Turkish grammar

Turkish grammar
Turkish is a highly agglutinative language, i.e., Turkish words have many grammatical suffixes or endings that
determine meaning. Turkish vowels undergo vowel harmony. When a suffix is attached to a stem, the vowel in the
suffix agrees in frontness or backness and in roundedness with the last vowel in the stem. Turkish has no gender.

Introduction
Suffixes
A suffix (ek) is attached to a stem (gvde). A stem may be a root (kk) or further analyzable. The suffixes used in
Turkish fall roughly into two classes: constructive suffixes (yapm ekleri) and inflectional suffixes (ekim ekleri). A
constructive suffix makes a new word from an old one, that is, it is a derivational suffix. An inflectional suffix
indicates how a word is used in a sentence. The article on Turkish grammar pertains chiefly to inflectional suffixes.
The article on Turkish vocabulary treats the constructive suffixes.
A Turkish suffix can be called enclitic if its vowel undergoes vowel harmony, agreeing with the last vowel of the
stem the suffix is attached to.

Gender
Turkish is a gender-neutral language except for a few sex-specific compound words (mostly naming professions).
English third person singular pronouns "she", "he", and "it" all correspond to a single Turkish pronoun o. Since many
given names in Turkish are also gender-neutral, it is possible to describe someone without their sex being made
known.

Person
Turkish has a strong T-V distinction and usage of honorifics. Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish
varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural
second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a single person out of respect, as is done in French and
Russian.
T-V distinction
Family members and friends speak to one another using the second singular person "sen", and adults use "sen" to
address minors. In formal situations (meeting people for the first time, business, customer-clerk, colleagues) plural
second-person "siz" is used almost exclusively. In very formal situations, double plural second-person "sizler" may
be used to refer to a much-respected person. Rarely, third person plural conjugation of the verb (but not the pronoun)
may be used to emphasize utmost respect. In the imperative, there are three forms: second person singular for
informal, second person plural for formal, and double plural second person for very formal situations: "gel" (second
person singular, informal), "gelin" (second person plural, formal), "geliniz" (double second person plural, very
formal). The very formal forms are not frequently used.

Turkish grammar
Honorifics
Turkish honorifics generally follow the first name, especially if they refer to gender or particular social statuses (e.g.
Name Bey (Mr.), Name Hanm (Ms.), Name Hoca (teacher or cleric)). Such honorifics are used both in formal and
informal situations. A newer honorific is "Sayn," which precedes the surname or full name, and is not
gender-specific. (e.g. Sayn Name Surname, or Sayn Surname). They are generally used in very formal situations.

Turkish terminology
In the Turkish terms for the constructive and inflectional endings, three roots are involved:
ek "supplement, affix" (notably Turkish has no prefixes)
yap- "make"
ek- "pull, draw"
For the last two verbal roots, the constructive suffix -im can be added to form nouns for instances of the actions
denoted by the roots:
yapm "construction";
ekim "[a] pull or draw" (or a "take" in cinema).
Either of these nouns can be compounded with the noun ek, resulting in an indefinite compound (belirtisiz
tamlama), the sign of which is the inflectional suffix -i attached to ek:
yapm eki "structure-suffix";
ekim eki "inflection-suffix".
The inflectional suffix -ler comes before the -i to form the plural, so yapm ekleri, ekim ekleri.
Many words in Turkishparticularly many grammatical termsare neologisms invented to replace earlier words
borrowed from Arabic or Persian. (See the main article on Turkish language.) In some cases, the older term
continues to be in used alongside the neologism.

Parts of speech
There are nine parts of speech (sz trleri "word-kinds") in Turkish.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

noun (isim or ad "name");

pronoun (zamir "inner being", or adl from ad);
adjective (sfat "role, quality", or nad "front-noun");
verb (fiil "act, deed", or eylem "action" from eyle- "make, do").
adverb (zarf "envelope", or belirte from belir- "determine");
postposition (ilge from ilgi "interest, relation");
conjunction (bala from ba "bond");
particle (edat, or ilge);
interjection (nid [obsolete], or nlem from 'n "fame, repute, sound").

Postpositions are analogous to prepositions in English, only they follow their objects. Postpositions can be reckoned
as particles. However, there are particles in Turkish that are not postpositions.
Only nouns, pronouns and verbs are inflected in Turkish. An adjective can usually be treated as a noun or pronoun,
in which case it can also be inflected. Inflection can give a noun features of a verb such as person and tense. With
inflection, a verb can become one of the following:
verbal noun (isim-fiil);
verbal adjective (sfat-fiil) or participle (orta);
verbal adverb (called a gerund by Lewis (1967)).

Turkish grammar

These have peculiarities not shared with other nouns, adjectives or adverbs. For example, some participles take a
person the way verbs do. Also, a verbal noun or adverb can take a direct object. Some verbal nouns are not inflected
forms in Turkish, but are borrowed from Arabic or other languages.
A noun or pronoun alone can make a complete sentence. For example,
kpek "dog"; Kpek. "It is a dog."
Most dictionaries list verbs in their infinitive form, which alone usually cannot form complete sentences. For
example,
komak "(to) run".
However, instead of the infinitive, the Redhouse TurkishEnglish Dictionary gives the stem of a verb as its
headword, and the present article follows this convention. The verb-stem is also the second-person singular
imperative:
ko- "run"; Ko! "Run!"
Both a noun and a verb, without endings, can alone form a sentence.
Many verbs are formed from nouns by addition of -le. For example,
kpekle- "dog paddle" (in any of several ways).
The aorist tense of a verb is formed by adding -(i/e)r. The plural of a noun is formed by suffixing -ler. Hence:
Kpek + ler
Kpekle + r

"(They are) dogs."

"S/he dog paddles."

Thus -ler can indicate either a plural noun or a finite verb.

Most adjectives can be treated as nouns or pronouns. For example,
gen "young" or "young person" or "the young person referred to".
An adjective or noun can stand, as a modifier, before a noun. If the modifier is a noun (but not a noun of material),
then the second noun word takes the inflectional suffix -i:
ak di
"white tooth";
altn di
"gold tooth";
kpek dii "canine tooth".
Comparison of adjectives is not done by inflecting adjectives or adverbs, but by other means (described below).
Adjectives can serve as adverbs, sometimes by means of repetition:
yava "slow"; yava yava "slowly".

