LABORATORY MANUAL

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY, TAXILA

Table of contents
1. Introduction to laboratory

2. Report Format

3. Strength of Materials-1

3.1 List of Experiments

3.2 Experiment No.1

3.3 Experiment No.2

3.4 Experiment No.3

10

3.5 Experiment No.4

13

3.6 Experiment No.5

16

4. Strength of Materials-2

18

4.1 List of Experiments

18

4.2 Experiment No.1

19

4.3 Experiment No.2

23

4.4 Experiment No.3

26

4.5 Experiment No.4

28

4.6 Experiment No.5

30

Introduction to Laboratory

Strength Laboratory deals with the strength testing of structural materials. While designing any
structure, one of the most important concerns of design engineer is to determine the strength of
any material that has to be used in the construction of relevant structure. The material should be
strong enough to carry load for which the subject structure is to be designed without undergoing
undue deformations. The structural design should be such as the stresses within any member do
not exceed strength of material used. In any case if internal stresses exceed strength of material
used, failure occurs. Structural failure may include additional complexity like stresses in
different directions, components or material carrying cracks, creep or fatigue.
In Strength Laboratory, students will have the opportunity to verify various properties of
structural materials under different loading scenarios. There are many test equipments and
skilled staff to operate those equipments. Most of the tests are performed using Universal Testing
Machine to study stress strain behavior of various materials. Bend and twist apparatus id used for
simulating torsion phenomenon in materials like steel, aluminum and brass. Also bend and twist
apparatus is used to study deformation in materials.

Report Format
Every individual student should represent his/her lab work on a proper format preferably
consisting following.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Experiment Title
Experiment Objective/Theory
Apparatus & Specimen
Procedure
Readings & Calculations
Graphs & Diagrams
Conclusions Or Significance of Testing

Strength of Materials-I
Strength of Materials-I covers basics of material testing. Mostly experiments covering
mechanical properties, torsion property and deflection of structural materials are performed
under this course.
List of Experiments
Following tests are performed under this course.
Experiment#01:

To study the mechanical properties of structural materials.

Experiment#02:

To perform bend test upon steel samples of various diameter.

Experiment#03:

To calculate modulus of rupture of structural materials at one point and

two point loading.

Experiment#04:

To perform torsion test for calculating shear strength and shear modulus of
various materials.

Experiment#05:

To determine deflection of beam and compare it with theoretical values.

Experiment No. 01:

To study the mechanical properties of structural materials.

THEORY:
The strength of material depends on its ability to sustain load without undue deformation or
failure. This property is inherent in the material itself and must be determined by experiment.
One of the most important tests to perform in this regard is tension and compression test.
Although several important mechanical properties can be determined from this test, it is used
primarily to determine the relationship between average normal stress and average normal strain
in many engineering materials such as metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites.
Stress: Load per unit area is known as stress.
Strain: Change in length per unit original length is known as strain.
Gauge length: It is the length between punch marks on specimen. ASTM 615 specifies this
gauge length to be 200mm or 8in.
Stress-Strain Curve: It is not feasible
to prepare a test specimen to match the
size, Area and Length of each structural
member. Rather, the test results must be
reported so they apply to a member of
any size. To achieve this, the load and
corresponding deformation data are used
to calculate various values of the stress
and corresponding strain in the
specimen. A plot of the results produces
a curve called the stressstrain diagram.
Proportional Limit: it is the point to which stress is directly proportional to strain. The curve
shows linear behavior and material is said to be linear elastic in this range.
Elastic Limit: If the stress slightly exceeds the proportional limit, the curve tends to bend and
flatten out to the point where if the load is removed specimen will still return back to its original
shape. This point is known as elastic limit.
Yield Point: A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in a breakdown of the
material and cause it to deform permanently. This behavior is called yielding. And the point on
the curve associated with yielding is referred to as yield point.

Ultimate Stress: When yielding has ended, an increase in load can be supported by the
specimen, resulting in a curve that rises continuously but becomes flatter until it reaches a
maximum stress referred to as the ultimate stress.

Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine
Weight measuring scale
Vernier caliper

Specimen:
Deformed bars
Cast iron

Procedure:
Following procedure is adopted while performing experiment:
1. All the test samples are made into required length (i.e. 22in min. as per recommendation)
and their masses are measured.
2. Total length and diameter of each specimen is measured.
3. Properly mark gauge length on each sample to be tested. Gauge length should be 8in.
4. Place the sample in gripers of the machine and start applying load.
5. Note the load at yielding and ultimate points.
6. Obtain the stress-strain graph from machine and locate the Proportional Limit, Elastic
Limit, Yield Point and Ultimate Stress.
7. Repeat theses steps for all given samples.

