9.

3 The Search for Better Health

Contextual Outline
When physiological processes malfunction, the body tries to repair the damage. The process is similar in all
living things and it is only when the process fails to contain the damage that disease can be recognised.
Humans have long recognised the symptoms of disease both in themselves and the animals and plants around
them. Since the beginnings of recorded history, they have noted the signs that reveal that the body is
malfunction. Increasing understanding of the causes of disease together with accompanying advances in
technology have changed approaches to treatment and management of disease.
The search for measures to treat and manage disease of humans and other organisms continues and this
search is paralleled by continued refinements in technology.
This module increases students understanding of the history, nature and practise of biology, the applications
and uses of biology, and the implications of biology for society and the enviroment.

9.4 The Search for Better Health:

1. What is a healthy organism?
Discuss the difficulties in defining the terms health and disease:

Health: a state of complete physical, mental and social health, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

Disease: a state of impaired functioning of an organism, including impaired physical, social and mental functioning.

Health is difficult to define as it has many components, such as physical, mental, and social, some of which are very
subjective. What is healthy for one, may not be regarded as healthy for another. Different individuals have different ideas
about what is considered approapriate.
For example a person who is physically fit and has no sickness can be considered healthy, however he may have mental

problems such as depression. On the otherhand a person who has a disability such as chronic disease, may describe
themselves as healthy, as they have learnt to adapt and appreciate their disability.

Disease is also difficult to define, as it also has many components. Because it is describing a state of impaired functioning, it
depends on an organisms normal level of functioning, and what they expect their quality of life to be. Also it can used in
the wrong context, and the defintion is taken too literally.
For example the normal absent-mindness in the elderly which is a normal aging process, however in teenagers is

considered a problem as it isnt considered accepted in the norms of teenage society.

Also, in the wrong context, a broken arm or pregnancy would be classed as a disease because it adversely affects normal

body functioning.
Outline how the function of genes, mitosis, cell differentiation and specialisation
assist in the maintenance of health:

Genes:
Gene are hereditary units that control the production of polypetides make up proteins needed in the body for growth,

repair, normal cell functioning.

A malfunction in a patricular gene may result in the inability to cells to function properly, and lead to disease. Such as

cystic fibrosis is a genetic disease that is caused by the mutation of CFTR gene.
Through production of proteins (especially enzymes), genes ensure the correct cell processes occur, maintaining

metabolism and homeostasis.

Mitosis:
Mitosis is the process of cell division by which identical body cells are produced, that :

allows genetic material to be copied exactly, ensuring the genes are correct and able to maintain health in their own way

allows organisms to grow, the more cells the larger the organism.

maintain and repair body cells, maintaining health.

Cell Differentiation and Specialisation:

Cell differentiation and speacilisation: is a process in which different genes are activated in different cells, creating the

specific proteins that give a particular cell type its character, usually in un-speacilised cells (ie stem cells) which develops
into a specific type of cell in response to specific triggers from the body or the cell itself. It then develops to a certain
shape and produces only certain proteins so that it does a certain job.
this is the process which allows a single celled zygote (fertilised egg) to develop into a multicellular adult organism

which can contain hundreds of different types of cells.

These 2 processes result in cells which are specialised for specific functions in the body, such as red blood cells, etc.

Together, all the specialised body cells work together in a coordinated way to maintain the health and proper functioning
of the organism.

Use available evidence to analyse the links between gene expression and maintenance
and repair of body tissues:

Gene expression: is the use of information in a gene to produce a observable characteristics in a organism,

It DOES NOT mean phenotype, genes are not only for body characteristics, some genes are used inside the body for
hormones etc.

Each gene gene in a cell can be switched on or switched off by a number of conditions both withing the cell and outside
the cell. A gene is expressed when it is switched on and the DNA encoded within this gene is converted into polypeptides.

The bodys cells are always being replaced all the time, so the correct specialised cells must be produced to replace them.

This is done through mitosis, followed by gene expression.

Healthy cells have their cell cycle regulated by proteins that are produced by different types of genes.

Extra:

DNA repair genes ensure that the DNA is accurately copied.

2 genes that regulate the cell cycle are:

Proto-oncogenes: These produce proteins that stimulate division

Tumour suppressor genes: These produce proteins that stop division

In healthy cells, these two are balanced hence in unhealthy cells:

Mutated proto-oncogenes are called oncogenes and cause uncontrolled cell division (cancers)

Mutated tumour suppressor genes lose their ability to control cell division. The rate of cell division increases and
uncontrolled growth occurs this also leads to cancers.

2. Over 3000 years ago the Chinese and Hebrews were advocating cleanliness in food,
water and personal hygiene:
Distinguish between infectious and non-infectious disease:

A disease is an abnormal medical condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions, associated with specific
symptoms and signs.

Infectious Disease:

It is a disease caused by an organism or infective agent (known as pathogen).

The disease can be transferred from one organism to another.

Eg:

viruses (influenza), bacteria (tonsillitis), protozoans (malaria), prions (CJD), fungi (tinea).

Non-infectious Disease:

It is diseases that are not caused by pathogens.

There is no transfer of the disease from one organism to another, with the exception of inherited non-infectious diseases.
These can passed down through generations.
Eg:

Inherited (genetic) disease: downs syndrome, haemophilia

Nutritional disease: scurvy, beriberi, kwashiorkor

Environmental disease: skin cancer, asbestosis

Identify the conditions under which an organism is described as a pathogen:

Pathogens (commonly known as germs) are defined as any infective agent that causes disease.

Pathogens can be microscopic organisms (abreviated microbes) or macroscopic organisms (macrobes).

Pathogens include; prions, viruses, bacteria, protozoans, fungi and macro-parasites.

Conditions in which an organism is a pathogen:

Must be virulent, that is be able to cause an infection, thus disease.

They must be able to survive transmission from one host to another.

For example chlorea bacteria can survive on food, then can be ingested.
Must enter the host through a certain part of the body without being destroyed by the bodys natural defenses then

reproduce.

For example smallpox enters the digestive system, where its too virulent for the body defence system.

These conditions are known as Koch Postulates developed by Robert Koch (his work discussed later).

Note:

Not all pathogens are micro-organisms (microbes), some are macro-organisms (macrobes, they can be seen with the
naked eye, like tape worms).

NOT all microbes are pathogens, most are actually very beneficial, such as the ones that participate in the recycling
carbon in the air.

 Identify data sources, plan and choose equipment or resources to preform a firsthand investigation to identify microbes in food or in water:

Aim: To model and identify the role of microbes in decay.

Equipment:

1 petri dish

Moistened bread

Saftey:

The petri dish is very fragile, hence glass should be worn, and gloves worn incase of accidental damage.

Hands should be washed when touching the moistened bread as it may contain pathogens.

Method:

In one petri dish, place a piece of bread that has been moistened.

Seal the petri dish with a tape and place in a warm place.

Result:
Without the aid of magnification, individual microbes are too small to see, though many microbes will cluster together

and can be seen with the naked eye, these are known as colonies.
After about a week, furry colones of Aspergillus and shiny yeast colonies (both examples of fungi) were observed

growing on the bread.

Explain why cleanliness in food, water and personal hygiene practices assist in
control of disease:

This dotpoint relates to infectious diseases, caused by pathogens.

Micro-organisms are everywhere around us and can easily enter our bodies through any body openings. Not all are diseasecausing, some even beneficial, but in order to decrease the spread and growth of pathogenic micro-organisms, and hence
control the incidence and spread of disease, it is important that hygienic (set of rules a promoting cleansing/sanitary
practices) are followed, including:

Cleanliness in Food:
Contaminated food is a source of pathogens (such as salmonella), and can very readily spread diseases, as it provides a

quick entrance method for the pathogen.

