known peoples of black West
Africa] to the south there is no civilization
in the proper sense. There are only humans
who are closer to dumb animals than to rational beings. They live in thickets and caves,
and eat herbs and unprepared grain. They frequently eat each other. They cannot be considered human beings. Therefore, the Negro nations are, as a rule, submissive to slavery, because (Negroes) have little that is (essentially) human and possess attributes that are
quite similar to those of dumb animals, as we
have stated.[112][113]
Though the Qur'an expresses no racial prejudice, such

prejudices later developed among Arabs for a variety of reasons:[107] their extensive conquests and slave
trade; the inuence of Aristotelian ideas regarding slavery, which some Muslim philosophers directed towards
Zanj (Bantu[114] ) and Turkic peoples;[107] and the inuence of Judeo-Christian ideas regarding divisions among
humankind.[115] In response to such views, the AfroArab author Al-Jahiz, himself having a Zanj grandfather, wrote a book entitled Superiority Of The Blacks To
The Whites,[116] and explained why the Zanj were black
Historian Dante A. Puzzo, in his discussion of Aristotle, in terms of environmental determinism in the On the
racism, and the ancient world writes that:
Zanj chapter of The Essays.[117] By the 14th century,
3.7. RACISM
a signicant number of slaves came from sub-Saharan
Africa, leading to the likes of Egyptian historian AlAbshibi (13881446) writing: It is said that when the
[black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hungry, he
steals.[118] According to J. Philippe Rushton, Arab relations with blacks whom the Muslims had dealt as slave
traders for over 1,000 years could be summed up as follows:
383
back sections of the peninsula from its Moorish occupiers, and a nobleman demonstrated
his pedigree by holding up his sword arm to
display the ligree of blue-blooded veins beneath his pale skinproof that his birth had
not been contaminated by the dark-skinned enemy. Sangre azul, blue blood, was thus a euphemism for being a white manSpains own
particular reminder that the rened footsteps
of the aristocracy through history carry the
rather less rened spoor of racism.[122]
Following the expulsion of most Sephardic Jews from the
Iberian peninsula, the remaining Jews and Muslims were
forced to convert to Roman Catholicism, becoming "New
Christians" which were despised and discriminated by the
"Old Christians". An Inquisition was carried out by members of the Dominican Order in order to weed out converts that still practiced Judaism and Islam in secret. The
system and ideology of the limpieza de sangre ostracized
Christian converts from society, regardless of their actual
degree of sincerity in their faith.
13th-century slave market in Yemen. Yemen ocially abolished

slavery in 1962.[119]
It should be noted that ethnic prejudice among some elite

Arabs was not limited to darker-skinned black people,
but was also directed towards fairer-skinned ruddy people (including Persians, Turks, Caucasians and Europeans), while Arabs referred to themselves as swarthy
people.[120]
However, the Umayyad Caliphate invaded Hispania and
founded the civilization of Al-Andalus, where an era of
religious tolerance and a Golden age of Jewish culture
lasted for six centuries.[121] It was followed by a violent
Reconquista under the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand V
and Isabella I. The Catholic Spaniards then formulated
the Cleanliness of blood doctrine. It was during this time
in history that the Western concept of aristocratic "blue
blood" emerged in a highly racialized and implicitly white
supremacist context, as author Robert Lacey explains:
It was the Spaniards who gave the world
the notion that an aristocrats blood is not red
but blue. The Spanish nobility started taking
shape around the ninth century in classic military fashion, occupying land as warriors on
horseback. They were to continue the process for more than ve hundred years, clawing
In Portugal, the legal distinction between New and Old

Christian was only ended through a legal decree issued by
the Marquis of Pombal in 1772, almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The
limpieza de sangre doctrine was also very common in the
colonization of the Americas, where it led to the racial
separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe ones
precise race and, by consequence, ones place in society. This precise classication was described by Eduardo
Galeano in the Open Veins of Latin America (1971). It
included, among others terms, mestizo (50% Spaniard
and 50% Native American), castizo (75% European and
25% Native American), Spaniard (87.5% European and
12.5% Native American), Mulatto (50% European and
50% African), Albarazado (43.75% Native American,
29.6875% European, and 26.5625% African), etc.
At the end of the Renaissance, the Valladolid debate
(15501551) concerning the treatment of natives of the
"New World" opposed the Dominican friar and Bishop
of Chiapas Bartolom de Las Casas to another Dominican philosopher Juan Gins de Seplveda. The latter argued that Indians were natural slaves because they had
no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. Thus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with
Catholic theology and natural law. To the contrary, Bartolom de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were
free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to Catholic theology. It was one
of the many controversies concerning racism, slavery and
Eurocentrism that would arise in the following centuries.
Although antisemitism has a long European history, related to Christianism (anti-Judaism), racism itself is frequently described as a modern phenomenon. In the view
of the French philosopher and historian Michel Foucault,
384
the rst formulation of racism emerged in the Early Modern period as the "discourse of race struggle, a historical
and political discourse, which Foucault opposed to the
philosophical and juridical discourse of sovereignty.[123]
Foucault thus argued that the rst appearance of racism
as a social discourse (as opposed to simple xenophobia,
which some might argue has existed in all places and
times) may be found during the 1688 Glorious Revolution in Great Britain, in Edward Coke or John Lilburne's
work.
However, this discourse of race struggle, as interpreted
by Foucault, must be distinguished from the 19th century biological racism, also known as race science or
scientic racism. Indeed, this early modern discourse
has many points of dierence with modern racism. First
of all, in this discourse of race struggle, race is not
considered a biological notion which would divide humanity into distinct biological groups but as a historical notion. Moreover, this discourse is opposed to the
sovereigns discourse: it is used by the bourgeoisie, the
people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against
the monarchy. This discourse, which rst appeared in
Great Britain, was then carried on in France by people
such as Boulainvilliers, Nicolas Frret, and then, during the 1789 French Revolution, Sieys, and afterward
Augustin Thierry and Cournot. Boulainvilliers, which
created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval
France, conceived the race as something closer to the
sense of nation, that is, in his times, the people.

biological races, which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and social conicts.
Michel Foucault traced the genealogy of modern racism
to this medieval historical and political discourse of race
struggle. According to him, it divided itself in the 19th
century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was
incorporated by racists, biologists and eugenicists, who
gave it the modern sense of race and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a "state racism" (e.g.
Nazism). On the other hand, Marxists also seized this
discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle that provided the real engine of history and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the essentialist notion of race into the
historical notion of "class struggle", dened by socially
structured position: capitalist or proletarian. In The Will
to Knowledge (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the race struggle discourse: Sigmund Freud's
psychoanalysis, which opposed the concepts of blood
heredity", prevalent in the 19th century racist discourse.
Authors such as Hannah Arendt, in her 1951 book The
Origins of Totalitarianism, have said that the racist ideology (popular racism) that developed at the end of the 19th
century helped legitimize the imperialist conquests of foreign territories and atrocities that sometimes accompanied them (such as the Herero and Namaqua Genocide of
19041907 or the Armenian Genocide of 19151917).
Rudyard Kipling's poem The White Mans Burden (1899)
is one of the more famous illustrations of the belief in the
inherent superiority of the European culture over the rest
of the world, though also it is also thought to be a satirical appraisal of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus
helped legitimize the conquest and incorporation of foreign territories into an empire, which were regarded as a
humanitarian obligation partially as a result of these racist
beliefs.
He conceived France as divided between various nations the unied nation-state is, of course, here
an anachronism which themselves formed dierent
races. Boulainvilliers opposed the absolute monarchy,
who tried to bypass the aristocracy by establishing a direct relationship to the Third Estate. Thus, he created this
theory of the French aristocrats as being the descendants
of foreign invaders, whom he called the "Franks", while
the Third Estate constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished Gallo-Romans, who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of
the right of conquest. Early modern racism was opposed
to nationalism and the nation-state: the Comte de Montlosier, in exile during the French Revolution, who borrowed Boulainvilliers discourse on the Nordic race as
being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian
Gauls, thus showed his contempt for the Third Estate
calling it this new people born of slaves ... mixture of all
A late-19th-century illustration from Ireland from One or Two
races and of all times".
19th century
Neglected Points of View by H. Strickland Constable shows an

alleged similarity between Irish Iberian and Negro features in
contrast to the higher Anglo-Teutonic.
While 19th century racism became closely intertwined

with nationalism,[124] leading to the ethnic nationalist
discourse that identied the race to the "folk", leading to such movements as pan-Germanism, Zionism,[125]
pan-Turkism, pan-Arabism, and pan-Slavism, medieval
racism precisely divided the nation into various non-
However, during the 19th century, West European colonial powers were involved in the suppression of the Arab
slave trade in Africa,[126] as well as in suppression of the
slave trade in West Africa.[127] Some Europeans during
the time period objected to injustices that occurred in
some colonies and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peo-
3.7. RACISM
ples. Thus, when the Hottentot Venus was displayed in
England in the beginning of the 19th century, the African
Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The
same year that Kipling published his poem, Joseph Conrad published Heart of Darkness (1899), a clear criticism
of the Congo Free State owned by Leopold II of Belgium.
Examples of racial theories used include the creation of
the Hamitic ethno-linguistic group during the European
exploration of Africa. It was then restricted by Karl
Friedrich Lepsius (18101877) to non-Semitic AfroAsiatic languages.[128]
The term Hamite was applied to dierent populations
within Africa, mainly comprising Ethiopians, Eritreans,
Somalis, Berbers, and the ancient Egyptians. Hamites
were regarded as Caucasoid peoples who probably originated in either Arabia or Asia on the basis of their cultural, physical and linguistic similarities with the peoples of those areas.[129][130][131] Europeans considered
Hamites to be more civilized than Black Africans, and
more akin to themselves and Semitic peoples.[132] In the
rst two-thirds of the 20th century, the Hamitic race was,
in fact, considered one of the branches of the Caucasian
race, along with the Indo-Europeans, Semites, and the
Mediterranean race.
385
its founder Henry Clay stating; unconquerable prejudice
resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate
with the free whites of this country. It was desirable,
therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the
population of the country, to drain them o.[134] Racism
spread throughout the New World in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Whitecapping, which started
in Indiana in the late 19th century, soon spread throughout all of North America, causing many African laborers
to ee from the land they worked on. In the US during the 1860s, racist posters were used during election
campaigns. In one of these racist posters (see above),
a black man is depicted lounging idly in the foreground
as one white man ploughs his eld and another chops
wood. Accompanying labels are: In the sweat of thy
face shalt thou eat thy bread, and The white man must
work to keep his children and pay his taxes. The black
man wonders, Whar is de use for me to work as long
as dey make dese appropriations. Above in a cloud is
an image of the Freedmans Bureau! Negro Estimate of
Freedom!" The bureau is pictured as a large domed building resembling the U.S. Capitol and is inscribed Freedom and No Work. Its columns and walls are labeled,
Candy, Rum, Gin, Whiskey, Sugar Plums, Indolence, White Women, Apathy, White Sugar, Idleness, and so on.
However, the Hamitic peoples themselves were often

deemed to have failed as rulers, which was usually as- On June 5, 1873, Sir Francis Galton, distinguished Encribed to interbreeding with Negroes. In the mid-20th glish explorer and cousin of Charles Darwin, wrote in a
century, the German scholar Carl Meinhof (18571944) letter to The Times:
claimed that the Bantu race was formed by a merger
of Hamitic and Negro races. The Hottentots (Nama
My proposal is to make the encouragement
or Khoi) were formed by the merger of Hamitic and
of Chinese settlements of Africa a part of our
Bushmen (San) races both being termed nowadays as
national policy, in the belief that the Chinese
Khoisan peoples).
immigrants would not only maintain their position, but that they would multiply and their
descendants supplant the inferior Negro race ...
I should expect that the African seaboard, now
sparsely occupied by lazy, palavering savages,
might in a few years be tenanted by industrious,
order-loving Chinese, living either as a semidetached dependency of China, or else in perfect
freedom under their own law.[135]
20th century
One in a series of posters attacking Radical Republicans on the

issue of black surage, issued during the Pennsylvania gubernatorial election of 1866.
In the United States in the early 19th century, the

American Colonization Society was established as the
primary vehicle for proposals to return black Americans
to greater freedom and equality in Africa.[133] The colonization eort resulted from a mixture of motives with
Further information: Holocaust, Racial policy of Nazi

Germany, Racial segregation in the United States and
Rwandan Genocide
During World War II and the period of the Nazi regime in
Europe, all of the Jews, Gypsies, Blacks, mixed race people, and Slavic peoplemainly ethnic Poles, Serbs, and
Russiansalong with other ethnic groups whose racial
origin were non-European (with some small exceptions
i.e. the "honorary Aryans", the "Indische Legion", or
the "Free Arabian Legion"), according to the Nazi ideology were classied as subhumans (Untermenschen) and
were viewed as the opposite to the superior Aryan mas-
386

in order to ensure steady food supplies for the German
people and troops.[140]
Heinrich Himmler speech to about 100 SS Group Leaders
in Posen, German-occupied Poland, 1943:
Naked Soviet POWs in Mauthausen concentration camp. Between June 1941 and January 1942, the Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million Red Army POWs, whom they viewed as
subhuman.[136]
Drinking fountain from mid-20th century with AfricanAmerican drinking
ter race (Herrenvolk). The Nazi philosophy was that the

Germans were part of a "master race", and therefore had
the right to expand their territory and enslave or kill members of other races deemed inferior.[137] Approximately
6 million Jews were killed by the Nazis during the Holocaust. In the longer term, the Nazis planned to exterminate some 3045 million Slavs (mostly Poles and Serbs),
however some of them were seen as good material for
slaves.[138] Eventually over 2.5 million ethnic Poles, 0.7
million Gypsies, and 0.5 million ethnic Serbs died during
the World War II, and were among the main non-Jewish
victims of the Holocaust.[139]
Before Nazi Germany invaded Poland, Nazis prepared
a special settlement plan named Generalplan Ost (Master Plan East) which foresaw the eventual expulsion of
more than 50 million non-Germanized Slavic peoples
of Central Europe and Eastern Europe through forced
migration and partial extermination of those Slavs by
starvation. Also, according to the Nazi plans for Eastern Europe, some of the Balts were to be expelled beyond the Ural Mountains and into Siberia. In their
place, Germans would settle in an extended living space
(Lebensraum) of the 1000-Year Empire (Tausendjhriges
Reich). Herbert Backe was one of the orchestrators of the
Hunger Planthe idea to starve tens of millions of Slavs
What happens to the Russians, what happens to the Czechs, is a matter of utter indifference to me ... Whether the other peoples
live in comfort or perish of hunger interests me
only in so far as we need them as slaves for
our culture; apart from that it does not interest me. Whether or not 10,000 Russian women
collapse from exhaustion while digging a tank
ditch interests me only in so far as the tank
ditch is completed for Germany ... We Germans, who are the only people in the world
who have a decent attitude to animals, will also
adopt a decent attitude to these human animals,
but it is a crime against our own blood to worry
about them and to bring them ideals ... I shall
speak to you here with all frankness of a very
serious subject. We shall now discuss it absolutely openly among ourselves, nevertheless
we shall never speak of it in public. I mean
the evacuation of the Jews, the extermination
of the Jewish race.[141]
Serious race riots in Durban between Indians and Zulus
erupted in 1949.[142] Ne Win's rise to power in Burma
in 1962 and his relentless persecution of resident aliens
led to an exodus of some 300,000 Burmese Indians.[143]
They migrated to escape racial discrimination and wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise a few years later
in 1964.[144] The Zanzibar Revolution of January 12,
1964 put an end to the local Arab dynasty.[145] Thousands
of Arabs and Indians in Zanzibar were massacred in riots,
and thousands more were detained or ed the island.[146]
On 4 August 1972, Idi Amin, President of Uganda, ethnically cleansed Ugandas Asians giving them 90 days to
leave the country.[147]
Shortly after world war II the South African National
Party took control over the governance in South Africa.
Between 1948 and 1994, the Apartheid regime took
place. This regime based their ideologies on the racial
separation of whites and nonwhites including the unequal rights of non-whites. Several protests and violence occurred during the Apartheid in South Africa, the
most famous of these include the Sharpeville Massacre
in 1960, the Soweto uprising in 1976, the Church Street
bombing of 1983 and the Cape Town peace march of
1989.[148]
Contemporary
During the Congo Civil War (19982003), Pygmies were
hunted down like game animals and eaten. Both sides of
the war regarded them as subhuman and some say their
3.7. RACISM
387
Some 70,000 black African Mauritanians were expelled
from Mauritania in the late 1980s.[168] In the Sudan, black
African captives in the civil war were often enslaved,
and female prisoners were often used sexually.[169] The
Darfur conict has been described by some as a racial
matter.[170] In October 2006, Niger announced that it
would deport the Arabs living in the Dia region of eastern Niger to Chad.[171] This population numbered about
150,000.[172] While the Government collected Arabs in
preparation for the deportation, two girls died, reportedly
after eeing Government forces, and three women suffered miscarriages.[173]
On 12 September 2011, Julius Malema, youth leader of South

Africas ruling ANC, was found guilty of hate speech for singing
'Shoot the Boer' at a number of public events.[149]
esh can confer magical powers. UN human rights activists reported in 2003 that rebels had carried out acts of
cannibalism. Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti
pygmies, has asked the UN Security Council to recognise cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act
of genocide.[150] A report released by the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination condemns Botswana's treatment of the 'Bushmen'
as racist.[151] In 2008, the tribunal of the 15-nation South- The burnt out remains of Govindas Indian Restaurant in Fiji,
ern African Development Community (SADC) accused May 2000
Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe of having a racist
The Jakarta riots of May 1998 targeted many Chinese
attitude towards white people.[152][153]
Indonesians.[174] The anti-Chinese legislation was in the
The mass demonstrations and riots against African stuIndonesian constitution until 1998. Resentment against
dents in Nanjing, China, lasted from December 1988 to
Chinese workers has led to violent confrontations in
January 1989.[154] Bar owners in central Beijing had been
Africa[175][176][177] and Oceania.[178][179] Anti-Chinese riforced by the police not to serve black people or Mongooting, involving tens of thousands of people,[180] broke
lians during the 2008 Summer Olympics, as the police
out in Papua New Guinea in May 2009.[181] Indoassociates these ethnic groups with illegal prostitution and
Fijians suered violent attacks after the Fiji coup of
drug tracking.[155] In November 2009, British newspa2000.[182] Non-indigenous citizens of Fiji are subject
per The Guardian reported that Lou Jing, of mixed Chito discrimination.[183][184] Racial divisions also exist
nese and African parentage, had emerged as the most fain Guyana,[185] Malaysia,[186] Trinidad and Tobago,[187]
mous talent show contestant in China and has become the
Madagascar,[188] or South Africa.[189]
subject of intense debate because of her skin color.[156]
Her attention in the media opened serious debates about Israel, as well as elements within Israeli society has been
accused of discriminatory behavior towards Ethiopian
racism in China and racial prejudice.[157]
Jews and other non-white Jews.[190] Accusations of
In Asia and Latin America, light skin is seen as more
racism range from birth control policies,[191][192] educaattractive.[158] Thus, skin whitening cosmetic products
tion, and housing discrimination.[193]
are popular in East Asia[159] and India.[8] Some activists, most prominently at the UN conference at One form of racism in the United States was enforced
Durban, have asserted that the caste system in In- racial segregation which existed until the 1960s when it
dia is a form of racial discrimination,[160][161] although was outlawed. It has been argued that this separation of
many prominent[162] scholars debunk this viewpoint as races continues to exist today de facto. The causes of seg"scientically nonsense",[163] since there are no consis- regation vary from lack of access to loans and resources
[194][195]
tent racial dierences between the dierent castes in to discrimination in realty.
India. These activists utilize genetic studies that claim
to corroborate their view,[164] although other more detailed studies have challenged these assertions as overtly 3.7.11 As state-sponsored activity
simplistic[165][166] Currently, there are approximately 165
million Dalits (formerly known as untouchables) in Main articles: Nazism and race, Racial policy of
India.[167]
Nazi Germany, Racism in Germany, Generalplan Ost,
388
Eugenics in Showa Japan, Apartheid in South Africa, 3.7.12 Inter-minority variants

