PROJECT

___________
HISTORY

Submitted by
AKASHDEEP SRIVASTAVA
ROLL NO.:2013011
SEMESTER I
__________________________________________________
DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

Visakhapatnam
OCTOBER 2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I owe a great many thanks to a great many people who helped and
supported me during the writing of this project .My deepest thanks to
Lecturer MR VISHWACHANDRAN NATH MADHASU
the Guide of the project for guiding and correcting various documents of
mine with attention and care. He has taken pain to go through the project
and make necessary correction as and when needed. I express my thanks to
the vice chancellor of, [DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW
UNIVERSITY,

VIZAG],

for extending

his

support.

Thanks

and

appreciation to the helpful people at [DSNLU Library ] for their support.

I would also thank my Institution and my faculty members without whom
this project would have been a distant reality. I also extend my heartfelt
thanks to my family and well wishers

Table of Contents

Introduction........................................................................................................... 4
Hoysala Empire...................................................................................................... 5
history.................................................................................................................. 5
Culture............................................................................................................... 11
Chola dynasty...................................................................................................... 16
Government and society.................................................................................18
Pallava dynasty....................................................................................................... 24
Rastrakuta dynasty.......................................................................................... 26
BIBLOGRAPHY................................................................................................... 32

Introduction
other then big dynasties like gupta and morya ,small dynasties like hosyala,chola,rastrakuta
and pallava and many other dynasties also have effect the society.theses dynasty didnt rule
for so long and so much area but their artitecture, social values has a great impact.where
hosyala dynasty consider as one of liberal dynasty.even few administrator were women.
Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art, religion, and
literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that
had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas.,palllavas has great artitecture.their art is
excellent.Rastrakuta is one of the developed society of that time.they created so many schools
to teach their society.these dynasties impact in current india is still present.in current Indian
society ,hosyala allowed women to administrate. Though each dynasty is different from each
other but all have their importance in culture.

Hoysala Empire
Hoysala Empire
The Hoysala empire was a prominent Southern Indian Kannadiga empire that ruled most of
the modern day state of Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the
Hoysalas was initially located at Belur but was later moved to Halebidu. The Hoysala rulers
were originally from Malnad Karnataka, an elevated region in the Western Ghats range. In the
12th century, taking advantage of the internecine warfare between the then ruling Western
Chalukyas and Kalachuri kingdoms, they annexed areas of present day Karnataka and the
fertile areas north of the Kaveri River delta in present day Tamil Nadu. By the 13th century,
they governed most of present-day Karnataka, minor parts of Tamil Nadu and parts of
western Andhra Pradesh in Deccan India.1
The Hoysala era was an important period in the development of art, architecture, and religion
in South India. The empire is remembered today primarily for its temple architecture. Over a
hundred surviving temples are scattered across Karnataka, including the well known
Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava
Temple at Somanathapura. The Hoysala rulers also patronised the fine arts, encouraging
literature to flourish in Kannada and Sanskrit.2

history
History
Kannada folklore tells a tale of a young man Sala, who saved his Jain guru Sudatta by
striking dead a Lion he encountered near the temple of the Goddess Vasantika at Sosevur. The
word "strike" literally translates to "hoy" in Hale Kannada (Old Kannada), hence the name
"Hoy-sala". This legend first appeared in the Belur inscription of Vishnuvardhana , but owing
1 Ayyar, P. V. Jagadisa (1993) [1993]. South Indian Shrines. Asian Educational
Services. ISBN 81-206-0151-3
2 Fritz, John M. and George Michell (editors) (2001). New Light on Hampi : Recent
Research at Vijayanagar. Mumbai: MARG.ISBN 81-85026-53-X.

to several inconsistencies in the Sala story it remains in the realm of folklore. The legend may
have come into existence or gained popularity after King Vishnuvardhana's victory over the
Cholas at Talakad as the Hoysala emblem depicts the fight between the mythical Sala and a
tiger, the emblem of the Cholas] Early inscriptions, dated 1078 and 1090, have implied that
the Hoysalas were descendants of the Yadava by referring to the Yadava vamsa (clan) as
Hoysala vamsa. But there are no early records directly linking the Hoysalas to the Yadavas of
North India.
Historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on
numerous inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or "Lord of the Male (hills) chiefs"
(Malepas).[ This title in the Kannada language was proudly used by
the Hoysala kings as their royal signature in their inscriptions. Literary sources from that time
in Kannada (Jatakatilaka) and Sanskrit (Gadyakarnamrita) have also helped confirm they
were natives of the region known today as Karnataka.
The first Hoysala family record is dated 950 and names Arekalla as the chieftain, followed by
Maruga and Nripa Kama I (976). The next ruler, Munda (10061026), was succeeded by
Nripa Kama II who held such titles as Permanadi that show an early alliance with the
Western Ganga dynasty. From these modest beginnings, the Hoysala dynasty began its
transformation

into

strong

subordinate

of

the

Western

Chalukyas.

Through

Vishnuvardhana's expansive military conquests, the Hoysalas achieved the status of a real
kingdom for the first time.[19][20] He wrested Gangavadi from the Cholas in 1116 and
movedthe capital from Belur to Halebidu.
Vishnuvardhana's ambition of creating an independent empire was fulfilled by his grandson
Veera Ballala II, who freed the Hoysalas from subordination in 11871193. Thus the
Hoysalas began as subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gradually established their
own empire in Karnataka with such strong Hoysala kings as Vishnuvardhana, Veera Ballala II
and later Veera Ballala III. During this time, peninsular India saw a four way struggle for
hegemony Pandya, Kakatiya and Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri being the other kingdoms.
Veera Ballala II defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom. He
assumed the title "Establisher of the Chola Kingdom" (Cholarajyapratishtacharya),
"Emperor of the south" (Dakshina Chakravarthi) and "Hoysala emperor" (Hoysala
Chakravarthi). He founded the city of Bangalore according to Kannada folklore.