Readings & Observations:

Sample Diameter Length Gauge Unit
Area Exact Yielding Yield Ultimate Ultimate
Length Weight
Dia.
Load
Stress Load
Stress

Graph and Diagram:

Attach the graph obtained from the test machine and label it properly.

Conclusion Or Significance of testing:

Tensile test helps us in determining various mechanical properties of ductile and brittle materials.
For example, readings obtained in this test shows us yield and ultimate stresses for deformed
bars and cast iron samples. We can easily define their strengths on the basis of these results. If
strength of any sample is not acceptable with respect to the design report of relevant structure,
sample can be rejected by the consultant.

Experiment No. 02:

To perform bend test upon steel samples of various diameter.

THEORY:
Bend test is performed to check the bending capability of structural steel bars. The specimen
tested shall withstand being bent around a pin without cracking on the outside radius of the bent
portion. Pin to be used in bend test shall be selected on the basis of specimens diameter and
Grade.
Bend Test Requirement
Bar Designation No.

Pin Diameter for bend test A

Grade 40

Grade 60

Grade 75

Grade 80

31/2 dB

31/2 d

5d

5d

5d

5d

5d

5d

7, 8

5d

5d

5d

9, 10, 11

7d

7d

7d

14, 18

9d

9d

9d

3, 4, 5

A
B

Test bends 1800 unless noted otherwise

d = nominal diameter of specimen

The bend test shall be made on specimens of sufficient length to ensure free bending and with
apparatus which provides;

Continuous and uniform application of force throughout the duration of bending

operation

Unrestricted movement of the specimen at points of contact with the apparatus and
bending around a pin free to rotate.

Close wrapping of the specimen around the pin during the bending operation.

Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine
Vernier caliper

Specimen:
Deformed bars

Procedure:
Following procedure is adopted while performing experiment:
1. Carefully measure the diameter of given sample.
2. With respect to the diameter and grade of steel sample select the appropriate pin diameter
for bend test.
3. Set the apparatus and install the pin to be used
4. Place the specimen in machine and start applying load
5. Wait till close wrapping of the specimen around the pin.
6. Remove load and check the specimen carefully to observe crack if any.

Readings & Observations:

Specimen

Pin dia. Used

Bend-test Result

Graph and Diagram:

Drawing the diagram to show bent bars after testing.

Conclusion Or Significance of testing:

Bend test helps us in determining whether the bars at site can be bent without cracks or not.

Experiment No. 03: To calculate modulus of rupture of structural materials at one

point and two point loading.

THEORY:
Modulus of Rupture: It is the maximum flexural stress at the bottom fiber of beam at failure.
When a beam is subjected to flexural stresses, it undergoes deformation. Up to certain limit of
deformation or bending, the material sustain applied load. As soon as the applied load increases
the load carrying capacity of material, cracks start to appear at the bottom of beam. It is also
considerable that when cracks start developing, effective cross-section resisting applied load
reduces and failure occurs.
The main objective of performing this test is to determine the modulus of rupture of given
samples using one point and two point loading.
Modulus of rupture can be calculated using
=
Where;
= Max. flexural stress
M = Max. bending moment
y = distance of neutral axis from bottom of beam
I = moment of Inertia

Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine
Measuring tape

Specimen:
Wooden beam
Plain concrete beam

10

Procedure:
Following procedure is adopted while performing experiment:
1. Take each sample and mark its clear span.
2. Divide the clear span into two equal lengths in case of one-point loading and in three
equal parts for two-point loading.
3. One by one perform the test for one-point and two-point loading.
4. Plot Shear force diagram and bending moment diagrams for results obtained.

5. From bending moment diagrams, calculate the values of maximum bending moment and
use it in flexural formula for calculating modulus of rupture.

11

Readings & Observations:

Two-point loading:

One-point loading:

Max. Force applied by machine = F

Max. Force applied by machine = F

Load at beam, P (each)

= F/2

Load at beam, P

=F

Reaction, R1 & R2

=P

Reaction, R1 & R2

= P/2

Max. Shear Force

=P

Max. Shear Force

= P/2

Max. Bending Moment

Max. Bending Moment

Moment of Inertia, I

Moment of Inertia, I

Depth of beam

=h

Depth of beam

=h

Depth to Neutral axis, y

= h/2

Depth to Neutral axis, y

= h/2

Modulus of Rupture

Modulus of Rupture

Graph and Diagram:

Drawing SFD and BMD to find out maximum Bending moment in beam samples.

