International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology

Vol. 10, No. 4, December 2012, 314328

A Basic Needs Theory investigation of adolescents physical self-concept

and global self-esteem
Alex C. Garna*, Nathan McCaughtryb, Jeffrey Martinb, Bo Shenb and Mariane Fahlmanb
a

Department of Kinesiology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA; bDepartment of
Kinesiology, Health, and Sport Studies, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
(Received 13 February 2012; nal version received 24 April 2012)
This investigation tested a Basic Needs Theory (BNT) model of physical self-concept with
urban adolescents participating in high school physical education (PE). Direct relationships
among autonomy support in PE, overall need satisfaction in PE, physical self-concept, and
global self-esteem were tested in the model. The mediating roles of overall need satisfaction
and physical self-concept were also tested. High school students (N = 1022) completed
questionnaires pertaining to autonomy support, need satisfaction, physical self-concept, and
global self-esteem. Results from structural equation modeling revealed a good t of the data
to the hypothesized model. In the structural model all direct associations were signicant
and overall need satisfaction fully mediated the relationships between autonomy support and
physical self-concept and autonomy support and global self-esteem. Physical self-concept
was a partial mediator in the relationship between overall need satisfaction and global selfesteem. The overall model accounted for 37% of the variance in urban adolescents global
self-esteem. BNT appears to be a solid framework to investigate domain-specic selfconcepts of urban adolescents engaging in the physical education.
Keywords: autonomy support; need satisfaction; psychological well-being

Adolescence is a developmental period linked with dynamic psychological challenges (Wigeld,

Eccles, Mac Iver, Reuman, & Midgley, 1991). For example, adolescents become aware and often
struggle to resolve changing or unsatisfactory personal attributes, which can cause conict in
dening who they are (Harter, Bresnick, Bouchey, & Whitesell, 1997). In their review of adolescent development, Steinberg and Morris (2001) also suggest that adolescence is a period when
self-perceptions are at the forefront of psychological development. Craven and Marsh (2008)
identify self-concept (i.e. descriptive and evaluative perceptions of self) as foundational to
psychological health across age and gender. Because adolescence denotes the transition from
childhood to adulthood; the formation of self-concept during this developmental period is generally correlated with long-term self-perceptions and represents a good predictor of future health
outcomes (Trzesniewski et al., 2006). Therefore, it is especially important to understand and
support the healthy development of self-concept during adolescence (Marsh, 1989).
Self-concept has a multi-dimensional structure (Craven & Marsh, 2008; Marsh, Martin,
& Jackson, 2010). In other words, adolescents commonly dene themselves academically
(i.e. academic self-concept), physically (i.e. physical self-concept), socially (i.e. social

*Corresponding author. Email: agarn@lsu.edu

ISSN 1612-197X print/ISSN 1557-251X online
2012 International Society of Sport Psychology
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2012.705521
http://www.tandfonline.com