Racial segregation in the United States, Ketuanan
Melayu, Anti-Chinese legislation in Indonesia and White Main article: Interminority racism
Australia policy
State racismthat is, institutions and practices of a
Prejudiced thinking among and between minority groups
does occur.
In Europe
Separate white and colored entrances to a cafe in North Carolina, 1940
nation-state that are grounded in racist ideologyhas

played a major role in all instances of settler colonialism, from the United States to Australia. It also played
a prominent role in the Nazi German regime and fascist
regimes in Europe, and in the rst part of Japans Shwa
period. These governments advocated and implemented
policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in case of
Nazism, genocidal.[196][197] The politics of Zimbabwe
promote discrimination against whites, in an eort to ethnically cleanse the country.[198]
Legislative state racism is known to have been enforced
by the National Party of South Africa during their
Apartheid regime between 1948 and 1994. Here a series of Apartheid legislation in South Africa was passed
through the legal systems to make it legal for white South
Africans to have rights which were superior to those of
non-white South Africans. Non-white South Africans
were not allowed involvement in any governing matters,
including voting; access to quality healthcare; the provision of basic services, including clean water; electricity;
as well as access to adequate schooling. Non-white South
Africans were also prevented from accessing certain public areas, using certain public transportation and were required to live only in certain designated areas. Non-white
South Africans were taxed dierently from white South
Africans and were required to carry on them at all times
additional documentation, which later became known as
dom passes, to certify their non-white South African
citizenship. All of these legislative racial laws were abolished through a series of equal human rights laws passed
at the end of Apartheid in the early 1990s.
The current constitution of Liberia, as enacted in 1984,
is racist[199] in its Article 27, as it does not allow Whites
to become Liberian citizens:[200] only persons who are
Negroes or of Negro descent shall qualify by birth or by
naturalization to be citizens of Liberia.[201]
In Britain, tensions between minority groups can be just

as strong as those between minorities and the majority
population.[202] In Birmingham, there have been longterm divisions between the Black and South Asian communities, which were illustrated in the Handsworth riots and in the smaller 2005 Birmingham riots.[203] In
Dewsbury, a Yorkshire town with a relatively high Muslim population, there have been tensions and minor civil
disturbances between Kurds and South Asians.[204][205]
In France, home to Europes largest population of
Muslims (about 6 million) as well as the continents
largest community of Jews (about 600,000), anti-Jewish
violence, property destruction, and racist language has
been increasing over the last several years. Jewish leaders perceive the Muslim population as intensifying antisemitism in France, mainly among Muslims of Arab or
African heritage, but also this antisemitism is perceived
as also growing among Caribbean islanders from former
colonies.[206][207]
In North America
For example, conicts between African Americans and
Korean Americans (notably in the Los Angeles riots of
1992), by blacks towards Jews (such as the riots in Crown
Heights in 1991), between new immigrant groups (such
as Latinos), or towards whites.[208][209][210][211]
African-Americans in Dallas boycotting a Korean owned Kwik

Stop in a mostly black neighborhood, March 2012.[212]
There has been a long-running racial tension between

African Americans and Mexican Americans.[213][214][215]
3.7. RACISM
There have been several signicant riots in California
prisons in which Mexican American inmates and African
Americans have specically targeted each other based on
racial reasons.[215][216] There have been reports of racially
motivated attacks against African Americans who have
moved into neighborhoods occupied mostly by Mexican
Americans, and vice versa.[217][218]
In the late 1920s in California, there was animosity between the Filipinos and the Mexicans and between European Americans and Filipino Americans since they competed for the same jobs.[219] Recently, there has also
been an increase in racial violence between African immigrants and Blacks who have already lived in the country
for generations.[220]
389
as the African-American Civil Rights Movement and the
Anti-Apartheid Movement were examples of anti-racist
movements. Nonviolent resistance is sometimes an element of anti-racial movements, although this was not always the case. Hate crime laws, armative action, and
bans on racist speech are also examples of government
policy designed to suppress racism.
International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
UNESCO marks March 21 as the yearly International

Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, in
memory of the events that occurred on March 21, 1960
Over 50 members of the Azusa 13 gang, associated with in Sharpeville, South Africa, where police killed demonthe Mexican Maa, were indicted in 2011 for harassing strators protesting against the apartheid regime.
and intimidating African Americans.[221]
3.7.13
Unconscious Racism
3.7.15 See also

Allports Scale
Based on Forbes Leadership website, understanding race

includes understanding how race operates in our minds
out of awareness. Widely reported examples include signicant racial bias in job applications, restaurant service, to court cases.[222] According to social psychologist Jennifer L. Eberhardt, a professor in Stanford University, race can inuence our visual processing and how
our minds work when we are exposed to faces of dierent
colors subliminally. As she says, blackness is so associated with crime you're ready to pick out these crime objects. These exposures inuence our mind and can cause
unconscious racism in our behavior towards other people
or even objects. Racism goes beyond prejudicial discrimination and bigotry. It arises from stereotypes and fears
of which we are not aware.[223]
Discrimination based on skin color

Fascism
Index of racism-related articles
Labeling theory
Neo-Nazism
Racial bias in criminal news
Racial fetishism
Racial literacy
Racial segregation
3.7.14
Anti-racism
Main article: Anti-racism

Anti-racism includes beliefs, actions, movements, and
Racialization
Racism in the LGBT community
Research Materials: Max Planck Society Archive
Reverse discrimination
Romantic racism
Scientic racism
Social interpretations of race
Sociology of race and ethnic relations
An anti-racism rally held outside Sydney Town Hall, December

2005.
policies adopted or developed to oppose racism. In general, it promotes an egalitarian society in which people
are not discriminated against in race. Movements such
Stereotype threat
World Civil Class & Race War on a Selection of
Drug Users
Yellow Peril
390
3.7.16
References & notes
[1] Oxford English Dictionary, Racism". Retrieved 24 Aug

2015. Prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed
against someone of a dierent race based on the belief that
ones own race is superior:
[2] SCHMID, W. THOMAS (April 1996). The Denition
of Racism. Journal of Applied Philosophy 13 (1): 31
40. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5930.1996.tb00147.x.
[3] Racism Oxford Dictionaries
[4] Racism in R. Schefer. 2008 Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. SAGE. p. 1113
[5] Newman, D. M. (2012). Sociology : exploring the architecture of everyday life (9th ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE. p.
405. ISBN 978-1-4129-8729-5. racism: Belief that humans are subdivided into distinct groups that are dierent
in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can
be ranked as superior or inferior.
[6] Reilly, Kevin; Kaufman, Stephen; Bodino, Angela (2003).
Racism : a global reader. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe. pp.
1516. ISBN 978-0-7656-1060-7.
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[17] International Convention on the Elimination of All
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[18] Bamshad, Michael; Steve E. Olson (December 2003).
Does Race Exist?". Scientic American. If races are dened as genetically discrete groups, no. But researchers
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[19] racialism, n.. OED Online. September 2013. Oxford
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[20] racism, n.. OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. (Accessed December 03, 2013).
[21] Miles, Robert (1989). Racism. Routledge. p. 42. ISBN
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[22] The term racism was used as the title of a 1930s book,
and possibly coined, by sexologist and homosexual activist
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[7] Eberhardt, Jennifer Lynn; Fiske, Susan T (1998). Confronting Racism: The Problem and the Response. SAGE.
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[23] racism, n.. OED Online. Oxford University Press.

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power plus prejudice: A social psychological equation for
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[11] Hoyt, Carlos. The Pedagogy of the Meaning of Racism:
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[32] Wellman, David T. (1993). Portraits of White Racism.
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[33] Cazenave, Nol A.; Darlene Alvarez (1999). Defending
the White Race:White Male Faculty Opposition to a White
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[34] http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/
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[50] Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2010). Social

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[37] Takashi Fujitani; Georey Miles White; Lisa Yoneyama

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[38] Miller, Stuart Creighton (1984-09-10). Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899
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[39] Opinion archive, International Herald Tribune (February
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[54] Pettigrew, T. F. (1989). The nature of modern racism
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[56] Antipode:
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[42] The Mark of a Criminal Record, 2003, American Journal of Sociology, by Devah Pager
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[44] The Struggle for Access in Law School Admissions.
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[45] Bertrand, M.; Mullainathan, S. (2004). Are Emily
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[59] Parker, Laurence (1999). Race Is-- Race Isn't: Critical
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denition glosses over individual responsibility and leaves
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bad choices. Analysing ethnic education policy-making
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[63] Gregory, Derek. (2004). The Colonial Present. Blackwell
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[64] Said, Edward. (1978) Orientalism. New York: Pantheon
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[70] Pierre-Andr Taguie, La force du prjug, 1987 (French)
[71] Race Studies in Denmark (PDF). Geogrask Tidsskrift
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[72] DuBois, W. E. B. (1897). The Conservation of Races.
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[73] Marius Turda (2004). The idea of national superiority in
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[77] Pascal Bruckner (16 June 2008). Boycot Durban II.
[78] On this "nationalities question and the problem of nationalism, see the relevant articles for a non-exhaustive account of the state of contemporary historical researches;
famous works include: Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (1983); Eric Hobsbawm,The Age of Revolution :
Europe 17891848 (1962), Nations and Nationalism since
1780 : programme, myth, reality (1990); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (1991); Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital and European States AD 9901992 (1990);
Anthony D. Smith, Theories of Nationalism (1971), etc.
[79] John Stuart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government, 1861
[80] Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
[81] Maurice Barrs, Le Roman de l'nergie nationale (The
Novel of National Energy, a trilogy started in 1897)
[82] Richter, Facing East from Indian Country, p. 208
[83] Eric Morton. Race nad Racism in the works of David
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[87] The Hour of Decision, pp. 227228

[88] Charles Darwin (1871). The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. John Murray. Archived from the
original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-02.
[89] Desmond, Adrian; James Richard Moore (1991). Darwin. Michael Joseph, Penguin Group. ISBN 978-0-71813430-3. OCLC 185764721. pp. 28, 147, 580.
[90] Minorities, Race, and Genomics. Retrieved 2009-0512.
[91] UNESCO, The Race Question, 1950
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3.7.17
Further reading
Gibson, Rich (2004) Against Racism and Nationalism

Graves, Joseph. (2004) The Race Myth NY: Dutton.
Ignatiev, Noel. 1995. How the Irish Became White
NY: Routledge.
Isaac, Benjamin. 1995 The Invention of Racism in
Classical Antiquity Princeton: Princeton University
Press
Allen, Theodore. (1994). 'The Invention of the

White Race: Volume 1 London, UK: Verso.
Lentin, Alana. (2008) Racism: A Beginners Guide

Oxford: One World.
Allen, Theodore. (1997). The Invention of the White

Race: Volume 2 London, UK: Verso.
Lvi-Strauss, Claude (1952), Race and History,

(UNESCO).
Barkan, Elazar (1992), The Retreat of Scientic

Racism : Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and
the United States between the World Wars, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
Memmi, Albert (2000). Racism. University Of

Minnesota Press. ISBN 9780816631650.
Barth, Boris: nbn:de:0159-2010092173 Racism ,

European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: November 16, 2011.
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2003. Racism without
Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of
Racial Inequality in the United States. Rowman &
Littleeld Publishers, Inc.
Dain, Bruce (2002), A Hideous Monster of the Mind
: American Race Theory in the Early Republic,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. (18th
century US racial theory)
Daniels, Jessie (1997), White Lies: Race, Class, Gender and Sexuality in White Supremacist Discourse,
Routledge, New York, NY.
Daniels, Jessie (2009), Cyber Racism: White
Supremacy Online and the New Attack on Civil
Rights, Rowman & Littleeld, Lanham, MD.
Ehrenreich, Eric (2007), The Nazi Ancestral Proof:
Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution,
Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN.
Ewen & Ewen (2006), Typecasting: On the Arts
and Sciences of Human Inequality, Seven Stories
Press, New York, NY.
Feagin, Joe R. (2006). Systemic Racism: A Theory
of Oppression, Routledge: New York, NY.
Feagin, Joe R. (2009). Racist America: Roots,
Current Realities, and Future Reparations, 2nd Edition.Routledge: New York, NY.
Eliav-Feldon, Miriam, Isaac, Benjamin & Ziegler,
Joseph. 2009. The Origins of Racism in the West,
Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
Moody-Adams, Michele (2005), Racism, in

Frey, R.G.; Heath Wellman, Christopher, A
companion to applied ethics, Blackwell Companions to Philosophy, Oxford, UK Malden,
Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 89
101, doi:10.1002/9780470996621.ch7, ISBN
9781405133456.
Rocchio, Vincent F. (2000), Reel Racism : Confronting Hollywoods Construction of Afro-American
Culture, Westview Press.
Smedley, Audrey; Smedley, Brian D. (2005). Race
as Biology if Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem is Real. American Psychologist 60: 1626.
doi:10.1037/0003-066x.60.1.16.
Smedley, Audrey. 2007. Race in North America:
Origins and Evolution of a World View. Boulder,
CO: Westview.
Stoler, Ann Laura (1997), Racial Histories and
Their Regimes of Truth, Political Power and Social Theory 11 (1997), 183206. (historiography of
race and racism)
Taguie, Pierre-Andr (1987), La Force du prjug
: Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles, Tel Gallimard,
La Dcouverte.
Trepagnier, Barbara. 2006. Silent Racism: How
Well-Meaning White People Perpetuate the Racial
Divide. Paradigm Publishers.
Twine, France Winddance (1997), Racism in a
Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White
Supremacy in Brazil, Rutgers University Press.
UNESCO, The Race Question, 1950
Tali Farkash, Racists among us in Y-Net (Yediot
Aharonot), Jewish Scene section, April 20, 2007
3.8. APARTHEID
Winant, Howard The New Politics of Race (2004)
Winant, Howard and Omi, Michael Racial Formation In The United States Routeledge (1986); Second
Edition (1994).
Bettina Wohlgemuth (May 2007). Racism in the
21st century: how everybody can make a dierence.
ISBN 978-3-8364-1033-5.
Wright W. D. (1998) Racism Matters, Westport,
CT: Praeger.
3.7.18
External links
Being a Black Male in Cuba By Lucia Lopez, Havana Times May 5, 2009
Race, history and culture Ethics March 1996
Extract of two articles by Claude Lvi-Strauss
Race, Racism and the Law Information about race,
racism and racial distinctions in the law.
RacismReview, created and maintained by American sociologists Joe Feagin, PhD and Jessie Daniels,
PhD, provides a research-based analysis of racism.
3.8 Apartheid
This article is about apartheid in South Africa. For other
uses, see Apartheid (disambiguation).
Apartheid (Afrikaans pronunciation: [partit]; an
Afrikaans[1] word meaning the state of being apart, literally "apart-hood")[2][3] was a system of racial segregation in South Africa enforced through legislation by
the National Party (NP), the governing party from 1948
to 1994. Under apartheid, the rights, associations, and
movements of the majority black inhabitants and other
ethnic groups were curtailed and Afrikaner minority rule
was maintained. Apartheid was developed after World
War II by the Afrikaner-dominated National Party and
Broederbond organizations. The ideology was also enforced in South West Africa, which was administered by
South Africa under a League of Nations mandate (revoked in 1966 via United Nations Resolution 2145),[4]
until it gained independence as Namibia in 1990.[5] By
extension, the term is currently used for forms of systematic segregation, established by the state authority in
a country, against the social and civil rights of a certain
group of citizens, due to ethnic prejudices.[6]
397
classied inhabitants into four racial groups"black,
white, "coloured", and Indian, the last two of which
were divided into several sub-classications[8] and residential areas were segregated. From 1960 to 1983, 3.5
million non-white South Africans were removed from
their homes, and forced into segregated neighbourhoods,
in one of the largest mass removals in modern history.[9]
Non-white political representation was abolished in 1970,
and starting in that year black people were deprived
of their citizenship, legally becoming citizens of one
of ten tribally based self-governing homelands called
bantustans, four of which became nominally independent
states. The government segregated education, medical
care, beaches, and other public services, and provided
black people with services that were inferior to those of
white people.
Apartheid sparked signicant internal resistance and violence, and a long arms and trade embargo against South
Africa.[10] Since the 1950s, a series of popular uprisings and protests was met with the banning of opposition and imprisoning of anti-apartheid leaders. As unrest spread and became more eective and militarised,
state organisations responded with repression and violence. Along with the sanctions placed on South Africa
by the international community, this made it increasingly dicult for the government to maintain the regime.
Apartheid reforms in the 1980s failed to quell the mounting opposition, and in 1990 President Frederik Willem
de Klerk began negotiations to end apartheid,[11] culminating in multi-racial democratic elections in 1994, won
by the African National Congress under Nelson Mandela.
The vestiges of apartheid still shape South African politics and society. De Klerk began the process of dismantling apartheid with the release of Mandelas mentor
and several other political prisoners in October 1989.[12]
Although the ocial abolition of apartheid occurred in
1991 with repeal of the last of the remaining apartheid
laws, nonwhites were not allowed to vote until 1993 and
the end of apartheid is widely regarded as arising from
the 1994 democratic general elections.
3.8.1 Precursors
Main articles: History of South Africa (18151910) and
History of South Africa (19101948)
Under the 1806 Cape Articles of Capitulation the new

British colonial rulers were required to respect previous
legislation enacted under Roman Dutch law[13] and this
led to a separation of the law in South Africa from English
Common Law and a high degree of legislative autonomy.
Racial segregation in South Africa began in colonial The governors and assemblies that governed the legal protimes under the Dutch Empire, and continued when the cess in the various colonies of South Africa were launched
British took over the Cape of Good Hope in 1795.[7] on a dierent and independent legislative path from the
Apartheid as an ocially structured policy was intro- rest of the British Empire.
duced after the general election of 1948. Legislation In the days of slavery, slaves required passes to travel
398
away from their masters. In 1797 the Landdrost and
Heemraden of Swellendam and Graa-Reinet extended
pass laws beyond slaves and ordained that all Khoikhoi
(designated as Hottentots) moving about the country for
any purpose should carry passes.[7] This was conrmed by
the British Colonial government in 1809 by the Hottentot Proclamation, which decreed that if a Khoikhoi were
to move they would need a pass from their master or a
local ocial.[7] Ordinance No. 49 of 1828 decreed that
prospective black immigrants were to be granted passes
for the sole purpose of seeking work.[7] These passes were
to be issued for Coloureds and Khoikhoi, but not for other
Africans, but other Africans were still forced to carry
passes.