Microbes in food only become a health risk when they are allowed to multiply and reach large numbers

Modern methods to reduce the numbers of microbes in food include:

Heating: E.g. cooking food to kill microbes (ie pasteurisation)

Cooling: Refrigeration of foods slows down the growth of microbes

Drying: Dehydrating foods, such as fruit or vegetables, and smoking meat, kills microbes, making them last longer

Cleanliness in Water:

Water will always contain microbes, as this is needed by nearly every organisms, hence reducing the numbers through
treatment controls the spread of disease.

Lack of clean water, such as in developing countries with no water purification or sewage systems, is a large factor in

spreading disease.
The major cause of disease are the pathogens that originate from faeces, and seep into water through sewage systems.

Personal Hygiene:
If a body is kept unclean, the build of microbes increases, and this increases the chances of there entrance into the body,

hence disease.
Examples:

Washing hands and covering mouth when sneezing: reduces the spread of pathogens from person to person.

Sterilization: complete removal of all traces of microbes. This is required in situations where pathogens are particularly
dangerous, eg surgical rooms.

Disinfecting: reducing microbes to a safe level, such as washing clothes or dishes with disinfectant.

Describe ways in which drinking water can be treated and use available evidence to
explain how these methods reduce the risk of infection from pathogens:

To ensure that pathogens do not pose a health risk to the community, water supplies are treated in various ways before
distribution to the community.

The treatment of water usually has 3 stages:

Primary Treatment:

Screening: out large debris using bars and screens.

Flocculation: mixing of the water with chemicals to form suspended particles that contain many microbes.

Sedimentation: of suspended microbe-full particles to the bottom of tanks.

Secondary Treatment:

Filtration: this removes nearly all the remaining microbes and other particles by passing the water through sand beds or
charcoal, removes any suspending bacteria.

Tertiary Treatment:

Chlorination: adding chlorine forms highly oxidisng hypochlorite ions, which kills of the remaining harmful microbes.

3. During the second half of the nineteenth century, the work of Pasteur and Koch and
other scientists stimulated the search for microbes as the cause of disease:
Describe the contribution of Pasteur and Koch to our understanding of infectious
diseases:

Until the mid 19th Century people thought that living things were produced by spontaneous generation: that they came into
existence directly from non-living matter, this included infectious disease causing organisms.

For example, the Ancient Greeks thought that rats came from garbage.

Louis Pasteur:
Pasteur discovered that infectious diseases are caused by micro-organisms, and he this is known as his germ theory of

disease.

Hence he dissaproved theory of spontaneous generation, and further proved diseases where caused by microbes.

Pasteurs Swan-flask experiment:

He hypothesised that microbes were in the air everywhere, and food spoils when these microbes land there and become
active.

Pasteur poured nutrient broth into 2 identical swan-necked flasks, and boiled both of them to kill off all microbes.

Then he broke one of the necks and left both flasks out in the open air.

The flask with the broth open to the air developed cloudy bacterial growths, while the flask with the swan-neck stayed
clear.

Extra:
Pasteurs work with Anthrax and Vaccination:

Pasteur demonstrated that anthrax was caused by a rod-shaped bacterium.

Anthrax is a disease caused by the bacteria (Bacillus anthracis) that affects both sheep and humans.

He developed a weakened strain of the bacterium, and using this, produced the first vaccine.

He took 50 sheep, and inoculated 25 of them with the weakened strain.

After they recovered, he injected all the sheep with the normal anthrax.

The 25 that were inoculated survived, while the other 25 died.

This was because when the weakened strain is introduced into a host, they could cause the body to be ready to
recognise the real infection. This was known as a vaccine, and further put forward the theory of principle immunity
that is used today through vaccines.
Pasteur and Fermentation:

Pasteur examined samples of fermenting wines under the microscope.

He observed yeasts, which were converting the sugars to alcohol.

He also observed bacteria, which were converting sugars to lactic acid (hence the unwanted sour taste).

The bacteria were also observed in sour milk and were the cause of food spoilage.

Pasteur showed that heating the wine or milk to 55C for a few minutes kills the microbes that spoil them. This process
is called pasteurisation.

Robert Koch:

Koch provied further proof of microbes and their cause of diseases, this was through the studies of the anthrax disease.

Kochs work with anthrax:

He obtained infected matter from a sheep suffering from anthrax

He placed it on a slide, observed it under a microscope and saw active rod-shaped cells and inactive, dormant spores.

He established that the blood of animals with the disease always contained these micro-organisms, while the blood of
healthy animals did not.

He found that if blood from an infected animal was injected into a healthy animal, it would cause disease.

He grew cultures of the rod-shaped bacteria to infect mice; they developed the disease. This proved that it was the
bacteria, and not any other blood component that caused disease.

Perform an investigation to model Pasteurs experiment to identify the role of

microbes in decay:

This is very similar to the experiment before, essentially you can use this as Pasteur experiment in the before task.

Aim: To model Pasteurs experiment to identify the role of microbes in decay.

Equipment:

Beef broth made using beef stock cubes, filtered to remove any cloudiness

2 conical flasks, each with a single-hole stopper to fit

Glass tubing bent into a S-shape fitted into one of the stoppers

Straight glass tubing fitted into the other stopper

Bunsen burner
Saftey:

The broth that is left open, should not be smelt, or ingested it contains bacteria that can be infectious.

The bunsen burner can reach tempreture of over 600 degrees, gloves should be worn and glasses.

Method:

Add a filtered beef broth to each of the flasks until they are approximately one-third full.

Fit the stoppers, one with straight tubing and the other with the S-shaped tubing to the flasks.

Heat each flask so that it boils gently for 15 minutes. Ensure that after boiling there is a small amount of water trapped in
the S bend.

Leave both flasks in a warm position out of direct sunlight for several weeks.

Every 2 or 3 days, observe the contents of each flask.

Result:
The s-shaped glass tube, after several weeks, was still relatively clear as cold beef broth, the microbes cannot enter

through the water sealed S-shaped tube.

The straight glass tube however due to microbes, had converted to a mouldy green and gave a strenous smell when

approached.
Distinguish between:

Prions

Viruses

Bacteria

Protozoans

Fungi

Macro-parasites

and name one example of a disease caused by each type of pathogen:

Recall:

Non-cellular life: is life that exists without a cell structure.

Cellular life: life that exists with cell structure.

Eukaryote: a cell with contains a nucleus, and membrane bond organelles.

Prokaryote: a cell that lacks a nucleus and lacks any membrane-encased organelles.
Pathogens can be broadly classified as the following:

Prions (ALL cause spongiform diseases):

Non-cellular, proteins agents that cause disease in mammals.

They are altered protein shape from the normal and contain no DNA or RNA.

They are coded by genes, but the normal prion protein is harmless, but mutated genes codes for a different then normal
protein, that are infectious. These form long chains that are toxic to nerve cells in the brain, which kill them.

They can also convert normal proteins to abnormal proteins.

Can be passed from one organism to another (such as when canibilism occurs in Papua New Guinea of the dead).

Eg:

Kuru (this is the canibilism disease)

Creutzfeld Jacobs disease.

Viruses:

Non-cellular, protein coat around genetic material (DNA or RNA).

Are found in eukaryotic and procaryotic cells; however viruses are neither prokaryotic nor eukaryotic.

Can only reproduce inside other cells (host cells), killing them.

There is no cure for viral diseases.

Eg:

AIDS

Smallpox

Influenza

Bacteria:

Unicellular (single celled), procaryotic cells. Cell wall surrounding cell.

No membrane bound organelles, but have a plasma membrane.

Some are pathogenic (all parasites) and cause disease; many are useful.

They are classified depending on the basis of their shape

Eg:

Tetanus

Pneumonia

Anthrax

Protozoans:

Unicellular, eucaryotic (have cell membrane that bounds nucleus and organelles), BUT no cell wall.

Free-living, or parasitic.

Eg:

Sleeping sickness

Giardiasis

Fungi:

Unicellular OR multicellular, eucaryotic; have a cell wall made of chitin (not cellulose).