International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology

315

self-concept), and emotionally (i.e. emotional self-concept). Marsh et al. (2010) denes
physical self-concept as feeling positive about ones physical self (p. 473). Physical
self-concept may be especially important to adolescents global self-perceptions and
overall psychological development because of the juxtaposition of the physical changes
and social awareness that occurs during this time period (Steinberg & Morris, 2001). Physical education (PE) is a school-based context almost all adolescents experience that can
shape physical self-concept (Marsh, Papaioannou, & Theodorakis, 2006). In fact, enhancing
physical self-concept is addressed in current national educational guidelines (National
Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2004; United Kingdom Department of Education [UKDE], 2012). NASPE (2004) suggests that an important outcome
for students in PE is to promote a positive self-image (p. 45). The UKDE (2012)
reports PE experiences should enhance students personal development, feelings of physical
competence, and improve understanding of ones body. PE has an important relationship
with urban adolescents physical self-concept because they often face barriers to participating in physical activity outside of school (Gomez, Johnson, Selva, & Sallis, 2004). For
example, unsafe physical activity space in neighborhoods and living in poverty often challenges physical activity opportunities outside of school for urban adolescents (Flory &
McCaughtry, 2011). Because high school athletics are not inclusive for all urban students,
and urban high schools do not always have the resources to run extensive intramural programs, PE is situated in a unique position to impact urban adolescents physical selfconcept.
The social environment in PE provides students with extensive information concerning their
physical competence, physical appearance, level of tness, and health through a combination of
explicit (e.g. verbal feedback; tness test results) and implicit (e.g. participation/exclusion based
on performance) experiences. The interpretation of these experiences can have a substantial inuence on how adolescents come to view their physical self-concept (Marsh, 1996). There is currently a need for theoretically based studies to shed light on the processes that support urban
adolescents ability to navigate PE social environments in ways that lead to enhanced physical
self-concept.
Basic Needs Theory
Basic Needs Theory (BNT) has potential to uncover links between the social environment in
urban PE and physical self-concept. The emphasis of BNT is on need satisfaction and the role
it plays in psychological well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2007). Ryan and Deci
(2007) posit that individuals actively pursue the satisfaction of three innate psychological
needs. The need for autonomy refers to feelings of self-direction and self-organization in ones
own behavior. The need for competence refers to feeling effective in ones social environment
while the need for relatedness refers to feeling in a reciprocal sense of care with others (i.e.
caring for and being cared for). According to BNT theorists, need satisfaction is not optimal
but essential for psychological growth and well-being across all demographics and contexts
(Deci & Ryan, 2000; Deci et al., 2001). In other words, need satisfaction represents a universal
nutriment in psychological development and well-being (Deci et al., 2001).
Need satisfaction embodies the fulllment of all three psychological needs (Deci & Ryan,
2000). Proponents of BNT call for more researchers to examine the direct relationships
between need satisfaction and psychological outcomes in order to provide stronger evidence
that the collective interaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness represents a universal
nutriment to psychological well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Deci et al., 2001). Researchers investigating the direct links between need satisfaction and psychological outcomes have examined

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A.C. Garn et al.

both the independent effects of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (e.g. Reinboth & Duda,
2006; Reinboth, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2004; Quested & Duda, 2010) and overall need satisfaction
(e.g. composite variable representing autonomy, competence, and relatedness; Deci et al., 2001;
Wilson, Mack, Blanchard, & Gray, 2009). Evidence from both types of studies provides support
for the assumptions of BNT. The focus of the current study is on overall need satisfaction in PE
because, in our estimation, it provides a more holistic representation of the need satisfaction construct as dened by Deci and Ryan (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Deci et al., 2001; Wilson et al., 2009). In
other words, examining the individual relationships of autonomy, competence, and relatedness
provides information on the ingredients of need satisfaction, but may not be the best way to represent the inclusive nature of need satisfaction.
Individuals seek social environments that support self-direction, self-organization, and selfactualization (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Deci et al., 2001; Ryan & Deci, 2007). Referred to as autonomy support (Deci et al., 2001), the idea is that individuals must view the structures of a social
environment to be nurturing of autonomy, instead of controlling (Reinboth & Duda, 2006). The
link between autonomy support and need satisfaction in PE has been well documented (see Standage, Gillison, & Treasure, 2007, for a review). Examples of how a physical educator can create
an autonomy supportive environment include allowing students to provide meaningful input
about activities or encouraging students to self-initiate. Therefore, according to BNT need satisfaction is situated as a mediator between the social environment (i.e. autonomy support) and
psychological outcomes (Quested & Duda, 2010).
Mediation testing helps clarify relationships among variables by highlighting intervening
factors that affect the relationship between predictor and outcome variables (Baron & Kenny,
1986). In BNT, for example, previous studies suggest that need satisfaction is an intervening
factor (i.e. mediator) between environmental perceptions such as autonomy support and psychological outcomes such as positive affect and self-esteem (Deci et al., 2001; Reinboth & Duda,
2006). Thus, need satisfaction helps explain how an individual moves from interpreting the autonomy support of an environment to experiencing psychological outcomes. Baron and Kenny
(1986) suggest that mediation occurs when the: (a) predictor and outcome variables are
related; (b) mediator is predicted by the predictor variable; (c) mediator predicts the outcome variable; and (d) the relationship between the predictor and outcome variable is reduced to zero when
the mediator is added to the model.
Deci and Ryan (2000) theorize that need satisfaction represents the fulllment of basic psychological needs. The effects of need satisfaction, therefore, are posited to be similar across different
demographic variables such as gender and ethnicity because needs are considered universal.
Recently, BNT research has supported this theorizing. For example, Wilson et al. (2009) revealed
that gender did not moderate the relationships between need satisfaction and positive affect or need
satisfaction and negative effect in exercisers. Similarly, Deci et al. (2001) reported that need satisfaction had similar relationships with psychological outcomes such as self-esteem cross-culturally.
The application of BNT in Black/African American cultures is currently untested. Based on the
current theory and empirical evidence, we hypothesize that relationships identied in BNT will
be similar in urban PE that serves mostly Black/African American high school students.
Physical self-concept and global self-esteem
Developing lines of inquiry that highlight the processes of physical self-concept development has
been and continues to be endorsed by experts (Craven & Marsh, 2008; Marsh et al., 2010). For
example, Craven and Marsh (2008) highlight potential synergies between physical self-concept
and constructs of BNT. First, they suggest that self-concepts are fundamental to young
peoples psychological well-being and optimal functioning. Second, they emphasize the