The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225,
making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital and giving them
control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern
Deccan. Vira Narasimha II's son Vira Someshwara earned the honorific "uncle" (Mamadi)
from the Pandyas and Cholas. The Hoysala influence spread over Pandya kingdom also.
Toward the end of 13th century, Veera Ballala III recaptured territory in the Tamil country
which had been lost to the Pandya uprising, thus uniting the northern and southern portions of
the kingdom.
Major political changes were taking place in the Deccan region in the early 14th century
when significant areas of northern India were under Muslim rule. Alla-ud-din Khilji, the
Sultan of Delhi, was determined to bring isolated South India under his domain and sent his
commander,Malik Kafur, on a southern expedition to plunder the Seuna capital Devagiri in
1311.The Seuna empire was subjugated by 1318 and the Hoysala capital Halebidu (also
called Dorasamudra or Dwarasamudra) was sacked twice,3 in 1311 and 1327. By 1336, the
Sultan had conquered the Pandyas of Madurai, the Kakatiyas of Warangal and the tiny
kingdom of Kampili. The Hoysalas were the only remaining Hindu empire who resisted the
invading armies. Veera Ballala III stationed himself at Tiruvannamalai and offered stiff
resistance to invasions from the north and the Sultanate of Madurai to the south. Then, after
nearly three decades of resistance, Veera Ballala III was killed at the battle of Madurai in
1343, and the sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire were merged with the areas
administered by Harihara I in the Tungabhadra region.This new Hindu kingdom resisted the
northern invasions and would later prosper and come to be known as the Vijayanagara
Empire.

3 Thapar, Romila (2003) [2003]. The Penguin History of Early India

7

Economy
The Hoysala administration supported itself through revenues from an agrarian economy. The
kings gave grants of land as rewards for service to beneficiaries who then became landlords
to tenants producing agricultural goods and forest products. There were two types of
landlords (gavunda); gavunda of people (praja gavunda) was lower in status than the wealthy
lord of gavundas (prabhu gavunda). The highlands (malnad regions) with its temperate
climate was suitable for raising cattle and the planting of orchards and spices. Paddy and corn
were staple crops in the tropical plains (Bailnad). The Hoysalas collected taxes on irrigation
systems including tanks, reservoirs with sluices, canals and wells which were built and
maintained at the expense of local villagers. Irrigation tanks such as Vishnusagara,
Shantisagara, Ballalarayasagara were created at the expense of the state.4
Importing horses for use as general transportation and in army cavalries of Indian kingdoms
was a flourishing business on the western seaboard. The forests were harvested for rich
woods such as teak which was exported through ports located in the area of present day
Kerala. Song dynasty records from China mention the presence of Indian merchants in ports
4 Moraes, George M. (1990) [1931]. The Kadamba Kula, A History of Ancient and
Medieval Karnataka
8

of South China, indicating active trade with overseas kingdoms. South India exported
textiles, spices, medicinal plants, precious stones, pottery, salt made from salt pans, jewels,
gold, ivory, rhino horn, ebony, aloe wood, perfumes, sandalwood, camphor and condiments
to China, Dhofar, Aden, and Siraf (the entryport to Egypt, Arabia and Persia). Architects
(Vishwakarmas), sculptors, quarry workers, goldsmiths and other skilled craftsmen whose
trade directly or indirectly related to temple construction were also prosperous due to the
vigorous temple building activities.
The village assembly was responsible for collecting government land taxes. Land revenue
was called Siddhaya and included the original assessment (Kula) plus various cesses. Taxes
were levied on professions, marriages, goods in transit on chariots or carriages, and
domesticated animals. Taxes on commodities (gold, precious stones, perfumes, sandalwood,
ropes, yarn, housing, hearths, shops, cattle pans, sugarcane presses) as well as produce (black
pepper, betel leaves, ghee, paddy, spices, palm leaves, coconuts, sugar) are noted in village
records. The village assembly could levy a tax for a specific purpose such as construction of a
water tank.

Administration
In its administrative practices, the Hoysala Empire followed some of the well-established and
proven methods of its predecessors covering administrative functions such as cabinet
organisation and command, the structure of local governing bodies and the division of
territory. Records show the names of many high ranking positions reporting directly to the
king. Senior ministers were called Pancha Pradhanas, ministers responsible for foreign
affairs were designated Sandhivigrahi and the chief treasurer was Mahabhandari or
Hiranyabhandari. Dandanayakas were in charge of armies and the chief justice of the
Hoysala court was the Dharmadhikari.
The kingdom was divided into provinces named Nadu, Vishaya, Kampana and Desha, listed
in descending order of geographical size. Each province had a local governing body
consisting of a minister (Mahapradhana) and a treasurer (Bhandari) that reported to the ruler
of that province (Dandanayaka). Under this local ruler were officials called Heggaddes and
Gavundas who hired and supervised the local farmers and labourers recruited to till the land.
Subordinate ruling clans such as Alupas continued to govern their respective territories while
following the policies set by the empire. An elite and well trained force of bodyguards known

as Garudas protected the members of the royal family at all times. These servants moved
closely yet inconspicuously by the side of their master, their loyalty being so complete that
they committed suicide after his death. Hero stones (virgal) erected in memory of these
bodyguards are called Garuda pillars. The Garuda pillar at the Hoysaleswara temple in
Halebidu was erected in honor of Kuvara Lakshma, a minister and bodyguard of King Veera
Ballala II. King Vishnuvardhana's coins had the legends "victor at Nolambavadi"
(Nolambavadigonda), "victor at Talakad" (Talakadugonda), "chief of the Malepas"
(Maleparolganda), "Brave of Malepa" (malapavira) in Hoysala style Kannada script. Their
gold coin was called Honnu or Gadyana and weighed 62 grains of gold. Pana or Hana was a
tenth of the Honnu, Haga was a fourth of the Pana and Visa was fourth of Haga. There were
other coins called Bele and Kani.

Culture
10

Culture
Religion
The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in early 11th century and the
rising numbers of followers of Vaishnavism and Lingayatism in the 12th century was
mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. Two notable locations of Jain worship in the
Hoysala territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The decline of Buddhism in
South India began in the 8th century with the spread of AdiShankara's Advaita
philosophy.The only places of Buddhist worship during the Hoysala time were at Dambal and
Balligavi. Shantala Devi, queen of Vishnuvardhana, was a Jain but nevertheless
commissioned the Hindu Kappe Chennigaraya temple in Belur, evidence that the royal family
was tolerant of all religions.
During the rule of the Hoysalas, three important religious developments took place in present
day Karnataka inspired by three philosophers, Basava, Madhvacharya and Ramanuja. While
the origin of Lingayatism is debated, the movement grew through its association with Basava
in the 12the century. Madhvacharya was critical of the teachings of Adi Shankara and argued
the world is real and not an illusion. His philosophy gained popularity enabling him to
establish eight mathas in Udupi. Ramanuja, head of the Vaishnava monastery in Srirangam,
preached the way of devotion (bhakti marga) and wrote Sribhashya, a critique on the Advaita
Vedanta philosophy of Adi Shankara. The impact of these religious developments on culture,
literature, poetry and architecture in South India was profound. Important works of literature
and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers were written during the coming
centuries. The Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties of Vijayanagar empire were followers of
Vaishnavism and a Vaishnava temple with an image of Ramanuja exists in the Vitthalapura
area of Vijayanagara. Scholars in the later Kingdom of Mysore wrote Vaishnavite works
upholding the teachings of Ramanuja. King Vishnuvardhana built many temples after his
conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism. The later saints of Madhvacharya's order,
Jayatirtha, Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraja, Vadirajatirtha and devotees (dasa) such as Vijaya Dasa,
Gopaladasa and others from the Karnataka region spread his teachings far and wide. His
teachings inspired later day philosophers like Vallabha Acharya in Gujarat and Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu in Bengal.Another wave of devotion (bhakti) in the 17th century18th century
found inspiration in his teachings.