Some are unicellular (eg yeast), most are multicellular (eg mushrooms), they reproduce asexually or sexually.

They play an important role in decomposition of organic molecules, together with bacteria.

Eg:

Ringworm

Athletes foot (tinea)

Candidiasis (thrush)

Macro parasites:

Multicelluar, eucaroyotic.

Large disease causing organisms that can be seen with the naked eye.

External parasites are called ectoparasites, internal are called endoparasites.

Eg:

Endoparasite disease: elephantiasis (by filarial worm)

Ectoparasite disease: ringworm, ticks, fleas, roundworms

 Identify the role of antibiotics in the management of infectious diseases:

Antibiotics: are substances that are capable of destroying or inhibiting the growth of bacteria, they target the bacteria
without destroying the host.
Note: Other diseases are treated by anti-virals (for viruses), anti-malarial (for malaria) etc. Antibiotic is only for bacteria.

Broad-spectrum antibiotics (such as sulponamides) affect a wide range of bacteria this is done when the bacteria cannot be
identified others, known as narrow-spectrum (such as penicillin) act on only one or two.

Howard Florey and Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic: penicillin.

Some antibiotics affect the structure of the bacteria; penicillin destroys cell walls and amphotericin destroys cell
membranes.

Process

information

from

secondary

sources

to

discuss

problems

relating

to

antibiotic resistance:

Extra: the way in which bacteria develop antibiotic resistance:

In a particular enviroment, the organisms that have the variation that is best suited to that enviroment survive and

reproduce. This produces a population in which most organisms are adapted to survival in that particular enviroment.
When antibiotics are administered to treat a bacterial infection, some of the bacteria present may passess a natural
resistance to that particular antibiotic, and so they survive. They then reproduce and can quickly build up a population that
is resistant to the antiobiotic. They also can pass this resistance on to other bateria, which further increases the population
of resistant bacteria.

Problems relating to antibiotic resistance:

Micro-organisms that cause diseases once easily cured, such as tuberculosis, have developed resistant strains that are not

responding to the cheaper first-line. As a result, the effects of these diseases are now more severe, and because they take
much longer to cure, the infectious period is longer, thus greater chance of passing this resistant strain of micro-organisms
to other members of community.
When second or third line antibiotics have to be used they are usually much more expensive and more toxic. The drugs

needed to treat multi-resistant tuberculosis are 100 times more expensive than those used to treat the non-resistant forms,
and in counteries where this is too expensive to use, the disease is untreatable and thus spreads.
Also there are now a number of infectious bacteria that are so resistant to almost al antibiotics. Even the

antibioticevancomycin, which is used when all other treatments have failed, is having its effectiveness greatly reduced by
VRSA (vancomycin-resistant: Streptococcus Pneumonia and Staphylococcus Aureus) commonly known as golden
saph. These so called superbugs resist near all treatment. They can only be treated using experiment drugs.

They cause meningitis and pneumonia

One strain of S. Aureus has added a new gene, enabling it to spread through skin contact and even infect healthy
people.

To overcome these problems, steps must be taken to limit the use of antibiotics as the greater the use, the greater the
risk of a mutation giving bacteria resistance.

Identify data sources, gather process and analyse information from secondary sources
to describe one named infectious disease in terms of its: 1) Cause 2) Transmission
3) Host Response 4) Major Symptoms 5) Treatment 6) Prevention 7) Control:

Infectious Disease: Malaria

Cause:

They are caused by 4 species of the protozoan, more scientifically, sporozoans (type of protozoan or single celled
animal) which are called the Plasmodium. There are essentially 4 types which cause harm to humans, the two most
common are the Plasmodium Falciparum and Plasmodium Vivax, which cause the subtertian malaria (found mostley in

central American) and Benign tertian malaria (Europe, North America) respectively. The less common Plasmodium
Malariae, are Plasmodium Ovale quartan and Ovale tertian.

Transmission:
The Anopheles mosquitoes are the hosts that transmit the disease to humans during the blood-sucking process. When an

Anopheles mosquito bites an infected person, a small amount of blood infected with microscopic malaria parasites is
taken as it sucks the gametocytes (the sexual forms of the parasite), along with blood. The parasite grows and matures in
the mosquito's gut for a week or more. The gametocytes continue the sexual phase of the cycle, which produced and the
immature form of plasmodium known as sporozoites. These then travels to the mosquito's salivary glands. When the
mosquito next takes a blood meal, these parasites mix with the saliva, are injected with the bite, when this female
mosquito bites the man for a blood meal, which it needs to nourish its eggs, it inoculates the parasites into human blood
stream, thus spreading the infection and malaria transmission is complete.
Once in the blood, the parasites travel to the liver and enter liver cells, to grow and multiply. After as few as seven days or

as long as several years, the parasites leave the liver cells and enter red blood cells, which normally carry oxygen in the
blood to tissues that need it.
Once in the red blood cells, the malaria parasites continue to grow and multiply. After they mature, the infected red blood

cells rupture, freeing the parasites to attack and enter other red blood cells. Toxins released when the red cells burst are
what cause the typical symptoms of malaria

Symptoms:
The different stages in the life cycle of the protozoan cause the different symptoms of the disease:

When the pathogen first enters the blood, it travels to the liver cells, where it hides from the immune system. There, it
multiplies rapidly by asexual reproduction through feeding on the nutrients, growing and dividing repeatedly
producing dozens of cells called merozoites.

The merozoites then travel back into the blood, where they infect red blood cells, again, multiplying asexually
producing many cells.

The merozoites burst out of the red blood cells every 48-72 hours, and as they release toxins in this process, this causes
the symptoms.

Malarial attacks present over 4 to 6 hours with shaking chills, high fever, and sweating, and are often associated with
fatigue, headache, dizziness, nausea and vomiting.

Host Response:

At each stage of the parasites life cycle, it produces a different set of antigens (they stimulate the immune response). The
host produces antibodies to fight the pathogens, but the antigens continually change, so the immune response is not
effective. The merozoites in the liver escape detection.

Prevention:

Protective clothing, insect repellent, mosquito nets.

Control:

Control often involves legal and economic factors in aim to stop the occurrence of the disease in individuals and limit the
disease in the population.

For example:

The use of drugs to destroy the malarial parasite or insecticides to destroy its vector, the mosquito.

The destruction of the breeding places of mosquito larvae.

The development of vaccines to produce immunity against the parasite.

Genetic engineering of mosquitoes to develop individuals that will resist the parasite.

Gather

and

process

information

to

trace

the

historical

development

of

our

understanding of the cause and prevention of malaria:

Causes:

4 BC: Greeks thought that the symptoms of malaria were caused by either breathing in marsh vapours or bites of insects
that live in marshes, the name malaria comes from mala (bad) , aira (air).

1880: Charles Laveran observed micro-organisms in fresh blood from malarial patients and that malaria was caused by the
plasmodium micro-organisms.

1886: Camillo Golgi observed asexual reproduction of microbe in blood of patients, and described the immature
plasmodium parasites as merozoites.

1894: Patrick Manson proposed that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes.

1897: Ronald Ross established that the protozoan Plasmodium was the cause of malaria, he showed it can be trasmitted and
thus established the cycle of transmission through experiments with mosquitos and birds.

1898: Giovanni Grassi gave the names to different types of plasmodium, such as P.vivax and P.falciparum.

Prevention:

340 CE: Chinese used qinghao plant due to its anti-fever properties.

1930: The drug atebrin was developed, used in world war II, but had too many side effects and was stopped.

1944: Synthetic quinine was developed from coal tar, it was not as effective as its natural counter-part.

1946: Chloroquine was developed, it was very sucessful, until the malaria attained resistant characteristics.

1948: All stages of the life cycle of mosquito were identified, and all mosquitos that carried the vector parasite where
identified, this allowed scientists to understand what to target.

