seymour

schuster)

B)
A)

\037)

------) - --- N

-........--

-L)

u)

A')

B)

c')))

-)

'\\..

ELEMENTARY

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

SEYMOUR

SCHUSTER)

DOVER PUBLICATIONS,INC.
Mineola,

New

York)))

Bibliographical Note
Dover

This

the work

first published in 2008,

by John Wiley
published

edition,

originally

of Congress

Library

is an

unabridged

& Sons,

vector geometry /

Elementary

p. em.
Originally
Includes

ISBN-13:

published:

of
1962.)

Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Seymour.

Schuster,

republication

Inc., New York, in

Seymour

New York:

John

Schuster.

Wiley

- Dovered.

& Sons,

Inc., 1962.

index.

978-0-486-46672-9

ISBN-lO: 0-486-46672-8

1.Vector

QA433.S38

analysis.

2. Geometry.

I. Title.

2008

515' .63-dc22)

2007050541)
Manufactured

Dover

Publications,

in the United States of America

Inc., 31 East 2nd Street, Mineola, N.Y.

11501)))

to

my

parents)))

preface)

This short
presented at a

is

work

held at
lectures

outgrowth

of

pattern

teachers.

geon1etry

mathematics

in

events

of

the material covered is

material

essential

rather,

but,

that were

of lectures

Institute

Foundation

Science

Carletol1 College ill the summer

were to serve the purposeof

backgrounds

that

the

National

The

1959.

of

the

\"enriching\"

However,

no longer

the

indicates

education

enrichment

for every

knowledge

teacher.

It

ago that linear algebra'was a

course
for beginning
graduate students and vector analyclass course by
taken
as an upper
sis was typically
The
students.
and
engineering
mathematics,
physics,
was

just

a few

years

last decade has brought

mathematics
vectors
quite

is

\037

revolution

in

undergraduate

today the knowledgeof

earlier stage. Indeed,it is
to study vectors and
freshmen

and
education,
a
much
at
acquired
for

usual

matrices,

particularly

college
as

more, the studies and

applied

to geometry.

recommendatio11s
made

v)))

Furtherby

the)

PREFACE)

VI)

Commission
Group,

Study

Programin

on Mathematics,
the School M\037thematics
on the Undergraduate
and the Committee
all
in the direction
Mathematics
of
point

getting some of these

into the
c011cepts

school

high

I have
curriculum.
1011g felt that vector techniques
find
,viII
their
should
way into the high school
n
otas
of the mathecurriculum-perhaps
integral
part
matical training of all studentsbut, at the
as
least,
work to excite and challenge superior students.
and

an

very

On

level,

elementary

very

marily
development
mathematical tool in
greater insight into the

theorems

proofs
proofs,

knowledge

prerequisite.

oped slowly-more so
on vectors. Simple

vector

natural

vector
any

are develstandard works

algebra

of the

as

explanations,

well

as

two

(in

geometry

developedasa

gain a

are used. Beyond this, some

and three dimensions) is

illustrations,

analytic

is to

attempting

by

of
in

than

geometric

numerous

aim

proofs in contrast to the synthetic

of which the reader brings as a

elements

The

vector
The

geometry.

and analytic

deals prialgebra as a

this textbook
of

the

with

of the

outgrowth

vector treatment.
to assist in other

In addition, the vectorapproach

is used
areas of elementary mathematics: algebra,trigonometry
In short,
and
and higher geometry.
(plane
spherical),
it was felt that
whenever
vectorshave been employed
in facilitating
they would aid in gaining
and/or
insight
to develop
and proofs. I have
tried
very
computations
this
small
little machinery but to go a long way
with
himself
amount.
the reader will. find
Accordingly,
with such topics as linear inequalities,convexity,
dealing

linear
because

involutes,

programming,

As for
I

and

projective

theorems.

prerequisites, they are not listed

do not claim to have given a logical

development

of

of

Loosely

geometry.

assumed that the

and concepts

formally

(axiomatic)

reader

Ellclidean

is

familiar
geometry

speaki11g, I have
the definitions
and with the bare)))

\\vith

VII)

PREFACE)

area

and

parallelism,

angle,

For example, the notionsof

are assumed.
It is further

of trigonometry.

essentials

assumedthat the
knows
sine, cosine, and tangent

functions

as ratios

sides

the

of

resliits

from

of a

(in

the

right triangle).

and

geometry

of the

definitions

the

reader

naive

I haye

trigonometry,

sense,

In regard to
indeed

taken very
little
for
of. geometric
granted.
Samples
information that are calledupon are: formulas
for
the
area of a parallelogram and volume of a parallelopiped\037
the fact that two points determinea unique
and
the
line,
result that opposite sides of a parallelogram
are
equal.
3 I use the)aw of cosinesfor motivatio11,
In Chapter
but
who
has
not seen it before will be consoledby
the reader
a

shortly

given

proof

thereafter.