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317

importance of the social environment in the development of self-concepts. Finally, they report that
the underlying psychological constructs of intrinsic motivation might represent mechanisms for
enhancing physical self-concept.
Marsh and colleagues theorize that physical self-concept is hierarchical, multidimensional,
and domain specic (Craven & Marsh, 2008; Marsh et al., 2006; Marsh et al., 2010). Global
self-esteem resides at the top of Marshs model of physical self-concept. It is operationalized
as the overall positive feelings one has about her/himself (Marsh et al., 2010) and considered a
higher-order representation of multi-dimensional self-concepts (Craven & Marsh, 2008). Marsh
and colleagues also posit that global self-esteem is an indispensable element of psychological
well-being (Craven & Marsh, 2008). Physical self-concept (i.e. positive feelings about ones
physical-self) represents one of four direct indicators (i.e. academic, social, emotional) of
global self-esteem (Marsh et al., 2010). These four indicators represent the rst example of the
multi-dimensional nature of global self-esteem. An array of self-perceptions within the physical
domain (e.g. being good at sports, being strong, having endurance, being healthy) characterize the
multidimensional nature of physical self-concept and reside at the lowest level of Marshs model.
PE is considered a prominent domain-specic social environment that inuences physical selfconcept (Marsh et al., 2006).
From a theoretical perspective, needs satisfaction is an important factor in developing positive
self-perceptions (Deci & Ryan, 1995). Most studies to date, however, have identied the links
between different types of motivation and physical self-concept (Wilson & Rodgers, 2002) or
global self-esteem (Hein & Haggar, 2007). Need satisfaction is considered to be an underlying
factor of intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). From a BNT perspective, the direct links
between need satisfaction and physical self-concept should be tested (Ryan & Deci, 2007; Wilson
et al., 2009). Identifying these direct links could provide more evidence for the utility value of
BNT (Deci and Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2007) by establishing the relationship that physical
self-concept has with the underlying mechanisms of intrinsic motivation (Craven & Marsh, 2008).
The present study
The above articulation provides a theoretical model that underlies a linear mediating relationship
among autonomy support, need satisfaction, physical self-concept, and global self-esteem. Given
the compelling reasons for PE to meet the needs of urban adolescents, the purpose of this study
was to test a BNT model of physical self-concept with a sample of urban adolescents participating
in high school PE (see Figure 1).
It was hypothesized that need satisfaction in PE would mediate the relationship between
perceptions of a autonomy supporting environment and physical self-concept (Deci et al.,
2001; Thogersen-Ntoumani & Ntoumanis, 2010; Wilson et al., 2009). Physical self-concept, in
turn, would mediate the relationship between need satisfaction in PE and global self-esteem
(Craven & Marsh, 2008; Marsh et al., 2006).

Figure 1.

Hypothesized BNT model.

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Methods
Participants
Participants in this study were high school students (N = 1022) from a large urban, inner-city, low
socioeconomic school district in the Midwestern United States. The mean age of the sample
was 16.13 (SD = 1.31) and the gender distribution was approximately even (female n = 511,
male n = 490, missing n = 21). Students reported their race/ethnicity as black/African American
(85%), Hispanic/Latino/Mexican-American (5%), white/Caucasian (2%), American Indian/
Pacic Islander (1%), Asian American (1%), Arab (2%), and other (3%). Students were in the
ninth (21%), 10th (23%), 11th (19%) and 12th (37%) grades and represented 14 different high
schools within the urban district. Permission was granted by the University Institutional
Review Board, school district, and teachers to conduct the current study. Parents provided
informed consent and students provided assent to complete the study.