1950: World health organisation (WHO) began implying different method to eradicate malaia. Such as draining swamps,
spraying of DDT.

1960s till present: Many drug-resistant strains of malaria have increased, new antimalarial drugs are continually devloped,
however the best methods to prevent this natural selection of the mosquito, is methods to inhibit their breeding, that is stop
the places where they breed, such as swamps.

4. Often we recognise an infection by the symptoms it causes. The immune response is

not so obvious until we recover:
Note:

Our body is able to defend against many diseases, this is through the immune system.

An immune system is a system of biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease by
identifying and killing pathogens.

The immune system can be split into 2 sections, the innate immune system, and adaptive immune system.

In each of sections, exist lines of defence:

The innate immune system involves of 2 lines of defence, that a pathogen must pass, they are first line of defence, and
second line of defence. The most notable thing is the fact that the first and second line of defence act on ALL forgein
particles, regardless if its regarded as good or bad, this is known as non-specific defence. And hence the name in-ate.

The adaptive immune system involves only 1 grade or line of defence, that is the third line of defence. The third line of
defence acts on specific particles, known as specific defence. Hence the adaptive system.

 Identify defence barriers to prevent entry of pathogens in humans:

Skin

Mucous membranes

Cilia

Chemical barriers

Other bodily secretions

It is a form of first line of defence; it is non-specific type of defence present from birth.

It uses both physical and chemical barriers to rid of pathogens. They include:

Skin (physical barrier):

Forms a tough outer barrier that surrounds the body, thus preventing penetration by microbes.

It is dry, which helps growth, as microbes need water. Also it is dead, thus when washed away carries the microbes.

Outer layers contain keratin, which microbes cannot penetrate, unless the skin is broken e.g. a cut.

If the skin is broken, a seal (clot) is quickly formed by the blood-clotting mechanism to prevent pathogen entry.

Skin has its own population of harmless bacteria. These keep the numbers of invading pathogens low by stopping them
multiplying (competition).
Oil glands (Sebaceous glands) secrete oils (sebum). The lipids in the sebum are broken down by the skins bacteria into

acids which inhibit bacterial and fungal growth.

Mucous Membranes (chemical barrier):

A mucous membrane is a membrane lining all body passages that communicate with the air, and having cells and

associated glands that secrete mucus.

The digestive, respiratory, reproductive and urinary tracts are lined with thick mucus, it is sticky and traps dust particles

and pathogens. Mucus holds the pathogen, until it is removed by fluids such as saliva, tears and nasal secretions wash
over mucus membranes and contain lysozyme, further this breaks down bacteria cell walls.

Cilia (physical barrier):

Cilia are minute hairs that project from cells lining the nose, trachea and bronchial tubes.

Cilia continuously beat and sweep mucus (containing dust and pathogens) towards the nose or throat opening where it is
coughed out or swallowed to be destroyed by the stomach.

Chemical Barriers:
These create conditions which makes the surfaces inhospitable for the potential pathogens. As remember enzymes are at

optimum at a certain pH, any higher/lower and it can denature.

Eg:

The acidic environment in the stomach, hydrochloric acid.

The alkaline environment in the small intestine, high conc. of water.

Other Bodily Secretions (physical and chemical barriers):

Urine is sterile and slightly acidic; it flushes and cleans the ureters, bladder and urethra. Preventing growth of microbes.

Tears contain lysozymes that destroy the cell walls of some bacteria. As tears are produced and the eyelid blinks, the
surface of the eye is cleaned and the pathogens are washed away.
Populations of harmless bacteria in the vagina act on dead body cells to create acidic conditions, these prevent bacterial

and fungal growth.

Identify defence adaptations, including:

Inflammation response

Phagocytosis

Lymph system

Cell death to seal off pathogen

It is the second line of the immune system is also non-specific (like the first line of defence), it is present from birth.

When pathogens are sucessful in penetrating the barriers that are in place to prevent their entry into the organism, second
line is activated to try to destroy the invaders. It also use physical and chemical barriers, including:

Inflammation Response (chemical and physical barrier):

When body tissue is damaged, whether physically or chemicals by microbes), cell are injured, and the inflammation

response begins.
The injured cells release chemical alarm signals (known as chemokines), which stimulate them to release the chemicals

histamine and prostoglandin.

These two chemicals cause the following:

Blood vessels around the damaged area dilate and increase their permeability; this increases blood flow to the area.

The increased blood flow brings heat and fluids, which make the environment inhospitable to the microbes. Also, the
increased blood flow brings phagocytes (type of white blood cell discussed later), these cells engulf foreign bodies.

This response is characterised by 4 symptoms pain, redness, heat and swelling.

Tissues begin to repair after the threat is removed.

Phagocytosis (chemical barrier):

Phagocytes are speacialised white blood cells (leucocytes) that can engulf foreign bodies, there are three kinds:

Monocytes

Macrophages (a macrophage is differentiated monocyte)

Neutrophils
Phagocytosis is the process in which phagocytes change their shape, then engulfing and destruction of foreign bodies by
the combing it with enzymes (lysozymes) produced in lysomes which kill it.

Lymph System (chemical barrier):

Lymph is intercellular (inbetween cells) tissue fluid that has white blood cells. It is essentially plasma WITH white blood

cells.

Note: they only contain another type of white blood cell known as lymphocytes.
The lymphatic system is a system of vessels that begins near the capillaries, run parallel to the veins and eventually empty

into the veins before they reach the heart. At speacial places there are vessels that collect into lymph nodes these nodes
are storage structures for lymphocytes and macrophages. As lymph passes through a node, bacteria and debris are
removed by these. Lymph system is sometimes called the bodys drainage system.
Extra (come to this, after finishing the topic):

The lymph system contains organs which produce lymphocytes (hence the name lymph):

Bone marrow: where B cells mature

Thymus gland: where T cells mature

Cell Death to Seal Off Pathogen (physical barrier):

When the body is unable to neutralize a pathogen, body cells are killed (poisened) by macrophage nitric acid discharge,

these dead body cells then surround.

The wall of dead cells form a capsule like structure, which is further surrounded by layers of macrophages, then

lymphocytes, then fibroblasts, which produce a tough outer wall it is known as a cyst (garnuloma).

These cells die so the pathogen can no longer survive.

These structures are produced in diseases such as tuberculosis and leprosy.

Extra: Other Bodily Secretions (physical and chemical barriers):

Anti-Microbial Proteins:

The body also produces speacial proteins that assist in the second line of defence. They are inteferons.

Inteferons are a group of proteins produced (and secreted) by cells when invaded by viruses.

They cause surrounding cells to form their own anti-viral chemicals, preventing the spread of the virus.
Note: they acts only on viruses, and are non-specific; thus good for short-term infections.

The Complement System:

It is a group of 20 proteins that assist other defence mechanisms. That is aid in a cascade of reactions to destroy
pathogens.

They are complement protein, meaning that the first protein causes the production of the second, and the second the
third, and so on. For example stimulating phagocytes to become more active, attracting pagocytes to the site of the
infection, or destroying membranes of the invading pathogen.

The final protein embeds itself in the pathogens cell wall (or membrane) causing it to die by lysis (cell-bursting).

Identify antigens as molecules that trigger the immune response:

The third line of defence will act on specific particles (heavily discussed later).

An antigen is a molecule that the body recognises as foreign and triggers the immune response.

Antibodies (discussed later) are proteins that the immune system produces to destroy/inactivate these antigens.

The name of antigen is derived from antibodies:

Antigen ANTIbody - GENerating substance

The body recognises antigens, hence specific particle targeted, because in the body, every un-forgein cell has a special
chemical marker molecule, that is recognised as self. When antigens enter a body, their surface shows a different
chemical marker, hence being non-self. This causes the immune response to destroy it

Note: a major confusion is usually between Pathogen and Antigen, every pathogens have antigens (usually proteins) on their
surface that incite the immune response. Hence every pathogen has an antigen, but NOT every antigen is a part of a
pathogen, it does not only have to be pathogens, any debris or small particles can cause the response, even snake venom
which isnt pathogenic).