11

Twin temples at mosale(1200 ce)

Society
Hoysala society in many ways reflected the emerging religious, political and cultural
developments of those times. During this period, the society became increasingly
sophisticated. The status of women was varied. Some royal women were involved in
administrative matters as shown in contemporary records describing Queen Umadevi's
administration of Halebidu in the absence of Veera Ballala II during his long military
campaigns in northern territories. She also fought and defeated some antagonistic feudal
rebels.Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts, such as Queen Shantala
Devi's skill in dance and music,and the 12th century Vachana poet and Lingayatism mystic
Akka Mahadevi's devotion to the bhakti movement is well known5.Temple dancers
(Devadasi) were common and some were well educated and accomplished in the arts. These
qualifications gave them more freedom than other urban and rural women who were
restricted to daily mundane tasks.The practice of sati in a voluntary form was prevalent and

5 Ayyar, P. V. Jagadisa (1993) [1993]. South Indian Shrines. Asian Educational

Services.
12

prostitution was socially acceptable. As in most of India, the Indian caste system was
conspicuously present.
Trade on the west coast brought many foreigners to India including Arabs, Jews, Persians,
Chinese and people from the Malay Peninsula. Migration of people within Southern India as
a result of the expansion of the empire produced an influx of new cultures and skills. In South
India, towns were called Pattana or Pattanam and the marketplace, Nagara or Nagaram, the
marketplace serving as the nuclei of a city. Some towns such as Shravanabelagola developed
from a religious settlement in the 7th century to an important trading center by the 12th
century with the arrival of rich traders, while towns like Belur attained the atmosphere of a
regal city when King Vishnuvardhana built the Chennakesava Temple there. Large temples
supported by royal patronage served religious, social, and judiciary purposes, elevating the
king to the level of "God on earth". Temple building served a commercial as well as a
religious function and was not limited to any particular sect of Hinduism. Shaiva merchants
of Halebidu financed the construction of the Hoysaleswara temple to compete with the
Chennakesava temple built at Belur, elevating Halebidu to an important city as well. Hoysala
temples however were secular and encouraged pilgrims of all Hindu sects, the Kesava temple
at Somanathapura being an exception with strictly Vaishnava sculptural depictions. Temples
built by rich landlords in rural areas fulfilled fiscal, political, cultural and religious needs of
the agrarian communities. Irrespective of patronage, large temples served as establishments
that provided employment to hundreds of people of various guilds and professions sustaining
local communities as Hindu temples began to take on the shape of wealthy Buddhist
monasteries.
Literature
Although Sanskrit literature remained popular during the Hoysala rule, royal patronage of
local Kannada scholars increased. In the 12th century some works were written in the
Champu style, but distinctive Kannada metres became more widely accepted. The Sangatya
metre used in compositions,Shatpadi (seven line), Tripadi (three line) metres in verses and
Ragale (lyrical poems) became fashionable. Jain works continued to extol the virtues of
Tirthankaras (Jain ascetics).
The Hoysala court supported scholars such as Janna, Rudrabhatta, Harihara and his nephew
Raghavanka, whose works are enduring masterpieces in Kannada. In 1209, the Jain scholar
Janna wrote Yashodharacharite, the story of a king who intends to perform a ritual sacrifice
13

of two young boys to a local deity, Mariamma. Taking pity on the boys, the king releases
them and gives up the practice of human sacrifice. In honur of this work, Janna received the
title "Emperor among poets" (Kavichakravarthi) from King Veera Ballala II. Rudrabhatta, a
Smartist Brahmin, was the earliest well-known Brahminical writer whose patron was
Chandramouli, a minister of King Veera Ballala II. Based on the earlier work of Vishnu
Purana, he wrote Jagannatha Vijaya in the Champu style relating the life of Lord Krishna
leading up to his fight with the demon Banasura. Harihara, (also known as Harisvara) a
Lingayati writer and the patron of King Narasimha I, wrote the Girijakalyana in the old Jain
Champu style which describes the marriage of Lord Shiva and Parvati in ten sections. He was
one of the earliest Virashaiva writers who was not part of the Vachana literary tradition. He
came from a family of accountants (Karanikas) from Halebidu and spent many years in
Hampi writing more than one hundred Ragales (poems in blank verse) in praise of Lord
Virupaksha (a form of Lord Shiva). Raghavanka was the first to introduce the Shatpadi metre
into Kannada literature in his Harishchandra kavya which is considered a classic even though
it occasionally violates strict rules of Kannada grammar. In Sanskrit, the philosopher
Madhvacharya wrote Rigbhshya on Brahmasutras (a logical explanation of Hindu scriptures,
the Vedas) as well as many polemical works rebutting the doctrines of other schools of Vedas.
He relied more on the Puranic literature than the Vedas for logical proof of his philosophy.
Another famous writing was Rudraprshnabhashya by Vidyatirtha.

Architecture
The modern interest in the Hoysalas is due to their patronage of art and architecture rather
than their military conquests. The brisk temple building throughout the kingdom was
accomplished despite constant threats from the Pandyas to the south and the Seunas Yadavas
to the north. Their architectural style, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style, shows
distinct Dravidian influences. The Hoysala architecture style is described as Karnata Dravida
as distinguished from the traditional Dravida, and is considered an independent architectural
tradition with many unique features. A feature of Hoysala temple architecture is its attention
to exquisite detail and skilled craftsmanship. The tower over the temple shrine (vimana) is
delicately finished with intricate carvings, showing attention to the ornate and elaborately
detailed rather than to a tower form and height. The stellate design of the base of the shrine
with its rhythmic projections and recesses is carried through the tower in an orderly
succession of decorated tiers. Hoysala temple sculpture replicates this emphasis on delicacy
14

and craftsmanship in its focus on depicting feminine beauty, grace and physique. The Hoysala
artists achieved this with the use of Soapstone (Chloritic schist), a soft stone as basic building
and sculptural material.The Chennakesava Temple at Belur the Hoysaleswara temple at
Halebidu the Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura (1279), the temples at Arasikere
(1220), Amruthapura (1196), Belavadi (1200), Nuggehalli (1246), Hosaholalu (1250),
Aralaguppe (1250), Korvangla (1173), Haranhalli (1235), Mosale and Basaralu (1234) are
some of the notable examples of Hoysala art. 6 While the temples at Belur and Halebidu are
the best known because of the beauty of their sculptures, the Hoysala art finds more complete
expression in the smaller and lesser known temples.The outer walls of all these temples
contain an intricate array of stone sculptures and horizontal friezes (decorative mouldings)
that depict the Hindu epics. These depictions are generally clockwise in the traditional
direction of circumambulation (pradakshina). The temple of Halebidu has been described as
an outstanding example of Hindu architecture and an important milestone in Indian
architecture.The temples of Belur and Halebidu are a proposed UNESCO world heritage
sites.