Parliament.[21] One of the rst pieces of segregating legislation enacted by Jan Smuts' United Party government
was the Asiatic Land Tenure Bill (1946), which banned
land sales to Indians.[22]
The United Party government began to move away from
the rigid enforcement of segregationist laws during World
War II.[23] Amid fears integration would eventually lead
to racial assimilation, the legislature established the Sauer
Commission to investigate the eects of the United
Partys policies. The commission concluded that integration would bring about a loss of personality for all racial
groups.
The United Kingdoms Slavery Abolition Act 1833 (3 & 3.8.2 Institution
4 Will. IV c. 73) abolished slavery throughout the British
Empire and overrode the Cape Articles of Capitulation. Election of 1948
To comply with the act the South African legislation was
expanded to include Ordinance 1 in 1835, which eec- Main article: South African general election, 1948
tively changed the status of slaves to indentured labourers. The Union of South Africa had allowed social custom
This was followed by Ordinance 3 in 1848, which introduced an indenture system for Xhosa that was little different from slavery. The various South African colonies
passed legislation throughout the rest of the nineteenth
century to limit the freedom of unskilled workers, to increase the restrictions on indentured workers and to regulate the relations between the races.
The Franchise and Ballot Act of 1892 instituted limits based on nancial means and education to the black
franchise,[14] and the Natal Legislative Assembly Bill of
1894 deprived Indians of the right to vote.[15] The Glen
Grey Act of 1894, instigated by the government of Prime
Minister Cecil John Rhodes limited the amount of land
Africans could hold. In 1905 the General Pass Regulations Act denied blacks the vote, limited them to xed
areas and inaugurated the infamous Pass System.[16] The
Asiatic Registration Act (1906) required all Indians to
register and carry passes.[17] In 1910 the Union of South
Africa was created as a self-governing dominion, which
continued the legislative programme: the South Africa
Act (1910) enfranchised whites, giving them complete
political control over all other racial groups while removing the right of blacks to sit in parliament,[18] the Native
Land Act (1913) prevented blacks, except those in the
Cape, from buying land outside reserves,[18] the Natives in Urban Areas Bill (1918) was designed to force
blacks into locations,[19] the Urban Areas Act (1923)
introduced residential segregation and provided cheap
labour for industry led by white people, the Colour Bar
Act (1926) prevented black mine workers from practising skilled trades, the Native Administration Act (1927)
made the British Crown, rather than paramount chiefs,
the supreme head over all African aairs,[20] the Native
Land and Trust Act (1936) complemented the 1913 Native Land Act and, in the same year, the Representation
of Natives Act removed previous black voters from the
Cape voters roll and allowed them to elect three whites to
Daniel Franois Malan, the rst apartheid prime minister (1948

1954)
and law to govern the consideration of multiracial aairs

and of the allocation, in racial terms, of access to economic, social, and political status.[24] Most white South
Africans, regardless of their own dierences, accepted
3.8. APARTHEID
the prevailing pattern. Nevertheless, by 1948 it remained
apparent that there were occasional gaps in the social
structure, whether legislated or otherwise, concerning the
rights and opportunities of nonwhites. The rapid economic development of World War II attracted black migrant workers in large numbers to chief industrial centres, where they compensated for the wartime shortage
of white labour. However, this escalated rate of black urbanisation went unrecognised by the South African government, which failed to accommodate the inux with
parallel expansion in housing or social services.[24] Overcrowding, spiking crime rates, and disillusionment resulted; urban blacks came to support a new generation of
leaders inuenced by the principles of self-determination
and popular freedoms enshrined in such statements as
the Atlantic Charter. Whites reacted negatively to the
changes, allowing the Herenigde Nasionale Party (or simply National Party) to convince a large segment of the
voting bloc that the impotence of the United Party in curtailing the evolving position of nonwhites indicated that
the organisation had fallen under the inuence of Western liberals.[24] Many Afrikaners, whites chiey of Dutch
descent but with early infusions of Germans and French
Huguenots who were soon assimilated, also resented what
they perceived as disempowerment by an underpaid black
workforce and the superior economic power and prosperity of white English speakers.[25] In addition, Jan Smuts,
as a strong advocate of the United Nations, lost domestic support when South Africa was criticised for its colour
bar and continued mandate of South West Africa by other
UN member states.[26]
Afrikaner nationalists proclaimed that they oered
the voters a new policy to ensure continued white
domination.[27] This policy was initially expounded from
a theory drafted by Hendrik Verwoerd and was presented
to the National Party by the Sauer Commission.[24] It
called for a systematic eort to organise the relations,
rights, and privileges of the races as ocially dened
through a series of parliamentary acts and administrative
decrees. Segregation had thus been pursued only in major matters, such as separate schools, and local society
rather than law had been depended upon to enforce most
separation; it should now be extended to everything.[24]
The party gave this policy a nameapartheid (apartness). Apartheid was to be the basic ideological and practical foundation of Afrikaner politics for the next quarter
of a century.[27]
399
ing tensions of the Cold War also stirred up discontent,
while the nationalists promised to purge the state and public service of communist sympathisers.[26]
First to desert the United Party were Afrikaner farmers, who wished to see a change in inux control due
to problems with squatters, as well as higher prices for
their maize and other produce in the face of the mineowners demand for cheap food policies. Always identied with the auent and capitalist, the party also failed
to appeal to its working class constituents.[26] Populist
rhetoric allowed the National Party to sweep eight constituencies in the mining and industrial centres of the
Witwatersrand and ve more in Pretoria. Barring the predominantly English-speaking landowner electorate of the
Natal, the United Party was defeated in almost every rural district. Its urban losses in the nations most populous
province, the Transvaal, proved equally devastating.[26]
As the voting system was disproportionately weighted in
favour of rural constituencies and the Transvaal in particular, the 1948 election catapulted the Herenigde Nasionale Party from a small minority party to a commanding position with an eight-vote parliamentary lead.[28][29]
Daniel Franois Malan became the rst nationalist prime
minister, with the aim of implementing the apartheid philosophy and silencing liberal opposition[24]
Legislation
Main article: Apartheid legislation in South Africa
NP leaders argued that South Africa did not comprise
a single nation, but was made up of four distinct racial
groups: white, black, coloured and Indian. These groups
were split into 13 nations or racial federations. White
people encompassed the English and Afrikaans language
groups; the black populace was divided into ten such
groups.
The state passed laws that paved the way for grand
apartheid, which was centred on separating races on
a large scale, by compelling people to live in separate
places dened by race. This strategy was in part adopted
from left-over British rule that separated dierent racial
groups after they took control of the Boer republics in the
Anglo-Boer war. This created the black-only townships
or locations, where blacks were relocated to their own
The National Partys election platform stressed that towns. In addition, petty apartheid laws were passed.
apartheid would preserve a market for white employment The principal apartheid laws were as follows.[30]
in which nonwhites could not compete. On the isues of
black urbanisation, the regulation of nonwhite labour, in- The rst grand apartheid law was the Population Regisux control, social security, farm taris, and nonwhite tration Act of 1950, which formalised racial classicaover
taxation the United Partys policy remained contradictory tion and introduced an identity card for all persons
[31]
[26]
the
age
of
18,
specifying
their
racial
group.
Ocial
and confused. Its traditional bases of support not only
to a conclusion
took mutually exclusive positions, but found themselves teams or Boards were established to come[32]
This caused
on
those
people
whose
race
was
unclear.
increasingly at odds with each other. Smuts reluctance to
diculty,
especially
for
coloured
people,
separating
their
consider South African foreign policy against the mountfamilies when members were allocated dierent races.[33]
400
The second pillar of grand apartheid was the Group Areas
Act of 1950.[34] Until then, most settlements had people
of dierent races living side by side. This Act put an end
to diverse areas and determined where one lived according to race. Each race was allotted its own area, which
was used in later years as a basis of forced removal.[35]
The Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act of 1951 allowed
the government to demolish black shanty town slums and
forced white employers to pay for the construction of
housing for those black workers who were permitted to
reside in cities otherwise reserved for whites.[36]
The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act of 1949 prohibited marriage between persons of dierent races, and the
Immorality Act of 1950 made sexual relations with a person of a dierent race a criminal oence.

transfer capital to the homelands to create employment
there. Legislation of 1967 allowed the government to
stop industrial development in white cities and redirect
such development to the homelands. The Black Homeland Citizenship Act of 1970 marked a new phase in the
Bantustan strategy. It changed the status of blacks to citizens of one of the ten autonomous territories. The aim
was to ensure a demographic majority of white people
within South Africa by having all ten Bantustans achieve
full independence.
Interracial contact in sport was frowned upon, but there
were no segregatory sports laws.
The government tightened pass laws compelling blacks to
carry identity documents, to prevent the immigration of
blacks from other countries. To reside in a city, blacks
had to be in employment there. Until 1956 women were
for the most part excluded from these pass requirements,
as attempts to introduce pass laws for women were met
with erce resistance.[41]
Under the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act of

1953, municipal grounds could be reserved for a particular race, creating, among other things, separate beaches,
buses, hospitals, schools and universities. Signboards
such as whites only applied to public areas, even including park benches.[37] Blacks were provided with services
greatly inferior to those of whites, and, to a lesser extent, Disenfranchisement of Coloured voters
to those of Indian and coloured people.[38]
Main article: Coloured vote constitutional crisis
Further laws had the aim of suppressing resistance, es- In 1950, D F Malan announced the NPs intention
pecially armed resistance, to apartheid. The Suppression
of Communism Act of 1950 banned any party subscribing to Communism. The act dened Communism and its
aims so sweepingly that anyone who opposed government
policy risked being labelled as a Communist. Since the
law specically stated that Communism aimed to disrupt
racial harmony, it was frequently used to gag opposition
to apartheid. Disorderly gatherings were banned, as were
certain organisations that were deemed threatening to the
government.
Education was segregated by the 1953 Bantu Education
Act, which crafted a separate system of education for
black South African students and was designed to prepare
black people for lives as a labouring class.[39] In 1959 separate universities were created for black, coloured and Indian people. Existing universities were not permitted to
enroll new black students. The Afrikaans Medium Decree of 1974 required the use of Afrikaans and English on
an equal basis in high schools outside the homelands.[40]
Cape Coloured children in Bonteheuwel.
to create a Coloured Aairs Department.[42] J.G. Strijdom, Malans successor as Prime Minister, moved to
strip voting rights from black and coloured residents of
the Cape Province. The previous government had introduced the Separate Representation of Voters Bill into
Parliament in 1951; however, four voters, G Harris, W D
Franklin, W D Collins and Edgar Deane, challenged its
validity in court with support from the United Party.[43]
The Cape Supreme Court upheld the act, but reversed
by the Appeal Court, nding the act invalid because a
two-thirds majority in a joint sitting of both Houses of
Parliament was needed to change the entrenched clauses
of the Constitution.[44] The government then introduced
the High Court of Parliament Bill (1952), which gave Parliament the power to overrule decisions of the court.[45]
The Cape Supreme Court and the Appeal Court declared
this invalid too.[46]
The Bantu Authorities Act of 1951 created separate

government structures for blacks and whites and was
the rst piece of legislation to support the governments
plan of separate development in the Bantustans. The
Promotion of Black Self-Government Act of 1959 entrenched the NP policy of nominally independent homelands for blacks. So-called selfgoverning Bantu units
were proposed, which would have devolved administrative powers, with the promise later of autonomy and selfgovernment. It also abolished the seats of white representatives of black South Africans and removed from the
rolls the few blacks still qualied to vote. The Bantu InIn 1955 the Strijdom government increased the number
vestment Corporation Act of 1959 set up a mechanism to
of judges in the Appeal Court from ve to 11, and ap-
3.8. APARTHEID
401
pointed pro-Nationalist judges to ll the new places.[47] 3.8.3 Homeland system

In the same year they introduced the Senate Act, which
increased the Senate from 49 seats to 89.[48] Adjust- Main article: Bantustan
ments were made such that the NP controlled 77 of these Under the homeland system, the government attempted
seats.[49] The parliament met in a joint sitting and passed
Transkei
KaNgwane
the Separate Representation of Voters Act in 1956, which
Bophuthatswana
KwaNdebele
Venda
KwaZulu
transferred coloured voters from the common voters roll
Ciskei
Lebowa
in the Cape to a new coloured voters roll.[50] ImmediGazankulu
QwaQwa
ately after the vote, the Senate was restored to its original size. The Senate Act was contested in the Supreme
Court, but the recently enlarged Appeal Court, packed
with government-supporting judges, upheld the act, and
also the Act to remove coloured voters.[51]
Zimbabwe
Botswana
Mozambique
Namibia
Transvaal
Swaziland
Orange
Free State
The 1956 law allowed Coloureds to elect four people

to Parliament, but a 1969 law abolished those seats and
stripped Coloureds of their right to vote. Since Asians
had never been allowed to vote, this resulted in whites
being the sole enfranchised group.
Lesotho
Natal
Cape
Map of South Africa showing the location of bantustans
Divide among white South Africans

Before South Africa became a republic, politics among
white South Africans was typied by the division between
the mainly Afrikaner pro-republic conservative and the
largely English anti-republican liberal sentiments,[52] with
the legacy of the Boer War still a factor for some people.
Once the status of a republic was attained, Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd called for improved relations and
greater accord between those of British descent and the
Afrikaners.[53] He claimed that the only dierence now
was between those who supported apartheid and those
in opposition to it. The ethnic divide would no longer
be between Afrikaans speakers and English speakers, but
rather white and black ethnicities. Most Afrikaners supported the notion of unanimity of white people to ensure
their safety. White voters of British descent were divided.
Many had opposed a republic, leading to a majority no
vote in Natal.[54] Later, some of them recognised the perceived need for white unity, convinced by the growing
trend of decolonisation elsewhere in Africa, which concerned them. British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan's
"Wind of Change" speech left the British faction feeling
that Britain had abandoned them.[55] The more conservative English-speakers gave support to Verwoerd;[56] others were troubled by the severing of ties with Britain and
remained loyal to the Crown.[57] They were acutely displeased at the choice between British and South African
nationality. Although Verwoerd tried to bond these different blocs, the subsequent ballot illustrated only a minor
swell of support,[58] indicating that a great many English
speakers remained apathetic, and that Verwoerd had not
succeeded in uniting the white population, and a divide
between Anglo and Afrikaner whites remained.
Rural area in Ciskei, one of the apartheid era homelands
to divide South Africa into a number of separate states,

each of which was supposed to develop into a separate
nation-state for a dierent ethnic group.[59]
Territorial separation was not a new institution. There
were, for example, the reserves created under the
British government in the nineteenth century. Under
apartheid, 13 percent of the land was reserved for black
homelands, a relatively small amount compared with the
total population, and generally in economically unproductive areas of the country. The Tomlinson Commission
of 1954 justied apartheid and the homeland system, but
stated that additional land ought to be given to the homelands, a recommendation that was not carried out.[60]
When Verwoerd became Prime Minister in 1958, the policy of separate development came into being, with the
homeland structure as one of its cornerstones. Verwoerd
came to believe in the granting of independence to these
homelands. The government justied its plans on the ba-
402
sis that "(the) governments policy is, therefore, not a policy of discrimination on the grounds of race or colour, but
a policy of dierentiation on the ground of nationhood,
of dierent nations, granting to each self-determination
within the borders of their homelands hence this policy
of separate development.[61] Under the homelands system, blacks would no longer be citizens of South Africa,
becoming citizens of the independent homelands who
worked in South Africa as foreign migrant labourers on
temporary work permits. In 1958 the Promotion of Black
Self-Government Act was passed, and border industries
and the Bantu Investment Corporation were established
to promote economic development and the provision of
employment in or near the homelands. Many black South
Africans who had never resided in their identied homeland were forcibly removed from the cities to the homelands.
Ten homelands were allocated to dierent black ethnic groups: Lebowa (North Sotho, also referred to
as Pedi), QwaQwa (South Sotho), Bophuthatswana
(Tswana), KwaZulu (Zulu), KaNgwane (Swazi), Transkei
and Ciskei (Xhosa), Gazankulu (Tsonga), Venda (Venda)
and KwaNdebele (Ndebele). Four of these were declared independent by the South African government:
Transkei in 1976, Bophuthatswana in 1977, Venda in
1979, and Ciskei in 1981 (known as the TBVC states).
Once a homeland was granted its nominal independence,
its designated citizens had their South African citizenship revoked, replaced with citizenship in their homeland.
These people were then issued passports instead of passbooks. Citizens of the nominally autonomous homelands
also had their South African citizenship circumscribed,
meaning they were no longer legally considered South
African.[62] The South African government attempted to
draw an equivalence between their view of black citizens
of the homelands and the problems which other countries
faced through entry of illegal immigrants.
International recognition of the Bantustans
Bantustans within the borders of South Africa were classied as self-governing or independent. In theory, self-governing Bantustans had control over many
aspects of their internal functioning but were not yet
sovereign nations. Independent Bantustans (Transkei,
Bophutatswana, Venda and Ciskei; also known as the
TBVC states) were intended to be fully sovereign. In reality, they had no economic infrastructure worth mentioning and with few exceptions encompassed swaths of disconnected territory. This meant all the Bantustans were
little more than puppet states controlled by South Africa.
Throughout the existence of the independent Bantustans,
South Africa remained the only country to recognise their
independence. Nevertheless, internal organisations of
many countries, as well as the South African government, lobbied for their recognition. For example, upon
the foundation of Transkei, the Swiss-South African As-

sociation encouraged the Swiss government to recognise
the new state. In 1976, leading up to a United States
House of Representatives resolution urging the President
to not recognise Transkei, the South African government
intensely lobbied lawmakers to oppose the bill.[63] Each
TBVC state extended recognition to the other independent Bantustans while South Africa showed its commitment to the notion of TBVC sovereignty by building embassies in the TBVC capitals.
3.8.4 Forced removals

See also: Group Areas Act and Abolition of Racially
Based Land Measures Act, 1991
During the 1960s, 1970s and early 1980s, the government implemented a policy of resettlement, to force
people to move to their designated group areas. Millions of people were forced to relocate. These removals included people relocated due to slum clearance programmes, labour tenants on white-owned farms,
the inhabitants of the so-called black spots (blackowned land surrounded by white farms), the families
of workers living in townships close to the homelands,
and surplus people from urban areas, including thousands of people from the Western Cape (which was declared a Coloured Labour Preference Area)[64] who
were moved to the Transkei and Ciskei homelands. The
best-publicised forced removals of the 1950s occurred in
Johannesburg, when 60,000 people were moved to the
new township of Soweto (an abbreviation for South Western Townships).[65][66]
Until 1955, Sophiatown had been one of the few urban
areas where blacks were allowed to own land, and was
slowly developing into a multiracial slum. As industry in
Johannesburg grew, Sophiatown became the home of a
rapidly expanding black workforce, as it was convenient
and close to town. It had the only swimming pool for
black children in Johannesburg.[67] As one of the oldest
black settlements in Johannesburg, it held an almost symbolic importance for the 50,000 blacks it contained, both
in terms of its sheer vibrancy and its unique culture. Despite a vigorous ANC protest campaign and worldwide
publicity, the removal of Sophiatown began on 9 February 1955 under the Western Areas Removal Scheme. In
the early hours, heavily armed police forced residents out
of their homes and loaded their belongings onto government trucks. The residents were taken to a large tract of
land 19 kilometres (12 mi) from the city centre, known
as Meadowlands, which the government had purchased in
1953. Meadowlands became part of a new planned black
city called Soweto. Sophiatown was destroyed by bulldozers, and a new white suburb named Triomf (Triumph)
was built in its place. This pattern of forced removal
and destruction was to repeat itself over the next few
years, and was not limited to black South Africans alone.
Forced removals from areas like Cato Manor (Mkhum-
3.8. APARTHEID
403
bane) in Durban, and District Six in Cape Town, where

55,000 coloured and Indian people were forced to move
to new townships on the Cape Flats, were carried out
under the Group Areas Act of 1950. Nearly 600,000
coloured, Indian and Chinese people were moved under
the Group Areas Act. Some 40,000 whites were also
forced to move when land was transferred from white
South Africa into the black homelands.[68]
Bench reserved for non-whites only outside a public
building in Cape Town
3.8.5
Petty apartheid
The NP passed a string of legislation that became known

as petty apartheid. The rst of these was the Prohibition
of Mixed Marriages Act 55 of 1949, prohibiting marriage
between whites and people of other races. The Immorality Amendment Act 21 of 1950 (as amended in 1957 by
Act 23) forbade unlawful racial intercourse and any
immoral or indecent act between a white and a black,
Indian or coloured person.
Signs enforcing petty apartheid
Blacks were not allowed to run businesses or professional

