1.

Humans have characteristics that can be used to classify them with other organisms

Outline the general classification hierarchy from phylum to species

The process of organising objects into groups using one or more criteria is known as classification.
In hierarchical classification, organisms are classified into very broad groups and are then further
classified into more and more specific sub groups. The general classification hierarchy involves
the following level, including the group humans belong to at each level (the lower levels include
organisms that are more closely related than in the higher levels):
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Phylum
Genus
Species

Humans
Animalia
Chordata
Mammalia
Primate
Hominidae
Homo
Homo sapiens

Note that the species of an organism involves two words, the first being its genus and starting with
an upper case and the second being a specific name and starting with a lower case.

Define the term species and outline criteria used to identify species

Species is the lowest level of the general classification system and members of it are the most
closely related. There are a number of definitions of the term species. In general, it can be thought
of as a group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. This does sometimes
pose problems, especially when organisms from two species are crossbred to produce fertile
offspring. Species can be also be identified as possessing a common gene pool. Organisms
belonging to the same species are very similar in anatomy and physiology.

Outline features that classify humans as:

- mammal
Humans are termed mammals, belonging to the class Mammalia. Features that classify organisms,
including humans, as mammals include:
- fur or hair over part or all of the external body surface
- milk producing mammary glands
- three bones in the middle ear
- diaphragm separating chest cavity from abdomen
- moveable lower jaw consisting of one bone
- differentiated teeth into incisors, molars, canines and premolars
- primate
Humans belong to the order Primates. Features that classify organisms, including humans, as
primates include:
- hands with five long digits able to grasp objects and some have grasping capable feet
- opposable thumb and/or big toe
- flat nails on digits leaving tips free to gain information in environment through touch sense
- skulls show emphasis on vision rather than smell, reduced snout, forward facing eye
sockets

stereoscopic (3D) vision, cones and rods in eyes allow for colour vision
relatively large brain to body size ratio
longer gestation period, single live young
social mammals typically living in groups

- hominid
Humans are termed hominids, belonging to the family Hominidae. Features that classify
organisms, including humans, as hominids include:
- bipedal locomotion (evidence includes position foramen magnum at base of brain more
towards centre)
- no tail
- large body size
- hominin
Humans belong to a tribe Hominin. Features that classify humans as hominins include:
- large brain to body size ratio
- upright bipedal gait
- shorter arms than legs
- parabolic dental arch or jaw

Discuss the use of the terms hominin and hominid in terms of the arbitrary nature of
classification systems

The arbitrary nature of classification systems makes it possible to change the classification of a
species due to changes in the way of understanding humans and their relationships with other
apes. It was once thought that apes should be divided into 3 families, with humans placed in their
own separate family (Hominidae) because it was thought they were so different. With improved
techniques and greater understanding of evolution, it is now thought apes are divided into two
families, with humans and greater apes in the Hominidae family. Humans are further divided from
other great apes in a tribe called Hominini.
Describe primate characteristics, including:
- hand/foot structure and function, including opposable thumb or toe
All primates can use their hands and some can use their feet to grasp objects. They are capable of
two types of grips, the precision grip (for fine manipulation) and the power grip (to grasp objects).
They have five long digits on each hand (pentadactyl limbs) and opposable thumbs, and some
have opposable big toes. They have nails instead or claws, that cover the sensitive tactile pads and
enhance sense of touch through sensory nerves. Some new world monkeys and prosimians still
have claws.
- skull shape and function
Skull shape shows greater emphasis on vision rather than smell. They have a flatter face due to
their reduced snout. They have larger sized skulls to accommodate the larger brains. Forward
facing eyes are accommodated and allow for stereoscopic vision. They have four different types of
differentiated teeth and the size and shape of these are determined by their diet.