6 Mysore Gazatteer Compiled for Government-vol 1. New Delhi, Madras: Asian

Educational Services
15

Chola dynasty
CHOLA DYNASTY
The Chola dynasty (Tamil: _) was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of
southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from
the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, of the Maurya Empire. As one of the Three Crowned
Kings, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th century AD. The
heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but they ruled a
significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till
the beginning of the 13th century. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united
and held as one state for a period of two centuries and more.Under Rajaraja Chola I and his
son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South
Asia and South-East Asia.The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world
by the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of
cities of the maritime empire of Srivijaya, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.
During the period 10101200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives
in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja
Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of which is now Sri Lanka and
occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North
India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He
also successfully invaded cities of Srivijaya.The Chola dynasty went into decline at the
beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyas, who ultimately caused their
downfall.The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in
the building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture.
The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as
places of worship but also as centres of economic activity. They pioneered a centralised form
of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy. According to the Malay chronicle
Sejahrah Melayu the rulers of the Malacca sultanate aimed to be descendants of the kings of
the Chola Empir.
Origins

16

There is very little information available regarding the origin of the Chola Dynasty. The
antiquity of this dynasty is evident from the mentions in ancient Tamil literature and in
inscriptions. Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage to their dynasty.
Mentions in the early Sangam literature (c. 150 CE)indicate that the earliest kings of the
dynasty antedated 100 CE. Parimelalagar, the annotator of the Tamil classic Tirukkural,
mentions that this could be the name of an ancient king. The most commonly held view is
that this is, like Cheras and Pandyas, the name of the ruling family or clan of immemorial
antiquity. The annotator Parimelazhagar writes "The charity of people with ancient lineage
(such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are forever generous in spite of their
reduced means". Other names in common use for the Cholas are Killi (_), Valavan
() and Sembiyan ().Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil (_)
meaning dig or cleave and conveys the idea of a digger or a worker of the land. This word
often forms an integral part of early Chola names like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but
almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is most probably connected with 'valam'
() fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile country. Sembiyan is generally taken
to mean a descendant of Shibi a legendary hero whose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from
the pursuit of a falcon figures among the early Chola legends and forms the subject matter of
the Sibi Jataka among the Jataka stories of Buddhism. In Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi
or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or the old country.Sora or
Chozha in Tamil becomes Chola in Sanskrit and Chola or Choda in Telugu.
On the history of the early Cholas there is very little authentic written evidence available.
Historians during the past 150 years have gleaned a lot of knowledge on the subject from a
variety of sources such as ancient Tamil Sangam literature, oral traditions, religious texts,
temple and copperplate inscriptions. The main source for the available information of the
early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period.There are also brief notices on
the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei). Periplus is a work by an anonymous Alexandrian
merchant, written in the time of Domitian (8196) and contains very little information of the
Chola country. Writing half a century later, the geographer Ptolemy gives more detail about
the Chola country, its port and its inland cities. Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text written down
during the 5th century CE, recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants of Ceylon
and Cholas in the 1st century BCE.Cholas are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed

17

273 BCE232 BCE) inscriptions, where they are mentioned among the kingdoms which,
though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.

Government and society

Chola territory
According to Tamil tradition, the old Chola country comprised the region that includes the
modern-day Tiruchirapalli District, Tiruvarur District, Nagapattinam District, Ariyalur
District, Perambalur district, Pudukkottai district, Pichavaram Taluk,Vridhachalam Taluk in
cuddalore District and the Thanjavur District in Tamil Nadu and Karaikal District in Karaikal.
The river Kaveri and its tributaries dominate this landscape of generally flat country that
gradually slopes towards the sea, unbroken by major hills or valleys. The river Kaveri, also
known as Ponni (golden) river, had a special place in the culture of Cholas. The annual floods
in the Kaveri marked an occasion for celebration, Adiperukku, in which the whole nation took
part. Kaveripoompattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town. Ptolemy
knew of this and the other port town of Nagappattinam as the most important centres of
Cholas. These two towns became hubs of trade and commerce and attracted many religious
faiths, including Buddhism. Roman ships found their way into these ports. Roman coins
dating from the early centuries of the common era have been found nearthe Kaveri delta.
The other major towns were Thanjavur, Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now known as
Kumbakonam.After Rajendra Chola moved his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram,
Thanjavur lost its importance. The later Chola kings moved around their capitals frequently
and made cities such as Chidambaram, Madurai and Kanchipuram their regional capitals.

Chola economy
Land revenue and trade tax were the main source of income.The Chola rulers issued their
coins in gold, silver and copper. The Chola economy was based on a three tiered system. At
the local level, agricultural settlements formed the foundation to commercial towns nagaram,
which acted as redistribution centers for externally produced items bound for consumption in
the local economy and as sources of products made by nagaram artisans for the international
trade. At the top of this economic pyramid were the elite merchant groups,"samayam", who
organized and dominated the regions international maritime trade.Agriculture was the
18