Eg:

The glyco-protein spikes on the surface of the influenza virus act as antigens, triggering the immune response. The venom
of poisonous snakes also contains antigens.

Explain why organ transplants trigger an immune response:

When a person has an organ transplant, the new organ they are receiving from somebody else has, on the surface of its cells
marker molecules that are different to the marker molecules of their own cells.

All an individuals cells are recognised by the immune system as belonging to the body the body recognises it as self

Any other substances are recognised as non-self foreign.

A transplanted organ contains substances which the immune system recognises as being foreign. These substance acts as
ANTIGENS.

This stimulates the body to make antibodies and other substances which attack and can possibly destroy the organ. Thus
when organs are searched for that specific person, their tissue type is identified such that organs of similar type are located
to lessen the violent immune response. However most of the times immunosuppressant drugs are given, which will lessen
the immune response so the organ is not attacked.

Gather, process and present information from secondary sources to show how a named
disease results from an imbalance of microflora in humans:

Microflora (micro: small, flora: organisms) are micro-organisms that live on or in the body, and usually do not cause
disease.

They lived mainly on the skin, and in the intestines, the colon, the mouth and the vagina (in women). Most are often part of
the first line of defence, eg. the harmless bacteria that secrete acids to destroy pathogens.

The body supplies these microfloras with the nutrients and conditions they require to survive. In return, the presence of
these micro flora inhibits the growth and multiplication of many pathogens by competition, thus protecting the body from
contracting diseases.

If the conditions of the body change (for any reason), the balance of microflora is upset, thus the growth and multiplication
of the harmful pathogens may not be controlled; this leads to an increase number, and development of disease.

Candidiasis (commonly known as thrush), is a disease caused by an imbalance in the numbers of the fungus, Candida
albicans.

The disease can happen in the mouth, the respiratory tract, and the female reproductive tract.

The fungus is usually kept in check from competition from other microbes such as bacteria living in the same area.

The taking of certain medications, such as wide-spectrum antibiotics (which can kill beneficial bacteria), or contraceptive
pills, can upset the balance of microflora in the body, which can result in a increase in the numbers of the Candida fungus,
leading to thrush.

5. MacFarlane Burnets work in the middle of the twentieth century contributed to a

better understanding of the immune response and the effectiveness of immunisation
programs: (LEARN THIS)
Note:

Immunology: the science that deals with how the immune reponse works.

The body has 3 lines of defence, the first 2 of which are non-specific, the 3 rd being specific (that is they act specifically on
one type of pathogen), this is known as the adapative immune system and undergoes adaptive response.

The adaptive immune response provides the vertebrate immune system with the ability to recognize and remember specific
pathogens (to generate immunity), and to mount stronger attacks each time, hence its adaptive immunity because the
body's immune system prepares itself for future challenges.

It is characterised by specific pathogen fighting cells, which are white blood cells. They can be characterised as follows:

The primary difference between granular and agranular leukocytes is that the former has visible granules, whereas the
later does NOT have noticeable granules (ie visible structures when viewed under light microscope).

There are three types of granulocytes:

Neutrophil granulocytes

Eosinophil granulocytes

Basophil granulocytes

There are two types of agranulocytes:

Lymphocyte arganulocytes

Monocyte arganulocytes

Phagocytes (cells that can phagocytis pathogens) include: neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages.
Macrophages are produced by the differentiation of monocytes.

For the next section, lymphocytes are heavily looked at.

Lymphocytes are a type of white-blood cells that act only against specific antigens.

There are 2 types of lymphocytes, B cells and T cells, each of which have further sub-types.

Identify the components of the immune response:

Antibodies:

B Cells:

T Cells:

It is third line of defence, it acts only on specific antigens.

This immunity is NOT present at birth, it is gained through exposure to infection. It has a MEMORY.

It is ONLY carried out by lymphocytes.

It is characterised into two parts:

Anti-body mediated immunity (aka humoral immunity): immunity that is mediated by the secretion of antibodies by

lymphocytes. These antibodies are produced by B-Cell, there are literally thousands of antibodies, each specific for an
antigen.
Cell-mediated immunity (aka cellular immunity): is an immune response that does not involve antibodies but rather

involves the activation of certain cells to destroy pathogens directly. These cells are T-Cells.

Essentially, anti-body response is a chemical response (by antibodies), and cell-mediated is physical (by cells). The reason a
human has this amazing system is the fact that anti-body response, kills the pathogen causing disease, whilst cell-mediated
kills the cell containing the pathogen. This is particularly useful for things like viruses in which move around and infect
cells, or cancers in which are in cells.

B-Cells:
B-Cells are lymphocytes that matured in the bone marrow.

B - Cell Bone marrow


After they have matured they are released into the blood and lymph nodes. B-Cells usually are found inactivated but are

activated by the presence of antigens.

Once this ONE B-Cell is activated, it mass clones itself, and then differentiates into:

Plasma B-Cells: These cells create the antibodies, the antibiodies will then move to the site of the infection and
combine with the antigen to form the antigen-antibody complex which deactivates the antigen. After the infection is
gone, these cells eventually die off.

Memory B-Cells: These cells are formed in small numbers in the original infection, but do not die off. They stay
behind to recognise the antigen if it appears again, hence having memory.

Antibodies (these go hand in hand with B-Cells):

Antibodies as previously mentioned are proteins that the immune system produces to destroy/inactivate these antigens.

More specifically, they are a group of Y-shaped proteins called globulins, and are often to refered to as immunoglobulins.

There are 5 different classes of immunoglobulins (abbreviated Ig) known to be in humans, each having a specific role in
providing immunity, they are (IgG, IgM, IgE, IgA, IgD).

They are made and activated by plasma B-Cells.

All antibodies have 2 binding sites, these are specific and bind to the antigens. Forming the antigen-antibody complex
which is then engulfed by phagocytes.

T-Cells:
T-Cells are lymphocytes that mature in the thymus gland (the gland is found in the chest cavity).

T - Cell Thymus gland

After they mature, the T cells are released into the blood and lymph nodes.

Each T cell has a speacial unique surface protein receptor, which can recognise an antigen, and hence becomes activated.

After the T-Cells are activated by antigens, they differentiate into 4 types:

Helper T-Cells: These cells are for activating cytotoxic (killer) T-Cells and the B-Cells. Yes there is an interaction
between the B and T cells (discussed later).

Cytotoxic (Killer) T-Cells: These cells attach to infected cells and produce chemicals which destroy that cell (hence the
antigen infecting it).

Memory T-Cells: Remain in the body and give long term immunity.

Suppressor T-Cells: They suppress the numbers of B and T-cells after infection is defeated.

 Describe and explain the immune response in the human body in terms of:

Interaction between B and T lymphocytes:

The mechanisms which allow interaction between B and T lymphocytes:

The range of T lymphocyte types and the difference in their roles:

Immune system is characterised into two parts, the Anti-body mediated and Cell-mediated immunity.

Each type of reponse made by these parts uses a different type of lymphocyte. The humoral is controlled by B-Cells, whilst
the cell-mediated is controlled by T-cells.

However to sucessfully defened the body against infection, there must be a interaction between these 2 cells.

Extra:

Cytokines:
Cytokines are a group of SIGNALLING COMPOUNDS made of proteins or polysaccharides that are used for

communication.
This interaction between the two types of cells is regulated by a specific type of cytokine chemical called interleukin is

further responsible for many of the processes involved.

They are secreted by Helper T-Cells and macrophages.

When these cells secrete interleukins, they are signaling, or stimulating, the other cells to differentiate, in response to an
antigen such as a B-Cell changing into a Plasma B-Cell.