Turkish grammar

Word-order
Turkish is generally SOV. A general rule of Turkish word-order is that the modifier precedes the modified:
adjective (used attributively) precedes noun;
adverb precedes verb;
object of postposition precedes postposition.
Also, in a sentence,
subject precedes predicate;
objects precede verb;
indirect object precedes direct object.
However, because the distinction between subject, indirect object, and direct object is also indicated with inflection,
Turkish word order can vary.
The order of morphemes in Turkish is often opposite to English:
Avrupa

Europe

Avrupal

European

Avrupalla

become European (command)

Avrupallatr

Europeanize (command)

Avrupallatrama

I wish you could not Europeanize

Avrupallatramadk

we could not Europeanize

Avrupallatramadklar

those whom could not Europeanize

Avrupallatramadklarmz

those whom we could not Europeanize

Avrupallatramadklarmzdan

one of those whom we could not Europeanize

Avrupallatramadklarmzdan m?

Is S/he one of those whom we could not Europeanize?

Avrupallatramadklarmzdan msn?

Are you one of those whom we could not Europeanize?

Avrupallatramadklarmzdan msnz?

Are you one of those whom we could not Europeanize? (second plural or formal)

Within
the
same
context,
the
longest
Turkish
word
consists
of
44
characters:
ekoslovakyallatramadklarmzdanmsnz = You are apparently one of those we weren't (or haven't been) able
to make a Czechoslovakian. (And equally: skandinavyallatramadklarmzdanmsnz = same for a
Scandinavian.)[longest
Turkish
word:
in
Turkish
"Mvaffakiyetsizletiriciletiriveremeyebileceklerimizdenmisinizcesine", which means something like (you are
talking) as if you are one of those that we can not easily convert into an unsuccessful-person-maker (someone who
un-educates people to make them unsuccessful)].

Inflectional suffixes
The plural suffix (oul eki) can be used with nouns and with third-person verbs:
Plural suffix
-ler

The case-endings (durum ekleri from dur- "stop, last", or hl ekleri from hl "state, condition") can be named (in
English) and used roughly as in Latin:

Turkish grammar

Case-endings
absolute (yaln "bare" durum)

definite accusative (belirtme "clarifying" durumu) -(y)i

dative (ynelme "going-towards" durumu)

-(y)e

locative (bulunma "being-found" durumu)

-de

ablative (kma "going-out" durumu)

-den

genitive (tamlayan "compounding" eki)

-(n)in

If a case-ending is attached to a demonstrative pronoun (which ends in o or u), or to a noun that has already taken a
third-person ending of possession (given below), then the case-ending is preceded by n (and the parenthetical y is not
used).
Nouns derived from verbs in several ways. The number of ways of forming verbal nouns (fiil isimleri) from
verb-stems can be debated; here are three:
Verbal-noun suffixes
infinitive (mastar "template") -mek
gerund

-me

Way of doing VERB

-i

Several series of endings show distinctions of person (kii); they are given here, along with the personal pronouns for
comparison:
Indicators of person
person

number

sing

personal pronouns

ben

suffixes of possession (iyelik ekleri)

personal endings (kii ekleri)

predicative (I)
verbal (II)
optative (III)
imperative (IV)

2
pl

sing

3
pl

sing/pl

biz

sen

siz

-(i)m

-(i)miz

-(i)n

-(i)niz

-(s)i

-(y)im

-(y)iz

-sin

-siniz

-ler

-n

-niz

-ler

-(y)e

-(y)eler

-sin

-sinler

-m

-k

-(y)eyim -(y)elim -(y)esin -(y)esiniz

-(y)in(iz)

pl
onlar
-leri

The names given to the personal endings here are not standard. These endings are often just referred to as type I, II,
III, and IV respectively; but the order in which the types are numbered is also not standard. It should also be noted
that Lewis (1967) refers to the suffixes of possession as "personal" endings. However, of the endings called personal
in Turkish and in this article:
those labelled "predicative" above can be used to turn nouns into verbs;
those labelled "verbal" attach only to verb-stems.
In the 3rd person, plural number is not always explicitly marked, and the same form is used for both singular and
plural. If the plural suffix -ler is used, it combines with the personal endings as indicated in the final column of the
table.
A suffix of possession gives the person of a possessor of the object named by the noun to which the suffix is
attached; it also indicates a subject for a participle.
A predicative ending can assign a person to a noun, thus creating a complete sentence:

Turkish grammar

insan "human"; nsanm. "I am an human."

See also Copula#Turkish and Turkish copula.
All of the personal suffixes can be used in the formation of verbs. Verb-stems have been mentioned. A verb-base is
obtained from a verb-stem by attachment of certain suffixes or characteristics given below. Then the personal
endings here called "predicative" and "verbal" attach only to verb-bases; the optative and imperative endings attach
to verb-stems.
Characteristics
with predicative endings

progressive

-mekte

necessitative

-meli

aorist
[1]
(habitual)

positive

-(i/e)r

negative

-mez

impotential -(y)emez
future

-(y)ecek

inferential perfective
imperfective

[2]

[3]

with verbal endings

perfective

conditional

-mi
-iyor
-di
-se

The present characteristic is not fully enclitic: the first syllable shows vowel harmony, but the second is invariable.
The aorist negative and impotential characteristics are given here because they are anomalous. Note, that the "-z" of
the aorist negative (-mez) and impotential (-(y)emez) is dropped in the 1st person singular and plural, in order to be
able to suffix it. (Aorist negative 1st person singular: -mem; BUT: Aorist impotential 3rd person plural: -(y)emezler)
The non-aorist characteristics can be suffixed to the following endings:
negative

-me

impotential -(y)eme

See #Negation and potential in verb-stems under #Verbs below.

Some third-person verbs are also participles. Participles can be classified as personal, if they take a suffix of
possession, and impersonal, if they do not. The following suffixes attach to verb-stems:
Participial endings
impersonal personal
aorist

positive

-(i/e)r

negative

-mez

impotential -(y)emez
imperfective

-(y)en

future
perfective

-(y)ecek
-mi

-dik

The interrogative particle (soru eki) is not written as a suffix, but it is enclitic:
Interrogative particle

Turkish grammar

7
mi

Nouns
Inflection
A Turkish noun has no gender. The dictionary-form of a noun can take up to four (kinds of) #Inflectional suffixes,
generally in the following order:
1.
2.
3.
4.

plural suffix;
suffix of possession (iyelik eki from iye "owner");
case-ending;
personal suffix (kii eki from kii "person").