Setting
PE classes at all schools met three times per week for 55 minutes per class. Classes were mandatory as district policy outlines that students must take PE for one semester during high school in
order to graduate. The Exemplary Physical Education Curriculum (EPEC; Michigan Fitness
Foundation, 2005) was the mandated district-wide curriculum used in all 14 schools. EPEC
focuses on personal conditioning, wellness, lifelong physical activities, and social development.
The EPEC curriculum is closely aligned with US content standards for quality physical education
(NASPE, 2004). All 14 teachers had taught PE in the school district for ve or more years and
received ongoing professional development with EPEC.

Measures
Autonomy support. Autonomy support was measured with the six-item Sport Climate Questionnaire (SCQ; Deci, 2001). In order the make the SCQ domain specic to PE, the term coach was
replaced with PE teacher in all items. Past studies have successfully adapted the SCQ to secondary PE environments (e.g. Lim & Wang, 2009). An example item was: I feel that my PE
teacher provides me choices and options. A ve-point scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree
to (5) strongly agree was used for all items.
Need satisfaction. Need satisfaction was measured with the Basic Need Satisfaction at Work
Scale (BNSWS; Ilardi, Leone, Kasser, & Ryan, 1993). The BNSWS contains subscales for the
satisfaction of autonomy (e.g. I am free to express my ideas and opinions in PE class), competence
(e.g. I have been able to learn interesting new skills in PE class) and relatedness (e.g. I get along
with people in PE class). All items were measured on a ve-point scale ranging from (1) strongly
disagree to (5) strongly agree. Past researchers have successfully adapted the BNSWS to secondary PE settings (e.g. Ntoumanis, 2005).
Physical self-concept and global self-esteem. The short version of the Physical SelfDescription Questionnaire (PSDQ-S) was used to measure physical self-concept and global
self-esteem (Marsh et al., 2010). The physical self-concept subscale of the PSDQ-S consists
of three items that are posed to students as declarative statements (e.g. Physically, I am
happy with myself). The global self-esteem subscale of the PSDQ-S consists of ve declarative
statements (e.g. Overall, most things I do turn out well). The PSDQ-S uses a six-point scale
ranging from (1) false to (6) true. Marsh et al. (2010) provide extensive evidence on the
ability of the PSDQ-S to produce valid and reliable scores with an array of samples including
adolescents.

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319

Procedures
A trained research assistant who was familiar with the PE teachers and had extensive prior experience conducted data collection with the students. The research assistant visited PE classes,
explained the study and questionnaires to the students, and supervised/answered questions
until all participants completed the questionnaires. The students spread out in the gymnasium
and completed the paper/pencil questionnaires during one-class period of PE. In most of the
schools, the teachers remained in the gymnasium during data collection. In a handful of
schools, teachers stayed in their ofce and were not present during the data collection.

Data analysis
Descriptive statistics and internal consistency estimates were analyzed using SPSS version 19.
Structural equation modeling (SEM) with maximum likelihood estimation was used to test the
BNT model (AMOS version 19). SEM uses a two-step approach that includes (a) the creation of
a measurement model via conrmatory factor analysis procedures to establish the t of the data
to the proposed model; and (b) the generation of a structural model through path analyses to simultaneously test the hypothesized relationships among latent variables in the model (Byrne, 2001).
Based on the aims of this study, partially aggregated indicators (i.e. parcels) were created for
autonomy support, need satisfaction, and global self-esteem (Little, Cunningham, Shahar, &
Widaman, 2002). Using parcels in the measurement model is deemed appropriate when the
focus of a study is on understanding the relationships of a set of theoretical constructs (Little
et al., 2002). Parcels also provide advantages to obtaining a parsimonious model by stabilizing parameter estimates and increasing the reliability of indicators (Coffman & MacCallum, 2005). Three
aggregate parcels were generated for each latent variable, except physical self-concept, which had
a total of three indicator items. The three parcel indicators for need satisfaction were the three mean
scores of the three subscales of the BPNS (i.e. autonomy, competence, relatedness). A random
approach was used to create parcels for autonomy support (mean score of items 1 and 5; 2 and
4; 3 and 6) and global self-esteem (mean score of items 1 and 2; 3 and 5; item 4).
A conrmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test the hypothesized factor structure of the
measures. The t of the CFA and all SEM measurement models was determined using recommendations from Hu and Bentler (1999). The following criteria were used: (a) 2/df ratio of < 3.00; (b)
Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) > .95; and (c) root mean square error
of approximation (RMSEA) < .08. Factor loadings of > .40 for latent variable indicators were also
used as criteria to determine if the model t was acceptable.
Multiple structural models, with different specied pathways, were used for the predictor (X),
mediator (M), and outcome (Y) variables (Shrout & Bolger, 2002). Direct paths are identied in
Figure 1 (e.g. autonomy support need satisfaction). Indirect effects represent the product (a*b)
of the path coefcients between X M (a) and M Y (b) (Preacher & Hayes, 2008; Shrout &
Bolger, 2002). Indirect effects were the focal point of this study in order to determine if: (a) need
satisfaction (M1) mediated the relationship between autonomy support (X1) and physical selfconcept (Y1); and (b) physical self-concept (M2) mediated the relationship between need satisfaction (X2) and self-esteem (Y2).