Range of T-Cells and difference in roles:

Helper T-Cells:

On surface exists a receptor protein that will recognise only ONE type of antigen.

When the cell is activated by the presence of a particular antigen or presented by a macrophage (both process discussed
in detail below), it releases a cytokine chemical (interleukin-2) that stimulates the B-Cells and T-Cells to differentiate
into their different forms, then these forms are SPECIFIC to this antigen (ie only stimulate the B and T-Cells with the
same antigen-binding sites).

Cytotoxic T-Cells:

Its function is to recognise and kill body cells that are infected by pathogens (they only work against infected cells, not
directly against pathogens).
These cells are stimulated to produce many copies (clones) of themselves, then attack pathogens, when activated by

either:

Helper T-cells or

Free antigens that display their surface markers

Extra:

How they work:

Killer T-cells have a T cell receptor (TCR). TCRs work with body proteins called major histocompatibility complexes
(MHCs). T cells search the surfaces of cells throughout the body for an MHC to match with its TCR.

Infected body cells display the antigen of the pathogen within them using MHC I markers on their surface. These
MHC I molecules hold the antigen and present it to the Cytotoxic T-Cells.

It then releases a chemical called preforin; this perforates (ie makes holes) in the cell membrane of the infected cell.

The body cell lyses; water rapidly enters by osmosis and it bursts.

The infected body cell is killed, together with the microbe inside it.
Memory T-Cells:

Like all the other lymphocytes these cells are produced during the time of infection, ie the time when cytotoxic T cells
are multiplying.

But they remain dormant and survive for many years after the antigen is gone. Their function is to recognise the antigen
rapidly if it reappears in a second exposure and to provide a quick and enhanced response; this is why in a second
exposure, the symptoms disappear much faster, or arent experienced at all.
Suppressor T-Cells:

These are produced only for a short while. These cells secrete chemicals to suppress the actions of B and T-Cells after
the immune response has ended.

Interactions Between B and T-Cells and the Mechanisms of Interaction:

This is the work of MacFarlane Burnett, called clonal selection theory.

The clonal selection theory has become a widely accepted model for how the immune system responds to infection and
how certain types of B and T lymphocytes are selected for destruction of specific antigens invading the body.

Before an antigen enters the body, there are already many types of lymphocytes in the body.

The entry of an antigen causes the selection of only THE ONE antigen-specific lymphocyte the one that has the binding
site which matches the antigen.

This selection means that all the lymphocytes that are produced in the response (all the T and B Cells) are all specific
ONLY to that antigen. For example, the Cytotoxic T-Cells and Plasma B-cells for influenza bacteria cannot kill the
pneumonia bacteria.

Firstly, the antigen travels in the blood until it is engulfed by a macrophage (by phagocytisis; but wont kill it, it will
fragment it into peptide pieces).

This is then transported to a lymph node where the macrophage then becomes an antigen-presenting cell that then
displays the antigen it has engulfed on its surface.

The antigen-presenting macrophage then alerts the antigen to either; a Helper T-Cell or B-Cell that has a receptor
corresponding to that particular antigen. The immune system is thus known to the presence of antigens in the body.

Note 1: The B and T-Cells can be activated either by macrophage response, or activated directly by antigens.

How they are activated by antigens:

For T-Cells infected cells display the antigens (MHC-I markers).

The B-Cells are also activated by free antigens in the blood.

The Helper T-Cells then produce the chemical INTERLEUKIN, which stimulates T and B-Cells to differentiate into their
different types. The B-cell that detected the antigen can also stimulate the differentiation.

The T-Cells differentiate into Killer (cytotoxic) T-Cells, Memory T-Cells and Suppressor T-Cells.

The B-Cells differentiate into Plasma B-Cells and Memory B-Cells

The Plasma B-Cells then destroy the antigen by secreting antibodies, and the Cytotoxic T-Cells also destroy the cell by
preforin.

When the immune response has successfully defeated the infection, suppressor T cells are responsible for suppressing the
activity of B cells, and cytotoxic T cells.

Extra:

A critical difference between B cells and T cells is how each lymphocyte recognizes its antigen. B cells recognize their
antigen in its native form. They recognize free (soluble) antigen in the blood or lymph using their membrane boundimmunoglobulin. In contrast, T cells recognize their antigen in a processed form, as a peptide fragment presented by an
antigen presenting cell's using its MHC molecule to the T cell receptor.

Outline the reasons for the suppression of the immune response in organ transplant
patients:

Similar to focus area 4 and why organs transplant trigger immune response. In the HSC youre required to combine the two.

When a patient receives a donor organ, this organ will have, on its surface, marker molecules that are different from the
marker molecules on the cells in the recipient's body. These marker molecules are recognised as foreign material, and the
immune response is initiated.

The cytotoxic T cells are activated and move to the transplanted organ to attack and destroy the cells. This causes the
rejection of the transplanted organ.

SUPPRESSION of the immune system is needed to prevent the body from rejecting and destroying the organ.

The chances of rejection is reduced by matching the transplant organ tissue (known as tissue typing, such as in identical
twins) with the tissue of the patient, and by providing immunosuppression drugs (such as cyclosporin).

The danger of this therapy is the inability of the patient to fight off any infections, since the immune system is suppressed.

Outline the way in which vaccinations prevent infection:

When an antigen is first encountered by the immune system, the time taken to fight the infection is quite long. This is
because; once the antigen has been identified, the appropriate T cells and B cells have to be activated and then it takes time
to build up clones of these cells. Time is also needed for the cytotoxic T cells to kill the infected cells and for the B cells to
produce plasma B-cells which then secrete antibodies and bind with the antigen to neutralise it.

If sufficient antibodies are made to destroy all the infecting antigens, the person recovers completely. This is known as
primary response.

If the same antigen were to re-enter the body in the future, the reponse would be a secondary one. That is the identification
of the antigen, and it being destroyed, occurs much fast due to memory B-cells and T-cells.

Vaccination (or immunisation) is the process of making people resistant to infection caused by a pathogen by giving people
an injection or oral dose of a weakened strain of microbe of a certain disease (ie vaccines).
Vaccines can be:

Live viruses

Killed or attenuated (harmless) strains pathogens

Inactivated toxins

Vaccines can give two types of immunity:

Active Immunity: this involves the vaccine having weakened strains of antigen of the pathogenic virus that is injected to

the person. This stimulates the whole immune response, including antibodies and T and B Memory Cells that are specific
to that antigen, without the symptoms of the infection. The production of memory cells has 2 implications:

If the pathogen does enter the vaccinated individual, the memory cell initiates a quick immune response, so the
individual does not experience an infection.

It provides long-term protection, as memory cells last a long time.

Eg. Measles vaccine

Passive Immunity: This involves the injection of antibodies straight into the individual, in response to infection by a

pathogen. The antibodies come from other organisms:

It by-passes the whole immune response immediate protection

Gives protection from diseases the body has never been infected by

No memory cells produced. This means protection is only short-term

It may bring the risk of a reaction against foreign blood proteins

Eg. Tetanus serum

Process, analyse and present information from secondary sources to evaluate the
effectiveness of vaccination programs in preventing the spread and occurrence of
once common diseases, including smallpox, diphtheria and polio:

Before much was known about the cause, treatment and prevention of disease. Many people lost their lives to diseases that
today have been eradicated or low incidental.

Mass immunisation programs not only prevent the occurrence of the disease in individuals, but also help to decrease the
spread of the disease thoughout the population. If the majority of the population is immunised against a disease, the chance
of an infected individual coming into contact with an unprotected person is extremely low and the transmission of the
disease is effectively stopped. This is known as the principle of herd immunity.