practices in areas designated as white South Africa unless they had a permit. They were required to move to
the black homelands and set up businesses and practices there. Transport and civil facilities were segregated.
Black buses stopped at black bus stops and white buses
at white ones. Trains, hospitals and ambulances were
segregated.[69] Because of the smaller numbers of white
patients and the fact that white doctors preferred to work
in white hospitals, conditions in white hospitals were
much better than those in often overcrowded and understaed black hospitals.[70] Blacks were excluded from living or working in white areas, unless they had a pass,
Sign designating a public space as for use by white
nicknamed the dompas (dumb pass in Afrikaans). Only
persons
blacks with Section 10 rights (those who had migrated
to the cities before World War II) were excluded from
this provision. A pass was issued only to a black with approved work. Spouses and children had to be left behind
in black homelands. A pass was issued for one magisterial district (usually one town) conning the holder to
that area only. Being without a valid pass made a person subject to arrest and trial for being an illegal migrant.
This was often followed by deportation to the persons
homeland and prosecution of the employer for employing an illegal migrant. Police vans patrolled white areas
to round up blacks without passes. Blacks were not allowed to employ whites in white South Africa.[71]
Although trade unions for black and coloured (mixed
race) workers had existed since the early 20th century,
it was not until the 1980s reforms that a mass black
trade union movement developed. Trade unions under
apartheid were racially segregated, with 54 unions being
white only, 38 for Indian and coloured and 19 for black
people. The Industrial Conciliation Act (1956) legislated
against the creation of multi-racial trade unions and attempted to split existing multi-racial unions into separate
Sign reserving a Natal beach for the sole use of members branches or organisations along racial lines.[72]
of the white race group, in English, Afrikaans, and Zulu
404
In the 1970s the state spent ten times more per child on
the education of white children than on black children
within the Bantu Education system (the education system in black schools within white South Africa). Higher
education was provided in separate universities and colleges after 1959. Eight black universities were created in
the homelands. Fort Hare University in the Ciskei (now
Eastern Cape) was to register only Xhosa-speaking students. Sotho, Tswana, Pedi and Venda speakers were
placed at the newly founded University College of the
North at Turoop, while the University College of Zululand was launched to serve Zulu students. Coloureds
and Indians were to have their own establishments in the
Cape and Natal respectively.[73]
Each black homeland controlled its own education, health
and police systems. Blacks were not allowed to buy
hard liquor. They were able only to buy state-produced
poor quality beer (although this was relaxed later). Public beaches were racially segregated. Public swimming
pools, some pedestrian bridges, drive-in cinema parking
spaces, graveyards, parks, and public toilets were segregated. Cinemas and theatres in white areas were not allowed to admit blacks. There were practically no cinemas
in black areas. Most restaurants and hotels in white areas
were not allowed to admit blacks except as sta. Blacks
were prohibited from attending white churches under the
Churches Native Laws Amendment Act of 1957, but this
was never rigidly enforced and churches were one of the
few places races could mix without the interference of the
law. Blacks earning 360 rand a year or more had to pay
taxes while the white threshold was more than twice as
high, at 750 rand a year. On the other hand, the taxation rate for whites was considerably higher than that for
blacks.
Blacks could never acquire land in white areas. In the
homelands, much of the land belonged to a tribe, where
the local chieftain would decide how the land had to be
used. This resulted in whites owning almost all the industrial and agricultural lands and much of the prized residential land. Most blacks were stripped of their South
African citizenship when the homelands became independent, and they were no longer able to apply for
South African passports. Eligibility requirements for a
passport had been dicult for blacks to meet, the government contending that a passport was a privilege, not a
right, and the government did not grant many passports
to blacks. Apartheid pervaded culture as well as the law,
and was entrenched by most of the mainstream media.
3.8.6
Coloured classication
group included people regarded as being of mixed descent, including of Bantu, Khoisan, European and Malay
ancestry. Many were descended from people brought to
South Africa from other parts of the world, such as India,
Madagascar, and China as slaves and indentured workers.[74]
The apartheid bureaucracy devised complex (and often
arbitrary) criteria at the time that the Population Registration Act was implemented to determine who was
Coloured. Minor ocials would administer tests to determine if someone should be categorised either Coloured
or Black, or if another person should be categorised either Coloured or White. Dierent members of the same
family found themselves in dierent race groups. Further
tests determined membership of the various sub-racial
groups of the Coloureds. Many of those who formerly
belonged to this racial group are opposed to the continuing use of the term coloured in the post-apartheid
era, though the term no longer signies any legal meaning. The expressions so-called Coloured (Afrikaans sogenaamde Kleurlinge) and brown people (bruinmense)
acquired a wide usage in the 1980s.
Discriminated against by apartheid, Coloureds were as a
matter of state policy forced to live in separate townships,
in some cases leaving homes their families had occupied for generations, and received an inferior education,
though better than that provided to Blacks. They played
an important role in the anti-apartheid movement: for example the African Political Organization established in
1902 had an exclusively Coloured membership.
Voting rights were denied to Coloureds in the same way
that they were denied to Blacks from 1950 to 1983.
However, in 1977 the NP caucus approved proposals to
bring Coloureds and Indians into central government. In
1982, nal constitutional proposals produced a referendum among Whites, and the Tricameral Parliament was
approved. The Constitution was reformed the following
year to allow the Coloured and Asian minorities participation in separate Houses in a Tricameral Parliament, and
Botha became the rst Executive State President. The
idea was that the Coloured minority could be granted voting rights, but the Black majority were to become citizens
of independent homelands. These separate arrangements
continued until the abolition of apartheid. The Tricameral reforms led to the formation of the (anti-apartheid)
United Democratic Front as a vehicle to try to prevent the
co-option of Coloureds and Indians into an alliance with
Whites. The battles between the UDF and the NP government from 1983 to 1989 were to become the most intense period of struggle between left-wing and right-wing
South Africans.
Main article: Coloured
3.8.7 Women under apartheid

The population was classied into four groups: Black,
White, Indian, and Coloured (capitalised to denote their Colonialism and apartheid had a major impact on black
legal denitions in South African law). The Coloured and coloured women, since they suered both racial and
3.8. APARTHEID
405
gender discrimination.[75][76] Jobs were often hard to nd.

Many black and coloured women worked as agricultural
or domestic workers, but wages were extremely low, if
existent.[77] Children suered from diseases caused by
malnutrition and sanitation problems, and mortality rates
were therefore high. The controlled movement of black
and coloured workers within the country through the Natives Urban Areas Act of 1923 and the pass laws separated family members from one another, because men
usually worked in urban centres while women were forced
to stay in rural areas. Marriage law and births[78] were
also controlled by the government and the pro-apartheid
Dutch Reformed Church, which tried to restrict black and
coloured birth rates.
public exposure, with an intrepid special issue in 1955

that asked, Why shouldn't our blacks be allowed in the
SA team?"[80] As time progressed, international standing with South Africa would continue to be strained. In
the 1980s, as the oppressive system was slowly collapsing
the ANC and National Party started negotiations on the
end of apartheid. Football associations also discussed the
formation of a single, non-racial controlling body. This
unity process accelerated in the late 1980s and led to the
creation, in December 1991, of an incorporated South
African Football Association. On 3 July 1992, FIFA nally welcomed South Africa back into international football.
tional bans from FIFA and other major sporting events,

South Africa would be in the spotlight internationally.
In a 1977 survey, white South Africans ranked the lack
of international sport as one of the three most damaging
consequences of apartheid.[80] By the mid-1950s, Black
South Africans would also use media to challenge the
racialisation of sports in South Africa; anti-apartheid
forces had begun to pinpoint sport as the weakness of
white national morale. Black journalists for the Johannesburg Drum magazine were the rst to give the issue
Chinese South Africanswho were descendants of migrant workers who came to work in the gold mines around
Johannesburg in the late 19th centurywere initially either classied as Coloured or Other Asian and hence
non-white and were subject to numerous forms of discrimination and restriction.[82] It was not until 1984 that
South African Chinese, increased to about 10,000, were
given the same ocial rights as the Japanese, to be treated
as whites in terms of the Group Areas Act, although they
still faced discrimination and did not receive all the ben-
Sport has long been an important part of life in South

Africa, and the boycotting of games by international
teams had a profound eect on the white population, per3.8.8 Sport under apartheid
haps more so than the trade embargoes did. After the reacceptance of South Africas sports teams by the internaSee also: Rugby union and apartheid
tional community, sport played a major unifying role between the countrys races. Mandelas open support of the
By the 1930s, Association football mirrored the balka- previously white-dominated rugby fraternity when South
nised society of South Africa; football was divided Africa hosted and won the 1995 Rugby World Cup went
into numerous institutions based on race: the (White) a long way to repairing broken race relations.
South African Football Association, the South African
Indian Football Association (SAIFA), the South African
African Football Association (SAAFA) and its rival the
South African Bantu Football Association, and the South 3.8.9 Asians during apartheid
African Coloured Football Association (SACFA). Lack
of funds to provide proper equipment would be notice- Further information: Indian South Africans, Asian South
able in regards to black amateur football matches; this Africans and Chinese South Africans
revealed the unequal lives black South Africans were
subject to, in contrast to Whites, who were obviously Dening its Asian population, a minority that did not
much better o nancially.[79] Apartheids social engi- appear to belong to any of the initial three designated
neering made it more dicult to compete across racial groups, was a constant dilemma for the apartheid govlines. Thus, in an eort to centralise nances, the feder- ernment.
ations merged in 1951, creating the South African Soccer Federation (SASF), which brought Black, Indian, and For political reasons, the classication of "honorary
white" was granted to immigrants from Japan, Taiwan,
Coloured national associations into one body that opAfrica
posed apartheid. This was generally opposed more and and South Koreacountries with which South
maintained diplomatic and economic relations[81] and
more by the growing apartheid government, andwith
urban segregation being reinforced with ongoing racist to their descendants.
policiesit was harder to play football along these racial Indian South Africans during apartheid were classied
lines. In 1956, the Pretoria regimethe administrative many ranges of categories from Asian to Black to
capital of South Africapassed the rst apartheid sports Coloured and even the mono-ethnic category of Inpolicy; by doing so, it emphasised the White-led govern- dian, but never as White, having been considered nonments opposition to inter-racialism.
White throughout South Africas history. The group
While football was plagued by racism, it also played a role faced severe discrimination during the apartheid regime
in protesting apartheid and its policies. With the interna- and were subject to numerous racialist policies.
406
ets/rights of their newly obtained honorary white status Apartheid sparked signicant internal resistance.[10] The
such as voting.
government responded to a series of popular uprisings
increased
Indonesians arrived at the Cape of Good Hope as slaves and protests with police brutality, which in turn [90]
Interlocal
support
for
the
armed
resistance
struggle.
until the abolishment of slavery during the 1800s. They
nal
resistance
to
the
apartheid
system
in
South
Africa
were predominantly Muslim, were allowed religious freedom and formed their own ethnic group/community came from several sectors of society and saw the creation
known as Cape Malays. They were classied as part of of organisations dedicated variously to peaceful protests,
the Coloured racial group.[83] This was the same for South passive resistance and armed insurrection.
Africans of Malaysian descent who were also classied
as part of the Coloured race and thus considered notwhite.[74] South Africans of Filipino descent were classied as black due to historical outlook on Filipinos
by White South Africans, and many of them lived in
Bantustans.[74]
3.8.10
Conservatism
In 1949, the youth wing of the African National Congress

(ANC) took control of the organisation and started advocating a radical black nationalist programme. The new
young leaders proposed that white authority could only be
overthrown through mass campaigns. In 1950 that philosophy saw the launch of the Programme of Action, a series
of strikes, boycotts and civil disobedience actions that led
to occasional violent clashes with the authorities.
In 1959, a group of disenchanted ANC members formed

Alongside apartheid the NP government implemented the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), which organised a
a programme of social conservatism. Pornography,[84] demonstration against pass books on 21 March 1960.
gambling[85] and other such vices were banned. Cine- One of those protests was held in the township of
mas, shops selling alcohol and most other businesses were Sharpeville, where 69 people were killed by police in the
forbidden from operating on Sundays.[86] Abortion,[87] Sharpeville massacre.
homosexuality[88] and sex education were also restricted; In the wake of Sharpeville, the government declared a
abortion was legal only in cases of rape or if the mothers state of emergency. More than 18,000 people were arlife was threatened.[87]
rested, including leaders of the ANC and PAC, and both
Television was not introduced until 1976 because the gov- organisations were banned. The resistance went underernment viewed English programming as a threat to the ground, with some leaders in exile abroad and others enAfrikaans language.[89] Television was run on apartheid gaged in campaigns of domestic sabotage and terrorism.
lines TV1 broadcast in Afrikaans and English (geared
to a white audience), TV2 in Zulu and Xhosa and TV3
in Sotho, Tswana and Pedi (both geared to a black audience), and TV4 mostly showed programmes for an urbanblack audience.
In May 1961, before the declaration of South Africa as

a Republic, an assembly representing the banned ANC
called for negotiations between the members of the different ethnic groupings, threatening demonstrations and
strikes during the inauguration of the Republic if their
calls were ignored.
3.8.11
When the government overlooked them, the strikers

(among the main organisers was a 42-year-old, Thembuorigin Nelson Mandela) carried out their threats. The
government countered swiftly by giving police the authority to arrest people for up to twelve days and detaining many strike leaders amid numerous cases of police brutality.[91] Defeated, the protesters called o their
strike. The ANC then chose to launch an armed struggle through a newly formed military wing, Umkhonto we
Sizwe (MK), which would perform acts of sabotage on
tactical state structures. Its rst sabotage plans were carried out on 16 December 1961, the anniversary of the
Battle of Blood River.
Internal resistance
In the 1970s, the Black Consciousness Movement was

created by tertiary students inuenced by the American
Black Power movement. BC endorsed black pride and
African customs and did much to alter the feelings of inPainting of the Sharpeville Massacre of March 1960
adequacy instilled among black people by the apartheid
system. The leader of the movement, Steve Biko, was
Main article: Internal resistance to South African taken into custody on 18 August 1977 and was beaten to
death in detention.
apartheid
3.8. APARTHEID
In 1976, secondary students in Soweto took to the streets
in the Soweto uprising to protest against forced tuition in
Afrikaans. On 16 June, police opened re on students in
a peaceful protest. According to ocial reports 23 people
were killed, but the number of people who died is usually
given as 176, with estimates of up to 700.[92][93][94] In the
following years several student organisations were formed
to protest against apartheid, and these organisations were
central to urban school boycotts in 1980 and 1983 and
rural boycotts in 1985 and 1986.
In parallel with student protests, labour unions started
protest action in 1973 and 1974. After 1976 unions and
workers are considered to have played an important role
in the struggle against apartheid, lling the gap left by the
banning of political parties. In 1979 black trade unions
were legalised and could engage in collective bargaining,
although strikes were still illegal.
407
India had become a republic within the Commonwealth
in 1950, but it became clear that African and Asian member states would oppose South Africa due to its apartheid
policies. As a result, South Africa withdrew from the
Commonwealth on 31 May 1961, the day that the Republic came into existence.
United Nations
We stand here today to salute the United
Nations Organisation and its Member States,
both singly and collectively, for joining forces
with the masses of our people in a common
struggle that has brought about our emancipation and pushed back the frontiers of racism.
Nelson Mandela, address to the United
Nations as South African President, 3 October
1994[96]
At roughly the same time, churches and church groups

also emerged as pivotal points of resistance. Church leaders were not immune to prosecution, and certain faithbased organisations were banned, but the clergy generAt the rst UN gathering in 1946, South Africa was
ally had more freedom to criticise the government than
placed on the agenda. The primary subject in question
militant groups did.
was the handling of South African Indians, a great cause
Although the majority of whites supported apartheid, of divergence between South Africa and India. In 1952,
some 20% did not. Parliamentary opposition was apartheid was again discussed in the aftermath of the Degalvanised by Helen Suzman, Colin Eglin and Harry ance Campaign, and the UN set up a task team to keep
Schwarz, who formed the Progressive Federal Party. watch on the progress of apartheid and the racial state of
Extra-parliamentary resistance was largely centred in the aairs in South Africa. Although South Africas racial
South African Communist Party and womens organisa- policies were a cause for concern, most countries in the
tion the Black Sash. Women were also notable in their UN concurred that this was a domestic aair, which fell
involvement in trade union organisations and banned po- outside the UNs jurisdiction.[97]
litical parties.
In April 1960, the UNs conservative stance on apartheid
changed following the Sharpeville massacre, and the Security Council for the rst time agreed on concerted ac3.8.12 International relations
tion against the apartheid regime, demanding an end to
racial separation and discrimination. From 1960 the
Main article: Foreign relations of South Africa during
ANC began a campaign of armed struggle of which there
apartheid
would later be a charge of 193 acts of terrorism from 1961
to 1963, mainly bombings and murders of civilians.
Instead, the South African government began further
suppression, banning the ANC and PAC. In 1961, UN
Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjld stopped over in
South Africas policies were subject to international South Africa and subsequently stated that he had been
scrutiny in 1960, when Macmillan criticised them dur- unable to reach agreement with Prime Minister Verwoing his celebrated Wind of Change speech in Cape Town. erd.
Weeks later, tensions came to a head in the Sharpeville On 6 November 1962, the United Nations General AsMassacre, resulting in more international condemnation. sembly passed Resolution 1761, condemning apartheid
Soon afterwards Verwoerd announced a referendum on policies. In 1966, the UN held the rst of many collowhether the country should become a republic. Verwo- quiums on apartheid. The General Assembly announced
erd lowered the voting age for whites to 18 and included 21 March as the International Day for the Elimination
whites in South West Africa on the roll. The referendum of Racial Discrimination, in memory of the Sharpeville
on 5 October that year asked whites, Are you in favour massacre.[98] In 1971, the General Assembly formally deof a Republic for the Union?", and 52% voted Yes.[95] nounced the institution of homelands, and a motion was
Commonwealth
As a consequence of this change of status, South Africa passed in 1974 to expel South Africa from the UN, but
needed to reapply for continued membership of the this was vetoed by France, the United Kingdom and the
Commonwealth, with which it had privileged trade links. United States, all key trade associates of South Africa.[99]
408
On 7 August 1963 the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 181, calling for a voluntary arms
embargo against South Africa. In the same year a Special Committee Against Apartheid was established to encourage and oversee plans of action against the regime.
From 1964 the US and Britain discontinued their arms
trade with South Africa. The Security Council also condemned the Soweto massacre in Resolution 392. In 1977,
the voluntary UN arms embargo became mandatory with
the passing of Resolution 418.