Results
Preliminary analysis
Preliminary analyses were used to examine possible outliers and gender differences in all study
variables. During the process of searching for outliers, four cases (z scores of +/ 3.0) were

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excluded from the analyses of this study. Independent-samples t tests were then used to explore
possible gender differences. A signicant t test revealed that females reported higher levels of
self-esteem than males (t (983) = 4.26, Cohens d = .26). Therefore, gender was added to
the SEM model and a direct path between gender and self-esteem was tested.
Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics are summarized in Table 1.
The overall mean score for each measured variable was above the mid-point of its respective
scale. All bivariate correlations were signicant (p < .01) and had small to moderate magnitudes
(.14-.58). Cronbach alpha estimates ranged from a high of .87 (physical self-concept) to a low
of.65 (need for autonomy).
Conrmatory factor analysis
The CFA produced an adequate to good overall t. Specically, the indices were: 2 = 219.91;
df = 52; 2/df ratio = 4.23; CFI = .97; TLI = .96; RMSEA = .06. Standardized factor loadings
ranged from 60 to .88 (p < .01). These results provided statistical justication to proceed with
SEM.
Measurement model
A test of the SEM measurement model for the proposed BNT model produced good
results (Hu & Bentler, 1999): 2 = 161.47; df = 62; 2/df ratio = 2.60; CFI = .98; TLI = .97;
RMSEA = .04. Furthermore, indicators t their respective latent variables.
The standardized factor loadings for all indicators ranged from .61 to .88, which represented a
good indicator-latent variable t. Zero-order correlations among the latent variables were all signicant (p < .01) and ranged from .14 (autonomy supportglobal self-esteem)to .70 (autonomy
supportneed satisfaction). Based on these results, it was determined that the rst criterion of
mediation was met (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). See Table 2.
Mediation analyses
Two structural models were tested to determine if the nal two criteria of mediation were met: (1)
the hypothesized BNT model (see Figure 2A); and (2) a partially mediated BNT model that added
Table 1. Descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations, and Cronbach alpha estimates for all variables.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Variable

Autonomy Support
Autonomy
Competence
Relatedness
Physical Self-Concept
Global Self-Esteem
M
SD
Cronbachs Alpha

.54

.49
.58

.42
.52
.52

.20
.26
.23
.21

3.46
1.05
.86

3.29
0.88
.65

3.61
1.10
.68

3.38
0.95
.69

4.98
1.24
.87

.14
.18
.23
.14
.45

4.85
1.03
.70

Note: M =mean; SD = standard deviation; all bivariate correlation estimates p < .01.