- brain size relative to body size

Compared to other mammals, primates have larger brain sizes relative to their body size, with
humans having the largest brain size relative to body size.
- arrangement of the vertebral column to the degree of upright stance
Primates show a tendency towards upright stance, reflected by the S shaped spine and the position
of the foramen magnum (where spinal chord leaves brain), centred under the skull.
- vision, including degree of stereoscopic vision, colour vision
Primates are one of only few mammals to have colour vision. The presence of both rods and cones
in the eyes allow for this colour vision. Forward facing eyes also allow for stereoscopic, or
binocular vision, allowing both eyes to focus on a target object.
- reproductive features, including single live young and relatively long gestation
Primates generally have longer and lengthy gestation periods compared to other animals and
usually give birth to single live young. They feed offspring from two nipples.
- parenting and group bonding
Parental care of offspring varies from about 90 days to over 14 years. Juvenile period is long with
an extended learning period. This allows for complex social development and group bonding.
Primates are social animals, often travelling in groups that provide protection for mothers and their
young from predators and increases chances of obtaining food.

Describe primate characteristics in:

Primates are classified into two main suborders, Prosimians and Anthropoidea.
- prosimians
Prosimians are more primitive primates and include lemurs, lorises and tarsiers. They rely on
smell more than vision, possessing a rhinarium a moist fleshy pad at the end of their nose. They
have widely spaced eyes, reducing stereoscopic vision and have shorter gestation and maturation
periods, longer snouts and longer life spans. They are good climbers and do not posses colour
vision.
- new and old world monkeys
New world monkeys belong to the Platyrrhine group in the suborder of Anthropoidea and include
spider monkeys, capuchins and tamarins. Many have long prehensile tails (able to grasp objects),
flat nose, widely spaced nostrils, no callosities and live mainly in trees. Old world monkeys
belong to the Catarrhine group in the suborder Anthropoidea and include baboons, macaques and
mandrills. They do not have prehensile tails, have ischial callosities (hardened areas on either side
of tail to support weight when sitting), live in trees and on the ground, many have check pouches
to store food and have close nostrils with a downward facing nose.

- apes
Apes belong to the superfamily Hominoidea and include gibbons, siamangs, orang-utans, gorillas
and chimpanzees. Apes have no tails and are usually smaller than monkeys. They have a reduced
muzzle, U shaped jaw, longer forelimbs than hind limbs and have larger relative brain size.
- humans
Humans also belong to the superfamily Hominoidea and have a bipedal gait with an upright
stance. They have flat feet with non-opposable big toes. They have locking knee joints and broad
pelvises. They have a large brain and a parabolic jaw.
PRACTICALS
Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to
illustrate the classification process by identifying features of humans that classifies them
as:
- Animal
They have eucaryotic cells that do not posses a cell wall; nucleus surrounded by a membrane and
contains Golgi apparatus and mitochondria. They are heterotrophic, meaning they obtain the
substances they need through the external environment.
- Chordate
Humans have a dorsal hollow nerve cord, a notochord (flexible rod) and pharyngeal slits that are
present in an embryonic stage.
- Mammal
Humans have hair on their external body surface, have milk producing mammary glands and have
a four-chambered heart.
- Primate
Humans have an opposable thumb, nails instead of claws to protect sensitive pads and increase
sense of touch and have stereoscopic or binocular vision.
- Hominid
Humans have no tails and have forward-facing eyes and a flatter face.
- Homo
The foremen magnum of humans is centred towards the centre under the skull, allowing for
upright stance, they have an S shaped spine and posses bipedal locomotion
- Homo Sapiens
Humans have a chin and have a relatively large brain size (> 850 cubic centimetres)

Process information to summarise and analyse the similarities and differences between
prosimians, monkeys, apes and humans

Primate

Prosimians

Eyes
Tail

Side facing
Present

Covering
Locomotion
Claws/Nails

Fur
Quadrupedal
Claws

New world
monkey
Forward facing
Present prehensile
Fur
Quadrupedal
Nails

Old world
monkey
Forward facing
Present

Ape

Fur
Quadrupedal
Nails

Fur
Quadrupedal
Nails

Human

Forward facing Forward facing

Absent
Absent
Hair
Bipedal
Nails

Analyse information and use available evidence to identify technological advances and
resulting new information that have changed scientists opinions about the classification
of primates