Smallpox:
Cause and Symptoms:

Caused by the smallpox virus

It enters through the throat and lungs, then undergoes a 12-day incubation

Symptoms of the disease includes obvious bubbles on the skin, headaches, backaches and fever
History:

First appeared in Asia or Africa around 10000 BC

Spread around the world by explorers, traders and crusades

Responsible for 1 in 10 of all deaths in Europe in the 19th Century

Reached Australia in 1789, with early European settlers, and had a devastating effect on Aboriginal communities
Vaccination Programs:

Edward Jenner performed the first smallpox vaccination by inoculating people with cowpox

The vaccine was used by the WHO on a global scale in 1967

The WHO routinely immunised people with the vaccine, provided supplementary vaccinations and carefully supervised
areas with the potential for infections

In 1980, the WHO announced the world free of smallpox

Evaluation of Effectiveness:

Since the vaccination programs resulted in the complete eradication of the disease from the planet, it can be said that
the programs were extremely effective.

Diphtheria:
Causes and Symptoms:

It is a bacterial infection that is spread through the air into respiratory surfaces, or by close physical contact

It gives throat infections, which results in breathing difficulties and death

History:

100 years ago, 50% of all those infected with diphtheria would die

Large epidemics occurred in Europe after WWII

There have been recent outbreaks in Algeria and China

Vaccination Programs:

In 1923, a vaccine was released

In 1974 the WHO began to expand its immunisation program globally

In 1990, the worldwide immunity rate was 80%

Evaluation of Effectiveness:

The vaccination program reduced the spread of the disease from cyclic academics to occasional breakouts of low
density

Even though the rate of immunity is high, the disease is still present in developing countries and has not yet been
eradicated

Polio:
Causes and Symptoms:

Polio is the attack by polio viruses on the motor neurones of the spinal chord and the brain

Symptoms include high fever, back pains, muscle spasms and paralysis
History:

Disease existed in Ancient Egypt and killed hundreds and thousands of people in the 19th Century

The rate of polio began to fall in the 20th Century

Vaccination Programs:

The vaccination was first introduced in 1955

In the 1960s an oral form of the vaccine was introduced and the polio disease was brought under control

In 1988 the WHO began an immunisation campaign

The number of cases dropped by 80% in 1990

Evaluation of Effectiveness:

Despite widespread success in polio control, there are still small breakouts in around 70 countries.

Polio infection rates have been successfully controlled & reduced by 80%

6. Epidemiological studies involve the collection and careful statistical analysis of

large quantities of data. Such studies assist the causal identification of noninfectious diseases:
Identify and describe the main features of epidemiology using lung cancer as an
example:

Epidemiology: the science dealing with the transmission and control of disease.

Features of an epidemiological study that help prove the cause of disease:

Through analysis of statistics, it must demonstrate a significant link between the cause and the disease

There has to be a chronological order of events; that is, the cause must come before the disease

The study must be done on a large range of subjects, in terms of age, sex, race, occupation, socioeconomic status, and
geographical position

The results should persist over time

The cause-and-effect relationship should be independent of other factors

The study should be repeatable by other investigators at different time, and different places using different methods.

The epidemiological studies concerning lung cancer are a good example the studies range over many decades, starting
from the 1950s, when levels of lung cancer first began to become noticeable.

The people surveyed in the studies came from a wide range of ages, from WWI veterans who had started smoking because
they were given free cigarettes to the wave of women who had begun to take up smoking in the 1970s.

The studies have shown that there is a strong correlation between smoking and lung cancer.

Gather,

process

and

analyse

information

to

identify

the

cause

and

effect

relationship of smoking and lung cancer:

Lung cancer is the uncontrolled growth of tumors in the lungs.

Causes:
Tobacco smoke contains over 4000 chemicals, many carcinogenic (causing cancer) such as:

Benzene: found in petrol fumes

Tar: road surfacing

Arsenic: rat poisening

Methanol: rocket fuel

Effect:
As the tumour grows, the air sacs in the lungs are destroyed and breathing becomes difficult. The lungs collapse and

abscess and the patient may begin coughing up blood. The cancer can metastasise (spread) to other vital organs and cause
death.

Statistical Information:

Mass production of cigarettes began in 1880 free cigarettes were given to WWI soldiers

In the 1930s there was a sudden lung cancer epidemic

The first epidemiological studies which showed a relationship between smoking and lung cancer were in the 1950s, but
they did not have conclusive results they just showed a reduced live expectancy

A 1960 study by Horn in the United states, compared average smokers and non-smokers life expectancy, the smokers
had 10 times greater chance of dying.

In 1964 the Surgeons General Advisory Committee concluded that cigarette smoking was a cause of lung cancer.

In the 1970s, as the numbers of female smokers began to increase, lung cancer became the number one cause of cancer
death.

Studies have shown a correlation between the number of cigarettes smoked each day and the risk of contracting lung
cancer at an earlier stage
Also, a gradual decrease in the numbers of people smoking in the past 20 years has been mirrored by a decrease in

sufferers of lung cancer

Identify

causes

of

non-infectious

disease

using

an

example

from

each

of

the

following categories:

Inherited diseases

Nutritional diseases

Environmental diseases

Recall:
Non-infectious diseases are not caused by pathogens, and are not contagious (they are not transmitted from one organism

to another).

Inherited Diseases:

These diseases are caused by gene and chromosome abnormalities.

They are transmitted by reproduction.

Eg:

Down Syndrome is an inherited disease that is caused by the inheritance of one extra chromosome in the 21th spot
(trisomy 21).

Others include: minor disorders, such as myopia or serious such as haemophilia

Nutritional Diseases:

These are caused by incorrect or insufficient diets.

Eg:

Scurvy: this disease is caused by the lack of vitamin C in the diet. It causes swelling of body parts and teeth start to fall
out.

Others include: over-eating (obesity) or under-nourishment (anorexia)

Environmental Disease:

Many factors in the environment can cause disease

They include radiation, heavy metals, pollution, etc

Eg:

Asthma this disease is where the muscles in the airways contract and can cause severe breathing difficulties. Causes
include pollution, pollen and dust.

Analyse

and

present

information

about

the

occurrence,

symptoms,

cause,

treatment/management of a named non-infectious disease:

Disease: Down syndrome

Cause:

It is a genetic disease that is caused by the presence of an extra chromosome in the 21st position (known as trisomy).

This abnormality can be caused in several ways. The most common being a fault occurring in meiosis in the ovaries.
During the lining-up of homologous chromosomes the members of pair 21 do not split (called non-disjunction) and go
into one of the daughter cells together, resulting in half the gametes having twenty-four chromosomes while the other half
only have twenty-two. The latter die. If an ovum with twenty-four chromosomes is fertilized by a proper sperm (gamete;
sex cell) which has 23 chromosomes, one of which is normally in the 21 st position, the grand total of chromosomes is
forty-seven, with three copies of pair 21 as opposed to only two.
Remember, that each characteristic is created from 2 genes, each gene coming from a chromosome at the same genetic

loci, one chromosome being maternal, and one being paternal.

Symptoms:
Lower than average mental ability, speech impairment, protruding heads, almond shaped eyes, shorter limbs, enlarged

tongue and a high risk of heart failure.

Occurrence:

Approximately 1 per 733 live births.

The birth of Down's syndrome children has been associated with the age of the mother. Non-disjunction is more likely to
occur in females over the age of thirty-five and the risk increases sharply with a rise in the mother's age over forty.

Treatment/Management:

There is no cure for Down syndrome. Every cell will contain 47 chromosomes and this cannot be altered.

The effects however, can be treated. For example:

The tongue can be surgically shortened to aid in eating, breathing and talking.

Special education programs can be established to help slow learners and assist them to gain certain skills that enable
them to integrate easily into the community.

Physiotherapy may be needed, as children born with Down syndrome have weakened muscles, and shorter arms and
legs.