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Table 2. Factor loadings for the SEM measurement model of hypothesized BNT model.
Measured Variable
Autonomy Support
Parcel 1 (items 1,5)
Parcel 2 (items 2,4)
Parcel 3 (items 3,6)
Need Satisfaction
Parcel 1 (autonomy subscale)
Parcel 2 (competence subscale)
Parcel 3 (relatedness subscale)
Physical Self-Concept
Item 1
Item 2
Item 3
Global Self-Esteem
Item 4
Parcel 1 (items 1,2)
Parcel 2 (items 3,5)

Standardized FL

SE

.87
.76
.88

.04
.03

27.87
32.99

.79
.75
.66

.06
.05

21.66
19.41

.84
.88
.76

.04
.04

27.05
26.48

.61
.65
.76

.07
.07

15.57
15.27

Note: FL = factor loading; SE = standardized error; x = sample mean score; Parcels represent mean scores of the
identied items; all Z scores were signicant, p < .01.

direct paths from autonomy support and physical self-concept, autonomy support and global selfesteem, and need satisfaction and global self-esteem (see Figure 2B).
Results from the two structural models are presented in Table 3.
In the hypothesized BNT model, all direct effects were signicant (p < .01) as hypothesized.
The indirect effects of need satisfaction in the relationship between autonomy support and physical self-concept ( = .23; p < .01) and autonomy support and self-esteem ( = .18; p < .01) were
also signicant. Finally, the indirect effect of physical self-concept on the relationship between
need satisfaction and self-esteem ( = .21; p < .01) was signicant. Taken together, these
results supported the hypothesized direct and indirect relationships in the hypothesized BNT
model. To provide further evidence for the mediating role of need satisfaction and physical
self-concept, however, comparison to the partially mediated model was needed.
Results from the partially mediated model produced a good t: 2 = 148.80; df = 59; 2/df
ratio = 2.52; CFI = .98; TLI = .97; RMSEA = .04. The added direct relationships between autonomy support and physical self-concept ( = -.06; p = .39) and autonomy support and global selfesteem ( = -.05; p = .66) were not signicant in providing further evidence for the full mediating
effects of need satisfaction in the BNT model. Specically, (a) there was an association between
the predictor (autonomy support), mediator (need satisfaction) and outcome variables (physical
self-concept; self-esteem); (b) the direct effects between autonomy support and self-concept
were not signicant with the mediator (need satisfaction) in the model.
The added direct effect between need satisfaction and global self-esteem was, however, signicant ( = .17; p < .01). Although the indirect effect between need satisfaction and self-esteem via
physical self-concept was stronger ( = .19; p < .01), it was concluded that physical self-concept
was only a partial mediator between need satisfaction and self-esteem. A 2 difference test between
the two models was calculated to determine which displayed a better t (Holmbeck, 1998). Results
2 (3) = 12.97, p < .05 revealed signicant differences between the hypothesized BNT model
and the partially mediated model, suggesting the partially mediated model had a better t.
It was originally presumed that need satisfaction in PE would only have indirect effects on
global self-esteem through physical self-concept based on the domain specicity of physical
self-concept/PE and the hierarchical nature of physical self-concept and global self-esteem

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Figure 2. Direct effects (i.e. standardized beta coefcients) and R2 values for the hypothesized BNT model
(A), partially mediated BNT model (B), and revised BNT model (C) are provided above.

(Marsh et al., 2006). BNT theorists do suggest, however, that need satisfaction can impact general
psychological functioning (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Because there were both theoretical and statistical justications, we tested a third model that added a direct path between need satisfaction and
global self-esteem (see Figure 2C). The model-data t indices for this revised model were: 2 =
150.50; df = 61; 2/df ratio = 2.47; CFI = .98; TLI = .97; RMSEA = .04. Results of the structural
model are also presented in Table 3. Similar to the original model, need satisfaction fully mediated
the relationship between autonomy support and physical self-concept and autonomy support and
global self-esteem. Need satisfaction had direct effects on physical-concept and global selfesteem and indirect effects on global self-esteem through physical self-concept as expected.
The 2 differences between this revised BNT model and the partially mediated model were

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Table 3. SEM analyses of the hypothesized mediated model and comparison models.
Model Paths
Hypothesized Model
Direct Effects
S NS
NS PSC
PSC SE
Gen SE
Indirect Effects via NS
S PSC
S Esteem
Indirect Effects via PSC
NS SE
Partially Mediated Model
Direct Effects
S NS
S PSC
S SE
NS PSC
NS SE
PSC SE
Gen SE
Indirect Effects via NS
S PSC
S Esteem
Indirect Effects via PSC
NS SE
Revised Model
Direct Effects
S NS
NS PSC
NS SE
PSC SE
Gen SE
Indirect Effects via NS
S PSC
S Esteem
Indirect Effects via PSC
NS SE