Conclusion Or Significance of testing:

This test gives us opportunity to define maximum flexural stresses in various beams and also can
helps us in determining the variation of stress behavior in various materials

12

Experiment No. 04: To perform torsion test for calculating shear strength and shear
modulus of various materials.

THEORY:
The stress distribution in a torsion member such as transmission shaft is non-uniform; it varies
from zero at the centroidal longitudinal axis to a maximum at the outer fibers.
In many engineering applications, such as torque transmission and in springs, the torsional
behavior critically governs the design. In many cases the maximum torsional stress is the
limiting factor in design while in others; it may be the maximum permissible angle of twist.
The following figures explain the torsion in circular shafts

The internal torque T develops a linear distribution of shear stress along radial lines in plane of
cross-sectional area and an associated shear stress distribution is developed along the axial plane.

13

Apparatus:
Bend and Twist apparatus
Vernier Caliper
Dial Gauge
Dead Weights

Specimen:
Aluminum bar
Steel bar
Brass bar

Procedure:
Following procedure is adopted while performing experiment:
1. Measure the diameter of each sample and calculate polar moment of inertia.
2. Insert the first rod through the torsional fastening components of the bearers. Adjust the
distance between bearers to match the required length and fix them.
3. Locate the dial gauge support so that the gauge shaft is aligned with the small groove at

the center of the flat spot on the lever.

(Note: the dimension between the groove on the lever and the axis of load is 57.3mm., thus, one
revolution of the gauge corresponds to
one degree of twist in the rod.)

4. Place the knife edge f the weight

hanger in the groove near the tip of
lever.
5. Apply torque to the rod in increment
of 2.5N up to 17.5N and keep on
reading the gauge at each increment
of load. Now read dial gauge while
unloading the rod.
6. Repeat these steps for all rods.
14

Readings & Observations:

Load

Angle of twist for sample

Aluminum
Brass
Gauge
Angle,
Gauge
Angle,
Reading
(Radians)
Reading
(Radians)

Load

Aluminum
Shear
Shear
Stress
Strain

Steel
Gauge
Angle,
Reading
(Radians)

Brass
Shear
Stress

Steel
Shear
Strain

Shear
Stress

Shear
Strain

Use following formula for calculations;

Torque, T

= F.d

Polar moment of Inertia, J

Shear Stress,

Shear Strain,

Shear Modulus, G

Graph and Diagram:

!
"

Plot a graph of shear stress against shear strain and find out the slope of this line to find out
Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity.

Conclusion Or Significance of testing:

This test gives an opportunity to compare the values of shear modulus obtained from test for any
particular material with defined values in reference codes and books. Also it can give us a linear
relationship of torsion with respect to load.

15

Experiment No. 05: To determine deflection of beam and compare it with theoretical
values.

16

17

Strength of Materials-II
Strength of Materials-II covers more detailed analysis of materials. Mainly it includes
observations of materials subjected to biaxial loads and unsymmetrical bending. A few
properties e.g., shear center and principal stresses are also covered under this course.
List of Experiments
Following tests are performed under this course.
Experiment#01:

To determine the principal stresses in axially loaded cast iron and steel
bars using graphical and analytical methods.

Experiment#02:

To plot stress trajectories for simply supported rectangular beam to predict

the crack pattern and compare it with existing cracked beams.

Experiment#03:

To calculate principal stresses in a biaxially loaded beam installed with

strain rosettes.

Experiment#04:

To find out shear center of following cross sections;

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Experiment#05:

Semi Circle
Channel Section
Angle Section
Z-Section

Unsymmetrical bending of a rectangular portal.

18

Experiment No. 01: To determine the principal stresses in axially loaded cast iron and
steel bars using graphical and analytical methods.

THEORY:
The principal stresses represent the maximum and minimum normal stress at the point. Theses
stresses lie at principal axis where there is no shear stress. In engineering practice it is often
significant to determine the orientation of an element that causes the normal stress to be
maximum and minimum and an orientation which gives maximum shear stresses.
The maximum and minimum normal stress is given by
,

+
2

And maximum in-plane shear stress is given by

+,- ./0123/4

= )

Principal stresses can also be calculated using graphical technique by the help of Mohrs circle.