7. Increased understanding has lead to a wide range of strategies to prevent and

control disease:
Discuss the role of quarantine in preventing the spread of disease and plants and
animals into Australia or across regions of Australia:

Quarantine is enforced isolation of patients suffering from a contagious disease in order to prevent the spread of disease.
This includes the import or export of diseased animals, plants, and other products.

Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) is responsible for this, for example:
Border control:

It involves checking passengers and cargo at entry point into Australia. A range of techniques are used by quarantine
officers including: x-ray machines, detector dogs, surveillance and so on.

This prevents people entering Australia in brings things as plant seeds, fresh foods, eggs, meat. All of these items can
contain many dangerous plant and animal pests and disease.

In an effort to deter the entry of these products, large fines are imposed, which have greatly reduced the incidence the
spread of disease.
Animal and plant qurantine:

Many animals coming in Australia, are left in stations, where a number of tests are conducted to make sure the animal
is free of disease, before they are allowed to enter the country.

MOST plants are not all allowed in the country, this is because even if they are free of disease, they maybe inhospital to
Australian flora and fauna, and hence can contradict disease.
Human quarantine:

In aviation, most captains of aircrafts are required to notify AQIS if any passengers show signs of major infective
diseases. These include rabies, SARS, malaria, yellow fever.

Also in all airports, there exists mosquito-trapping process after a flight has landed, this prevent any potential vectors
entering the country.
Other: public awareness programs and vechile checking:

These awareness programs have been implemented so that the travelling public and local residents are aware of the
procedures and guidelines that in place. And the potential diseasters that can occur.

Used vehicles and agricultural machinery are inspected and cleaned to ensure no soil/plant matter enters the country

 Process and analyse information from secondary source to evaluate the effectiveness
of quarantine in preventing the spread of plant and animal diseases into Australia
or across regions of Australia:

The effectiveness of the quarantine service (AQIS) is very high when considering its success in preventing the spread of
plant and animal diseases into Australia.. For example the following that have NOT entered Australia:
Animal disease: Foot and mouth disease:

A highly contagious muscle-wasting disease of cloven-hoofed animals such as cows, sheep and goat.

Symptoms include fever, dribbling, lethargy and blisters on mouth, tongue, lips, hooves and feet.

It is caused by an airborne virus, it is spread not only by live animals but also by the carcass, and also in soil and
equipment.
Plant disease: Sorghum downy mildew:

This disease has been prevented from entering into Australia

Caused by a fungus; the fungus inhibits the plants ability to make chlorophyll, which results in the death of the plant
Preventing spread of disease across regions of Australia:;Fruit flies:

Quarantine measures have been implemented that forbid the movement of fruit across state borders

These measures are in place to control the spread of fruit flies, which cause severe damage to fruit crops such as
bananas

There is the Mediterranean fruit fly in Western Australia, and the Queensland fruit fly, in eastern Australia

The Northern Territory, South Australia and Tasmania do not have these pests, because of quarantine measures

Explain how one of the following strategies has controlled and/or prevented disease:

Public health programs

Pesticides

Genetic engineering to produce drug-resistant plants and plants

Pesticides are chemicals that are used to kill the pests of plants and animals, pathogens, and vectors that transmit pathogens
from one organism to another.

If these pests and vectors are killed using pesticides, then the occurrence of disease will be prevented and the spread of
disease through the population will be controlled.

An example is using pesticides to kill the insects acting as vectors for the malaria disease, or the killing of lice.

DDT(dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane)

was also used to kill lice on the bodies of soldiers during WWII, the lice

trasmitted the pathogen which caused diseases such as typhus fever. The pesticide prevented thousands of deaths.

DDT is also used to kill populations of the Anopheles mosquito which carries the plasmodium protozoa that causes the
disease malaria.

This controlled the spread of malaria, as transmission of the pathogen was prevented by the death of the vector. It was very
effective in the beginning, and numbers of malaria sufferers went down, but then the mosquitos built up pesticide-resistance
hence reducing its efficency.

This is one problem associated with use of pesticides, which is the ability of the insect vectors or disease-causing organisms
to build up a aresistance to the pesticide throught he process of natural selection. This has the effect of decreasing the
effectiveness of the pesticide and increasing the necessity for the development and use of different types of pesticides. The
us of these pesticides is also being discourage more and more due to their damaging effects on the enviroment.

Discuss the changing methods of dealing with plant and animal diseases, including
the shift in emphasis from treatment and control to management or prevention of
disease:

Treatment of diseases involves strategies employed to either cure the disease or relieve its symptoms once an organims has
the disease.

Control of a disease involves reducing its spread through the population of organisms once it is already present.

Prevention of disease involves the use of strategies that stop the occurrence of disease in organisms.

Management of disease is a system that improve the outcomes of chronic (long-lasting) conditions and improve the quality
of life of sufferes.

When penicillin were discovered, the emphasis when dealing with diseases was on their treatment and control due to their
significant impacts. However the continual use antiobiotics, has lead to resistance from the pathogenic population. The
emphasis shifted towards the prevention and management of diseases.

Many antiobiotics are used to cure bacterial infections, plant diseases are also controlled by the use of pesticides. Some
diseases such as AIDS, who cannot be sucessfully cured by treatment are forced to live with their symptoms for the rest of
their lives. Many of these problems would not exist if the disease was prevented.

Furthermore bacterial disease that were once sucessfully treated with antibiotics must now be treated with stronger or new
types of antibiotics. This is due to the development of antibiotic resistance in the micro-organism that causes the disease.
With the prevention of these disease, the use of drugs and the development of reistnat strains of micro-organisms will be
reduced.

Preventative strategies reduce the occurrence and incidence of disease in the population. It means that there are reduced
risks to organisms in the population, and this would lead to a better overall quality of life, with less suffering for humans.

Less money would have to be spent on health and there would be less drug and pesticide resistance. This change was
possible due to increased understanding of immune system and advanced technologies.

These examples illustrate this:

Smallpox: A widespread disease that killed many in the 18th Century. Treatments were available, but were ineffective
many died. Prevention came in the form of vaccinations, and this has controlled the disease far more successfully than
any treatments

Cancers: There are current treatments, such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgical removals. They are quite
successful, especially if detected early. However, they are not 100% successful and can cause physical trauma to the body
(scars). Prevention campaigns (public health campaigns) such as giving people advice on proper skin care (skin cancer)
and quit-lines for smoking have reduced the numbers of cancers.

Plant Diseases: These include disease such as fungal root infections, pests such as aphids and disease causing organisms.
The usual treatment is spraying with pesticides. However this has had a detrimental effect on the environment.

Preventative measures are used, especially quarantine measures, biological control (introducing species to control pests)
and genetic engineering
Preform an investigation to examine evidence of pathogens and insect pests on plant
leaves and shoots:

Aim: To examine plant shoots and leaves for evidence of pathogens and insect pests.

Saftey:

Use gloves to prevent allergic reactions.

If you are examining insects or pathogens while they are still on plants, ensure that diseases are not spread from one plant
to another.

Method:

Examine plant specimens provided using a hand lens, or microscope.

Look at areas of discolouration, patchy patterns, or other significant unfitting traits, these should be evidence for
invasion by a pathogen or attack by an insect pest.
Using reference material, determine the pathogens and diseases caused. Then record the results.

Result:
Disease caused by pathogens:

Bacteria cause rust, which are spots on the surface of the Banksia leaves.

Fungal infections causes black stem rot, which are shown by dark growths on the stems or on the undersides of leaves.
Disease caused by insect pests:

Azalea lace-bugs, affects many plants including azalea. These bugs inhabit the underside of the leaves and suck out the
sap creating holes and damage, causing the leaves to turn speckled brown. Sugary liquid called honeydew is also
secreted and sometimes a sooty mould develops on this, causing the leaves to appear a rusty coulour.

Two-spotted mites, causes leaves to turn a dull green with pale mottling; then the leaves turn yellow and the webbing
spun by the mites becomes visible. New growth is curled under and has a slightly brownish tinge.