Stand

SE

p value

.70
.34
.57
.18

.02
.03
.03
.06

.01
.01
.01
.01

.23
.18

.03
.02

.01
.01

.21

.02

.01

.70
.06
.05
.37
.17
.52
.18

.02
.06
.06
.05
.06
.04
.06

.01
.39
.66
.01
.01
.01
.01

.29
.19

.05
.05

.01
.01

.25

.05

.01

.70
.33
.13
.53
.18

.02
.03
.04
.03
.06

.01
.01
.05
.01
.01

.23
.20

.03
.03

.01
.01

.17

.02

.01

Note: Stand = standardized path coefcient; SE = standard error; S = autonomy support; NS = need satisfaction;
PSC = physical self-concept; SE = global self-esteem; Gen = gender.

again calculated to determine which model produced a better t. Results 2 (3) = 1.70, p > .05
revealed no signicant differences between the two models. Thus, the revised BNT model
appeared to be the most parsimonious.

Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine a BNT model of physical self-concept in a large sample
of urban adolescents. Situated in high school PE, autonomy support and need satisfaction were
hypothesized to have positive relationships with physical self-concept and global self-esteem.
Findings were supportive of BNT (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Deci et al., 2001; Quested & Duda,

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2010; Ryan & Deci, 2007) and accounted for a meaningful amount of variance in global selfesteem (37%), which provides unique contributions to the understanding of self-concept in adolescents participating in PE. Specically, our data provide empirical support for the relationship
between the underlying mechanisms of intrinsic motivation, need satisfaction, and increases in
self-concept.
In the physical domain, many researchers have used behavioral regulations to examine the
processes of developing positive self-perceptions (Hein & Hagger, 2007; Moreno et al., 2008;
Thogersen-Ntoumani & Ntoumanis, 2006). Deci and Ryan (2000), however, highlight the powerful nature of need satisfaction in promoting health development and suggest that need satisfaction
can have a direct relationship with psychological well-being outcomes. Recently, BNT has proven
fruitful in understanding the psychological characteristics of dancers (Quested & Duda, 2010) and
athletes (Reinboth & Duda, 2006; Reinboth et al., 2004). This study adds to the BNT work of
Duda and her colleagues by exploring different psychological outcomes (i.e. physical selfconcept; global self-esteem) in a different context (PE) with a larger sample.
The utility of BNT in inner-city, urban PE is also an important nding in this study. Many
students in inner-city, urban high schools face barriers to developing feelings of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in PE ( Cothran & Ennis, 1999; Flory & McCaughtry, 2011). For
example, Flroy and McCaughtry (2011) revealed that many urban teachers have limited cultural
understanding of their students. This lack of understanding often causes barriers in providing students with meaningful choices in PE and hinders the social connection between teachers and students. The relationships among autonomy support, need satisfaction (feelings of autonomy,
competence, and relatedness), and physical self-concept in this study provides valuable information about how to better deliver PE to urban adolescents in ways that are associated with
quality personal outcomes.

Need satisfaction
In the rst part of the BNT model, results were supportive of our hypotheses that need satisfaction
would mediate the relationship between autonomy support in PE and psychological outcomes.
The robust direct path between autonomy support and need satisfaction mirror past studies in
PE (Ntoumanis, 2005) and other contexts (Deci et al., 2001). This is consistent with the social
context of high school PE, which provides students with numerous opportunities for their psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness to be fullled or neglected. For example,
students often display their competence publically, have numerous opportunities to interact with
peers and teachers, and make choices about their levels of engagement and behaviors. Perceptions
of these types of situations can enhance or reduce students need satisfaction in PE. Future
research should examine other aspects of the social environment that are linked with feelings
of competence and relatedness. Reeve (2006) highlights the importance of classroom structure
in developing perceived competence and teacher-student involvement in developing perceived
relatedness. Extended observations of the social climate in PE classes could be benecial to
moving beyond autonomy support, and examining the relationship between need support and
need satisfaction.
The path between need satisfaction and physical self-concept provides empirical support to
direct links between need satisfaction and physical self-concept (Deci & Ryan, 1995). Thus, satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs are associated with heightened physical
self-concept. Implementing instructional models such as Sport Education (Siedentop, 1994) that
promote increased student ownership and decision making opportunities (i.e. autonomy),
enhanced skill development (i.e. competence), and positive social interactions (i.e. relatedness)