Organisation for African Unity
See also: Lusaka Manifesto
The Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was created in
1963. Its primary objectives were to eradicate colonialism and improve social, political and economic situations
in Africa. It censured apartheid and demanded sanctions
against South Africa. African states agreed to aid the
liberation movements in their ght against apartheid.[105]
In 1969, fourteen nations from Central and East Africa
gathered in Lusaka, Zambia, and formulated the Lusaka
Manifesto, which was signed on 13 April by all of the
countries in attendance except Malawi.[106] This manifesto was later taken on by both the OAU and the United
Nations.[105]
Economic sanctions against South Africa were also frequently debated as an eective way of putting pressure
on the apartheid government. In 1962, the UN General
Assembly requested that its members sever political, scal and transportation ties with South Africa. In 1968,
it proposed ending all cultural, educational and sporting
connections as well. Economic sanctions, however, were
The Lusaka Manifesto summarised the political situations
not made mandatory, because of opposition from South
of self-governing African countries, condemning racism
Africas main trading partners.
and inequity, and calling for black majority rule in all
In 1973, the UN adopted the Apartheid Convention African nations.[107] It did not rebu South Africa enwhich denes apartheid and even qualies it as a crime tirely, though, adopting an appeasing manner towards the
against humanity which might lead to international crim- apartheid government, and even recognising its autoninal prosecution of the individuals responsible for perpe- omy. Although African leaders supported the emancitrating it.[100] This convention has however only been rat- pation of black South Africans, they preferred this to be
ied by 107 of the 193 member states as of August 2008. attained through peaceful means.[108]
The convention was initially drafted by the former USSR
South Africas negative response to the Lusaka Manifesto
and Guinea, before being presented to the UN General
and rejection of a change to its policies brought about
Assembly. The convention was adopted with a vote of
another OAU announcement in October 1971. The Mo91 for, and 4 (Portugal, South Africa, the United Kinggadishu Declaration stated that South Africas rebung
dom and the United States) against the convention.
of negotiations meant that its black people could only be
In 1978 and 1983 the UN condemned South Africa at the freed through military means, and that no African state
World Conference Against Racism.
should converse with the apartheid government.[109]
After much debate, by the late 1980s the United States,
the United Kingdom, and 23 other nations had passed
laws placing various trade sanctions on South Africa.[101]
A disinvestment from South Africa movement in many
countries was similarly widespread, with individual cities
and provinces around the world implementing various
laws and local regulations forbidding registered corporations under their jurisdiction from doing business with
South African rms, factories, or banks.[102]
Catholic Church
Pope John Paul II was an outspoken opponent of
apartheid. In 1985, while visiting the Netherlands, he
gave an impassioned speech at the International Court
of Justice condemning apartheid, proclaiming that no
system of apartheid or separate development will ever
be acceptable as a model for the relations between peoples or races.[103] In September 1988 he made a pilgrimage to countries bordering South Africa, while demonstratively avoiding South Africa itself. During his visit
to Zimbabwe, he called for economic sanctions against
South Africas government.[104]
Outward-looking policy
In 1966 B. J. Vorster became Prime Minister. He was
not prepared to dismantle apartheid, but he did try to redress South Africas isolation and to revitalise the countrys global reputation, even those with black-ruled nations in Africa. This he called his Outward-Looking
policy.[110][111][112]
Vorsters willingness to talk to African leaders stood in
contrast to Verwoerds refusal to engage with leaders
such as Abubakar Tafawa Balewa of Nigeria in 1962
and Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia in 1964. In 1966, he
met the heads of the neighbouring states of Lesotho,
Swaziland and Botswana. In 1967, he oered technological and nancial aid to any African state prepared to
receive it, asserting that no political strings were attached,
aware that many African states needed nancial aid despite their opposition to South Africas racial policies.
Many were also tied to South Africa economically because of their migrant labour population working on the
South African mines. Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland
remained outspoken critics of apartheid, but depended on
South Africas economic aid.
3.8. APARTHEID
Malawi was the rst country not on South African borders
to accept South African aid. In 1967, the two states set
out their political and economic relations, and, in 1969,
Malawi became the only country at the assembly which
did not sign the Lusaka Manifesto condemning South
Africa' apartheid policy. In 1970, Malawian president
Hastings Banda made his rst and most successful ocial stopover in South Africa.
Associations with Mozambique followed suit and were
sustained after that country won its sovereignty in
1975. Angola was also granted South African loans.
Other countries which formed relationships with South
Africa were Liberia, Ivory Coast, Madagascar, Mauritius,
Gabon, Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the
Congo) and the Central African Republic. Although
these states condemned apartheid (more than ever after
South Africas denunciation of the Lusaka Manifesto),
South Africas economic and military dominance meant
that they remained dependent on South Africa to varying
degrees.
409
Foreign complaints about South Africas bigoted sports
brought more isolation. Racially selected New Zealand
sports teams toured South Africa, until the 1970 All
Blacks rugby tour allowed Maori to go under the status
of honorary whites. Huge and widespread protests occurred in New Zealand in 1981 against the Springbok tour
the government spent $8 million protecting games using the army and police force. A planned All Black tour
to South Africa in 1985 remobilised the New Zealand
protesters and it was cancelled. A rebel tournot government sanctionedwent ahead in 1986, but after that
sporting ties were cut, and New Zealand made a decision
not to convey an authorised rugby team to South Africa
until the end of apartheid.[113]
Vorster replaced Verwoerd as Prime Minister in 1966 following the latters assassination, and declared that South
Africa would no longer dictate to other countries what
their teams should look like. Although this reopened the
gate for international sporting meets, it did not signal the
end of South Africas racist sporting policies. In 1968
Vorster went against his policy by refusing to permit Basil
D'Oliveira, a Coloured South African-born cricketer, to
join the English cricket team on its tour to South Africa.
Cultural and sporting isolation
Vorster said that the side had been chosen only to prove a
Main articles: Sporting boycott of South Africa and point, and not on merit. After protests, however, Dolly
was eventually included in the team. Protests against cerRugby union and apartheid
tain tours brought about the cancellation of a number of
other visits, including that of an England rugby team tourSouth Africas isolation in sport began in the mid-1950s ing South Africa in 1969/70.
and increased throughout the 1960s. Apartheid forbade
multiracial sport, which meant that overseas teams, by The rst of the White Bans occurred in 1971 when the
virtue of their having players of diverse races, could not Chairman of the Australian Cricketing AssociationSir
play in South Africa. In 1956, the International Table Don Bradmanew to South Africa to meet Vorster.
Tennis Federation severed its ties with the all-white South Vorster had expected Bradman to allow the tour of the
African Table Tennis Union, preferring the non-racial Australian cricket team to go ahead, but things became
South African Table Tennis Board. The apartheid gov- heated after Bradman asked why black sportsmen were
ernment responded by conscating the passports of the not allowed to play cricket. Vorster stated that blacks
Boards players so that they were unable to attend inter- were intellectually inferior and had no nesse for the
game. Bradmanthinking this ignorant and repugnant
national games.
asked Vorster if he had heard of a man named Garry
In 1959, the non-racial South African Sports Associ- Sobers. On his return to Australia, Bradman released a
ation (SASA) was formed to secure the rights of all one sentence statement:[114]
players on the global eld. After meeting with no success in its endeavours to attain credit by collaboratWe will not play them until they choose a
ing with white establishments, SASA approached the
team on a non-racist basis.
International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1962, calling
for South Africas expulsion from the Olympic Games.
The IOC sent South Africa a caution to the eect that, In South Africa, Vorster vented his anger publicly against
if there were no changes, they would be barred from the Bradman, while the African National Congress rejoiced.
1964 Olympic Games. The changes were initiated, and This was the rst time a predominantly white nation
in January 1963, the South African Non-Racial Olympic had taken the side of multiracial sport, producing an
resonance that more White boycotts were
Committee (SANROC) was set up. The Anti-Apartheid unsettling
[115]
Almost twenty years later, on his release
coming.
Movement persisted in its campaign for South Africas
from
prison,
Nelson
Mandela asked a visiting Australian
exclusion, and the IOC acceded in barring the country
statesman
if
Donald
Bradman, his childhood hero, was
from the 1964 Games in Tokyo. South Africa selected a
still
alive
(Bradman
lived
until 2001).
multi-racial team for the next Games, and the IOC opted
for incorporation in the 1968 Games in Mexico. Because In 1971, Vorster altered his policies even further by disof protests from AAMs and African nations, however, the tinguishing multiracial from multinational sport. MulIOC was forced to retract the invitation.
tiracial sport, between teams with players of dierent
410
races, remained outlawed; multinational sport, however, dered Sweden's prime minister Olof Palme made
was now acceptable: international sides would not be sub- the keynote address to the Swedish Peoples Parliament
ject to South Africas racial stipulations.
Against Apartheid held in Stockholm.[118] In addressIn 1978, Nigeria boycotted the Commonwealth Games ing the hundreds of anti-apartheid sympathisers as well
because New Zealands sporting contacts with the South as leaders and ocials from the ANC and the AntiAfrican government were not considered to be in ac- Apartheid Movement such as Oliver Tambo, Palme decordance with the 1977 Gleneagles Agreement. Nige- clared:
ria also led the 32-nation boycott of the 1986 ComApartheid cannot be reformed; it has to be
monwealth Games because of British prime minister
[119]
eliminated.
Margaret Thatcher's ambivalent attitude towards sporting links with South Africa, signicantly aecting the
quality and protability of the Games and thus thrusting Other Western countries adopted a more ambivalent position. In Switzerland, the Swiss-South African Assoapartheid into the international spotlight.[116]
ciation lobbied on behalf of the South African governSporting bans were revoked in 1993, when conciliations ment. In the 1980s, the US Reagan and UK Thatcher adfor a democratic South Africa were well under way.
ministrations followed a "constructive engagement" polIn the 1960s, the Anti-Apartheid Movements began to icy with the apartheid government, vetoing the impocampaign for cultural boycotts of apartheid South Africa. sition of UN economic sanctions, justied by a belief
Artists were requested not to present or let their works be in free trade and a vision of South Africa as a bastion
hosted in South Africa. In 1963, 45 British writers put against Marxist forces in Southern Africa. Thatcher de[120]
and in 1987
their signatures to an armation approving of the boy- clared the ANC a terrorist organisation,
her
spokesman,
Bernard
Ingham,
famously
said
that anycott, and, in 1964, American actor Marlon Brando called
for a similar armation for lms. In 1965, the Writers one who believed that the ANC would ever form the
Guild of Great Britain called for a proscription on the government of South Africa was living in cloud cuckoo
[121]
The American Legislative Exchange Council
sending of lms to South Africa. Over sixty American land".
artists signed a statement against apartheid and against (ALEC), a conservative lobbying organisation, actively
professional links with the state. The presentation of campaigned against divesting from South Africa through[122]
some South African plays in Britain and the United States out the 1980s.
was also vetoed. After the arrival of television in South By the late 1980s, with the tide of the Cold War turnAfrica in 1975, the British Actors Union, Equity, boy- ing and no sign of a political resolution in South Africa,
cotted the service, and no British programme concerning Western patience began to run out. By 1989, a bipartiits associates could be sold to South Africa. Sporting and san Republican/Democratic initiative in the US favoured
cultural boycotts did not have the same impact as eco- economic sanctions (realised as the Comprehensive Antinomic sanctions, but they did much to lift consciousness Apartheid Act of 1986), the release of Nelson Mandela
amongst normal South Africans of the global condemna- and a negotiated settlement involving the ANC. Thatcher
tion of apartheid.
too began to take a similar line, but insisted on the suspension of the ANCs armed struggle.[123]
Western inuence
Britains signicant economic involvement in South

Africa may have provided some leverage with the South
African government, with both the UK and the US applying pressure and pushing for negotiations. However,
neither Britain nor the US was willing to apply economic pressure upon their multinational interests in South
Africa, such as the mining company Anglo American.
Although a high-prole compensation claim against these
companies was thrown out of court in 2004,[124] the US
Supreme Court in May 2008 upheld an appeal court ruling allowing another lawsuit that seeks damages of more
than US$400 billion from major international companies which are accused of aiding South Africas apartheid
system.[125]
London Boycott Apartheid bus, 1989
South African Border War

While international opposition to apartheid grew, the
Nordic countries and Sweden in particular pro- Main articles: South African Border War, Angolan Civil
vided both moral and nancial support for the ANC.[117] War and Cuban intervention in Angola
On 21 February 1986 a week before he was mur-
3.8. APARTHEID
411
By 1966, SWAPO launched guerilla raids from neighbouring countries against South Africas occupation of
South-West Africa (now Namibia). Initially South Africa
fought a counter-insurgency war against SWAPO. This
conict deepened after Angola gained its independence
in 1975 under the leadership of the leftist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) aided by
Cuba. South Africa, Zaire and the United States sided
with the Angolan rival UNITA party against the MPLAs
armed force, FAPLA (Peoples Armed Forces for the
Liberation of Angola). The following struggle turned
into one of several late Cold War ashpoints.[126] The
Angolan civil war developed into a conventional war with
South Africa and UNITA on one side against the MPLA
government, the Soviet Union, the Cubans and SWAPO
on the other.[127]
South African paratroops on a raid in Angola, 1980s.
Cross-border raids
Total onslaught
By 1980, as international opinion turned decisively
against the apartheid regime, the government and much
of the white population increasingly looked upon the
country as a bastion besieged militarily, politically, culturally, ideologically, economically and socially by communism and radical black nationalists. Considerable effort was put into circumventing sanctions, and the government even went so far as to develop nuclear weapons,
with the help of several dierent sources; these sources
allegedly include Israel.[128] In 2010, The Guardian released South African government documents that revealed an Israeli oer to sell the apartheid regime nuclear weapons.[129][130] Israel categorically denied these
allegations and claimed that the documents were minutes
from a meeting which did not indicate any concrete offer for a sale of nuclear weapons. Shimon Peres said that
The Guardian 's article was based on selective interpretation... and not on concrete facts.[131] Before the end
of apartheid, South Africas nuclear weapons were dismantled. They released information about their nuclear
program and accounted for all of their warheads.
By the 1980s, Israel was South Africas only close ally
amongst developed countries, but ties were broken, beginning in 1987 (see IsraelSouth Africa relations).[132]
The term "front-line states" referred to countries in
Southern Africa geographically near South Africa. Although these front-line states were all opposed to
apartheid, many were economically dependent on South
Africa. In 1980, they formed the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC), the aim
of which was to promote economic development in the
region and hence reduce dependence on South Africa.
Many SADCC members allowed the exiled ANC and Pan
Africanist Congress (PAC) to establish bases.
South Africa had a policy of attacking guerrilla-bases and

safe houses of the ANC, PAC and SWAPO in neighbouring countries beginning in the early 1980s.[133] These attacks were in retaliation for acts of terror such as bomb
explosions, massacres and guerrilla actions (like sabotage) by ANC, PAC and SWAPO guerrillas in South
Africa and Namibia. The country also aided organisations in surrounding countries who were actively combating the spread of communism in southern Africa. The
results of these policies included:
Support for guerrilla groups such as UNITA in Angola and RENAMO in Mozambique
South African Defence Force (SADF) hit-squad
raids into front-line states (e.g. the Raid on
Gaborone). Bombing raids were also conducted
into neighbouring states. Air and commando raids
into Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Botswana occurred the
same day, against ANC targets.[134]
An assassination attempt on Zimbabwean President
Robert Mugabe on 18 December 1981.[135]
A full-scale intervention into Angola: this was partly
in support of UNITA, but was also an attempt to
strike at SWAPO bases.[136]
Bomb attacks in Lesotho.[135]
Kidnapping of refugees and ANC members in
Swaziland by security services.[135]
An unsuccessful South African organised coup in
the Seychelles on 25 November 1981.[135]
Targeting of exiled ANC leaders abroad: Joe Slovos
wife Ruth First was killed by a parcel bomb in
Maputo, and death squads of the Civil Cooperation Bureau and the Directorate of Military Intelligence attempted to carry out assassinations on
412

ANC targets in Brussels, Paris,[137] Stockholm, and the UDF called for the government to abandon its reforms
London.[138]
and instead abolish apartheid and eliminate the homelands completely.
In 1984, Mozambican president Samora Machel signed

the Nkomati Accord with South Africas president P.W.
Botha, in an attempt to end South African support for
the opposition group RENAMO. South Africa agreed to
cease supporting anti-government forces, while the MK
was prohibited from operating in Mozambique. This
was a setback for the ANC. Machel hoped the agreement would alliterate the civil war and allow Mozambique to rebuild its economy. Two years later, President
Machel was killed in an air crash in mountainous terrain in South Africa near the Mozambican border after
returning from a meeting in Zambia. South Africa was
accused by the Mozambican government and US Secretary of State George P. Shultz of continuing its aid to
RENAMO. The Mozambiquan government also made an
unproven allegation that the accident was caused intentionally by a false radio navigation beacon that lured the
aircraft into crashing.[139][140] This conspiracy theory was
never proven and is still a subject of some controversy,
despite the South African Margo Commission nding that
the crash was an accident. A Soviet delegation that did
not participate in the investigation issued a minority report implicating South Africa.[141]
3.8.13
State security
During the 1980s the government, led by P.W. Botha,

became increasingly preoccupied with security. It set up
a powerful state security apparatus to protect the state
against an anticipated upsurge in political violence that
the reforms were expected to trigger. The 1980s became
a period of considerable political unrest, with the government becoming increasingly dominated by Bothas circle
of generals and police chiefs (known as securocrats), who
managed the various States of Emergencies.[142]
Bothas years in power were marked also by numerous military interventions in the states bordering South
Africa, as well as an extensive military and political campaign to eliminate SWAPO in Namibia. Within South
Africa, meanwhile, vigorous police action and strict enforcement of security legislation resulted in hundreds of
arrests and bans, and an eective end to the ANCs sabotage campaign.
State of emergency
Serious political violence was a prominent feature from
1985 to 1989, as black townships became the focus of
the struggle between anti-apartheid organisations and the
Botha government. Throughout the 1980s, township people resisted apartheid by acting against the local issues
that faced their particular communities. The focus of
much of this resistance was against the local authorities
and their leaders, who were seen to be supporting the
government. By 1985, it had become the ANCs aim to
make black townships ungovernable (a term later replaced by peoples power) by means of rent boycotts
and other militant action. Numerous township councils
were overthrown or collapsed, to be replaced by unocial popular organisations, often led by militant youth.
Peoples courts were set up, and residents accused of
being government agents were dealt extreme and occasionally lethal punishments. Black town councillors and
policemen, and sometimes their families, were attacked
with petrol bombs, beaten, and murdered by necklacing,
where a burning tyre was placed around the victims neck,
after they were restrained by wrapping their wrists with
barbed wire. This signature act of torture and murder was
embraced by the ANC and its leaders.
On 20 July 1985, Botha declared a State of Emergency in
36 magisterial districts. Areas aected were the Eastern
Cape, and the PWV region ("Pretoria, Witwatersrand,
Vereeniging").[145] Three months later the Western Cape
was included. An increasing number of organisations
were banned or listed (restricted in some way); many individuals had restrictions such as house arrest imposed on
them. During this state of emergency about 2,436 people were detained under the Internal Security Act.[146]
This act gave police and the military sweeping powers.
The government could implement curfews controlling the
movement of people. The president could rule by decree
without referring to the constitution or to parliament. It
became a criminal oence to threaten someone verbally
or possess documents that the government perceived to
be threatening, to advise anyone to stay away from work
or oppose the government, and to disclose the name of
anyone arrested under the State of Emergency until the
government released that name, with up to ten years imprisonment for these oences. Detention without trial became a common feature of the governments reaction to
growing civil unrest and by 1988, 30,000 people had been
detained.[147] The media was censored, thousands were
arrested and many were interrogated and tortured.[148]
The government punished political oenders brutally.

40,000 people were subjected to whipping as a form of
punishment annually.[143] The vast majority had committed political oences and were lashed ten times for
their crime.[144] If convicted of treason, a person could
be hanged, and the government executed numerous political oenders in this way.
On 12 June 1986, four days before the tenth anniverAs the 1980s progressed, more and more anti-apartheid sary of the Soweto uprising, the state of emergency was
organisations were formed and aliated with the UDF. extended to cover the whole country. The government
Led by the Reverend Allan Boesak and Albertina Sisulu, amended the Public Security Act, including the right to
3.8. APARTHEID
declare unrest areas, allowing extraordinary measures
to crush protests in these areas. Severe censorship of
the press became a dominant tactic in the governments
strategy and television cameras were banned from entering such areas. The state broadcaster, the South African
Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), provided propaganda
in support of the government. Media opposition to the
system increased, supported by the growth of a pro-ANC
underground press within South Africa.
In 1987, the State of Emergency was extended for another
two years. Meanwhile, about 200,000 members of the
National Union of Mineworkers commenced the longest
strike (three weeks) in South African history. 1988 saw
the banning of the activities of the UDF and other antiapartheid organisations.
Much of the violence in the late 1980s and early 1990s
was directed at the government, but a substantial amount
was between the residents themselves. Many died in violence between members of Inkatha and the UDF-ANC
faction. It was later proven that the government manipulated the situation by supporting one side or the other
when it suited it. Government agents assassinated opponents within South Africa and abroad; they undertook cross-border army and air-force attacks on suspected
ANC and PAC bases. The ANC and the PAC in return
exploded bombs at restaurants, shopping centres and government buildings such as magistrates courts. Between
1960 and 1994, according to statistics from the Truth and
Reconciliation Commission, the Inkatha Freedom Party
was responsible for 4,500 killings, South African security
forces were responsible for 2,700 killings and the ANC
was responsible for 1,300 killings.[149]
413
emphasises the economy could not provide and compete
with foreign rivals as they failed to master cheap labour
and complex chemistry.[152]
Economic contradictions The contradictions in the
traditionally capitalist economy of the apartheid state led
to considerable debate about racial policy, and division
and conicts in the central state.[153] To a large extent
the political ideology of apartheid had emerged from
the colonisation of Africa by European powers which
institutionalised racial discrimination and exercised a
paternal philosophy of civilising inferior natives.[153]
Some scholars have argued that this can be reected
in Afrikaner Calvinism, with its parallel traditions of
racialism;[154] for example, as early as 1933 the executive
council of the Broederbond formulated a recommendation for mass segregation.[154]
Anti-apartheid protest at South Africa House in London, 1989
The state of emergency continued until 1990, when it was

lifted by State President F.W. de Klerk.
Western inuence External western inuence can be
seen as one of the factors that arguably greatly inuenced political ideology, particularly due to the inuences
3.8.14 Final years of apartheid
of colonisation. South Africa in particular is argued to
be an unreconstructed example of western civilisation
Main article: Negotiations to end apartheid in South twisted by racism.[155] However, western inuence also
Africa
helped end apartheid. Once the power of the Soviet
Union declined along with its Communist inuence, western nations felt Apartheid could no longer be tolerated
and spoke out, encouraging a move towards democracy
Factors
and self-determination.
Institutional racism Apartheid developed by racism
of colonial factors and due to South Africas unique
industrialization.[150] The policies of industrialisation
led to segregation of and classing of people, which was
specically developed to nurture early industry such
as mining and capitalist culture.[150] Cheap labour was
the basis of the economy and this was taken from what
the state classed as peasant groups and the migrants.[151]
Furthermore, Philip Bonner highlights the contradictory
economic eects as the economy did not have a manufacturing sector, therefore promoting short term profitability but limiting labour productivity and the size of
local markets. This also led to its collapse as Clarkes
In the 1960s, South Africa experienced economic growth

second only to that of Japan.[156] Trade with Western
countries grew, and investment from the United States,
France and Britain poured in.
In 1974, resistance to apartheid was encouraged by
Portugal's withdrawal from Mozambique and Angola, after the 1974 Carnation Revolution. South African troops
withdrew from Angola in early 1976, failing to prevent
the MPLA from gaining power there, and black students
in South Africa celebrated.
The Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith, signed by
Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Harry Schwarz in 1974, en-
414
shrined the principles of peaceful transition of power and
equality for all. Its purpose was to provide a blueprint
for South Africa by consent and racial peace in a multiracial society, stressing opportunity for all, consultation,
the federal concept, and a Bill of Rights. It caused a
split in the United Party that ultimately realigned opposition politics in South Africa, with the formation of the
Progressive Federal Party in 1977. It was the rst of such
agreements by acknowledged black and white political
leaders in South Africa.
In 1978, the defence minister of the NP, Pieter Willem
Botha, became Prime Minister. Bothas white regime
was worried about the Soviet Union helping revolutionaries in South Africa, and the economy had slowed down.
The new government noted that it was spending too much
money trying to maintain the segregated homelands that
had been created for blacks and the homelands were proving to be uneconomical.
Nor was maintaining blacks as a third class working well.
The labour of blacks remained vital to the economy, and
illegal black labour unions were ourishing. Many blacks
remained too poor to make much of a contribution to the
economy through their purchasing power although they
were more than 70% of the population. Bothas regime
was afraid that an antidote was needed to prevent the
blacks from being attracted to Communism.[157]
In July 1979, the Nigerian government claimed that the
Shell-BP Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria
Limited (SPDC) was selling Nigerian oil to South Africa,
although there was little evidence or commercial logic for
such sales.[158] The alleged sanctions-breaking was used
to justify the seizure of some of BPs assets in Nigeria including their stake in SPDC, although it appears the real
reasons were economic nationalism and domestic politics
ahead of the Nigerian elections.[159] Many South Africans
attended schools in Nigeria, and Nelson Mandela several
times acknowledged the role of Nigeria in the struggle
against apartheid.
In the 1980s, the anti-apartheid movements in the United
States and Europe were gaining support for boycotts
against South Africa, for the withdrawal of US rms
from South Africa and for the release of Mandela. South
Africa was becoming an outlaw in the world community of nations. Investing in South Africa by Americans
and others was coming to an end and an active policy of
disinvestment ensued.
Tricameral parliament
Main article: Tricameral Parliament
In the early 1980s, Bothas National Party government
started to recognise the inevitability of the need to reform apartheid.[160] Early reforms were driven by a combination of internal violence, international condemnation,

changes within the National Partys constituency, and
changing demographicswhites constituted only 16% of
the total population, in comparison to 20% fty years
earlier.[161]
In 1983, a new constitution was passed implementing what was called the Tricameral Parliament, giving
coloureds and Indians voting rights and parliamentary
representation in separate houses the House of Assembly (178 members) for whites, the House of Representatives (85 members) for coloureds and the House of Delegates (45 members) for Indians.[162] Each House handled
laws pertaining to its racial groups own aairs, including health, education and other community issues.[163]
All laws relating to general aairs (matters such as defence, industry, taxation and Black aairs) were handled
by a cabinet made up of representatives from all three
houses. However, the white chamber had a large majority on this cabinet, ensuring that eective control of
the country remained in white hands.[164][165] Blacks, although making up the majority of the population, were
excluded from representation; they remained nominal citizens of their homelands.[166] The rst Tricameral elections were largely boycotted by Coloured and Indian voters, amid widespread rioting.[167]
Reforms and contact with the ANC under Botha