principal occupation for many people. Besides the landowners, there were others dependent
on agriculture. A fairly large class of landless laborers assisted in the operations and shared
the proceeds of agriculture. In almost all villages the distinction between persons paying the
land-tax(iraikudigal) and those who did not was clearly established. There was a class of
hired day-labourers who assisted in agricultural operations on the estates of other people and
received a daily wage. All cultivable land was held in one of the three broad classes of tenure
which can be distinguished as peasant proprietorship called vellan-vagai, service tenure and
eleemosynary tenure resulting from charitable gifts. The vellan-vagai was the ordinary
ryotwari village of modern times, having direct relations with the government and paying a
land-tax liable to revision from time to time. The vellan-vagai villages fell into two broad
classes- one directly remitting a variable annual revenue to the state and the other paying
dues of a more or less fixed character to the public institutions like temples to which they
were assigned. The prosperity of an agricultural country depends to a large extent on the
facilities provided for irrigation. Apart from sinking wells and excavating tanks, the Chola
rulers threw mighty stone dams across the Kaveri and other rivers, and cut out channels to
distribute water over large tracts of land. Rajendra Chola I dug near his capital an artificial
lake, which was filled with water from the Kolerun and the Vellar rivers. A very large number
of irrigation tanks are mentioned in the records. There existed a brisk internal trade in several
articles carried on by the organized mercantile corporations in various parts of the country.
The metal industries and the jewellers art had reached a high degree of excellence. The
manufacture of sea-salt was carried on under government supervision and control. Trade was
carried on by merchants organized in guilds. The guilds described sometimes by the terms
nanadesis were a powerful autonomous corporation of merchants which visited different
countries in the course of their trade. They had their own mercenary army for the protection
of their merchandise. There were also local organizations of merchants called nagaram in big
centers of trade like Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram.

Nature of government
In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was, for the first time ever, brought under a
single government. when a serious attempt was made to face and solve the problems of public
administration. The Cholas' system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age.
However, there was little in common between the local chiefdoms of the earlier period and
the imperial-like states of Rajaraja Chola and his successors.The king was the central
19

authority assisted by his ministers and other officers. The king visited various parts of his
kingdom and always prepared to provide relief to the people. The Chola kingdom was
divided into several provinces called Mandalams. Each province was governed by the
governors. The provinces were divided into divisions called Kottams. The divisions were
further divided into district called Nadus which were further divided into Tehsil comprising a
group of villages. Between 980 and c. 1150, the Chola Empire comprised the entire south
Indian peninsula, extending from the east coast to the west coast and bounded to the north by
an irregular line along the Tungabhadra river and the Vengi frontier. Although Vengi had a
separate political existence, it was closely connected to the Chola Empire and the Chola
dominion virtually extended up to the banks of the Godavari river.
Thanjavur and later Gangaikonda Cholapuram were the imperial capitals. However both
Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals in which occasional courts
were held. The king was the supreme leader and a benevolent authoritarian. His
administrative role consisted of issuing oral commands to responsible officers when
representations were made to him. A powerful bureaucracy assisted the king in the tasks of
administration and in executing his orders. Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative
system in the modern sense, the fairness of king's orders dependent on his morality and belief
in Dharma. The Chola kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth. The temples
acted not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity, benefiting the
community as a whole.
Local government
Every village was a self-governing unit. A number of villages constituted a larger entity
known as a Kurram, Nadu or Kottram, depending on the area. A number of Kurrams
constituted a valanadu. These structures underwent constant change and refinement
throughout the Chola period.Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor
disputes were settled at the village level.
Punishment for minor crimes were in the form of fines or a direction for the offender to
donate to some charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were
punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king
himself; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or the confiscation of
property.

20

Foreign trade
The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas
to China and Southeast Asia.Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had
developed extensive maritime and commercial activity.The Cholas, being in possession of
parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these
venture. The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire under the Sailendras, and the
Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were the main trading partners. Some credit for the emergence of
a world market must also go to the Chola Dynasty. The Chola Dynasty played a significant
role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the world. In fact, the market structure and
economic policies of the Chola Dynasty were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-regional
market trade than those enacted by the Song court. The following passage from the southern
Indian kingdom, gives their rationale for engagement in foreign trade: "Make the merchants
of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good horses attach to yourself by
providing them with villages and decent dwellings in the city, by affording them daily
audience, presents and allowing them profits. Then those articles will never go to your
enemies."
Chinese Song Dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the
Chinese court in the year 1077,[126][127][128] and that the king of the Chulien at the time,
Kulothunga I, was called Ti-hua-kialo. This embassy was a trading venture and was highly
profitable to the visitors, who returned with copper coins in exchange for articles of tributes,
including glass articles, and spices. Chinese records rarely described Tamil merchants. On the
other hand, a fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra cites the name of a merchant
guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from the four
countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola country. The
inscription is dated 1088, indicating that there was an active overseas trade during the Chola
period. Six other inscriptions have been found across South-East Asia and bear testimony to
merchant activities as well as to the naming of trade-related places and public work in that
region after members of the Tamil royal family. Probably, the motive behind Rajendra's
expedition to Srivijaya was the protection of the merchants' interests.[

Chola society

21

There is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola
reign. The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a productive and
contented life. There is only one recorded instance of civil disturbance during the entire
period of Chola reign. However, there were reports of widespread famine caused by natural
calamities. The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a high level of literacy and
education in the society. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and
engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered
important; there is circumstantial evidence to suggest that some village councils organised
schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children, although there is no evidence of
systematic educational system for the masses. Vocational education was through hereditary
training in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium of
education for the masses;Religious monasteries (matha or gatika) were centres of learning
and received government
Cultural centers of the Chola Dynasty
Chola rulers took an active interest in the development of temple centers and used the
temples to widen the sphere of their royal authority. They established educational institutions
and hospitals around the temple, enhanced the beneficial aspects of the role of the temple,
and projected the royalty as a very powerful and genial presence. The record of Virarajendra
Chola dated in his fifth year relates to the maintenance of a school in the Jananamandapa
within the temple for the study of the Vedas, Sastras, Grammar, and Rupavatara, as well as a
hostel for students. The students were provided with food, bathing oil on Saturdays, and oil
for pups. A hospital named Virasolan was provided with fifteen beds for sick people. The
items of expense set apart for their comforts are rice, a doctor, a surgeon, two maid servants
for nursing the patients, and a general servant for the hospital.
Cultural contributions
Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art, religion, and
literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that
had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of
majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in
India.The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their continued commercial
contacts with the Chinese Empire, enabled them to influence the local cultures. Many of the

22

surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast
Asia owe much to the legacy of the Cholas.
Art
The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed
significantly to the Dravidian temple design.They built a number of Siva temples along the
banks of the river Kaveri. The template for these and future temples was formulated by
Aditya I and Parantaka.
Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola
and his son Rajendra Chola I.The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had
evolved found expression in the two temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The
magnificent Siva temple of Thanjavur, completed around 1009, is a fitting memorial to the
material achievements of the time of Rajaraja. The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of
its time, it is at the apex of South Indian architecture. The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram
at Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation of Rajendra Chola, was intended to excel its
predecessor.Completed around 1030, only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in
the same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the
Chola

Empire

under

Rajendra.