Classification has previously been based on structural and morphological features of organisms.
With more advanced technology there has been a shift in emphasis to evidence from biochemical
and genetic research. Some of this research supports the structural evidence but in some cases
dispute has arisen because the new evidence suggests different classification. Recent
developments in protein analysis have shown that the Asian apes (gibbons, siamangs and orangutans) are not as closely related to the other great apes from Africa (chimpanzees, bonobos and
gorillas) as previously though. Further research has separated gibbons into their own family, the
Hylobatidae. African apes are now considered to be more closely related to humans that they are
to the Asian apes. The Asian apes are now classified as members of the family Pongidae and the
African apes now belong in the family Hominidae with humans. Research using DNA-DNA
hybridisation has shown that chimpanzees are closer to humans than they are to gorillas;
previously though that gorillas and chimpanzees were more closely related. Some scientists
believe that chimpanzees should be included in the genus Homo with humans. Other recent
technological advances such as karyotype analysis, comparison of haemoglobins, DNA
sequencing and mitochondrial DNA research have also lead to changes in classification.

2. Fossil and other biological evidence assists in the clarification of the relationships between
humans and other primates

Outline the conditions under which fossils may form

Fossils are preserved remains or indentations of once living organisms. There are a number of way
fossils may form. If a material that prevents decay such as sand, clay, volcanic ash, ice, sap or tar
quickly covers a dead organism, it may fossilise. This may preserve whole organisms or things
such as bones. An impression of the outside of the body (external mould) may form if an organism
is captured in sediment and decays, leaving an empty mould. An impression on the inside of a
shell by mud or sand is called an internal mould. Casts can occur when moulds fill with dissolved
minerals that form replicas. Petrification may occur when minerals enter the tissues of dead
organisms and replace them to turn the organism to stone.

Relate the age of the Earth to the way in which geological time is described

Study the rate of rock formation and evidence from fossils found in various layers. The Earth cant
be older than its oldest rock, and this indicates that it is about 4.5 billion years old. Geological
time is measured in eras. The present time is called zero and eras are measured in million years
before present (mybp). There are five eras: Archaean (4500 2500 mybp), Proterozoic (2500
1000 mybp), Palaeozoic (550 250 mybp), Mesozoic (250 65 mybp) and Cainozoic (65 0
mybp). We can see how the history of the Earth is organised on a geological time scale and the age
of fossils can be determined from here.

Distinguish between and describe some relative and absolute techniques used for dating
fossils

Relative dating techniques sequences fossils relative to other ones, but does not give their age as a
number. A numbers of techniques can be used, including palaeomagnetism and fluorine analysis.
Palaeomagnetism uses the shifting of the Earths magnetic field every few million years. When
lava forms into rocks, the atoms take on the direction of the Earths magnetic field. Because
directions reverse, different layers of rocks contain atoms facing in different directions and allow
for comparison. Fluorine analysis uses bones, teeth etc. Over time, nitrogen in them decreases and
fluorine increases. By comparing the amount of fluorine, fossil ages can be compared. Absolute
dating gives a measure of fossil age in years with a margin of error. Some techniques include
dendrochronology, radiocarbon dating and thermoluminescence. Dendrochronology involves
using the rings found in deciduous trees that grow in definite periods to give an indication of their
age as well as the climate during the growth period through the patterns formed. Radiocarbon
dating uses the half-life decay of radioisotopes of carbon found in rocks or fossils. The half-life is
the time taken for half the isotope to decay. The amount present when an organism dies is fixed
and by measuring the amount still present gives a numerical value for the age of it. This is an
example of radiometric dating. Thermoluminescence involves measuring the amount of light
emitted by an object. When certain minerals are heated strongly their thermoluminescence is set to
zero and when buried for some time, natural radiation builds up its thermoluminescence and if
reheated, it will emit light. This amount can be measure to determine its age.

Describe relative dating techniques using fossil sequence in strata

The Law of Superposition states that fossils found in a layer of rocks are younger than those found
in layers below it and older than fossils found in lowers above it. Widespread and short-lived
fossils such as trilobites are called index fossils. They can be used as a comparison to relatively
date other fossils above or below the rock strata that the index fossil is found in. Biostratigraphy
uses known fossils to date fossils found in the same layer.