Through its presence or absence, the plural ending shows distinctions of number.
Number
A noun is made into an indefinite plural by addition of -ler. If a numeral is used with a noun, then the plural suffix is
usually not used:
ba
"head",
balar "[some] heads",
be ba "five head(s)", but
Beevler "Five Houses" (district of Ankara).
The plural ending also allows a family (living in one house) to be designated by a single member:
Aliler "Ali and his family";
teyze
"maternal aunt",
teyzem
"my maternal aunt";
teyzemler "my maternal aunt and her family".
In the last example, the first-person singular suffix of possession comes before the plural ending; this is an exception
to the order of suffixes given above. In the usual order, we have
teyzelerim "my maternal aunts".
Nouns are pluralized in standard temporal greetings.
gn "day",
yi gnler! "Good day!";
yl "year"; Mutlu yllar! "Happy new year!"
Possession
As noted earlier, the suffixes of possession give the person (and number) of the possessor of what is named by the
noun:
teyzen
teyzeniz
teyzeniz
teyzelerin
teyzeleriniz
teyzeleriniz

"your
"your(singular, formal)
"your(plural)
"your(singular)
"your(singular, formal)
"your(plural)

maternal
maternal
maternal
maternal
maternal
maternal

aunt",
aunt"
aunt"
aunts"
aunts"
aunts"

Turkish grammar

Note well that, when a word takes one of the endings of possession, the word becomes the name of something
possessed, not possessing: the word for the possessor, if present, takes the genitive case-ending, as discussed below.
The plural ending will not be attached twice to the same word; therefore ambiguity is possible:
fikir
fikirleri

"idea",
"their idea" or "their ideas" or "her [or his] ideas".

Ambiguity can be resolved with #Pronouns.

Case
The absolute case combines the uses of the nominative, vocative, and (in part) accusative cases. It is for subjects,
and for names of people being addressed. It is also used for indefinite direct objects. Definite direct objects are in the
definite-accusative case:
iir
"poem", so:
iir okur "S/he reads a poem";
iiri okur "S/he reads the poem."
The dative case tells whither, that is, the place to which. Thus it has roughly the meaning of the English prepositions
"to" and "into", and also "in" when it can be replaced with "into":
Biray buzdolabna koy- "the-beer in-icebox put", that is,
"put the beer in the fridge".
The dative also is for objects: usually indirect objects, but sometimes objects that in English would be considered
direct:
Gnein batna bak- "sun's at-its-sinking look", that is,
"look at the sunset";
hkmete gven- "in-government trust", that is,
"trust the government".
The locative case tells where, hence corresponds to the English prepositions "at" and "on", and "in" when it does not
mean "into".
evde "at home" (ev "house");
Buzdolabnda drt bira var "in-icebox four beer exist," that is,
"There are four beers in the fridge."
The ablative case tells whence, that is, the place from which (or through which), hence:
material out of which something is made;
kumdan yaplm kale "of-sand made castle", that is,
"castle made of sand";
a cause by which something is effected;
alktan l- "of-hunger die";
that to which other things are being compared (see #Adjectives below).
In the Turkish terminology, the genitive case indicates a "compounding" (tamlayan) word. The corresponding
"compounded" (tamlanan) word will take the appropriate suffix of possession. The pair of these words is then a
definite compound (belirtili tamlama):

Turkish grammar
anne "mother",
annesi "her mother",
Aye'nin annesi "Aye's mother".
(The apostrophe in Turkish is used before suffixes attached to proper nouns.)
However, if two nouns are connected, but not by ownership, then the second noun generally takes an ending of
possession, while the first takes no ending. The result is an indefinite compound (belirtisiz tamlama):
Trkiye'nin Cumhurbakan "The President of Turkey" (definite);
Trkiye
Cumhuriyeti "The Republic of Turkey" (indefinite).
If one noun names a material, the other noun need not take an ending:
nikh yz "wedding ring";
altn yzk
"gold
ring".
Predication
If a noun is to be in the first or second person, one of the predicative suffixes (or type-I personal suffixes) will show
this:
Dnyayz "We are the world" (dnya "world").
ocuklarsnz "You are the children" (ocuk "child").
In the third person, no ending is required. However, the ending -dir can be used; it is said (Lewis, 1967: VIII,3) to be
the remnant of a verb turur "S/he stands". Again in the third person, the plural suffix may be used:
Trk
or Trktr
"S/he is
Turkish";
Trkler or Trktrler "They are
Turkish";
Trklerdir
"They are the Turks" (Lewis, 1967: VIII,5).
Several suffixes can be combined:
Evinizdeyim "I am at your house."
Ya benimsin, ya topran "Thou art either mine, or the earth's (that is, dead)."

(The last was spotted on a minibus in Turkey.)

Verbal nouns
The infinitive, formed with -mek as noted earlier, does not take a suffix of possession, or the genitive case-ending. It
does take all other case-endings. In particular, the progressive characteristic given earlier is the infinitive ending with
the locative ending:
Konumaktayz "We are in (the act of) speaking."
Savamaktayz "We are in warmaking", that is, "We are at war."
The verbal noun in -me is called a gerund above, since it corresponds roughly to the English gerund. It can take a
suffix of possession and any case-ending:
bekleme
odas
Beklemeniz lzm

"waiting room" (bekle- "wait"; oda "room").

"Your-waiting necessary", that is,
"You have to wait";
Sesini duymay seviyorum "Thy-voice hearing I-love", that is,
"I like to hear thy voice."

Turkish grammar

10

The dative form of a Turkish gerund can correspond precisely to an English infinitive with to:
lkemizde
nano teknolojik
rnler retilmeye
baland
"In-our-country nano technological products to-be-produced began"
that is, "Nano-technological products began to be produced in our country" (source: Cumhuriyet Bilim-Teknik 13
August 2005, p.1).
Yet another verbal noun is from -i:
yry "walk, walking" (yr- "walk");
ya "rain" (ya- "rain");
alveri "getting [and] spending", that is, "shopping"
(al- "take" or "buy"; ver- "give" or "spend");
yaratl "creation" (yara"be of use",
yarat"create",
yaratl- "be created").
The verb et- "make, do" can be considered as an auxiliary verb, since for example it is often used with verbal nouns
borrowed from other languages, such as Arabic:
kabul et- "accept" (kabul "[an] accepting");
reddet- "reject" (ret "[a] rejecting");
ziyaret et- "visit" (ziyaret "[a] visiting").
Considered as units, these are transitive verbs; but the nouns in them can, by themselves, take direct objects:
Antalya'y ziyaret "visit to Antalya".
What looks like an ablative gerund is usually an adverb; the ending -meden usually has the sense of "without". See
#Adverbs below.
An infinitive in the absolute case can be the object of a verb such as iste- "want":
Kimi eitime devam etmek,
kimi de

almak istiyor.