The

Brihadisvara

Temple,

the

temple

of

Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were declared as World

Heritage Sites by the UNESCO and are referred to as the Great living Chola temples.[
Chola literature
The age of the Imperial Cholas (8501200) was the golden age of Tamil culture, marked by
the importance ofliterature. Chola inscriptions cite many works, the majority of which have
been lost.The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during the Kalabhras spurred the
construction of numerous temples andthese in turn generated Saiva and Vaishnava devotional
literature. Jain and Buddhist authors flourished aswell, although in fewer numbers than in
previous centuries. Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkatevar andSulamani by Tolamoli are among
notable by non-Hindu authors.The art of Tirutakkatevar ismarked by all the qualities of great
poetry. It is considered as the model for Kamban for his masterpiece Ramavataram.
Religion

23

In general, Cholas were the adherents of Hinduism. Throughout their history, they were not
swayed by the riseof Buddhism and Jainism as were the kings of the Pallava and Pandya
dynasties. Even the early Cholas followeda version of the classical Hindu faith. There is
evidence in Purananuru for Karikala Chola's faith in Saivism in the Tamil country.
Kocengannan, another early Chola, was celebrated in both Sangam literature and in the Saiva
canon as a saint. While the Cholas did build their largest and most important temple
dedicated to Lord Shiva, it can be byno means concluded thateither they were staunchSaivites
or followers ofSaivism only or that theywere not favourablydisposed to other faiths. This is
borne out by the fact that the secondChola king Aditya I himself built quite a few temples for
Siva and forLord Vishnu. In AD 890, his inscriptions speak of his contributions tothe
construction of the Ranganatha Temple at Srirangapatnam (now inMandya district of
Karnataka) in the country of Western Gangas whowere both his feudatories and had marital
relations with him. Duringthe time of Aditya I (871903 AD) the Gangas of Kannada country
had recognized his superiority which he acknowledged by marrying into that family and
making grant contributions to the construction of the Sri Ranganatha temple at modern
Srirangapatnam. Aditya I regularly gave many endowments to the Sri Ranganatha Temple at
Srirangam around AD 896 and issued an inscriptional dictat pronouncing that the great
temples of Siva and the Ranganatha temple at Srirangam 'Kuladhanam' of the Chola
emperors.

Pallava dynasty
. Pallava dynasty
Pallava Dynasty
The Pallava Dynasty is known to have flourished in and ruled parts of South India. Their
empire flourished betweenthe early fourth and the later ninth century and Kanchipuram (or
Kanchi) was their capital. This empire primarily constituted of the northern parts of present
day Tamil Nadu and the southern parts of present day Andhra Pradesh. Because of the lack of
historical evidences, the early history of the Pallavas is still in contrast. All concrete
documentation discovered on the name of early history of the Pallavas is the three copperplate grants written in Prakrit. These copper-plate grants belong to the period of
Skandavarman-I and consequently most historians believe him to be the first ruler of the
24

Pallava Dynasty. He is believed to have extended his kingdoms boundaries to the Krishna in
the north, Pennar in the south and to the Bellary in the west.
The Pallavas established their prominence in South India between 275 and 350 AD and by
the start of the seventh century; they were one of the most potent empires in the southern part
of India alongside the Pandyas and the Chalukyas. Initially, the Pallavas ruled as the
feudatories of the Satavahanas of Andhra and later proclaimed their independence after the
Satavahanas declined. They gradually expanded their empire and established Kanchipuram as
their capital in fourth century AD. Under the reign of the Pallava rulers, Mahendravarman-I
and Narasimhavarman-I, the empire grew wealthier and attained supremacy in South India.
Mahendravarman-I ruled the empire between 571 and 630 AD while the rule of
Narasimhavarman-I lasted between 630 and 668 AD. The later rulers of the Pallava Dynasty
maintained this supremacy till the end of the ninth century. Though the Pallava Empire
gained supremacy in South India, but peace was never on their cards. Throughout their
existence, the Pallava rulers remained in steady conflicts with their neighbors including the
rulers of Chalukyas .Dynasty in the north and the Tamil kingdoms of the Cholas and the
Pandyas in the south. They brought the Chalukyas of Badami to an end and were themselves
eliminated by the Chola kings in eighth century AD.

Religions in Pallava Dynasty

The Pallavas had their faith in Hinduism but their kingdom was secular in spirit. They were
not only tolerant to other faiths but also respected them. Xuanzang, a monk from China, who
visited the Pallava Empire during the reign of Narasimhavarman-I, reported the existence of
about 100 Buddhist monasteries and 80 temples in the city of Kanchipuram, the capital city
of the Pallavas. The Pallavas were strongly connected to the religion and many Pallava rulers
are known to have performed As wamedha and other Vedic sacrifices.

Pallava Architecture
Architecture is one aspect which distinguishes the Pallava Dynasty from all its
contemporaries. The Pallava Dynasty has long been speculated for their contribution to the
Dravidian architecture. The impulsive sculptures and the splendid shrines constructed by the
rulers of this dynasty are known to have laid the foundation of the Dravidian architecture.
Between the timeframe of 610 and 690 AD, the Pallava rulers mainly constructed the rockcut cave temples while their focus shifted to constructing structural temples between 690 and
25

900 AD. Inscriptions of Mahendravarman-I and his successors can still be witnessed at a
number of rock-cut cave temples build during this era.
The rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram, known as rathas in Mahabalipuram, are considered
as the greatest construction of the Pallavas. Other renowned constructions of the Pallavas
include the Shore temple, Kailasanatha temple, Tondeswaram temple, Koneswaram temple,
etc.

Kanchipuram The Pallava Capital

Kanchipuram, famously known as Kanchi, was a significant ancient city in India especially
because of its trade associations with China since as early as second century BC. It is also the
city where Manimekalai, the great Tamil epic, was set. In its entire history, Kanchipuram
remained a secular place where all religions including the Hinduism, Buddhism and the
Jainism co-existed in peace. The city is known to have expanded significantly after it became
the Pallava capital.
Kanchipuram is described as a lotus shaped city in the sangam poems and as per the Tamil
text; the city outgrew its lotus shape to attain the shape of a peacock by the twelfth century.
Varadharaja temple is known to be the head of this peacock while the vicinity around the
Ekambaranatha temple was the plumage. Kanchipuram is famously known for its
architecture. Amongst the famous constructions of Kanchipuram, the Kalisanatha temples is
known for its architectural virtues while the Vaikuntaperumal temple is acknowledged for the
sculptures illustrating the history of the Pallava