19

Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine
Vernier Caliper
Measuring scale
Measuring tape

Specimen:
Deformed bars
Cast Iron

Procedure:
Following procedure is adopted for analytical calculations of principal stresses:
1. All the test samples are made into required length (i.e. 22in min. as per recommendation)
and their masses are measured.
2. Total length and diameter of each specimen is measured.
3. Properly mark gauge length on each sample to be tested. Gauge length should be 8in.
4. Place the sample in gripers of the machine and start applying load.
5. Note the load at yielding and ultimate points.
6. Calculate ultimate stress and obtain principal stress and maximum shear stress.
7. Repeat theses steps for all given samples.
Following procedure is adopted for graphical calculation of principal stresses.
1. Establish a coordinate system such that the x-axis represents normal stress and y-axis
represents shear stress.
2. Plot the center C of circle on axis using following formula.
356

+
2

3. Plot the reference point A with coordinates A(

%, %

).

4. Connect A with C. This represents radius R of the circle.

5. With this R, construct a circle.
20

6. Principal stresses

and

axis.

) are the coordinates of points B and D crossing -

7. These stresses act on planes defined by angles 81 and 81 , represented on circle by 281

and 281 and are measured from the radial reference line CA to lines CB and CD
respectively.

8. The average normal stress and maximum in-plane shear stress ate the coordinates of eith
point E or point F.

Readings & Observations:

Sample Length Unit
Area Yielding Yield Ultimate Ultimate Principal Principal
Weight
Load
Stress Load
Stress
Normal
in-plane
Stress
shear
stress

21

Graph and Diagram:

Plot a Mohrs circle for all specimens. And find out principal stresses.

Conclusion Or Significance of testing:

This experiment is useful in determining the orientation of an element for maximum normal
stresses and maximum in-plane shear stresses.

22

Experiment No. 02: To plot stress trajectories for simply supported rectangular beam
to predict the crack pattern and compare it with existing cracked beams.

THEORY:
Stress Trajectory: Stress trajectories are lines in the direction of principal stresses.
In beams, the directions of principal stress vary with intensities of flexural stresses and
horizontal shearing stresses. At extreme fibers of any beam section, shear stresses are zero and
flexural stresses are zero at the neutral axis.

The same concept is used in evaluating the maximum and minimum stresses in a beam and
respected principal stresses are calculated.

Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine
Measuring tape

Specimen:
Wooden beam
Plain concrete beam

23

Procedure:
Following procedure is adopted while performing
experiment:
1. Take each sample and mark its clear span.
2. Divide the clear span in three equal parts for
two-point loading or place load at L/4 from each
support.
3. One by one perform the test for two-point
loading.
4. Plot Shear force diagram and bending moment
diagrams for maximum load obtained.
5. Calculate the value of maximum bending
moment and use it in further calculations of
stresses.

Readings & Observations:

For Beam Sample # _______
Point on Depth to Moment
Width of Bending
beam
Neutral
of Inertia, Beam,
Moment,
crossAxis, y I
b
M
section

Shear
Force,
V

Shear
Flow,
Q

Flexural
Stress

Shear
Stress

Where;
Flexural Stress,
Shear Stress,

=
=

9:

24

Now calculate principal stresses at each point using

,

+
2

And orientation will be calculated using

tan 281 =

>

2
%

Elements must be placed at these orientations to show stress trajectories.

Graph and Diagram:

Draw elements at calculated orientations to show stress trajectories.

Conclusion Or Significance of testing:

This experiment is useful in determining the crack pattern in beams of various types.

25

Experiment No. 03: To calculate principal stresses in a biaxially loaded beam installed
with strain rosettes.

THEORY:
When performing a tension test on a specimen, the normal strain is measured using an electrical
resistance strain gauge, which consists of a wire grid or piece of metal foil bonded to the
specimen. For a general loading on a body, however, the strains at a point on its free surface are
determined using a cluster of three electrical-resistance strain gauges, arranged in a specified
pattern. This pattern is referred to as strain rosette. Once the normal strains on these three gauges
are measured, the data can then be transformed to specify the state of strain at the point.
In general the axes of three gauges are arranged at the angles 83 , 8 , 8@ as shown. Strain rosettes

are of two types depending upon the arrangement of strain gauges. 45o strain rosette is known as
rectangular strain rosette and 60o strain rosette is known as delta strain rosette.

If the readings A3 , A , A@ are taken, we can determine the strain components A% , A ,

by applying the strain-transformation equation.

at the point

Apparatus:
Universal Testing Machine
Measuring tape

Specimen:
Steel Section
26

Procedure:
Following procedure is adopted while performing experiment:
1. Install rectangular and delta strain gauges on steel section.
2. Connect these gauges with the display unit
3. Start applying load in defined increment and for each increment note the value of stain at
three gauges.

4. Calculate A% , A ,

for both arrangements of strain gauges.