Discuss the difficulty of interpreting the past from the fossil record alone, including:

- Conflicting dates based on different technologies

Traditional fossil evidence such as through palaeontology has recently been challenged by
molecular biologists studying the changing rates of genes. One important sector is the date that
humans split from great apes. Palaeontologists claim the evolutionary split occurred about 25
million years ago while molecular biologists, celebrating the similarities of genes, suggest the split
was more recent, about a few million years.
- the paucity of the fossil record
The probability of an organism fossilising is extremely small and all fossils have not been found
and may not ever be found. Hence, there are large gaps in the fossil records, making it incomplete.
Also, some organisms are more likely to fossilise than others. Some fossils may also be destroyed.
This incomplete record means that scientists need to use their own knowledge and instinct to
complete the gaps, meaning different interpretations may result.
- different interpretations of the same evidence
Sometimes the past is difficult to interpret as different scientists will interpret the same piece of
evidence into different theories. Scientists will interpret evidence in light of their own theories,
beliefs and pre-conceived ideas. One such evidence is that of Homo neanderthalensis.
Interpretations vary to how they died out. Some interpretations say superior humans killed them,
others say they interbred with humans and are a part of us and others say they were less adapt to
the environment and died out due to natural selection. Another debate is how humans spread
around the world with the Out of Africa Theory and the Theory of Regional Continuity.

Compare living primates to hypothesise about relationships between groups of primates

using evidence from:

- karyotype analysis
Karyotype analysis examines the shape, size and number of chromosomes of an organism.
Chromosomes can be stained to form a band pattern and then lined up in a sequence. The display
of chromosomes is called the karyotype. Humans have 46 chromosomes, and their closest relatives
are greater apes with 48. Chimpanzees and human blood are so similar that often the only way to
tell the difference is by determining the number of chromosomes present. Bandings on
chromosomes relate to the nucleotide sequencing of DNA. Studying these banding show
similarities and differences between humans and greater apes. The chromosomes of chimpanzees
are closest to humans.
- DNA-DNA hybridisation
DNA-DNA hybridisation involves heating DNA to break base pair bonds and putting two single
strands of different species together to make the base pairs join when cooled. There will be
mismatches when joining the strands again and the fewer the mismatches and the higher
temperature needed to separate the hybrid DNA, the more closely related to two species involved
are. Due to the closeness of chimpanzees and humans shown by DNA-DNA hybridisation, it is
thought by some that they should join humans in the genus Homo.

- comparison of haemoglobins
Proteins from different species can be compared in terms of their amino acid sequence. Another
protein present in all vertebrates is haemoglobin. Species that are more closely related have fewer
differences in the amino acid sequences of their corresponding proteins. If two species are closely
related, there has been less time since they shared a common ancestor for changes to accumulate.
- DNA sequencing
DNA sequencing is the process of finding the order of bases in a DNA molecule. It compares
codons, a three base code in DNA. Comparing these will show how close two things are related,
the less difference the more closely related. DNA sequencing has been used to compare the
genome of chimpanzees, humans, gorillas, gibbons and orang-utans to see when their evolutionary
split occurred.
- mitochondrial DNA as a molecular clock
Mitochondria are membrane bound organelles used in cellular respiration. They have their own
DNA and can make some of their own proteins. The inherited mitochondrial DNA comes from the
mother in the egg. The mutation rate of mtDNA is ten times faster than normal DNA and is useful
in working with evolutionary relationship. Using the change rate of a specific molecule such as
mtDNA allows a molecular clock to be used to estimate the time divergence of once species from
another. MtDNA is suitable for studying the last 20 million years and indicates humans,
chimpanzees and gorillas diverged 4-10 million years ago, orang-utans 12-19 million years ago
and gibbons 13-22 million years ago.
PRACTICALS
Process and analyse information from secondary sources to model karyotype analysis

Process information from secondary sources to model DNA-DNA hybridisation in order

to demonstrate its use in determining relationships between organisms
Hybridised DNA
Human
Chimpanzee
Gibbon
Rhesus monkey
Capuchin

% Match with human DNA

100
97.6
94.7
91.2
84.9

Using DNA-DNA hybridisation, the genetic similarities and hence the closeness between two
species can be measured. Two single strands from each species are made to join together to form a
hybrid DNA. The base pairs will not match in all pairs and the less mismatches, the more closely
related two species are. Humans are most closely related to chimpanzees, with a 97.6% match in
base pairs.