It is entirely possibleto give a vector

of
development
Euclidean
from
\"scratch.\" In fact, some
geometry
believe
that
a first course in geometry should
people
Others
believe
that the coordinate
beginwith vectors.
method should be given
at
the
and still others
olltset,
of
have faith in a combinatio11

coordinate

development,

beenadopted several
in rewriting the
by

high

approaches.

The

in various forms, has recently

of the current
groups interested
school

curriculum.

mathematics

the reader interested in seeing how

a strict
vector
would do the job, I strongly
recomme11d
the
\"Geometric
excellent
Vector
and
the
Analysis
paper
Conceptof Vector Space\" by Professor Walter Prenowitz.
For

approach

This fine expositionconstitutesoneofthe chapters

of the
Yearboolc
Third
of
the
of
National
Council
Twenty-

Teachersof
Sincere
who

of

came
comfortably

l\\lathematics.

thanks
to

and

Carleton
learning

are
appreciation
i11 the SlImmer
mathematics

due to the teachers

of 1959 in the hope
in cool

Minnesota

the
strains
but who, instead, laboredal1dperspiredunder
of vector geometry and the 96% humidity. For reading
the
and for their valuable suggestiol1SI am)))
n1a11uscript

PREFACE)

VIII)

grateful
especially
School in
Lincoln
of

the

University

the

of

Chicago

to Mr. Saul Birnbaum of the New

New York City, ProfessorRoy Dubisch
of Washington, Professor J. M. Sachs
Technical
College, and my Carleton

colleague,Professor

B.

William

special

thanks

courageously
Science

National

1961.

This

tribute

substantially

Jr.

Houston,

Also,

who
go to ProfessorDick
Hall,
used the text in mimeograph form at a
Wick

Institute

Foundation

enabled

experience
by

pointing

out

Sllmmer of
Hall to conerrors ill judg-

in the

Professor
ID.y

ment and typography.)

SEYMOUR

N orthfield,

January,

Minnesota
1962)))

SCHUSTER)

contents)

Chapter

Fundamentalproperties4.

\302\267

of

5. Auxiliary

vectors.
of

Uniqueness

\037

Chapter

IN

combinations

point technique.6.

COORDINATE

SYSTEMS

40)

systems and orientation.8.

7. Rectangular
and

vectors

Linear

representations.)

VECTORS

Basis

of vector. 3.

2. Definition

Introduction.

1.

1)

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

applications

\302\267
9.

The

complex

plane.)

Chapter
10.

INNER

Definition.

12.

Components.

14.

Work.)

60)

PRODUCTS)

11. Properties
of inner product \302\267
13. Inner
product formulas.

IX)))

CONTENTS)

x)

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

4.

Chapter

15. Our pointof view

A,nalytic

Distance

\302\267

16.

geometry
a

from

The

to

point

line

straight

21.
method of proof. 20. Circles.
24.

line in

straight

two lines

plane

\302\267
28.

Chapter 5
29.

a point to a plane
three dimensions \302\267
26.
Angle

\302\267
25.

\302\267
27.

a line

\302\267

The

be-

line with

and a plane.)
135)

PRODUCTS)

from

to

point

a plane

\302\267
32.

Dis-

cross

lines. 33. Triple

two

between

scalar product.

30. Triple

products.

31. Distance
tance

of a

Intersection

between

Angle

CROSS

Cross

by points on it

from

Distance

tween

a plane

Det\037rmining

17.

22.

Spheres.

\302\267
23.

Planes

\302\267

line continued. 18.

a line. 19. Analytic

the

of

76)

products.)

Chapter

151)

TRIGONOMETRY)

34. Plane

trigonometry .,35. Spherical

trigonometry.)

Cl\037apter

36. Loci defined

booby traps. 38.
Linear

more
parametric

by

inequalitjes.

37.

few

Segments and convexity.39.

40.

programming.

general

160)

GEOMETRY)

MORE

Theorems

arising

in

geometries. 41. Applicationsof

equations

to

locus

problems.

42.

Rigid motions.)
APPENDIX

204

ANSWERS

fJ06

INDEX)

\03711)))

elem.entary

operations)

1.

INTRODUCTION

The

history

of the

of mathematical ideas

development

indicatesthat abstractconcepts
arise

from

generally

in some

problemsof

counting,

roots

Arithmetic stemmedfrom

\"practical\" problem.

arose

geometry

from

problems

of

surveying land in Egypt, and calculusdevelopedprincito solve the problems of motion.

from
the
efforts
pally
goes quite beyond the point of
however,
Mathematics,
the
that initiate the particular
solving
merely
problems
a
for
is
with
mathematics
concerned
building
study,
deductive science that is general and abstract,that may
science
have
a wide range
of application.
By a deductive
that
a
we mean,
logical development
beginswith
briefly,
of a set of assumptions
a
basic
framework
consisting
and a set of terms used in
or
(calledaxioms
postulates)

stating the assumptions. the

of the assumptions are then the
All

theorems

science,

which is

logical
of

consequences
deductive

the

concerned with abstractions or idealiza1)))

ELEMENTARY

2)

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

tions of concepts from the original

rather
than
problem
the original problem itself. For example,
the
study
is based on a set of assumptions
of geometry
that
deal
with lines and POil1tS
than
rather
with fences
essentially
Line is an abstract concept;
and fenceposts.
an
idealization
of the
fence, and it admits to all sortsof
other
of light,
the edge of a board,
ray.

with

it is

a
interpretations:

the path of a

some

under

molecule

circumstances,

still others. Thus geometry,with

finds application in a variety
surveying,

a host of

and

in

origins

its
of

problems.