International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology

325

is a strategy that could potentially increase students levels of overall need satisfaction and
promote physical self-concept.
The indirect effects of need satisfaction on the relationship between autonomy support and
physical self-concept as well as autonomy support and global self-esteem stresses the important
role that the social environment in PE can play in domain specic and more global self-concept, if
overall need satisfaction is actualized. During a time when high school PE programs are being
reduced and sometimes eliminated, much of the support for PE resides in the contributions it
can make to students physical health (Standage et al., 2007). Findings from this study provide
additional support for the importance of PE by showing the contributions that PE can have on
students physical self-concept and global self-esteem, which are considered important outcomes
of PE (UKDE, 2012), factors in quality of life (Craven & Marsh, 2008), and foundations of longterm mental health (Trzesniewski et al., 2006).
Overall need satisfaction was used by Thogersen-Ntoumani, Ntoumanis, and Nikitaras (2010)
in a recent study examining the ability of a process model reecting BNT principles to predict
body image concerns and unhealthy weight control behaviors of adolescent girls. Overall need
satisfaction had a negative relationship with body image concerns and an indirect negative
effect on weight control behaviors. Taken in conjunction with the ndings of this study,
overall need satisfaction in physical activity settings appears to buffer adolescents negative
self-perceptions such as body image concerns and boost positive self-perceptions such as physical
self-concept. Future research should investigate the independent effects of need satisfaction on
both positive and negative physical self-perception outcomes within the same investigation.
Physical self-concept and global self-esteem
Marsh and his colleagues postulate and provide evidence that physical self-concept is an important mediator of engagement in healthy behaviors and optimal functioning (Craven & Marsh,
2008; Marsh & Craven, 2006; Marsh et al., 2006; Marsh et al., 2010). Because physical selfconcept often decreases during adolescence (Marsh et al., 1998), there is a clear need to better
understand the mechanisms that enhance adolescents physical self-concept beyond those outlined in Marshs model. Therefore, it was hypothesized in the second part of the BNT process
model that physical self-concept would mediate the relationship between need satisfaction in
PE and global self-esteem.
Results suggested that physical self-concept acted as a partial mediator between overall need
satisfaction in PE and global self-esteem for these participants. Findings from the model testing
supported the addition of a direct path between overall need satisfaction and global self-esteem.
The indirect effect of physical self-concept in the relationship between need satisfaction and
global self-esteem was stronger than the direct path between need satisfaction and global selfesteem, which supports the hierarchical/domain specic nature of Marshs physical selfconcept model (Marsh et al., 2010). In other words, adolescents perceptions of need satisfaction
in PE were more closely linked to the domain specic self-concept outcome (i.e. physical selfconcept) than global self-esteem. Researchers investigating global self-esteem in the physical
domain without accounting for physical self-concept may provide an incomplete picture of the
relationships among BNT variables and self-concept (Marsh et al., 2006).
Conclusions
In conclusion, the ndings of this study highlight a process through which urban adolescents participation in PE can promote their physical self-concept and global self-esteem. Both physical
self-concept and self-esteem are identied as important outcomes of physical education that

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A.C. Garn et al.

can benet students inside and outside of school. BNT appears to be a meaningful framework for
understanding urban adolescents self-concept. Because a majority of the sample was African
American/Black, generalizations to other populations cannot be made. Future research would
benet from testing the relationships among BNT variables and self-concept in other ethnic
groups. Of course, this study is not without limitations. First, the correlational design does not
allow for determinations of causation to be made. Future studies should use multi-wave
designs over the course of a sustained period of time to develop a better sense of the mediation
sequence, possible reciprocal effects among BNT and self-concept variables, and the stability of
physical self-concept and global self-esteem (Marsh et al., 2006). Similarly, future research would
benet from differentiating between true self-esteem and contingent self-esteem (see Deci &
Ryan, 1995). This distinction could help differentiate stable, internally driven self-esteem (i.e.
true self-esteem from more dynamic self-esteem reliant upon external demands. Internal consistency estimates for all three need satisfaction variables above .60 but below .70 could also be considered a weakness. Modications of the BNSWS may be necessary to better capture the
characteristics of urban adolescents perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in
urban PE. Nevertheless, the highlighted BNT process model can provide a solid foundation for
future researchers to investigate healthy physical self-concept development in adolescents.

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