"Some-of-them towards-education continuation make

some-of-them also work want"

that is, "Some want to continue their educations, and some want to work" (source: Cumhuriyet Pazar Dergi, 14
August 2005, p.1.) Note here that the compound verb devam et- "continue, last" does not take a direct object, but is
complemented by a dative noun.
Another way to express obligation (besides with lzm as in the earlier example) is by means of zor "trouble,
compulsion" and an infinitive:
Gitmek zoru "Go compulsion",
Gitmek zorundayz "We must go".
(Source: same as the last example.)
Both an infinitive and a gerund are objects of the postposition iin "for" in the third sentence of the quotation within
the following quotation:
Tesis yetkilileri,

Facility its-authorities

"Blge insanlar genelde tutucu.

"District its-people in-general conservative.

Sahil kesimleri

Shore its-sections

yola yakn olduu iin

to-road near their-being for

rahat bir ekilde gle giremiyorlar.

comfortable a in-form to-lake they-cannot-enter.

Turkish grammar

11

Biz de

We and

hem yoldan geenlerin gr asn kapatmak

both from-road of-passers sight their-angle to-close

hem de erkeklerin rahatsz etmemesi iin

and men's uncomfortable their-not-making for

paravan kullanyoruz"

screen we-are-using"

dedi.

they-said.

Ancak paravann aralarndan

But curtain's from-its-gaps

ocuklarn kar taraf gzetlemeleri

children's other side their-spying

engellenemedi.

cannot-be-hindered.

(Source: Cumhuriyet, 9 August 2005, Tuesday, p.1.) A free translation is:

The facility authorities said, "The people of this district [namely Edremit, Van] are generally
conservative. They cannot enter the lake comfortably, because the shore areas are near the road. So we
are using a screen, both to close off the view of passersby on the road, and so that men will not cause
discomfort." However, children cannot be prevented from spying on the other side through gaps in the
screen.

Auxiliary verbs
Certain verbs in Turkish are used to enhance the meaning of other verbs, or to agglutinate verbs from nouns. These
verbs are called auxiliary verbs. A concise list follows:
Verbs that are used with nouns to agglutinate new verbs

etmek
olmak
klmak
eylemek

Examples
*
*
*
*
*
*

farz (assumption) -> farz etmek (to assume)

hak (right) -> hak etmek (to deserve)
af (amnesty) -> affetmek (to excuse)
kayp (loss) -> kaybetmek (to lose)
terk (leaving) -> terk etmek (to leave)
arz (submission, supply) -> arz etmek (to submit, to supply)

If there is a change in the noun root through the process of agglutination, it is written adjacently.These are mostly
Arabic loan-words, which switch to their more original form.
Remember that in Turkish words, two consonants of a syllable need a vowel to be pronunciated. There are
exceptions on loan words only, but those that lost their original form are more common. This occurs in two ways: If
two identical consonants exist in the end of the word, one is dropped such as hall "state,status" to hal, aff
"amnesty,forgiving" to af. If any two consonants exist in one syllable, a vowel appears such as hkm "judgement" to
hkm. Exceptions: taht "throne", renk "colour", kart "card" frequent for the ones with nk, rt, rk. Note that most of
these are loan-words from Persian or western languages.
Examples
* kayp + et-

-> kaybetmek (to lose; "kayp" lost is originally "kayb", an Arabic loan-word)

* haciz + et-

-> haczetmek (to sequestrate; "haciz" sequestration is originally "hacz", an Arabic loan-word)

* haz

-> hazzetmek (to relish or to enjoy; "haz" delight is originally "hazz", an Arabic loan-word)

+ et-

Verbs that are used with other verbs to enhance the meaning

Turkish grammar

12

-(i)vermek (implies urgency)

-(e)bilmek (implies ability)
-(e)durmak (implies continuity)
-(e)gelmek (implies repetition)
-(a)kalmak (implies continuity)
-(e)yazmak (implies a close escape)

Examples
*
*
*
*
*

d- (fall) -> deyazdm (I almost fell)

git- (go) -> gidiverdim (I just went, je viens d'aller)
yavala- (slow down) -> yavalayabilirim (I can slow down)
yaz- (write) -> yazaduruyorlar (They keep on writing)
syle- (tell) -> sylenegelir (is kept being told)

Adjectives
Use
Adjectives used attributively precede the noun; used predicatively, they follow, unless something other than
word-order shows that they are being used predicatively:
yeil im "[the] green grass"
im yeil(dir) or Yeildir im "Grass is green."
In a positive comparison, the object takes the ablative case; the adverb daha "more" is optional, unless the object is
left out.
tyden (daha) hafif "lighter than a feather".
In a negative comparison, the adverb az "less" is needed; the object still takes the ablative; daha can still be used as
well.
kurundan (daha) az ar "less heavy than lead"
The superlative degree is expressed by the adverb en "most".
en byk yalanc "the biggest liar" (byk "big", yalan "lie");
en az gvenilir "least trustworthy" (gven- "trust").

Descriptive adjectives
Most adjectives in the dictionary are descriptive. The most fundamental descriptive adjectives are two:
var "existing"
yok "not existing"

These are used only predicatively:

with the sense of the English "There is" and "There is not":
Gkte bir bulut yok "There is not a cloud in the sky";
in the construction that supplies the lack of a verb "have":

Turkish grammar

13

Balcnn var bal tas,

oduncunun var baltas.

"Honey-seller's exists honey his-pot,

wood-cutter's exists his-axe."

(This is a proverbial expression: "The honey-seller has a honey-pot; the wood-cutter has an axe"; bal "honey", odun
"(fire) wood", tas "bowl", balta "axe"; the more usual order would make the saying Balcnn bal tas var, oduncunun
baltas var).