Identify data sources, gather, process and present information from secondary sources
about the maternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA and its importance in tracing
human evolution

During reproduction, most of the mitochondria for new organisms come from the cytoplasm of the
ovum. At fertilisation, the sperm only contributes its nucleus to the eff, while the egg has
mitochondria in the body of the cell. Mitochondria have their own DNA. This is passed on
generation to generation from mother to daughter. If a woman has no daughters, the hereditary line
ends. MtDNA has been examined from people all around the world and the greatest difference
occurs in Africa. This suggests the oldest group of people were from here because differences in
mtDNA are related to a longer time for mutation to occur. Analysis of mtDNA suggests modern
humans can be traced back to one hypothetical female known as mitochondrial eve, who lived
100,000 200,000 years ago in Africa.

3. Debate continues on the relationships between hominid species

Examine at least two alternative views of human evolutionary relationships using the
same fossil evidence, including:
- Ardipithecus ramidus (Australopithecus ramidus)
- Australopithecus afarensis
- Paranthropus robustus (Australopithecus robusturs)
- Paranthropus boisei (Australopithecus boisei)
- Australopithecus africanus
- Homo habilis
- Homo ergaster
- Homo erectus
- Homo heidelbergensis
- Homo neanderthalensis
- Homo sapiens

 Compare the above species, including comparisons of:

- body structure
- cranial capacity
- fossil ages and regional locations
- inferred culture
Species
Ardipithecus
ramidus

Body structure
Primitive dentition,
bipedalism, reduced
sexual dimorphism
1-1.5m tall, 30-37kg,
light build, long arms,
curved digits, moderate
sexual dimorphism
1.1-1.3m tall, 40-80kg,
heavy build, long arm,
marked sexual
dimorphism
1.2-1.3m tall, 40-80 kg,
heavy build, long arms,
marked sexual
dimorphism
Bipedal, small light
build, parabolic jaw and
reduced canines
Long arms, relatively
small face, developed
nose, thin jaw, smaller
molars, flatter face
Projecting brow ridge,
long limbs, tall, no chin

Cranial capacity
Quite small, not yet
known

Age/Location
4.4 mya in
Aramis, Ethiopia

400-500 cc, low flat

forehead, projecting
face, prominent brow
ridges
530 cc, crest on top
of skull, long broad
flat face, strong
facial buttressing
410-530 cc, crest on
top and back of skull,
long flattish face,
buttressing
420-500 cc

4-2.5 mya in
Eastern Africa

Homo erectus

Protruding jaw, brow

ridges, long skull, more
robust that humans

750-1250 cc

Homo
heidelbergensis

Human skeleton but

more robust, less
protruding face than
Homo erectus
Midface thrust formed,
bun at back of head,
brow, chin

1100-1400 cc

Well developed chin

1350-1500 cc

Australopithecus
afarensis
Paranthropus
robustus
Paranthropus
boisei
Australopithecus
africanus
Homo habilis

Homo ergaster

Homo
neanderthalensis
Homo sapiens

500-800 cc

850 900 cc

1200-1750 cc

2-1 mya in
Southern Africa

Inferred culture
Lifestyle similar to
that of modern
chimpanzees
Small family
groups, tools
similar to that of
chimpanzees
No culture known,
probably travelled
in groups

2.6 1.2 mya in

Eastern Africa

Tool found but may

belong to Homo
found at same site

3-2 mya in
Southern and
Eastern Africa
2-1.6 mya in
Eastern Africa

Lived in social
groups

1.7-1.4 mya in
Africa

Used pebble tools

oldowan culture,
hunter gatherers

Hand axes and

other complex
tools, used fire
1.8-0.3 mya in
Used fire, hunting,
Asia, Africa,
systematic tool
Indonesia
making, home
bases
400000-100000
Tool culture, used
years ago in
sharper edges,
Europe
home bases, huntergatherers
150000-30000
Mousterian tool
years ago in
culture, used flint,
Europe and
made flake tools
Wester Asia
and buried the dead
130000 years ago- Complicated tools,
present, found all complex social
over world
structure

Outline and examine the evidence for the pattern of human migration and evolution
based on:

- the Out of Africa model

The Out of Africa model suggests there has been more than one migration from Africa; the most
recent is a common ancestral population with modern human features. Mitochondrial DNA
supports this, dating migration of Homo sapiens 140.000-100,000 years ago and that all present
day humans descended from them. The greatest variety in mtDNA occurs in Africa. The theory
suggests Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa and replaced the local populations of Homo erectus.
The differences between human and Neanderthal DNA suggests that they did not interbreed but
rather humans replaced them. The oldest fossils of Homo sapiens came from Africa and evolved
from Homo erectus. For it to be correct, transitional fossils should only be found in Africa.
- the theory of regional continuity (multi-regional hypothesis)
The theory of regional continuity explains the migration of Homo erectus from Africa to different
regions, enabling the gradual evolution of modern populations through interbreeding and the
maintenance of one gene pool and one species. The populations interbred and formed regional
differences. The model supports the dating of migration one million years ago, so the change to
modern Homo sapiens occurred simultaneously across the world. Evidence comes from the dating
of modern Homo sapiens fossils in Israel (115000 years ago) and of Neanderthals in Tabun
(120000 years ago). This shows the time when the two occupied that land overlapped. The Homo
sapiens fossil show some features of Neanderthals. Fossils of common features of the two have
been found in Croatia and Czech Republic. This suggests that modern species have evolved in
multi-regions. The Jinniushan skeleton dated 200000 years ago suggests modern humans were in
China well before the replacement theory allowed.
PRACTICALS
Gather, process, present and analyse information to provide an overview of the
similarities and differences of any two species used in tracing human evolutionary
relationships
Body Structure
Cranial Capacity
Sagittal crest
Chin Present
Stone tools
Diet
Teeth

Homo habilis
Gracile lighter build
500-800 cc
Absent
No
Yes
Omnivore
Small molars

Paranthropus boisei
Robust and heavy build
500-545 cc
Present
No
Possibly
Herbivore
Large molars

Process secondary information and use available evidence to assess the contribution of
one of the following to our increased understanding of human evolution:
- the Leakey family
- Johanson
- Broom
- Tobias
- Goodall
- Dart
Raymond Dart was an anatomist and anthropologist. While working in South Africa, he learned of
a fossil of an endocranial cast that amazingly looked similar to a human. After completely
covering the fossil, he published the results, naming the fossil the Taung baby (as it was about
three years old) and placed it into a new genus and species, Australopithecus africanus (meaning
Southern Ape of Africa). It had human like dentition but ape like skull. It was not widely
accepeted as it was the accepted Piltdown man had human like skull and ape like dentition. It was
also accepted that human origin was in Eurasia, but this suggested Africa. After Piltdown was
shown to be a fake, it was accepted to be a link to human evolution. Dart also stated the position
of the foramen magnum of the fossil suggested upright stance, showing that bipedalism was
possible without a human sized brain. His discovery led to the discovery of other
Australopithecines and to allow theories to be put forward about human evolution.

Gather and process information from secondary sources to analyse and evaluate the
evidence for two different models of human evolution

Model 1: Hadar and Laetoli placed hominids into two species with Paranthropus robust line traced
back to an Australopithecus afarensis like ancestor. This was supported by D.Falk (1991), B.Senut
and C.Tardieu (1985), T.Olson (1985) and A.Zihlman (1985)
Model 2: Australopithecus afarensis is an ancestral form and Australopithecus africanus is the first
branch on the robust line. This was supported by Y.Rak (1983), D.Johanson and T.White (1979)
and T.White, D.Johanson and W.Kimbel (1981).

4. How humans have adapted to their environment

Outline the mechanisms that led to human diversity

Indigenous populations of the different regions of the World had variations between them and
between members of the same population. Because of variations and different environmental
conditions around different regions, evolution of populations around the world occurred and
resulted in variations and human diversity. Human diversity is a result of natural selection acting
over generations on individual phenotypes and producing differential survival and reproduction
under particular environmental conditions.