Rastrakuta dynasty
Rashtrakuta Dynasty
The Rashtrakuta Dynasty was a prominent ancient power flourished in India between the
sixth and the tenth century AD. During this timeframe, the Rashtrakuta Empire was spread
across a large part of the Indian Subcontinent. The earliest inscription of Rashtrakutas, found
till date, is a copper plate grant which determine that the territories of the empire were spread
from Manpur situated in the Malwa region of the present days state of Madhya Pradesh.
Rashtrakuta inscriptions determining the rule of other Rashtrakuta clans, at approximately the
26

same time, in Achalpur, now known as Elichpur and situated in present dayss Maharashtra,
and Kannauj in the northern India have also been found. Though, many historical evidences
have been found on the Rashtrakutas, but their origin, native home and official language still
remains a mystery. The Rashtrakuta clan which ruled from the city of Achalpur, now known
as Elichpur, was essentially a feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas. Under the reign of ruler
Dantidurga, this clan was successful in overthrowing Kirtivarman-II of the Badami
Chalukyas and proclaimed its territory as an independent state. After that, under the
leadership of Dantidurga, this Rashtrakuta Empire began to expand its boundaries with the
Gulbarga region, situated in present days Karnataka, as its base. In 753, this clan was able to
achieve prominence in the whole of South India and was famously known as the Rashtrakutas
of Manyakheta. At about the same timeframe in which the Rashtrakutas were gaining
prominence, the Pratihara Dynasty of Malwa and the Pala Dynasty of Bengal were also
gaining supremacy in the north-western and eastern regions of India respectively. According
to an Arabic writing, known as the Silsilatuttavarikh, the Rashtrakuta Empire was one
amongst the four principle empires of the world in its time.
Between the timeframe of the eighth and the tenth century AD, there existed a continuous
struggle between the rulers of the Pratihara Dynasty, the Pala Dynasty and the Rashtrakuta
Dynasty to gain prominence and exploit the rich resources in the Gagaetic plains of North
India. Also, all the three empires were successful in establishing their rule at Kannauj for a
short-lived period of time. At its peak, the Rashtrakuta Empire stretched from the doab of
river Ganga and river Yamuna in the north to the Cape Comorin in the south. The reign of this
dynasty was marked by political expansion, some famous literary contributions and
architectural achievements. The early Rashtrakuta rulers had faith in Hinduism but the later
rulers got inclined towards Jainism.
In the reign of Rashtrakutas, Jain scholars and mathematicians contributed some of the great
ancient works in two languages, Sanskrit and Kannada. Also, under their rule, the Dravidian
style of architecture reached new heights, the finest example of which would be the
Kailasnath temple of Ellora. Some other important architectural contributions of Rashtrakutas
include the Kashivishvanath temple and the Jain Narayana temple, both situated at Pattadakal
in the state of Karnataka, and the sculptures found at the Elephanta Caves, situated in
Maharastra.

Administration
27

Inscriptions and other literary records show the Rashtrakutas selected the crown prince based
on heredity. The crown did not always pass on to the eldest son. Abilities were considered
more important than age and chronology of birth, as exemplified by the crowning of Govinda
III who was the third son of king Dhruva Dharavarsha. The most important position under the
king was the Chief Minister (Mahasandhivigrahi) whose position came with five insignia
commensurate with his position namely, a flag, a conch, a fan, a white umbrella, a large drum
and five musical instruments called Panchamahashabdas. Under him was the commander
(Dandanayaka), the foreign minister (Mahakshapataladhikrita) and a prime minister
(Mahamatya or Purnamathya), all of whom were usually associated with one of the feudatory
kings and must have held a position in government equivalent to a premier. A Mahasamantha
was a feudatory or higher ranking regal officer. All cabinet ministers were well versed in
political science (Rajneeti) and possessed military training. There were cases where woman
supervised significant areas as when Revakanimaddi, daughter of Amoghavarsha I,
administered Edathore Vishaya. The kingdom was divided into Mandala or Rashtras
(provinces). A Rashtra was ruled by a Rashtrapathi who on occasion was the emperor
himself. Amoghavarsha I's empire had sixteen Rashtras. Under a Rashtra was a Vishaya
(district) overseen by a Vishayapathi. Trusted ministers sometimes ruled more than a Rashtra.
For example, Bankesha, a commander of Amoghavarsha I headed Banavasi-12000, Belvola300, Puligere-300, Kunduru-500 and Kundarge-70, the suffix designating the number of
villages in that territory. Below the Vishaya was the Nadu looked after by the Nadugowda or
Nadugavunda; sometimes there were two such officials, one assuming the position through
heredity and another appointed centrally. The lowest division was a Grama or village
administered by a Gramapathi or Prabhu Gavunda.

ECONOMIC
The Rashtrakuta economy was sustained by its natural and agricultural produce, its
manufacturing revenues and moneys gained from its conquests. Cotton was the chief crop of
the regions of southern Gujarat, Khandesh and Berar. Minnagar, Gujarat, Ujjain, Paithan and
Tagara were important centres of textile industry. Muslin cloth were manufactured in Paithan
and Warangal. The cotton yarn and cloth was exported from Bharoch. White calicos were
manufactured in Burhanpur and Berar and exported to Persia, Turkey, Poland, Arabia and
Egypt.The Konkan region, ruled by the feudatory Silharas, produced large quantities of betel
leaves,
28

coconut and rice while the lush forests of Mysore, ruled by the feudatory Gangas, produced
such woods assandal, timber, teak and ebony. Incense and perfumes were exported from the
ports of Thana and Saimur. The Deccan was rich in minerals, though its soil was not as fertile
as that of the Gangetic plains. The copper mines of Cudappah, Bellary, Chanda, Buldhana,
Narsingpur, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Dharwar were an important source of income and
played an important role in the economy. Diamonds were mined in Cudappah, Bellary,
Kurnool and Golconda; the capital Manyakheta and Devagiri were important diamond and
jewellery trading centres. The leather industry and tanning flourished in Gujarat and some
regions of northern Maharashtra. Mysore with its vast elephant herds was important for the
ivory industry. The government's income came from five principal sources: regular taxes,
occasional taxes, fines, income taxes, miscellaneous taxes and tributes from feudatories. An
emergency tax was imposed occasionally and were applicable when the kingdom was under
duress, such as when it faced natural calamities, or was preparing for war or overcoming
war's ravages. Income tax included taxes on crown land, wasteland, specific types of trees
considered valuable to the economy, mines, salt, treasures unearthed by prospectors.
Additionally, customary presents were give to the king or royal officers on such festive
occasions as marriage or the birth of a son.[