Indefinite adjectives
The cardinal bir "one" can be used as an indefinite article. Word-order can make the difference:
gzel bir gn
"a nice day";
bir gzel gn "one fine day".
Unless it is being used by itself, elliptically, the adjective hi "no" requires an additional word with negative force:
Hi param yok

"I have no money" (para "money");

Hibir adam ada deildir' ' "No man is an island" (adam "man", ada "island", deil "not").
Bir ey gryorum
Hibir ey gremiyorum

"I see something", but

"I can't see anything."

Participles
It is noted under #Parts of speech that Turkish participles (sfat-fiiller) can be classified as
personal, if they take a suffix of possession;
impersonal, if they do not.
In a personal participle, the suffix of possession signifies the subject of the underlying verb; if this possessor is third
person, then the possessor may be further specified with a noun in the genitive case.
The noun modified by a personal participle as an adjective may be the direct object of the underlying verb; the
connexion may also be more vague.
The noun modified by an impersonal participle is generally the subject of the underlying verb (but see Lewis (1967:
IX,2)).
The aorist tense (geni zaman "broad time") is for habitual actions; the present tense (imdiki zaman "time that is
now") is for actions ongoing or contemplated.
Aorist:
akarsu "water that flows", hence "stream" (ak- "flow", su "water");
akaryakt "fuel oil" (yakt "heating fuel");
kmaz "not going out, cul-de-sac";
inilir "got down from" (sign at rear door of bus; in- "go down")
srdrlebilir turizm "tourism that can be continued", that is, "sustainable tourism"
(sr "drive"; srdr "continue")

Present:
geen hafta "passing week", that is, "last week";
Silahlar ekip
"Guns pulling-out-and
havaya ate aan
to-air fire opening
AKP'liler hakknda
AKP-members about-them
yasal ilem balatlmad legal process was-not-begun"

Turkish grammar

14

that is, "No legal process has begun concerning the AKP members who pulled out guns and fired them in the air"
[Birgn Halkn Gazetesi, 25 July 2005]; for -ip see #Adverbs below.
Future:
gelecek hafta "week that will come", that is, "next week";
okunacak
bir kitap "a book that will be read" (okun- "be read");
okuyacam bir kitap "a book that I shall read" (oku- "read").
Past/present:
okunmu
bir kitap "a book that was read";
okuduum bir kitap "a book that I read/am reading";
'Yaamn bittii yer'de hayat "Life in the place where life ends."
(The last example is a newspaper headline [Birgn, 20 July 2005] about cemetery workers; bit- "end"; yer "place";
hayat [Arabic] and yaam [neologism from yaa-] "life".)
A personal participle can be construed as a noun and used in parallel with verbal nouns:
ocuklarn
yzde 68'i evinin ihtiyalarna katkda bulunmak,
yzde 21'i ailesi istedii iin,
yzde alts i renmek ve meslek edinmek iin,
yzde 4' ihtiyalarn karlamak iin
alyor
"Children's
in-100 their-68 house's for-its-needs in-aid be-found,
in-100 their-21 their-family that-they-wanted for,
in-100 their-six work learn and profession be-made for,
in-100 their-4 their-needs meet for
are-working."
(Source: Birgn Halkn Gazetesi 13 August 2005, Saturday, p.1.) That is,
Children are working, 68% to provide for their family's needs, 21% because their family wants it, 6% to
learn a job or profession, 4% to meet their [own] needs.
The following sentence from a newspaper headline contains twenty-two words, nine derived from verbs, four of
these as participles, three as gerunds. Note also the use of kontrol from French as a verbal noun with et-:
Trkiye'nin AB'ye girmemesi ve

"Turkey's to-the-EU its-not-entering and

slam dnyasna yaklamas halinde Islam to-its-world its-drawing-near in-its-state

eriatln kucana itilmi

sharia-favorer-ness's to-its-embrace pushed

olacan

that-it-will-be

syleyen Fransz senatr Duireux,

saying French senator Duireux,

slami akmlarn

Islamic current's

kontrol edilmesi

control its-being-made

gerektiini

that-it-is-necessary

belirtti.

he-made-clear."

Source: Cumhuriyet, 17 July 2005; more smoothly:

Turkish grammar

15

Saying that, by not joining the EU and by drawing close to the Islamic world, Turkey would be
pushed into the lap of those who favor sharia, French senator Duireux made clear that it was necessary
to control the Islamic tide.

Adverbs
The adverb of negation is deil. It is used to negate sentences that are without verb or var; then it takes the
appropriate personal ending:
Evde deilim "I am not at home."
A number of adverbs are derived from verbs:
The ending -e is seen in:
Gle gle "[Go] smilingly" (said to somebody departing);
Gle gle kullann "Use [it] smilingly" (said to somebody with a new acquisition);
Bee eyrek kala kalktm "To-five a-quarter remaining I-got-up", that is,
"I got up at a quarter to five";
Onu yirmi gee uyudun "You slept at twenty past ten"
(uyu- "sleep", although uy- "heed").

The ending -erek denotes action at the same time as, or preceding, that of another verb:
Geceyi konuarak geirdik "The-night talking we-caused-to-pass", that is,
"We spent the night talking."
Akl yrterek bu sonuca ulayorum "By using reason, I arrived at this conclusion"

[the latter is Blent Ecevit as quoted in Cumhuriyet, 20 July 2005].

Doaya en az zarar vererek yaamak "To live while giving the least harm to nature"

[Buday magazine, 78/2005, no 32].

From ol- "be, become", olarak forms adverbial phrases corresponding to those in English with "as":
Size bir dost olarak sylyorum "To-you a friend as I'm-telling", that is,
"I'm telling you this as a friend";
ciddi olarak "seriously" (ciddi "serious").
The ending -meden on a verb-stem looks like the ablative gerund, but it is not (Lewis [XI,12]). It indicates an action
not occurring at all, or following that of the main verb:
Bakmadan atlama "Don't leap without looking";
Bakmadan nce atlama "Don't leap before looking."
Bir soruyu cevaplamadan
tartmak,
tartmadan cevaplamaktan iyidir
"A particular-question without-answering
to-debate
without-debating from-to-answer is-good," that is,
"It is better to debate without answering than to answer without debating."
(Source of the last sentence: Joseph Joubert as quoted on p.20 of Gndelik Bilmeceler by Partha Ghose and
Dipankar Home, translated by zlem zbal, Tbitak Popler Bilim Kitaplar 25, Ankara, 1996.) Complementing
nce "before" is sonra "after", which can follow a verb-stem given the ending -dikten:

Turkish grammar

16

Baktktan sonra atla "After looking, leap";

Aye baktktan sonra Nee atlad "After Aye looked, Nee lept."
Simultaneity is expressed by iken or its (not enclitic) suffixed form -(y)ken; but if it follows a verb, then the verb
appears, not as a stem, but as a base; see #Bases of verbs:
Eve girmekteyken, bir ey hatrladm "As I was entering the house, I remembered something";
Ben eve girmekteyken, telefon ald "As I was entering the house, the telephone rang."