Concerned over the popularity of Mandela, Botha denounced him as an arch-Marxist committed to violent
revolution, but to appease black opinion and nurture
Mandela as a benevolent leader of blacks, the government
moved him from Robben Island to Pollsmoor Prison in a
rural area just outside Cape Town, where prison life was
easier. The government allowed Mandela more visitors,
including visits and interviews by foreigners, to let the
world know that he was being treated well.
Black homelands were declared nation-states and pass
laws were abolished. Black labour unions were legitimised, the government recognised the right of blacks to
live in urban areas permanently and gave blacks property
rights there. Interest was expressed in rescinding the law
against interracial marriage and also rescinding the law
against sex between the races, which was under ridicule
abroad. The spending for black schools increased, to oneseventh of what was spent per white child, up from on
one-sixteenth in 1968. At the same time, attention was
given to strengthening the eectiveness of the police apparatus.
In January 1985, Botha addressed the governments
House of Assembly and stated that the government was
willing to release Mandela on condition that Mandela
pledge opposition to acts of violence to further political objectives. Mandelas reply was read in public by his
daughter Zinzi his rst words distributed publicly since
his sentence to prison twenty-one years before. Mandela
described violence as the responsibility of the apartheid
3.8. APARTHEID
415
regime and said that with democracy there would be no

need for violence. The crowd listening to the reading
of his speech erupted in cheers and chants. This response helped to further elevate Mandelas status in the
eyes of those, both internationally and domestically, who
opposed apartheid.
Between 1986 and 1988, some petty apartheid laws were
repealed. Botha told white South Africans to adapt or
die[168] and twice he wavered on the eve of what were
billed as "rubicon" announcements of substantial reforms,
although on both occasions he backed away from substantial changes. Ironically, these reforms served only
to trigger intensied political violence through the remainder of the eighties as more communities and political groups across the country joined the resistance movement. Bothas government stopped short of substantial
reforms, such as lifting the ban on the ANC, PAC and
SACP and other liberation organisations, releasing political prisoners, or repealing the foundation laws of grand
apartheid. The governments stance was that they would
not contemplate negotiating until those organisations renounced violence.
De Klerk and Mandela in Davos, 1992
African Communist Party (SACP) and the United Democratic Front. The Land Act was brought to an end. De
Klerk also made his rst public commitment to release
Nelson Mandela, to return to press freedom and to suspend the death penalty. Media restrictions were lifted and
political prisoners not guilty of common-law crimes were
By 1987, South Africas economy was growing at one of
released.
the lowest rates in the world, and the ban on South African
participation in international sporting events was frustrat- On 11 February 1990, Nelson Mandela was released from
ing many whites in South Africa. Examples of African Victor Verster Prison after more than 27 years of connestates with black leaders and white minorities existed in ment.
Kenya and Zimbabwe. Whispers of South Africa one day Having been instructed by the UN Security Council to
having a black President sent more hardline whites into end its long-standing involvement in South-West Africa /
Rightist parties. Mandela was moved to a four-bedroom Namibia, and in the face of military stalemate in Southern
house of his own, with a swimming pool and shaded by r Angola, and an escalation in the size and cost of the comtrees, on a prison farm just outside Cape Town. He had an bat with the Cubans, the Angolans, and SWAPO forces
unpublicised meeting with Botha. Botha impressed Man- and the growing cost of the border war, South Africa nedela by walking forward, extending his hand and pouring gotiated a change of control; Namibia became indepenMandelas tea. The two had a friendly discussion, with dent on 21 March 1990.
Mandela comparing the African National Congress rebellion with that of the Afrikaner rebellion and talking
about everyone being brothers.
Negotiations
A number of clandestine meetings were held between the
ANC-in-exile and various sectors of the internal strug- Main article: Negotiations to end apartheid in South
gle, such as women and educationalists. More overtly, a Africa
group of white intellectuals met the ANC in Senegal for
talks.[169]
Apartheid was dismantled in a series of negotiations from
1990 to 1993, culminating in elections in 1994, the rst
in South Africa with universal surage.
Presidency of F.W. de Klerk
From 1990 to 1996 the legal apparatus of apartheid was
Early in 1989, Botha suered a stroke; he was prevailed abolished. In 1990 negotiations were earnestly begun,
upon to resign in February 1989.[170] He was succeeded with two meetings between the government and the ANC.
as president later that year by F.W. de Klerk. Despite The purpose of the negotiations was to pave the way for
his initial reputation as a conservative, de Klerk moved talks towards a peaceful transition of power. These meetdecisively towards negotiations to end the political stale- ings were successful in laying down the preconditions
mate in the country. In his opening address to parlia- for negotiations despite the considerable tensions still
ment on 2 February 1990, de Klerk announced that he abounding within the country.
would repeal discriminatory laws and lift the 30-year ban At the rst meeting, the NP and ANC discussed the conon leading anti-apartheid groups such as the African Na- ditions for negotiations to begin. The meeting was held
tional Congress, the Pan Africanist Congress, the South at Groote Schuur, the Presidents ocial residence. They
416
released the Groote Schuur Minute, which said that be- formed the basis for ANCs withdrawal from the negotifore negotiations commenced political prisoners would ations, and the CODESA forum broke down completely
be freed and all exiles allowed to return.
at this stage.
There were fears that the change of power would be violent. To avoid this, it was essential that a peaceful
resolution between all parties be reached. In December 1991, the Convention for a Democratic South Africa
(CODESA) began negotiations on the formation of a
multiracial transitional government and a new constitution extending political rights to all groups. CODESA
adopted a Declaration of Intent and committed itself to
an undivided South Africa.
Reforms and negotiations to end apartheid led to a backlash among the right-wing white opposition, leading to
the Conservative Party winning a number of by-elections
against NP candidates. De Klerk responded by calling a
whites-only referendum in March 1992 to decide whether
negotiations should continue. A 68 per cent majority
gave its support, and the victory instilled in de Klerk and
the government a lot more condence, giving the NP a
stronger position in negotiations.
When negotiations resumed in May 1992, under the tag
of CODESA II, stronger demands were made. The ANC
and the government could not reach a compromise on
how power should be shared during the transition to
democracy. The NP wanted to retain a strong position
in a transitional government, and the power to change decisions made by parliament.
Persistent violence added to the tension during the negotiations. This was due mostly to the intense rivalry between the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) and the ANC and
the eruption of some traditional tribal and local rivalries
between the Zulu and Xhosa historical tribal anities, especially in the Southern Natal provinces. Although Mandela and Buthelezi met to settle their dierences, they
could not stem the violence. One of the worst cases of
ANC-IFP violence was the Boipatong massacre of 17
June 1992, when 200 IFP militants attacked the Gauteng
township of Boipatong, killing 45. Witnesses said that
the men had arrived in police vehicles, supporting claims
that elements within the police and army contributed to
the ongoing violence. Subsequent judicial inquiries found
the evidence of the witnesses to be unreliable or discredited, and that there was no evidence of National Party
or police involvement in the massacre. When de Klerk
visited the scene of the incident he was initially warmly
welcomed, but he was suddenly confronted by a crowd of
protesters brandishing stones and placards. The motorcade sped from the scene as police tried to hold back the
crowd. Shots were red by the police, and the PAC stated
that three of its supporters had been gunned down.[171]
Nonetheless, the Boipatong massacre oered the ANC
a pretext to engage in brinkmanship. Mandela argued
that de Klerk, as head of state, was responsible for bringing an end to the bloodshed. He also accused the South
African police of inciting the ANC-IFP violence. This
The Bisho massacre on 7 September 1992 brought matters to a head. The Ciskei Defence Force killed 29 people
and injured 200 when they opened re on ANC marchers
demanding the reincorporation of the Ciskei homeland
into South Africa. In the aftermath, Mandela and de
Klerk agreed to meet to nd ways to end the spiralling
violence. This led to a resumption of negotiations.
Right-wing violence also added to the hostilities of
this period. The assassination of Chris Hani on 10
April 1993 threatened to plunge the country into chaos.
Hani, the popular general secretary of the South African
Communist Party (SACP), was assassinated in 1993
in Dawn Park in Johannesburg by Janusz Walu, an
anti-communist Polish refugee who had close links
to the white nationalist Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging
(AWB). Hani enjoyed widespread support beyond his
constituency in the SACP and ANC and had been recognised as a potential successor to Mandela; his death
brought forth protests throughout the country and across
the international community, but ultimately proved a
turning point, after which the main parties pushed for
a settlement with increased determination.[172] On 25
June 1993, the AWB used an armoured vehicle to crash
through the doors of the Kempton Park World Trade
Centre where talks were still going ahead under the Negotiating Council, though this did not derail the process.[173]
In addition to the continuing black-on-black violence,
there were a number of attacks on white civilians by the
PACs military wing, the Azanian Peoples Liberation
Army (APLA). The PAC was hoping to strengthen their
standing by attracting the support of the angry, impatient youth. In the St James Church massacre on 25 July
1993, members of the APLA opened re in a church in
Cape Town, killing 11 members of the congregation and
wounding 58.
In 1993 de Klerk and Mandela were jointly awarded the
Nobel Peace Prize for their work for the peaceful termination of the apartheid regime, and for laying the foundations for a new democratic South Africa.[174]
Violence persisted right up to the 1994 elections. Lucas
Mangope, leader of the Bophuthatswana homeland, declared that it would not take part in the elections. It
had been decided that, once the temporary constitution
had come into eect, the homelands would be incorporated into South Africa, but Mangope did not want this to
happen. There were strong protests against his decision,
leading to a coup d'tat in Bophuthatswana on 10 March
that deposed Mangope, despite the intervention of white
right-wingers hoping to maintain him in power. Three
AWB militants were killed during this intervention, and
harrowing images were shown on national television and
in newspapers across the world.
Two days before the elections, a car bomb exploded in Jo-
3.8. APARTHEID
hannesburg, killing nine.[175][176] The day before the elections, another one went o, injuring 13. At midnight on
2627 April 1994 the old ag was lowered, and the old
(now co-ocial) national anthem Die Stem (The Call)
was sung, followed by the raising of the new rainbow ag
and singing of the other co-ocial anthem, Nkosi Sikelel'
iAfrika (God Bless Africa).
1994 election
417
Natal. On 10 May 1994, Mandela was sworn in as South
Africas president. The Government of National Unity
was established, its cabinet made up of 12 ANC representatives, six from the NP, and three from the IFP. Thabo
Mbeki and de Klerk were made deputy presidents.
The anniversary of the elections, 27 April, is celebrated
as a public holiday known as Freedom Day.
3.8.15 Contrition
The following individuals, who had previously supported
apartheid, made public apologies:
F. W. de Klerk: I apologise in my capacity as leader
of the NP to the millions who suered wrenching disruption of forced removals; who suered the
shame of being arrested for pass law oences; who
over the decades suered the indignities and humiliation of racial discrimination.[181]
The new multicoloured ag of South Africa adopted in 1994 to

mark the end of Apartheid.
Main article: South African general election, 1994
Marthinus van Schalkwyk: The National Party

brought development to a section of South Africa,
but also brought suering through a system
grounded on injustice, in a statement shortly after
the National Party voted to disband.[182][183]
Adriaan Vlok washed the feet of apartheid victim
Frank Chikane in an act of apology for the wrongs
of the Apartheid regime.[184]
The election was held on 27 April 1994 and went o

peacefully throughout the country as 20 million South
Leon Wessels: I am now more convinced than ever
Africans cast their votes. There was some diculty in
that apartheid was a terrible mistake that blighted
organising the voting in rural areas, but people waited paour land. South Africans did not listen to the laughtiently for many hours to vote amidst a palpable feeling
ing and the crying of each other. I am sorry that I
of goodwill. An extra day was added to give everyone
had been so hard of hearing for so long.[185]
the chance. International observers agreed that the elections were free and fair.[177] The European Unions report on the election compiled at the end of May 1994, 3.8.16 See also
published two years after the election, criticised the Independent Electoral Commissions lack of preparedness
Apartheid legislation in South Africa
for the polls, the shortages of voting materials at many
Africa Hinterland (arms smuggling operation)
voting stations, and the absence of eective safeguards
against fraud in the counting process. In particular, it ex Apartheid in art and literature
pressed disquiet that no international observers had been
allowed to be present at the crucial stage of the count
Apartheid Museum
when party representatives negotiated over disputed bal Anti-Apartheid Movement
lots. This meant that both the electorate and the world
were simply left to guess at the way the nal result was
Belhar Confession
achieved.[178]
Day of Reconciliation
The ANC won 62.65% of the vote,[179][180] less than the
66.7% that would have allowed it to rewrite the constitution. 252 of the 400 seats went to members of the
African National Congress. The NP captured most of the
white and coloured votes and became the ocial opposition party. As well as deciding the national government,
the election decided the provincial governments, and the
ANC won in seven of the nine provinces, with the NP
winning in the Western Cape and the IFP in KwaZulu-
Disinvestment from South Africa

Hendrik Werwoerd
Israeli settlements
Barry Hertzog
Jan Smuts
418
Jim Crow laws

Foreign relations of South Africa during apartheid
Israel and the apartheid analogy
Legacies of apartheid
Liberation before education
Nelson Mandela
Non-citizens (Latvia)
Oliver Tambo
Pieter Botha
Racial segregation
Paris Peace Conference, 1919#Japanese approach
Sandra Laing
Second-class citizen
[10] Lodge, Tom (1983). Black Politics in South Africa Since

1945. New York: Longman.
[11] De Klerk dismantles apartheid in South Africa. BBC
News. 2 February 1990. Archived from the original on
15 February 2009. Retrieved 21 February 2009.
[12] http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jan/31/
nelson-mandela-de-klerk-apartheid
[13] R.W Lee. Introduction to Roman-Dutch Law. Oxford,
Clarendon Press. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
[14] Gish, Steven (2000). Alfred B. Xuma: African, American,
South African. New York University Press. p. 8.
[15] Hoiberg, Dale; Ramchandani, Indu (2000). Students Britannica India, Volumes 15. Popular Prakashan. p. 142.
[16] Allen, John (2005). Apartheid South Africa: An Insiders
Overview of the Origin And Eects of Separate Development. iUniverse. p. xi.
Steve Biko
[17] {better source needed} Nojeim, Michael J. (2004).

Gandhi and King: the power of nonviolent resistance.
Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 127.
Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South

Africa)
[18] Leach, Graham (1986). South Africa: no easy path to

peace. Routledge. p. 68.
White Australia policy
3.8.17
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3.8.18
Further reading
Davenport, T. R. H. South Africa. A Modern History. MacMillan, 1977.

Davies, Rob, Dan O'Meara and Sipho Dlamini.
The Struggle For South Africa: A reference guide
to movements, organisations and institution. Volume
Two. London: Zed Books, 1984
423
Bernstein, Hilda. For their Triumphs and for their
Tears: Women in Apartheid South Africa. International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa.
London, 1985.
Meredith, Martin. In the name of apartheid: South
Africa in the postwar period. 1st US ed. New York:
Harper & Row, 1988.
Meredith, Martin. The State of Africa. The Free
Press, 2005.
Morris, Michael. Apartheid: An illustrated history.
Jonathan Ball Publishers. Johannesburg and Cape
Town, 2012.
Newbury, Darren. Deant Images: Photography
and Apartheid South Africa, University of South
Africa (UNISA) Press, 2009.
Terreblanche, S. A History of Inequality in South
Africa, 16522002. University of Natal Press,
2003.
De Klerk, F. W. The last Trek. A New Beginning.

MacMillan, 1998.
Visser, Pippa. In search of history. Oxford University Press Southern Africa, 2003.
Du Pre, R. H. Separate but UnequalThe

'Coloured' People of South AfricaA Political
History.. Jonathan Ball, 1994.
Williams, Michael.
1994
Eiselen, W. W. N. The Meaning of Apartheid, Race

3.8.19
Relations, 15 (3), 1948.
Federal Research Division. South Africa a country
study. Library of Congress, 1996.
Giliomee, Herman The Afrikaners. Hurst & Co.,
2003.
Book: Crocodile Burning.
External links
Understanding Apartheid Learners Book

The evolution of the white right
History of the freedom charter SAHO
Hazlett, Thomas W. (2008). Apartheid. The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (2nd ed.). Library
of Economics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0865976658.
OCLC 237794267.
Apartheid Museum in Johannesburg
Hexham, Irving, The Irony of Apartheid: The Struggle for National Independence of Afrikaner Calvinism against British Imperialism. Edwin Mellen,
1981.
South Africa: Cuba and the South African AntiApartheid Struggle by Nicole Sarmiento
Keable, Ken London Recruits: The Secret War

Against Apartheid. Pontypool, UK: Merlin Press.
2012.
Louw, P. Eric. The Rise, Fall and Legacy of
Apartheid. Praeger, 2004.
Lapchick, Richard and Urdang, Stephanie. Oppression and Resistance. The Struggle of Women
in Southern Africa.
Westport, Connecticut:
Greenwood Press. 1982.
The African Activist Archive Project website has

material on the struggle against apartheid
Interview with Dr. Ranginui Walker about the 'No

Maoris tours to South Africa under apartheid RadioLIVE interview on the exclusion of Maori from
the All Blacks during the tours of South Africa under apartheid.
The International Centre for Transitional Justice
(ICTJ) provides resources on the legacy of apartheid
and transitional justice in South Africa.
JSTORs Struggles for Freedom digital archive on
www.aluka.org Collection of primary source historical materials about apartheid South Africa
424

eugenics in general, didnt gain ground until after World
War I. In 1918 the society travelled around Sweden with
an exhibit called Folktyputstllning (Exhibition about
types of people). The same year Frithiof Lennmalm,
the headmaster of Karolinska Institutet proposed that the
Nobel Foundation nance an institute for race biology.
The Nobel committee for medicine voted unanimously
in favour of the proposal. The sta of Karolinska Institutet voted against it with a very thin margin (9 against 8).
Instead it was proposed that the Swedish state found and
nance such an institute.
The institute was housed in Dekanhuset in Uppsala.
3.9 Statens institut fr rasbiologi
Around 1941, Nils von Hofsten, considered the most important researcher at the institute at the time, demanded
from the National Board of Health and Welfare to provide
a link between asocial behavior and heredity genetics.
Besides unproven links, by accurate science, the social
aspect was used to justify the Sterilization Act of 1941.[3]
Statens institut fr rasbiologi (SIFR, Swedish: The

State Institute for Racial Biology) was a Swedish govern- 3.9.2 References
mental research institute founded in 1922 with the stated
purpose of studying eugenics and human genetics. It was [1] According to the title page of the dissertation by Lars
Beckman A contribution to the physical anthropology and
located in Uppsala and as a governmental agency, it was
population genetics of Sweden: variations of the ABO,
the worlds rst of its kind. In 1958, it was replaced by the
Rh, MN and P blood groups. Hereditas (Lund), 0018State Institute for Human Genetics [1] (Institutionen fr
0661 ; 45(1959) the name of the institute at 1959 was
medicinisk genetik) and is today incorporated as a departThe State Institute for Human Genetics and not the Instiment of Uppsala University. Its rst head was Herman
tute for Medical Genetics.
Lundborg.
[2] Swedens 'dark legacy' draws crowds to museum
3.9.1
History
See also: Compulsory sterilisation in Sweden

After its founding in 1922, it continued under the leadership of Herman Lundborg. In 1926, studies conducted
by the institute provided a basis for Lundborgs upper secondary school textbook 'Swedish Racial Studies. However, Lundborg became increasingly anti-semitic which
put him at odds with the Swedish Government during a
time when tensions were growing between Sweden and
Germany. In 1936, he was replaced by Gunnar Dahlberg.
In 1958 it was integrated into Uppsala University, and is
today the universitys genetic center.
The Institute became associated with a forced sterilization program which aected 63,000 people and continued until 1975.[2]
The ocial assignment of the Swedish institute was to
study the inhabitants of the country from a racial perspective. They studied the life conditions and environmental developments of dierent families. They tried
to explain the eect biological heritage and the environment has on people. They also studied mental illnesses,
alcoholism and criminality. Svenska sllskapet fr rashygien (Swedish Society for Eugenics) was founded in 1909
and paved the way for SIFR. Its mission statement was
to study eugenics. Svenska sllskapet fr rashygien, and
[3] Alberto Spektorowski and Elisabet Mizrachi (2004).