Readings & Observations:

BC

BD

BE

Rectangular Strain Rosette

Load

A3 = A% FGH 83 + A HIJ 83 +

A = A% FGH 8 + A HIJ 8 +
The values A% , A ,

BC

BD

Delta Strain Rosette

A@ = A% FGH 8@ + A HIJ 8@ +

BE

HIJ83 FGH83

HIJ8 FGH8

HIJ8@ FGH8@

of are determined by solving these three equations simultaneously. And

A

A% + A
A% A
)
2
2

And calculate principal stresses using

=
=

KA + LA MN
1L

KA + LA MN
1L

Graph and Diagram:

Draw arrangements of strain rosettes.

Conclusion Or Significance of testing:

This experiment is useful in determining the principal stresses in any biaxially stressed element.

27

Experiment No. 04: To find out shear center of following cross sections;
a)
b)
c)
d)

Semi Circle
Channel Section
Angle Section
Z-Section

THEORY:
Shear center of the cross section of a beam is that point through which the lines of load must pass
in order that the beam shall bend without twisting about its longitudinal axis. For beams with two
axes of symmetry the shear center is at the intersection, while for sections with one axis of
symmetry the shear center will lie somewhere on that axes.

Apparatus:
Shear Center Apparatus
Dial gauges
Measuring tape

Specimen:
Semi Circle
Channel Section
Angle Section
Z-Section

Procedure:
Follow the steps mentioned below
Part 1:
1. Assemble the given sample of equal angle in shear center apparatus.
2. Apply load on 40N in 10N increment at two eccentricities of 40mm in front of the
vertical flange and 100mm behind it.
3. Record front and rear dial gauge readings.
4. Plot graphs for rotation against load at both eccentricities.
28

Part 2:
1. Assemble semi-circle in shear center apparatus.
2. Apply the load of 100N at varying positions marked on given samples.
3. Record front and rear dial gauge readings.
4. Plot the graph of rotation against position of load.
5. Note the position at which this graph crosses zero rotation. This defines the shear center.
6. Repeat these steps for other sections. Note that in case of Angle section load must not
exceed 40N.

Readings & Observations:

Part 1:
Load (N)

Front Dial Gauge

Displacement
Reading
F (mm)

Rear Dial Gauge

Displacement
Reading
R (mm)

Rotation
(mm)

Front Dial Gauge

Displacement
Reading
F (mm)

Rear Dial Gauge

Displacement
Reading
R (mm)

Rotation
(mm)

Part 2:
Position of
Load (mm)

Where

Rotation = F - R

Graph and Diagram:

Plot Rotation Vs Load and Rotation Vs Position of load in part 1 and part 2 respectively.

Conclusion Or Significance of testing:

This experiment is useful in determining the shear center of given sections. Also this test gives
an opportunity of checking linear elastic behavior of the beam against torsion.

29

Experiment No. 05:

Unsymmetrical bending of a rectangular portal.

THEORY:
The simple theory of bending applies only to bending in the plane of a principal axis of the beam
section. There are two such axes, mutually perpendicular. They are easily located in regular
sections since axes of symmetry must be a principal axes.
If the load acting on a beam is not in the plane of a principal axes, the simplest way of
determining its effect is to resolve it into two components which are in the planes of principal
axes. Let the load act at an angle to principal axes. Then the behavior of the beam is described
by
HIJ8
%%

FGH8

=
=

N
PQ

N
P%

It is frequently the case when sections like angles are used as beams that the load is not applied
in the plane of principal axes.

Apparatus:
Unsymmetrical bending Apparatus
Dial gauges
Measuring tape

Specimen:
Cantilever steel beam

30

Procedure:
Follow the steps mentioned below
Part 1:
1. Set the fixed end of the cantilever to 45o and the dial gauge to 90o.
2. Centralize the dial gauge plate
3. Apply the load of 40N in increment of 5N.
4. Record the horizontal dial gauge and vertical dial gauge at each increment of load.
5. Plot a graph of deflection against load.
Part 2:
1. Fix the dial gauge plate and fixed end of beam at 45o.
2. Apply the load of 20N.
3. Record horizontal and vertical dial gauge readings.
4. Repeat it for each 15o increment between 45o and 225o.
5. Plot a graph of deflection against orientation.

Readings & Observations:

Part 1:
Load (N)

Vertical Dial Gauge

Reading
Deflection

Horizontal Dial Gauge

Reading
Deflection

Vertical Dial Gauge

Reading
Deflection

Horizontal Dial Gauge

Reading
Deflection

Part 2:
Angle of Load

Graph and Diagram:

Plot deflection Vs Load and deflection Vs angle of load in part 1 and part 2 respectively.

Conclusion Or Significance of testing:

This experiment is useful in determining the linear behavior of deflection with respect to load.
31