Explain the differences between polymorphism and clinal gradation using at least one
appropriate example from human phenotypes

A population is polymorphic when there are several discrete variations of a trait present. This is a
result of natural selection acting on inherited phenotypic variations. For example, individuals
could have haemoglobin type Hb A, Hb S or both in their red blood cells. Indigenous populations
lived in a large range of changing conditions. Clinal gradation is the gradual change of a trait as
we go across a geographical range. Humans in warmer conditions have long and thin extremities
for heat to be easily lost while those in colder conditions have short and thicker extremities for
heat to be conseved.
PRACTICALS
Gather and process information from secondary sources to describe two examples of
polymorphism in humans and analyse the evolutionary significance of the phenotypes
displayed
Skin Colour
Pigments, mainly melanin, determine skin colour. Melanin is present in all skin colours except for
albinos. Exposure to sunlight increases the amount of melanin in the skin and marks skin darker.
Humans from topical countries have greater exposure to sun and hence generally produce more
melanin and appear darker than people in other areas. In areas of greater exposure to solar
radiation, darker skin is advantageous as it reduces the chance of getting skin cancer and dying. In
areas of less exposure to solar radiation, lighter skin colour is advantageous as dark skin prevents
production of vitamin D from UV radiation. The presence of vitamin D prevents the development
of rickets.
Body Stature
Heat loss relates to surface area to body ratio. Animals that live in cold climates generally have
smaller extremities such as ears and nose. This is an adaptation to reduce heat loss. Inuit Eskimos
in the Arctic Circle have short, stocky bodies. They have a low surface area to body ratio Animals
that live in hotter areas have taller and thinner bodies, with longer extremities, allowing for greater
heat loss. Negroes living in hot desert areas have tall, thin bodies. They have a large surface area
to volume ratio.

5. Cultural development has been a significant feature of human evolution

Describe the cultural changes that occurred as humans developed into efficient hunters
in organised cooperative groups

Cultural changes can occur in populations due to transmission of learned or imitation behaviours.
These changes are a result of cultural evolution and can occur very quickly. Over about 100,000
years, humans have culturally evolved from using stone aces to building rockets, computers etc.
Tool making is a part of human culture that has allowed humans to become efficient hunters in
organised cooperative groups. Speech allows for information to be passed down. Humans are
generally weak compared to other organisms and through culture have been able to develop
efficient hunting techniques and change their environment to suit their needs. Offspring have a
prolonged learning period in which they learn these methods.

Discuss possible impacts of this cultural development

Advances in technology have resulted in an increase in the human population. Changing culture
has resulted in the destruction and extinctions of some species, reducing biodiversity. There have
also been destructions of habitats and the changing of the environment. Housing has become more
advanced and sophisticated. Pollution of the environment has increased with factories, cars etc.
The juvenile period has increased in length for learning. The young, elderly and sick are cared for
more than other animals.
PRACTICALS
Process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare humans with other
primates in terms of:
- care of young
- length of juvenile stage
- development of, and size of, social groups
- the development and use of tools
- communication systems and assess the evolutionary significance of the similarities and
differences identified
Care of young

Length of
juvenile stage
Social groups

Gibbon
212 days
gestation,
close bond

Orang-utan
233 days
gestation,
close bond

5-8 years

F: 10 years
M: 11 years
Mother and
offspring,
males alone
Leaves to
keep rain off
head
Vocal signals,
male territory
call

Tool use

Small groups,
2 adults and
offspring
None

Communication

Vocal signals

Gorilla
268 days
gestation,
very close
bond
F: 10 years
M: 11 years
One male,
many females
and offspring
Rarely

Chimpanzee
213 days
gestation, very
close bond

Symbols, can
learn sign
language

Symbols,
show
affection,
aggression

7-12 years

Human
280 days
gestation,
very close
bond
12 years

Large groups
Family
of both gender groups, no set
number
Tools to
Complex
extract food
tools
Reading,
writing,
emotions