If two verbs of the same grammatical form have the same subject, the endings on the first verb can be replaced by
-ip; see the example under #Participles.

Pronouns
The third-person personal pronoun o "she/he/it" is declined as if it were the noun on. The other persons, ben "I",
sen "you (singular/informal)", biz "we", siz "you (plural/formal)", are declined like nouns, except for a vowel change
in the dative, and an anomalous genitive; also the plural forms do not involve -ler:
singular
1
absolute

plural

ben

sen

biz

siz

onlar

accusative beni

seni

onu

bizi

sizi

onlar

dative

bana

sana

ona

bize

size

onlara

locative

bende

sende

onda

bizde

sizde

onlarda

ablative

benden senden ondan bizden sizden onlardan

genitive

benim

senin

onun

bizim

sizin

onlarn

The absolute case is generally needed only for emphasis:

Naslsnz? "How are you?"
yiyim; siz naslsnz? "I am fine; how are you?"
Ben de iyiyim. "I too am fine."
The third-person pronoun can clear up an ambiguity mentioned above:
onlarn fikri
"their idea";
onlarn fikirleri
"their ideas";
onun fikirleri "her [or his] ideas".
The pronoun o is also one of the demonstrative pronouns:
o "that";
bu "this";
u "this or that" (thing pointed to).
The latter two are declined like o (that is, treated as if they were bun and un).
The interrogative pronouns (and adjectives) are:

kim "who";
ne "what";
hangi "which";
ka "how many" or "how much".

Turkish grammar

17

These serve as relative pronouns only in a limited way:

Buzdolabnda katane var, o bilir "S/he knows how many are in the refrigerator."
There is a suffix -ki, borrowed from Persian, that acts as a relative pronoun in that it creates what, in English, would
be called relative clauses. It does not display vowel harmony, except in a few common formations:
benimki "mine (that which is mine)";
buzdolabndaki bira "beer that is in the refrigerator" (no vowel harmony);
bugnk "today's (which is today)" (with vowel harmony);
dnk "yesterday's (which was yesterday)" (with vowel harmony).
The reflexive pronoun (dnl zamir from dn- "turn") is kendi "own, self":
Kendi kendinden korkma "Do not be afraid of thyself."
Many of the indefinite adjectives can function as pronouns, taking case-endings.

Verbs
Stems of verbs
Many stems in the dictionary are indivisible; others consist of endings attached to a root.
Verb-stems from nouns
The verb-stem temizle- "make clean" is the adjective temiz "clean" with the suffix -le; this suffix was mentioned
earlier under #Parts of speech in connexion with the verb kpekle-. Many verbs are formed from nouns or adjectives
with -le:
bala- "make a head", that is, "begin" (intransitive; ba "head");
kilitle- "make locked", that is, "lock" (kilit "lock");
kirle- "make dirty" (kir "dirt").
Voice
A verbal root, or a verb-stem in -le, can be lengthened with certain extensions. If present, they appear in the
following order; they indicate distinctions of voice:
Extensions for voice
reflexive

-(i)n

reciprocal -(i)
causative -t
-dir

after polysyllabic stems in -l, -r, or a vowel; and

in other cases; except:

-ir, -er, -it after some monosyllabic stems; and

there are some other exceptional forms as well.
passive

-il

after stems ending in a consonant other than -l; otherwise, same as reflexive.

These endings might seem to be inflectional in the sense of the #Introduction above, but their meanings are not
always clear from their particular names, and dictionaries do generally give the resulting forms, so in this sense they
are constructive endings.

Turkish grammar

18

The causative extension makes an intransitive verb transitive, and a transitive verb factitive. Together, the reciprocal
and causative extension make the repetitive extension -itir.
bul- "find",
bulu- "meet",
bulun- "be present";
yka- "wash [something else]",
ykan- "wash oneself",
ykanl- "be washed";
kayna- "(come to a) boil",
kaynat- "(bring to a) boil";
l- "die",
ldr- "kill",
ldrt- "have [someone] killed";
ara- "look for",
aratr- "investigate".
Negation and potential in verb-stems
A dictionary-stem is positive; it can be made:
negative, by addition of -me;
impotential, by addition of -e and then -me.
Any of these three (kinds of) stems can be made potential by addition of -e and then -bil. The -bil is not enclitic, but
represents the verb bil- "know, be able"; the first syllable of the impotential ending represents an obsolete verb u- "be
powerful, able" #Lewis [VIII,55]. So far then, there are six kinds of stems:
Paradigm for stems negative, impotential and potential
English infinitive

English finite form

gel-

"come"

"come"

gelme-

"not come"

"do not come"

geleme-

"be unable to come"

"cannot come"

gelebil-

"be able to come"

"can come"

gelmeyebil-

"be able not to come"

"may not come"

gelemeyebil- "able to be unable to come" "may be unable to come"

Such stems are not used for aorist forms, which have their own peculiar means of forming negatives and
impotentials.

Turkish grammar

19

Bases of verbs
The characteristics with which verb-bases are formed from stems are given under #Inflectional suffixes. Note again
that aorist verbs have their own peculiar negative and impotential forms.
The progressive base in -mekte is discussed under #Verbal nouns. Another base, namely the necessitative
(gereklilik), is formed from a verbal noun. The characteristic is -meli, where -li forms adjectives from nouns, and -me
forms gerunds from verb-stems. A native speaker may perceive the ending -meli as indivisible; the analysis here is
from #Lewis [VIII,30]).
The present base is derived from the ancient verb yor- "go, walk" #Lewis [VIII,16]; this can be used for ongoing
actions, or for contemplated future actions.
The meaning of the aorist base is described under #Adjectives from verbs: participles.
There is some irregularity in first-person negative and impotential aorists. The full form of the base -mez (or (y)emez)
reappears before the interrogative particle mi:
Gelmem "I do not come" (cf. Gelmez miyim "Do I not come?");
Gelmeyiz "We do not come" (cf. Gelmez miyiz "Do we not come?")
The definite past or di-past is used to assert that something did happen in the past. The inferential past or mi-past
can be understood as asserting that a past participle is applicable now; hence it is used when the fact of a past event,
as such, is not important; in particular, the inferential past is used when one did not actually witness the past event.
A newspaper will generally use the di-past, because it is authoritative. The need to indicate uncertainly and inference
by means of the mi-past may help to explain the extensive use of ki in the newspaper excerpt at Turkish
vocabulary#The conjunction ki.
The conditional (art) verb could also be called "hypothetical"; it is used for remote possibilities, or things one
might wish for. (See also #Compound bases.)
The various bases thus give distinctions of tense, aspect and mood. These can be briefly tabulated:
First-person singular verbs
gelmekteyim "I am in the process of coming"
gelmeliyim