Culture
Religion
the Rashtrakuta rule was tolerant to multiple popular religions, Jainism, Vaishnavaism and
Shaivism. Buddhism too found support and was popular in places such as Dambal and
Balligavi, although it had declined significantly by this time. The decline of Buddhism in
South India began in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara's Advaita philosophy.
Islamic contact with South India began as early as the 7th century, a result of trade between
the Southern kingdoms and Arab lands. Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta by the
10th century and many Muslims lived and mosques flourished on the coasts, specifically in
towns such as Kayalpattanam and Nagore. Muslim settlers married local women; their
children were known as Mappilas (Moplahs) and were actively involved in horse trading and
manning shipping fleets

Society

29

Chronicles mention more castes than the four commonly known castes inthe Hindu social
system, some asmany as

seven castes. One traveller's account mentions sixteen castes

including the four basic castes of Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishya andSudras. The Zakaya or
Lahud caste consisted of communities specialising in dance andacrobatics.People in the
professions of sailing, hunting, weaving, cobblery, basket making and fishing belonged
to specific castes or subcastes. The Antyajas caste provided many menial services to the
wealthy. Brahmins enjoyed the highest status in Rashtrakuta society; only those Kshatriyas in
the Sat- Kshatriya sub-caste (noble Kshatriyas) were higher in status.
The Jains enjoyed a very high status during this period. The careers of Brahmins usually
related to education, the judiciary, astrology, mathematics, poetry and philosophy or the
occupation of hereditary administrative posts. Also Brahmins increasingly practiced nonBrahminical professions (agriculture, trade in betel nuts and martial posts).Capital
punishment, although widespread, was not given to the royal Kshatriya sub-castes or to
Brahmins found guilty of heinous crimes (as the killing of a Brahmin in medieval Hindu
India was itself considered a heinous crime). As an alternate punishment to enforce the law a
Brahmin's right hand and left foot was severed, leaving that person disabled. By the 9th
century, kings from all the four castes had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical
system in Hindu India. Admitting Kshatriyas to Vedic schools along with Brahmins was
customary, but the children of the Vaishya and Shudra castes were not allowed.
Landownership by people of all castes is recorded in inscriptions Intercaste marriages in the
higher castes were only between highly placed Kshatriya girls and Brahmin boys,but was
relatively frequent among other castes. Intercaste functions were rare and dining together
between people of various castes was avoided.

Literature
Kannada became more prominent as a literary language during the Rashtrakuta rule with its
script and literature showing remarkable growth, dignity and productivity. This period
effectively marked the end of the classical Prakrit and Sanskrit era. Court poets and royalty
created eminent works in Kannada and Sanskrit that spanned such literary forms as prose,
poetry, rhetoric, Hindu epics and life history of Jain tirthankaras. Bilingual writers such as
Asaga gained fame, and famous scholars such as the Mahaviracharya wrote on pure
mathematics in the court of King Amoghavarsha I.

30

Kavirajamarga (850) by King Amoghavarsha I is the earliest available book on rhetoric and
poetics in Kannada, though it is evident from this book that other styles of Kannada literature
and poetry had already existed in previous centuries. Kavirajamarga is a guide to poets
(Kavishiksha) that aims to standardize these various styles. The book refers to early Kannada
prose and poetry writers such as Durvinita, perhaps the 6th-century monarch of Western
Ganga Dynasty.The Jain writer Adikavi Pampa, widely regarded as one of the greatest
Kannada writers, became famous for Adipurana (941). Written in champu (mixed prose-verse
style) style, it is the life history of the first Jain tirthankara Rishabhadeva. Pampa's other
notable work was Vikramarjuna Vijaya (941), the author's version of the Hindu epic,
Mahabharata, with Arjuna as the hero. Also called Pampa Bharata, it praises the writer's
patron, King Chalukya Arikeseri of Vemulavada (a Rashtrakuta feudatory), comparing the
king's virtues favorably to those of Arjuna. Pampa demonstrates such a command of classical
Kannada that scholars over the centuries have written many interpretations of his work

Architecture
The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the architectural heritage of the Deccan. Art historian
Adam Hardy categorizes their building activity into three schools: Ellora, around Badami,
Aihole and Pattadakal, and at Sirval near Gulbarga.The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and
architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta, areas
also occupied by Jain monks, located in present day Maharashtra. The Ellora site was
originally part of a complex of 34 Buddhist caves probably created in the first half of the 6th
century whose structural details show Pandyan influence. Cave temples occupied by Hindus
are from later periods.The Rashtrakutas renovated these Buddhist caves and re-dedicated the
rock-cut shrines. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are five Jain cave temples at
Ellora ascribed to his period. The most extensive and sumptuous of the Rashtrakuta works at
Ellora is their creation of the monolithic Kailasanath Temple, a splendid achievement
confirming the "Balhara" status as "one among the four principal Kings of the world". The
walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu mythology including Ravana,
Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings. The Kailasanath Temple project was
commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from
the Deccan. The architectural style used is Karnata Dravida according to Adam Hardy. It
does not contain any of the Shikharas common to the Nagara style and was built on the same
lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka. According to art historian Vincent
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Smith, the achievement at the Kailasanath temple is considered an architectural

consummation of the monolithic rock-cut temple and deserves be considered one of the
wonders of the world.According to art historian Percy Brown, as an accomplishment of art,
the Kailasanath temple is considered an unrivalled work of rock architecture, a monument
that has always excited and astonished travellers. While some scholars have claimed the
architecture at Elephanta is attributable to the Kalachuri, others claim that it was built during
the Rashtrakuta period.Some of the sculptures such as Nataraja and Sadashiva excel in
beauty and craftmanship even that of the Ellora sculptures. Famous sculptures at Elephanta
include Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurthy. The latter, a three faced bust of Lord Shiva, is
25 feet (8 m) tall and considered one of the finest pieces of sculpture in India. It is said that,
in the world of sculpture, few works of art depicting a divinity are as balanced. Other famous
rock-cut temples in the Maharashtra region are the Dhumer Lena and Dashvatara cave
temples in Ellora (famous or its sculptures of Vishnu and

site Shivaleela) and the

Jogeshvari temple near Mumbai.

In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain
Narayana temple at Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage site.

BIBLOGRAPHY
BIBLOGRAPHY
1-Ayyar, P. V. Jagadisa (1993) [1993]. South Indian Shrines. Asian Educational Services
2- Chopra, P.N.; Ravindran, T.K.; Subrahmanian, N (2003) [2003]. History of South India
(Ancient, Medieval and Modern) Part 1.
3- Thapar, Romila (2003) [2003]. The Penguin History of Early India.

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