Eugenics and the Welfare State in Sweden: The Politics
of Social Margins and the Idea of a Productive Society.
Journal of Contemporary History.
Chapter 4
Text and image sources, contributors, and

licenses
4.1 Text
History of democracy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_democracy?oldid=683266129 Contributors: Ed Poor, Mrwojo,
Gabbe, Big iron, Adam Bishop, Frazzydee, Chealer, Zandperl, Alan Liefting, Stirling Newberry, Ancheta Wis, MaGioZal, Nikodemos,
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DVD R W, SpLoT, Attilios, SmackBot, Flounderer, C.Fred, Jagged 85, Thunderboltz, Fernandodaher, HalfShadow, Commander Keane
bot, Magicalsaumy, Hmains, Skizzik, ERcheck, Hongooi, D-Rock, Mindstar, Cstrife7, Kozushi, MichaelBillington, Kevlar67, Only,
Bejnar, Drunken Pirate, Nishkid64, Soundabuser, Ckatz, Bless sins, Neddyseagoon, Iridescent, Red student, Shoeofdeath, Beno1000,
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Third Wave Democracy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Wave_Democracy?oldid=633185968 Contributors: AnonMoos, Piotrus, Gary, Wavelength, SmackBot, Betacommand, Neo-Jay, Childzy, Kookamunga187, Poweron, VolkovBot, StAnselm, Addbot, Wildcursive, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, EmausBot, Smoortema, BG19bot, Julimerg, Mdann52, Bluefella, Unchartered, Aungnaingmaw,
This.s.me and Anonymous: 6
Surage Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffrage?oldid=683095848 Contributors: The Cunctator, Amillar, Rmhermen, Atorpen,
Fubar Obfusco, Karen Johnson, SimonP, Tzartzam, Bobdobbs1723, Edward, Michael Hardy, MartinHarper, Gabbe, SteveG~enwiki, Jebba,
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Alan Liefting, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Mintleaf~enwiki, Tom harrison, Wilfried Derksen, Gadum, Utcursch, Andycjp, R.
end, SURIV, Antandrus, Beland, Joeblakesley, Piotrus, Kaldari, Sean Heron, Bepp, Sonett72, Master Of Ninja, Grunt, Aniboy2000,
AliveFreeHappy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, FiP, Dbachmann, MattTM, Closeapple, Jnestorius, Fenice, CanisRufus, FirstPrinciples, Kwamikagami, RoyBoy, Bobo192, Smalljim, Cohesion, Scott Ritchie, Acjelen, Tadman, Axyjo, Espoo, Ranveig, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Khaim, Atlant, Improv, JoaoRicardo, Cjnm, Hu, Rwendland, Metron4, Snowolf, Yuckfoo, Leoadec, Evil Monkey, BDD, SteinbDJ,
Dan100, Stuartyeates, Woohookitty, Lunar Jesters, Edgerunner76, Pol098, Kelisi, X127, Toussaint, Dysepsion, Gwenham, A Train,
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CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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4.1. TEXT
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Ryant2269, Levi evans72420, Nogsy12, 86fan and Anonymous: 1774
Timeline of womens surage Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women{}s_suffrage?oldid=683647735 Contributors:
Manning Bartlett, Paul Barlow, Paul A, WhisperToMe, Warofdreams, Timrollpickering, JackofOz, Alan Liefting, Helgihg, Zigger, Alensha, The Singing Badger, Domino theory, Picapica, Udzu, Canterbury Tail, Boris Kaiser, Parishan, Quiensabe, Jnestorius, Zscout370,
Bobo192, Smalljim, Man vyi, Mixcoatl, A2Kar, Rd232, MarkGallagher, Ferrierd, CJ, Kitch, Velho, PatGallacher, Tabletop, Rjwilmsi,
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KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Estoy Aqu, Prototime, Jagged 85, Aivazovsky, Gilliam, Chris the speller, H2ppyme, Dabigkid, Zachori-
428
ous, AussieLegend, Mooo, Ohconfucius, Harryboyles, Potosino, Nitjanirasu, Gobonobo, Aleenf1, Andrwsc, JeW, Hera1, Iamcuriousblue,
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Ahmmed, LAX, Dakinijones, Ksherin, The Thing That Should Not Be, Nobody 343, Niceguyedc, Lucho cl, DumZiBoT, Rror, Zodon, D.M.
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Whizz40, Alianamahd, 7alloumi, Vanisheduser00348374562342, Nifty shigger, 176yolo, ElliotParra, Alexandre Marius Jacob, Squiver,
Norfolk Island Democracy and Anonymous: 172
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Meclee, Ne08041, Finnusertop, Whizz40, Monkbot, Ryanhw, Pardypeople, Ejw wiki editor, Jdh9, DemocracyRepublic, KasparBot and
Anonymous: 97
Revolutions of 1989 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989?oldid=683595571 Contributors: Rickyrab, GCarty,
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Juicy, EpicOrange, Sundayclose, PatchyP, Patton.loop, Sco096, Srednuas Lenoroc, LVHynes, Dutral, Swissnetizen and Anonymous: 352
Spanish transition to democracy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy?oldid=669229466 Contributors: Nine Tail Fox, Error, Vardion, Donreed, Jmabel, Timrollpickering, MaGioZal, Everyking, Sesel, Lacrimosus, Jayjg, Rich Farmbrough,
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username, SnobNeurotico, Silverhorse, Silverhelm, Intangible, SmackBot, Deniz Feneri, Gilliam, Afa86, Bluebot, Agateller, MalafayaBot,
4.1. TEXT
429
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bot, Big Axe, EmausBot, ZroBot, Jameentemeyer, ClueBot NG, RJFF, YFdyh-bot, Dexbot, Charles Essie, HelicopterLlama, Orangechoc, Theos Little Bot, BreakfastJr, BBio-Wiki, Bubills7701, , Sai Weng, Zozs, Sietecolores, MrCharro, Crystallizedcarbon,
Money12344321, Anentai and Anonymous: 63
Portuguese transition to democracy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_transition_to_democracy?oldid=619937627
Contributors: Mboverload, Bobblewik, Lapsed Pacist, Bkwillwm, Rjwilmsi, Ground Zero, Jaraalbe, Peter Grey, Peter G Werner, SmackBot, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Dr.K., Cydebot, T L Miles, Elsecar, R'n'B, XPTO, Addbot, Download, Lightbot, Licor, Ulric1313,
Gera82, I dream of horses, Jcmonteiro42, Jomig, BrickBreak, Excelsior Deo, Slightsmile, Markiewp, ClueBot NG, Smsagro, DoctorKubla,
Charles Essie, Podiaebba and Anonymous: 12
Velvet Revolution Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet_Revolution?oldid=683509814 Contributors: Mav, Bryan Derksen, The
Anome, Sjc, Zoe, Olivier, Leandrod, Sam Francis, Ijon, WouterVH, Slawojarek, AlexPlank, Robbot, Juro, Naddy, Radagast, Martinwguy,
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MUK, Melleber, SimilarName, Thomas0802, Thur 0064, Cmferguson and Anonymous: 219
Chilean transition to democracy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilean_transition_to_democracy?oldid=677219021 Contributors: Edward, TDC, Neutrality, ArnoldReinhold, Gary, Rd232, Dmismir, Woohookitty, Ardfern, Tabletop, Nihiltres, RussBot, Gaius
Cornelius, SmackBot, Xkoalax, Incnis Mrsi, Chris the speller, Rakela, Uri R, Marmaduque, Tazmaniacs, DangerousPanda, Cydebot, PKT,
CieloEstrellado, Carolmooredc, Dogru144, Dentren, Rafaelm, Gwern, Uyvsdi, Natg 19, Danrolo~enwiki, Jbmurray, Flyer22, Cieloazulado, Likeminas, Diego Grez-Caete, Hoplon, Avoran, PixelBot, Editorofthewiki, Cristian Opazo, Addbot, Janmariamazurczak, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Jo3sampl, Ulric1313, LilHelpa, Ruodyssey, Luis Napoles, Axystos, Sfs90, Full-date unlinking bot, Simtex, Hazard-SJ, Ace
of Raves, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Mdann52, Khazar2, Charles Essie, Brookesides and Anonymous: 34
Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa?
oldid=672187792 Contributors: Jerzy, Duja, Binabik80, Lkinkade, SDC, Toussaint, Graham87, Rjwilmsi, Joonasl, Grafen, Htonl, SmackBot, Mike hayes, Zaian, Suidafrikaan, Esrever, Guat6, Dr.Poison, Dl2000, Severino, Cydebot, Tec15, Headbomb, Yahel Guhan, VoABot II,
Buckshot06, MiPe, DerHexer, JaGa, Fiachra10003, Signalhead, Robert1947, Aturton, Alexemanuel, Alexbot, Johnuniq, Addbot, Douglas
the Comeback Kid, Kipoc, AnomieBOT, Frankenpuppy, Xqbot, Earlypsychosis, FrescoBot, CapitalElll, Citation bot 1, Full-date unlinking bot, Orenburg1, HelenOnline, Bluekey7, Kajervi, IRISZOOM, RjwilmsiBot, History-SA, John of Reading, Dewritech, John Shandy`,
Dan.krammer, H3llBot, SporkBot, Conlinp, PNA record, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Dexbot, A. Pseudonym and Anonymous: 33
Perestroika Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perestroika?oldid=682140748 Contributors: Roadrunner, SimonP, Edward, Tim Starling, Fred Bauder, BrianHansen~enwiki, Menchi, Ixfd64, 172, IZAK, Skysmith, Whkoh, Cyan, Andres, Jouster, Lommer, Timwi, Bemoeial, Magnus.de, RayKiddy, Marc Girod~enwiki, David.Monniaux, Branddobbe, Robbot, RedWolf, Altenmann, Humus sapiens, Hoot,
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Alai, KTC, Dejvid, Fbv65edel, Karmosin, Gimboid13, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Rjwilmsi, Lars T., Tim!, Koavf, Durin,
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TheMule, MOBle, BenA, Domitori, JForget, Ivan Pozdeev, JohnCD, NisseSthlm, Themightyquill, Cydebot, KPbIC, Tec15, Luckyherb,
Daedae, CieloEstrellado, Thijs!bot, SeNeKa, WikiAvenger, Ufwuct, Ideogram, Heroeswithmetaphors, Sosa1998, Mack2, Mrlogie2002,
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430
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Rezabot, Svoboda1961, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lucian303, Gob Lofa, Ncillo10, BG19bot, Krenair, Soko267, JMtB03, Zujua, No dictatorships
just peace, Cyberbot II, The Illusive Man, EuroCarGT, Sheaerin17, Charles Essie, Mogism, Wikignome1213, Mrbakerthesanditchmaker,
JustAMuggle, DSverdlov, Spyglasses, RaBOTnik, Monkbot, Sopiknfram, Crom daba, Hotday75, ReliableDoe, Radyanskysoldativ, TerryAlex, Fakeaccount2, Vreswiki, KasparBot, Alistairgray42, The Quixotic Potato, Hiramlook1 and Anonymous: 310
History of human rights Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_human_rights?oldid=676293640 Contributors: William Avery, Paul Barlow, Paul A, Charles Matthews, ChrisO~enwiki, Dbachmann, Mckqed, Giraedata, BD2412, George Burgess, RussBot,
Rjensen, Vastu, Canley, Arad, SmackBot, Jagged 85, Yamaguchi , Hmains, Makyen, Moreschi, Kanags, Doug Weller, Faigl.ladislav,
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Hehiheho~enwiki, AnomieBOT, Floquenbeam, Citation bot, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Jayzames, Anonymous from the 21st century,
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Wikignome0530, Vohuman01, ClueBot NG, GoetheFromm, Prioryman, Pizza1016, Satellizer, Jdravan, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent,
BG19bot, Sparkie82, BattyBot, Khazar2, Webclient101, XXzoonamiXX, Kitrino, Ugog Nizdast, Allthekidsinthestreet, Hegivens, Mhhossein, Dmyk8120, Hgghgfgj ghost hj, Hein5717, Malylyk and Anonymous: 41
Three generations of human rights Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_generations_of_human_rights?oldid=681159374 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Gabbe, Brettz9, Kaihsu, Timwi, Hjr, Jmabel, Nikodemos, SURIV, Night Gyr, Tjic, JW1805, Aquillion,
Mekri, L.1011, Wikidea, Snowolf, RJII, Sympleko, Koavf, Lockley, Thunderbird~enwiki, Blackworm, Anonymous editor, Otebig,
KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Hmains, Metageek, Warren, Wossi, Byelf2007, Ckatz, Grumpyyoungman01, Walton One, Hemlock Martinis, IanA, Robertson-Glasgow, Nolook, Raggz, Bearian, Nopetro, Pexise, Chieron, Arjayay, Pfhorrest, Addbot, Ssrkhrsechu, Lightbot,
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TobeBot, Trappist the monk, LilyKitty, Eatonbick, Keegscee, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Cousin Kevin, ZroBot, Erianna, ScepticFritz, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Curiousdwk, HazimJ, Hmainsbot1, CsDix, Whizz40, Zoomban, Zeiimer and Anonymous: 62
Civil and political rights Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights?oldid=683343483 Contributors: WojPob,
Mav, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, -- April, LA2, Roadrunner, SimonP, Zoe, Stevertigo, K.lee, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Palnatoke, Lexor, Jtdirl, Ixfd64, Alireza Hashemi, Mdebets, Qslack, Theresa knott, UserGoogol, Jiang, Kaihsu, Evercat, Alex756, Ruhrjung,
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4.1. TEXT
431
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and Anonymous: 1075
Universal Declaration of Human Rights Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights?oldid=
682982826 Contributors: Eloquence, Mav, Robert Merkel, Tarquin, Jeronimo, Eean, Scipius, Formulax~enwiki, EvanProdromou,
DIG~enwiki, Liftarn, Gabbe, Tomi, Shoaler, Tregoweth, Notheruser, LittleDan, Jiang, Alex756, Seth ze, Timwi, N-true, Daniel Quinlan, HappyDog, Tpbradbury, Grendelkhan, Buridan, J D, Hajor, JorgeGG, Branddobbe, Robbot, Chealer, Klehti, ChrisO~enwiki, Altenmann, Nurg, Mayooranathan, Postdlf, Rursus, SchmuckyTheCat, DHN, Sunray, Hadal, Guy Peters, Xanzzibar, Dina, Radagast, Ancheta
Wis, DocWatson42, Timpo, Ausir, Guanaco, Alensha, Bobblewik, Utcursch, Telso, Beland, Madmagic, Domino theory, Mzajac, Austin
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432
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Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_
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4.1. TEXT
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Four Freedoms Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Freedoms?oldid=679011578 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Mav, Benwbrum,
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Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo_Declaration_on_Human_Rights_in_Islam?
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African-American Civil Rights Movement (195468) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African-American_Civil_Rights_
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434
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4.1. TEXT
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List of ethnic cleansings Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ethnic_cleansings?oldid=682807175 Contributors: Joy, Dale Arnett, Davidcannon, Parishan, Kostja, Kingsindian, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Ground Zero, Volunteer Marek, Tony1, Chris the speller, Khazar,
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Racism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism?oldid=683349811 Contributors: Kpjas, The Cunctator, Derek Ross, Eloquence,
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4.2 Images
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Ojanguren
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4.2. IMAGES
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File:ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg
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File:Auschwitz_Resistance_280_cropped.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Auschwitz_Resistance_
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19391945: Cierpienie i walka narodu polskiego, Zarzd Gwny Zwizku Bojownikw o Wolno i Demokracj, Warsaw, 1958, p. 80.
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NARA image ARC #535561, le #208-AA-206K(31). Original artist: Private H. Miller. (Army)
File:Bufo_periglenes2_cropped.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Bufo_periglenes2_cropped.jpg
License:
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Bufo_periglenes1.jpg: Charles H. Smith, vergrert von Aglarech
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-05A,_Russland,_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/7/74/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-05A%2C_Russland%2C_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen.jpg License: CC
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as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative
and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Koch
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208,_KZ_Mauthausen,_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/5/59/Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208%2C_KZ_Mauthausen%2C_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg License: CC BYSA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as
part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or
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File:Bundesarchiv_R_49_Bild-0131,_Aussiedlung_von_Polen_im_Wartheland.jpg Source:
wikipedia/commons/0/08/Bundesarchiv_R_49_Bild-0131%2C_Aussiedlung_von_Polen_im_Wartheland.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part
of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or
positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Holtfreter, Wilhelm
File:Bush_and_Gorbachev_at_the_Malta_summit_in_1989.gif Source:
Bush_and_Gorbachev_at_the_Malta_summit_in_1989.gif License: Public domain Contributors: This media is available in the holdings of
the National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the ARC Identier (National Archives Identier) 186405. Original
artist: David Valdez (1949-)
File:C1910_Jane_Brigode_Belgian_suffragist.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/C1910_Jane_
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File:C1910_Signe_Bergman_Swedish_suffragist.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/C1910_Signe_
Bergman_Swedish_suffragist.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Bain Collection
File:Canadian_Red_Ensign_1868-1921.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Canadian_Red_Ensign_
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File:Cape-coloured-children.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Cape-coloured-children.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
4.2. IMAGES
455
File:Carl_Spitzweg_021-detail.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Carl_Spitzweg_021-detail.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Diese Datei: File:Carl Spitzweg 021.jpg
Original artist: Carl Spitzweg
File:Catherine_Helen_Spence.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Catherine_Helen_Spence.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Ciskei2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Ciskei2.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ?
Original artist: User:Jcwf
File:Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington,_D.C._(Dr._Martin_Luther_King,_Jr._and_Mathew_Ahmann_in_a_crowd.)_-_
NARA_-_542015.tif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.
C._%28Dr._Martin_Luther_King%2C_Jr._and_Mathew_Ahmann_in_a_crowd.%29_-_NARA_-_542015.tif License: Public domain
Contributors: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Original artist: Rowland Scherman
File:Coat_of_arms_of_Chile.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Coat_of_arms_of_Chile.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work, Ocial coat of arms Original artist: B1mbo
File:CodexOfHammurabi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/CodexOfHammurabi.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here.. Original uploader was Dbachmann. Original artist:
?
File:Cold_War_Map_1959.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Cold_War_Map_1959.svg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Image:BlankMap-World 1959.svg by Smhur, under licence GFDL & CC-BY-SA
Original artist: Smhur
File:ColoredDrinking.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/%22Colored%22_drinking_fountain_from_
mid-20th_century_with_african-american_drinking.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United
States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID fsa.8a26761.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Russell Lee