"I must come"

gelirim

"I come"

gelmem

"I do not come"

gelemem

"I cannot come"

geleceim

"I shall come"

gelmiim

"It seems that I came"

geliyorum

"I am coming"

geldim

"I came"

gelsem

"if only I came"

Turkish grammar

20

Questions
The interrogative particle mi precedes predicative (type-I) endings (except for the 3rd person plural -ler), but follows
the complete verb formed from a verbal, type-II ending:
Geliyor musunuz? "Are you coming?" (but: Geliyorlar m? "Are they coming?")
Geldiniz mi? "Did you come?"

Optative and imperative moods

Usually, in the optative (istek), only the first-person forms are used, and these supply the lack of a first-person
imperative (emir). In common practice then, there is one series of endings to express something wished for:
-(y)eyim, -(y)elim, , -(y)in, -sin.
(The longer second-person plural imperative ending -(y) iniz is generally used only in writing.)
Non-indicative verbs
Geleyim

"Let me come"

Gelelim

"Let us come"

Gel

"Come (thou)"

Gelin

"Come (you)"

Gelsin

"Let [her/him/it] come"

Gelsinler "Let them come"

The defective verb iThe ancient verb er- #Lewis [VIII,2] exists in Turkish in three bases:
imi,
idi,
ise.
The form iken given under #Adverbs from verbs is also descended from er-. Since no more bases are founded on the
stem i-, this verb can be called defective. In particular, i- forms no negative or impotential stems; negation is
achieved with the #Adverb of negation, deil, given earlier.
Verbs i- are often made into suffixes; the corresponding bases then are
-(y)mi,
-(y)di,
-(y)se,
where the y is used only after vowels.
The verb i- serves as a copula. When a copula is needed, but the appropriate base in i- does not exist, then the
corresponding base in ol- is used; this stem otherwise means "become".
The verb i- is irregular in the way it is used in questions: the particle mi always precedes it:
Ku idi or Kutu "It was a bird";
Ku muydu? "Was it a bird?"

Turkish grammar

Compound bases
The bases so far considered can be called "simple". A base in i- can be attached to another base, forming a
compound base. One can then interpret the result by reading backwards. The following list is representative, not
exhaustive:
Past tenses:
continuous past: Geliyordum "I was coming";
aorist past: Gelirdim "I used to come";
future past: Gelecektim "I was going to come";
pluperfect: Gelmitim "I had come";
necessitative past: Gelmeliydim "I had to come";
conditional past: Gelseydim "If only I had come."
Inferential tenses:

continuous inferential: Geliyormuum "It seems (they say) I am coming";

future inferential: Gelecekmiim "It seems I shall come";
aorist inferential: Gelirmiim "It seems I come";
necessitative inferential: Gelmeliymiim "They say I must come."

By means of ise or -(y)se, a verb can be made conditional in the sense of being the hypothesis or protasis of a
complex statement:
nemli bir ey yapyorsunuz "You are doing something important";
nemli bir ey yapyorsanz, rahatsz etmeyelim "If you are doing something important, let us not cause
disturbance."
The simple conditional can be used for remote conditions:
Bakmakla renilse, kpekler kasap olurdu "If learning by looking were possible, dogs would be butchers."

Notes
[1] The term "aorist" is often used in Turkish grammars for the habitual aspect. This is quite different from its use in Greek grammars, where it
means perfective aspect: what is called "definite past" in Turkish.
[2] The imperfective aspect is often called "present", though it is not actually present tense
[3] The perfective aspect is often called "definite past", though it is not actually past tense

References
Grammars
Robert Underhill (1976). Turkish Grammar. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. "A classic, still used to teach Turkish
grammar in many universities."
Kaya Can (1991). Yabanclar in Trke-ngilizce Aklama Trke Dersleri. Ankara: Orta Dou Teknik
niversitesi, Fen ve Edebiyat Fakltesi. "Turkish lessons with Turkish-English explanation[s] for foreigners."
Ekrem auevi (1996). Gramatika suvremenoga turskog jezika. Zagreb, CRO: Sveuilina naklada. "A classic,
still used to teach Turkish grammar in many universities."
Asl Gksel & Celia Kerslake (2005). Turkish: A Comprehensive Grammar. London: Routledge. "The most
recent comprehensive grammar in English."
G. L. Lewis (1967). Turkish Grammar. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-815838-6.
G. L. Lewis (2000). Turkish Grammar. Oxford University Press. Second edition. Structural differences between
the two editions are not named in the second, but appear to be as follows: IV,4 "-e", VI,7 "Arithmetical terms",
XI,16 "-diinde", and XII,25 "t" are new, while XV,1 "Nominal sentences and verbal sentences" in the first

21

Turkish grammar

edition was dropped.

Eran Oyal (1986). Szcklerin Anlamsal ve Yapsal zellikleri: Konular, rnekler, Sorular, Aklama Yantlar
(SS ve YS iin Dil Yetenei Dizisi 2). Ankara. "Semantic and syntactic properties of words: subjects, examples,
questions, answers with explanation (language ability for the university entrance examinations, 2)."
Atilla zkrml (2001). Trk Dili, Dil ve Anlatm. stanbul Bilgi niversitesi Yaynlar. "The Turkish language,
language, and expression."
Bengisu Rona (1989). Turkish in Three Months. Hugo's Language Books Limited.
Gerjan van Schaaik (2001). The Bosphorus Papers: Studies in Turkish Grammar 19961999. stanbul: Boazii
University Press.