Care of young: Primate babies are unable to look after themselves at birth and they need a long
time to develop to maturity. A close bond forms between mother and offspring. Most primate
births are single births although prosimians have multiple offspring. Primates invest a lot of time
and energy in ensuring that the offspring reach maturity.
Length of juvenile stage: The juvenile stage is longs; up to 12 years. During this time the
juveniles learn the complex social order of the group. Some other mammals reach maturity in
months rather than years.
Social groups: Primates are social animals that interact with other members of their species and
live in social groups. This helps to protect the individuals against predators and also increases the
chance of finding food. Groups could include noyau (single female with her offspring),
monogamous (one male and female who mate for life and offspring), polyandrous (one female,
several males), polygynous (dominant male, many females and offspring), multimale/multifemale
(large groups with many males and females).
Tool use: Some animals use tools to get food. Such as birds that use sticks to extract caterpillars
from trees. At one point tool making was used as a definition of a human but it is now known that
chimpanzees will select a branch and shape it so that they can extract termites from a termite hole,
making a tools for a specific purpose. However, the use of complex manufactured tools is a feature
of humans. This is possible because of the dexterity of human fingers, the enlarged brain, the
ability to communicate through spoken and written language, and an upright stance that leaves the
hands free from the task of mobility.
Communication: Primates are active communicators; they use vocalisations, facial expressions,
scents, and body postures to communicate. They groom each other to establish group unity. They
have complicated signals for dominant and submissive behaviour. Humans have developed
complex speech and writing and gorillas and chimpanzees can be taught complex signing systems.

6. Current and future trends in biological evolution and cultural development

Analyse the possible effects on human evolution of the following factors:

- increased population mobility

In earlier times, people mainly stayed in their own villages and only mixing with people from
nearby. Gene pools of geographically separated people were distinct and unmixed. It is possible
today to travel across the world in a day, meaning there are not much boundaries between different
races interbreeding, possibly leading to less differences in races in the future. Also as a result, new
alleles may be introduced into the gene pool. Biological evolution will exert a lesser influence on
human evolutions. Humans will be able to modify any environment they are in through their
cultural development.
- modern medicine
Modern medicine will have a great impact on human evolution. One area would be the prevention
of once serious diseases. Things such as vaccinations, antibiotics, contraceptives and IVF have
allowed for increased life span and slowed death rate. Babies can be screened so that harmful
genes are not passed on. Things such as antibiotics slowly become less effective in killing
bacteria. Contraceptives into third world countries allows for slower population growth. Modern
medicine will mean people living in less developed countries will be less subject to natural
selection than in the past. It will allow phenotypes to be altered so that negative impacts are
removed. People who cannot naturally have children are able to have children through assisted
reproductive technologies.
- genetic engineering
Genetic engineering directly changes the genetic makeup of individuals. Things such as selective
breeding and cloning may be used in the future to remove unwanted genes and copy favourable
ones. It could also be used to control or prevent disease. It can also be used to gain greater access
to food supplies and reduce deaths attributed to hunger and poor nutrition. Genetic enhancement
allows the improvement of a normal condition.
PRACTICALS
Gather, process, present and analyse information from secondary sources to account for
changes in human population numbers in the last 10 000 years and to discuss the
potential impact of named examples of modern technologies on future human
populations
Over the last 10000 years human population numbers have changed from 5 million to 6 billion.
The greatest rate of increase has been over the last 200 years largely due to the technological
revolution and because of better food, medicine, sanitation and education. This has resulted in the
average life expectancy rising. Living in permanent houses, moving to large towns and being able
to produce food has helped. Technologies developed now have a potential impact on future
generations. These include:
- cloning: this can be used for organ transplants, stem cell research and reintroducing extinct
organisms. Food can be made to grow disease-free, increasing the yield and quality, further
increasing the life expectancy
- contraceptives: introducing contraceptives, especially in poorer countries, means that the birth
rate slows and pressure to feed the enormous numbers can be reduced

- recombinant DNA: joining DNA from different organisms can produced better crop for less
money and reduce environmental effects such as herbicides and pesticides. This increases food
supply and decreases susceptibility to disease.

Process information from secondary sources to outline the purpose of the Human
Genome Project and briefly discuss its implications

The Human Genome Project is an enormous international project that aims to map the genetic
code of humans. The project was started in 1990 and the first draft results were released in 2000. It
has a number of implications. It give the potential ability to cure genetic disease, making it
possible to look at the genetic code of a person and decide if they will get a genetic disease. This
could cause lifestyle changes to prevent the onset of diseases. It could lead to the matching of
tissues for organ donations and production of medicines by animal cloning. It also raises ethical
issues as private companies seek to patent as many gene markers as they can for profit. Testing for
the gene causing breast cancer is available but a large part of the cost goes to the company with
the patent. If the results are not kept public then only the rich will be able to afford treatments.