File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Congress_of_Racial_Equality_and_members_of_the_All_Souls_Church,_Unitarian_march_in_memory_of_the_16th_
Street_Baptist_Church_bombing_victims.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Congress_of_Racial_
Equality_and_members_of_the_All_Souls_Church%2C_Unitarian_march_in_memory_of_the_16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing_
victims.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and
Photographs division under the digital ID ppmsca.04298.
Original artist: O'Halloran, Thomas J., photographer

File:Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg License: LGPL Contributors: Sabine MINICONI Original artist: Sabine MINICONI
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File:Cyrus_Cylinder_front.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Cyrus_Cylinder_front.jpg License: CC
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File:DFMalanPortret.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/DFMalanPortret.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: This work was rst published in South Africa and is now in the public domain because its copyright protection has expired
by virtue of the Copyright Act No. 98 of 1978, amended 2002. The work meets one of the following criteria: Original artist: Suidpunt
File:DSCN5264_wyomingcapitolmorrisstatue_e.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/DSCN5264_
wyomingcapitolmorrisstatue_e.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Darfur_report_-_Page_6_Image_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Darfur_report_-_Page_
6_Image_1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.house.gov/wolf/issues/hr/trips/sudanrpt_web.pdf Original artist: Sean
Woo, general counsel to Sen. Brownback, or John Scandling, chief of sta to Rep. Wolf, per description on p. 11 of the report
File:Dean{}s_house_Uppsala_Sweden_001.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Dean%27s_house_
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File:Declaration_of_Human_Rights.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Declaration_of_the_Rights_
of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen_in_1789.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Jean-Jacques-Franois Le Barbier
File:Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen_in_1789.jpg Source:
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commons/6/6c/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen_in_1789.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original
artist: Jean-Jacques-Franois Le Barbier
File:Democracy_Index_2011_green_and_red.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Democracy_Index_
2011_green_and_red.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Democracy Index 2010 green and red.svg, data from The Economist
Intelligence Units Democracy Index 2011 Original artist:
This le: kpengboy
File:Demonstrationstg_fr_kvinnorstrtten,_Gteborg_-_Nordiska_Museet_-_NMA.0032617.jpg
Source:
https:
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Original artist: Anna Backlund
File:Dexter_Avenue_Baptist.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: self-made, scan of original photograph. Original artist: Altairisfar
456
File:Disclogo1.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Disclogo1.svg License: Public domain Contributors:

en:Image:Disclogo1.png, Image:Toilets unisex.svg Original artist: Recomposed by User:Stannered
File:Dontstopdontshop.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Dontstopdontshop.JPG License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: BlackKorea (Deshawn)
File:DurbanSign1989.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/DurbanSign1989.jpg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Taken and donated by Guinnog. Original artist: Guinnog
File:EG_A_iauliai_Lithuania_July_1941.JPG Source:
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Original artist: Mosedschurte at en.wikipedia
File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:Edith_Cowan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Edith_Cowan.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: A digital image is available from the National Library of Australia NLA through their online catalogue, here. The NLA image
includes spurious indexing information along the bottom. This image is a cropped version that eliminates the indexing text and the white
border. Original artist: Unknown
File:EleanorRooseveltHumanRights.png
EleanorRooseveltHumanRights.png License:
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Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/
Franklin D Roosevelt Library website Original artist:
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Public domain Contributors: PNG version of File:Freedom House electoral democracies 2008.gif Original artist: Joowwww, updated by
23prootie for 2011 and MaGioZal for 2009-10, 2012-15
File:Elijah_Muhammad_and_Cassius_Clay_NYWTS.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Elijah_
Muhammad_and_Cassius_Clay_NYWTS.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. New York World-Telegram and the Sun Newspaper Photograph Collection. http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c16383 Original artist:
New York World-Telegram and the Sun sta photographer: Wolfson, Stanley, photographer.
File:Emmeline_Pankhurst_adresses_crowd.jpg Source:
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Pankhurst_adresses_crowd.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Hulton Archive - Getty Images Original artist: Topical Press Agency,
photographer unknown
File:En-Rosa_Parks.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/En-Rosa_Parks.ogg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors:
Derivative of Rosa Parks Original artist: Speaker: Salvo46
Authors of the article
File:Escudo_de_Espaa_(mazonado).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Escudo_de_Espa%C3%
B1a_%28mazonado%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Adaptacin en formato SVG del modelo en PNG Escudo de Espaa.png,
segn colores establecidos en el Real Decreto 2267/1982 y especicaciones del Manual de Imagen Institucional de la Administracin General del Estado. Original artist: Government of Spain. Vector graphics image by SanchoPanzaXXI.
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File:Eugne_Delacroix_-_The_Massacre_at_Chios_-_WGA6163.jpg
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File:Evstafiev-chechnya-women-pray.jpg
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CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Mikhail Evstaev Original artist: Photo: Mikhail
File:FDR{}s_1941_State_of_the_Union_(Four_Freedoms_speech)_Edit_1.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

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File:FDR_Memorial_wall.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/FDR_Memorial_wall.jpg License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No
machine-readable author provided. BanyanTree assumed (based on copyright claims).
4.2. IMAGES
457
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cph.3c17121.
Original artist: Elias Goldensky (1868-1943)

File:Fall_of_Communism_in_Albania.JPG
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New Albania magazine
Original artist: ?
Source:
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File:Farrakhan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Farrakhan.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:

http://usembassy.state.gov/tanzania/ Original artist: Unknown
File:Feretro_Pinochet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Feretro_Pinochet.jpg License: CC BY 2.0
Contributors: 07 Original artist: En Todos Lados !!'s.
File:Ferguson,_Day_4,_Photo_21.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Ferguson%2C_Day_4%2C_
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File:Fifties_jukebox.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Fifties_jukebox.png License: Public domain
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File:Fiji-0050.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Fiji-0050.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Merbabu
File:First_Female_Parliamentarians_in_the_world_in_Finland_in_1907.jpg Source:
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artist: Unknown
File:First_female_MPs_of_the_Turkish_Parliament_(1935).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/
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transfer was stated to be made by User:Kenzhigaliyev. Original artist: Original uploader was Kemalist Yurtsever at en.wikipedia
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User:Zscout370
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File:Flag_of_Barbados_(18701966).png Source:
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File:Flag_of_British_Honduras_(1919-1981).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Flag_of_British_
Honduras_%281919-1981%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist:
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File:Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg License:
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Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Canton_of_Basel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Flag_of_Canton_of_Basel.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ozielle PDF Original artist: Unknown
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File:Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg License: Public
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Contributors: http://www.sabor.hr/Default.aspx?sec=4317 Original artist: Nightstallion, Elephantus, Neoneo13, Denelson83, Rainman,
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File:Flag_of_Hong_Kong_1910.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Flag_of_Hong_Kong_1910.png
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File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
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File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/
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File:Flag_of_Iran.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public domain Contributors: URL http://www.isiri.org/portal/files/std/1.htm and an English translation / interpretation at URL http://flagspot.net/flags/ir'.html
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File:Flag_of_Kazakh_SSR.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Flag_of_Kazakh_SSR.svg License:
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4.2. IMAGES
461
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Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp
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File:Flag_of_Liechtenstein.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Flag_of_Liechtenstein.svg License:
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File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work http://www.legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1972/0051/a051.pdf#page=2, colors from http://www.
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Original artist: SKopp, Zscout370 and Ranking Update
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Public
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docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D704%26Itemid%3D4+ley+sobre+los+simbolo+patrios+nicaragua+
2002,,&,,hl=es,,&,,gl=ni,,&,,pid=bl,,&,,srcid=ADGEEShaqFptSDRqZyUoeWlWgMGTvcFvWOs
About Characteristics And Use Of Patriotic Symbols of Nicaragua</a> Original artist: C records (talk contribs)
File:Flag_of_Niger.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Flag_of_Niger.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
The burnt orange color in the top band and circle is Pantone(166), i.e. RGB(224,82,6) = #E05206 on sRGB CRT screen, or
CMYK(0,65%,100%,0) for process coated print, BUT NOT light orange #FF7000 which is somewhere between Pantone(130C) and Pantone(151), and is even lighter than X11 orange! See http://www.seoconsultants.com/css/colors/conversion/100/ The central white band is
plain D65 reference white = RGB(255,255,255) = #FFFFFF.
Original artist: Made by: Philippe Verdy User:verdy_p, see also fr:Utilisateur:verdy_p.
File:Flag_of_Nigeria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg License: Public domain
File:Flag_of_North_Korea.svg Source:
Public domain Contributors: Template:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg License:
Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_North_Yemen.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_North_Yemen.svg License:

File:Flag_of_Norway.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dbenbenn
File:Flag_of_Oman.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Flag_of_Oman.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from agspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Palau.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Palau.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Panama.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg License: Public domain
File:Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, FOTW Original artist: User:Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_Paraguay.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Flag_of_Paraguay.svg License: CC0 Contributors: This le is from the Open Clip Art Library, which released it explicitly into the public domain (see here). Original artist: Republica
del Paraguay
File:Flag_of_Peru.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Peru Original artist: David Benbennick
File:Flag_of_Poland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://jorgesampaio.arquivo.presidencia.pt/pt/republica/simbolos/bandeiras/index.html#imgs Original artist: Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro (1910; generic design); Vtor Lus Rodrigues; Antnio Martins-Tuvlkin (2004; this specic vector set: see sources)
4.2. IMAGES
463
File:Flag_of_Prussia_1892-1918.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Flag_of_Prussia_1892-1918.svg

License: Copyrighted free use Contributors: Own Work, Custom Creation according to the ag description Original artist: Drawing created
by David Liuzzo
File:Flag_of_Puerto_Rico.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Flag_of_Puerto_Rico.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Qatar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Flag_of_Qatar.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi File:Flag_of_Romania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: AdiJapan
File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Rwanda.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Flag_of_Rwanda.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.primature.gov.rw/component/option,com_docman/task,doc_download/gid,859/Itemid,95/ Original artist: This
vector image was created with Inkscape by Zscout370, and then manually edited.
File:Flag_of_SFR_Yugoslavia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Flag_of_SFR_Yugoslavia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Flag designed by ore Andrejevi-Kun[3]
File:Flag_of_Saint_Lucia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Saint_Lucia.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work, Government of Saint Lucia Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Samoa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Flag_of_Samoa.svg License: Public domain
File:Flag_of_San_Marino.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Flag_of_San_Marino.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work: [/Users/bicio/Desktop/Cailungo logo 40.jpg] Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Sao_Tome_and_Principe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Flag_of_Sao_Tome_and_
Principe.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg License:
CC0 Contributors: the actual ag Original artist: Unknown
File:Flag_of_Senegal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Original upload from Openclipart : Senegal. However, the current source code for this SVG le has almost nothing in
common with the original upload. Original artist: Original upload by Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_Serbia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: From http://www.parlament.gov.rs/content/cir/o_skupstini/simboli/simboli.asp. Original artist: sodipodi.com
File:Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Singapore_(1946-1959).svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Flag_of_Singapore_
%281946-1959%29.svg License: GFDL Contributors: I created this work entirely by myself, using Image:Flag of Australasian team for
Olympic games.svg and Image:Flag of the Crown Colony of Singapore.png, using http://fotw.fivestarflags.com/sg_his.html as a guide.
Original artist: User:Zscout370 (Return Fire)
File:Flag_of_Slovakia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work; here, colors Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Slovenia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work construction sheet from http://flagspot.net/flags/si%27.html#coa Original artist: User:Achim1999
File:Flag_of_Somalia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: see below Original artist: see upload history
File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Per specications in the Constitution of South Africa, Schedule 1 - National ag Original artist: Flag design by Frederick Brownell, image by Wikimedia Commons users
File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and color
guidelines (Russian/English) This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_South_Yemen.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Flag_of_South_Yemen.svg License:
File:Flag_of_Southern_Rhodesia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_Southern_Rhodesia.svg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Zimbabwe: Historical ags at Flags of the World, accessed 20 Feb 06. Original artist: Greentubing
File:Flag_of_Spain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Spain_(1785-1873_and_1875-1931).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Flag_of_Spain_
%281785-1873_and_1875-1931%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: self-made, based in Image:Bandera naval desde 1785.png
; [1] Original artist: previous version User:Ignaciogavira ; current version HansenBCN, designs from SanchoPanzaXXI
File:Flag_of_Spain_(1931_-_1939).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Flag_of_Spain_%281931_-_
1939%29.svg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: SanchoPanzaXXI
File:Flag_of_Sudan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: www.vexilla-mundi.com Original artist: Vzb83
464
File:Flag_of_Swaziland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Flag_of_Swaziland.svg License: CC0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:Flag_of_Sweden.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: PDF Colors Construction sheet Original artist: User:Marc Mongenet
Credits:
File:Flag_of_Syria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: see below Original artist: see below
File:Flag_of_Syria_(1932-1958;_1961-1963).svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Flag_of_Syria_
%281932-1958%3B_1961-1963%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:AnonMoos
File:Flag_of_Tajik_SSR.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Flag_of_Tajik_SSR.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: svg by Pianist
File:Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Tanzania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_The_Gambia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Flag_of_The_Gambia.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vzb83
File:Flag_of_Togo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Flag_of_Togo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Tonga.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Tonga.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
File:Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Flag_of_Trinidad_and_
Tobago.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Tunisia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.w3.org/ Original artist: entraneur: BEN KHALIFA WISSAM
File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Trk Bayra Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the
Turkish Historical Society (Trk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author)
File:Flag_of_Turkmen_SSR.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Flag_of_Turkmen_SSR.svg License:
File:Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg License:
File:Flag_of_Tuvalu.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Flag_of_Tuvalu.svg License: CC0 Contributors: See URL [6] for ocially credibility and correctness of precise star-positions Original artist: User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Uganda.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Flag_of_Uganda.svg License: CC0 Contributors: From the Open ClipArt Library website. Original artist: tobias
File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: 4512:2006 - .
SVG: 2010
Original artist:
File:Flag_of_Ukrainian_SSR.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Flag_of_Ukrainian_SSR.svg License:
File:Flag_of_Upper_Volta.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Flag_of_Upper_Volta.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Image originally derived from the public domain Original artist: odder
File:Flag_of_Uruguay.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: design of the sun copied from URL [1], which was copied by Francisco Gregoric, 5 Jul 2004 from URL [2] Original artist:
User:Reisio (original author)
File:Flag_of_Uzbek_SSR.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Flag_of_Uzbek_SSR.svg License: Public
File:Flag_of_Vanuatu.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Vanuatu.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Venezuela.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ocial websites Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/law/vi/1951_to_1960/1955/195511/195511300001 http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/
Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lu Ly v li theo ngun trn
4.2. IMAGES
465
File:Flag_of_Virginia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Flag_of_Virginia.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: It is from the xrmap ag collection, specically usa_virginia.svg in ags-2.6-src.tar.bz2. The README le in that collection
says of the SVG ags We release them in the public domain. The blue color has been redone based on vexilla-mundi. Original artist:
Commonwealth of Virginia
File:Flag_of_Yemen.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Flag_of_Yemen.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open Clip Art website Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Zaire.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Zaire.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work based on ocial ags Original artist: User:Moyogo
File:Flag_of_Zambia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Flag_of_Zambia.svg License: CC0 Contributors: http://www.parliament.gov.zm/downloads/ Original artist:
Author: Tobias Jakobs (in the public domain) and User:Zscout370 (Return re)
File:Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work after www.flag.de Original artist: User:Madden
File:Flag_of_the_Bahamas.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Flag_of_the_Bahamas.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bahamas government
File:Flag_of_the_British_Windward_Islands_(1903-1958).png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/
Flag_of_the_British_Windward_Islands_%281903-1958%29.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Coat_of_arms_of_the_British_Windward_Islands_1903.gif Original artist: Coat_of_arms_of_the_British_Windward_Islands_1903.gif:
Martin Grieve
File:Flag_of_the_Cayman_Islands.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Flag_of_the_Cayman_Islands.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: sodipodi.com Original artist: Unknown
File:Flag_of_the_Central_African_Republic.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Flag_of_the_
Central_African_Republic.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_the_Comoros.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Flag_of_the_Comoros.svg License:
File:Flag_of_the_Cook_Islands.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_the_Cook_Islands.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.
svg License: Public domain Contributors:
-x-'s le
-x-'s code
Zirlands codes of colors
Original artist:
(of code): SVG version by cs:-x-.
File:Flag_of_the_Dominican_Republic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_the_Dominican_
Republic.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Flag_of_the_German_Empire.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: Recoloured Image:Flag of Germany (2-3).svg Original artist: User:B1mbo and User:Madden
File:Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_
Monarchy.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Sir Iain, earlier version by ThrashedParanoid and Peregrine981.ThrashedParanoid
File:Flag_of_the_Isle_of_Man.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_the_Isle_of_Man.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Sodipodi ag collection, OpenClipart Original artist: Edited by Reisio, Alkari, e.a.
File:Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Flag_of_the_Marshall_
Islands.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands_Antilles.svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_the_
Netherlands_Antilles_%281986-2010%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_People{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_
People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_the_People{}s_Republic_of_Mongolia_(1924-1940).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/
77/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_Mongolia_%281924-1940%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:
latebird Original artist: Adapted from :Image: [1]
File:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The design was taken from [1] and the colors were also taken from a Government website Original
artist: User:Achim1999
File:Flag_of_the_Pitcairn_Islands.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Flag_of_the_Pitcairn_Islands.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Dbenbenn
File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_
China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:SKopp
466
File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_the_
Republic_of_the_Congo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_Seychelles.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Seychelles.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: [1], for the RGB approximations [2] Original artist: User:Vxb83
File:Flag_of_the_Seychelles_1976.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Flag_of_the_Seychelles_
%281976-1977%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_Solomon_Islands.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Flag_of_the_Solomon_
Islands.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_
Arab_Emirates.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License:
PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_Vatican_City.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Flag_of_the_Vatican_City.svg License: CC0 Contributors: http://files.mojeeuro.meu.zoznam.sk/200000288-390ab3a04d/2_Commemorative_coin_Vatican_city_2010.
jpg labelbasis Original artist: Unknown
File:Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rightleftright
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Four_Freedoms_Flag_or_United_Nations_Honour_Flag_ca_1943-1948.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/c/c3/Four_Freedoms_Flag_or_United_Nations_Honour_Flag_ca_1943-1948.svg License: Public domain Contributors: For
much more information, see World Flag Encyclopedia: All World and Regional Flags Featuring Honor Flag Development 1942-1947 by
Brooks Harding for the United Nations Honor Flag Committee (published 1948) OCLC 975401. Also see http://www.fotw.net/flags/uno_
honr.html , http://flagspot.net/flags/vxt-dv-h.html#honorflag , etc. Image created by self from simple geometry. Various proportions were
in use, and there may not have been an exact ocial denition of the ags geometry... Original artist: AnonMoos (SVG le)
File:Fourthcongressofthepuwp.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Fourthcongressofthepuwp.JPG
License: Public domain Contributors: From the 1964 book Twenty Years of the Peoples Republic of Poland, photographer not specied
and no copyright notice in the book. Original artist: ?
File:Frederik_Willem_de_Klerk.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Frederik_Willem_de_Klerk.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Frederik de Klerk & Nelson Mandela - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 1992
Original artist: Copyright World Economic Forum (www.weforum.org)
File:Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Frederik_de_Klerk_with_Nelson_Mandela_-_World_Economic_Forum_
Annual_Meeting_Davos_1992.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Frederik de Klerk & Nelson Mandela - World Economic Forum
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Democracy and Suppression

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Democracy and Suppression

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Democracy and suppression

Indigenous peoples of the Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rise of democracy in modern national governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Third Wave Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Third Wave

Forms of exclusion from surage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

History around the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Womens surage in religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Timeline of womens surage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Democratization in other contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Solidaritys impact grows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

National political movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Election chronology in Central and Eastern Europe 19891991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Albania and Yugoslavia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Dissolution of the Soviet Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7.10 Economic reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7.11 Ideological continuation of communism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7.14 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7.16 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7.17 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Spanish transition to democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Political role of Juan Carlos I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

First government of Adolfo Surez (July 1976 - June 1977) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

First elections and the draft of the Constitution

Governments of the UCD

The PSOE in government

Portuguese transition to democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Background: the Salazar-Caetano era

Spnola and revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The transition to civilian rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.10 Velvet Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.10.1 Prior to the revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.10.4 Open questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

1.10.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

History of human rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Ancient World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Modern human rights movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Three generations of human rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

First-generation human rights

Second-generation human rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Third-generation human rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Civil and political rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Protection of rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Other rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Civil rights movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Problems and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Universal Declaration of Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

International Human Rights Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Signicance and legal eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Organizations promoting the UDHR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

2.4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Virginia Declaration of Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Drafting and adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137