Dictionaries
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H.-J. Kornrumpf (1989). Langenscheidt's Universal Dictionary: English-Turkish, Turkish-English. Istanbul. New
edition revised and updated by Resuhi Akdikmen.
Redhouse Yeni Trke-ngilizce Szlk. New Redhouse Turkish-English Dictionary. Redhouse Yaynevi, stanbul,
1968 (12th ed., 1991).
Redhouse Byk Elszl ngilizce-Trke, Trke-ngilizce. The Larger Redhouse Portable Dictionary
English-Turkish, Turkish-English. Redhouse Yaynevi, stanbul 1997 (9th printing, 1998).
Trk Dil Kurumu [Turkish Language Foundation], Trke Szlk, expanded 7th edition, 1983.

Other Grammars
Aksan, Doan (Hazrlayan) (1983), Szck Trleri, TDK, Ankara, 2. Bask, 288 s.
Aksan, Doan (1978), Trkiye Trkesinde Gelimeli Sesbilim, (Hazrlayanlar: Atabay, N-zel, S., am,
A.-Pirali, N.), TDK, Ankara.
Atabay, Nee-zel, Sevgi-am, Ayfer (1981), Trkiye Trkesinin Szdizimi, TDK, Ankara, 131 s. (2003),
Papatya Yaynlar.
Atalay, Besim (Haz.), (Bergamal Kadri) (1946), Myessiretl-Ulm, brahim Horoz Basmevi, stanbul.
Banguolu, Tahsin (1940), Ana Hatlar ile Trk Grameri, stanbul.
Banguolu, Tahsin (1959), Trk Grameri I: Sesbilgisi, TDK, Ankara, 306 s.
Banguolu, Tahsin (1986), Trkenin Grameri, TDK, Ankara, 2. Bask, 628 s.
Bilgegil, Kaya (1984), Trke Dilbilgisi, Dergh Yaynlar, stanbul
Bozkurt, Fuat (1995), Trkiye Trkesi, Cem Yaynevi, stanbul, 552 s.
Burdurlu, brahim Zeki (1982), Uygulamal Cmle zmlemeleri, stanbul.
Delice, H. brahim, (2003), Tre Szdizimi, Kitabevi, stanbul, 248s.
Demiray, Kemal (1964), Trke Dilbilgisi, Ankara.
Demircan, mer (1996), Trkenin Sesdizimi, Der Yaynlar, stanbul, X+196 s, (2002) Der Yaynlar.
Demircan, mer (1979), Trkiye Trkesinin Ses Dzeni Trkiye Trkesinde Sesler, Ankara
Demircan (1977), mer, Trkiye Trkiye Trkesinde Kk-Ek Bilemeleri, TDK, Ankara
Deny, Jean (1992), Grammaire de la Langue Turque, Dialecte Osmanli, Paris, 1920, 1216 s.
Develi, Hayati (2001), Osmanl Trkesi Klavuzu 1-2, Kitabevi.
Deny, Jean (1941), Trk Dili Grameri, (Osmanl Lehesi), ev.: Elve, A.U., stanbul
Deny, Jean (1995), Trk Dili Gramerinin Temel Kurallar, (eviren: Oytun AHiN), TDK, Ankara, XII+164 s.
Dilmen, brahim Necmi (1930), Trke Gramer, stanbul, 2 cilt.
Dizdaroglu, Hikmet (1976), Tmcebilgisi, TDK, Ankara, 522+2 s.(doru-yanl cetveli).
Dizdaroglu, Hikmet (1988), Trkede Szck Yapma Yollar, Ankara, 1962.

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Turkish grammar
Eckmann, Jnos, aatayca El Kitab, (eviren: Gnay Karaaa), stanbul niversitesi Edebiyat Fakltesi Yay.,
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Ediskun, Haydar (1992), Trk Dilbilgisi, Remzi Kitabevi, stanbul, 4. Bask, 407 s.
Elve, Ali Ulvi (eviren), (Jean Deny) (1941), Trk Dili Grameri (Osmanl Lehesi), TDK, stanbul,
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Emecan, Nee (1998), 1960'tan Gnmze Trke, stanbul.
Emre, Ahmed Cevat (1945), Trk Dilbilgisi, TDK, stanbul, XIX+613 s.
Ergin, Muharrem (1987), Osmanlca Dersleri, Boazii Yaynlar, stanbul, 9. Bask, VIII+124+236+16 s.
Ergin, Muharrem (1985), Trk Dil Bilgisi, Boazii Yaynlar, stanbul, 5. Bask, XXVIII+407 s.
Gabain, Annamarie (1988), Eski Trkenin Grameri, (eviren: Mehmet Akaln), TDK, Ankara, XXIII+313 s.
Gencan, Tahir Nejat (1966), Dilbilgisi, TDK, stanbul, XV+412 s, (2001), Ayra Yaynlar .
G, Beir (1969), Faydal Dilbilgisi, I-II-II, stanbul
Gknel, Yksel (1974), Modern Trke Dilbilgisi, zmir
Grnbech, K. (1995), Trkenin Yaps, (eviren: Mehmet Akaln), TDK, Ankara, 148 s.
Haceminolu, M. Necmettin (1984), Trk Dilinde Edatlar, Milli Eitim Bak., stanbul, 3. Bask, VIII+335+1 s.
Haceminolu, Necmettin (1991), Trk Dilinde Yap Bakmndan Fiiller (En Eski Trkeden ada Trk
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Turkish grammar

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External links
Turkish dictionaries (http://www.dmoz.org/Reference/Dictionaries/World_Languages/T/Turkish/) at the
Open Directory Project
Turkish language (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Linguistics/Languages/Natural/Altaic/
Turkic/Turkish/) at the Open Directory Project
Turkish tools (non-commercial) (http://turkishtools.tourkika.com/)
LT: LearningTurkish (non-commercial) (http://sites.google.com/site/learningturkishsite/)
LT: Automatic Turkish Verb Declinations (non-commercial) (http://sites.google.com/site/learningturkishsite/
automaticverbdeclinations)

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Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

Turkish grammar Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=578043520 Contributors: Alex.muller, Aliakpinar, Alpy01, Babajobu, Bandekafsh, Baristarim, Bobo192, Bunnyhop11,
Bri, Cameltrader, Canerguclu, CapnPrep, CecilWard, CharlotteWebb, Cmdrjameson, Ctreddy, David Pierce, Dextrose, Edward, Ekrem52, Fadesga, Fayenatic london, Felicioo, FilipeS, Fratrep,
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