The

however, goes on-and far

mathematician,

pure

oncehe
a mathematical
beyond. Because
free to exercisehis imagination making

study,

begins

he is

logical

by

deductiollS

and developing theories

from the realities of the motivating
is a reality
mathematician
there
theorems)

(proving

that
qllite
apart
the
problem.
within his deductivescience.
drawing
metry for illustration, we can point to the
are

li\"'or

from

Again

dimensional

fOllr

of

geo-

developments

n-dimensional

geometry-even

world
is
spite of the fact that our physical
non-Euclidean
or
to
the
of
invention
dimel1sional,

geometry-in
three

geometries,that contradictEuclid'sParallelPostulate
for

(which,

2000

over

mathematicaltruth).
were

consequences
the

beyond

consideration

was accepted

years,
Such

as absolute

by mathematicians

creations

of strong imagination and quite

of any elementary
problem in

the physical

world.

Vector

in

physical

is

analysis
problems.

also
It

a subject that
was developed

has its roots

primarily

handle problemsin physics,

problems
chanics but, later, problems in various other

in

initially

physical

twentieth
of

a vector

science.

Developments

have resulted
in a
consequently,

centuries
and,

of

th\037

branches

nineteenth

to
meof

and

in the abstractconcept
wide range of interpre-

tationsofthisabstractconcept.

The

result

is that

vec-)))

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTA.RY

tors

now

to name

3)

a prominent role in a variety

a
few:
just
physicalchemistry,fluid-flow
play

studies,
theory,

and

psychology,

economics,

theory,

electro-magnetic

of

electrocardiography.

with illustrations
filled
in
Geometry books aI,vays
fact
that
the
circle
of
are
abstract
point,line,
spite
that do 110texistin physicalreality
in spite
concepts
of the fact that beginning students are apprisedof the
are

and

and

the
at
of
abstract
subject
their course. The reasonis

Abstract

simple.

quite

is difficult;

reasoning

beginning of

the very

nature

students therefore need-or

leastassisted
by-the

of

help

some

real

model

are at

(or inter-

a
pretation) of the abstract concepts.Consequently,
with a sharp pencil is a convenient
dot marked
of point, and a sharppencildrawn
for the concept
model
a
ruler
leaves a n1arkthat isusedasa
of
the
along
edge
of line.
for
the
Such pencil marks are a
model
concept
until they get to feel at
for
convenience
beginl1ers
great
and
in
the
home
subject
begin to feel that there is a
in
itself.
Later in their mathematical
reality
geometry

small

studies students

other

encounter

abstract

concepts,

but

models
to
by this time they can, and do, use geometric
assist
in still more abstract reasoning. This
them
is precisely
of
what occurs in the
pattern
development
the concept of vector can
of
vectors.
Although
study
a geometric
be made abstract,
model (directed line segthat
assists
the beginner in development) is the crutch
ing steadylegsinthe field that is new to him.
that
It is the author'sview
steady
legs in abstract
and
that
vector algebra are developedslowly
reasoning
in the model (now geometry)for some
extended
period
should
be done preliminary to engagingin the abstract

study.

this

Therefore

with a geometricstudy

entire
of

vectors

textbook
(i.e.,

co\037cerns itself
the application

vectors to geometry),in contrastto the general

study

of vectors.

Let us

begin.)))

abstract

of

2. DEFINITION
Earlier

we

OF VECTOR
out

pointed

from

originally

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

4)

physics.

the idea of vector came

let us considerTherefore,

that

from the physicist's point of view-the

statement
of the
television announcer who, beforegiving
his
final
\"Good
and
the wind
night,\" states, \"The temperature is 110W 37\302\260
is' 12 miles per hour in a northeasterly
In
direction.\"
this simple weather announcementwe observe
examples
different types of quantities in the sense
of two distinctly
that the first (temperature)
requires
only a single num-

units, of course-for its description,

(wind velocity) requires two facts,
quantity

ber-with

whereas

second

the

magnitude

These

dire-ction.

and

the quantities encounteredin

Hence,
quantities

called
tude

examples

are typical

elementary

physics.

of

classification is made:
that
are singled out and
possess
only magnitude
whereas
that
both
quantities
possess
scalars,
magniare called vectors.
and direction
the

simple

following

In additionto
of scalar
examples
quantities are mass, length, area,
in addition
volume;
and,
to velocity, examples of vectors are force,acceleration,
temperature,

and

a11delectricalintensity.

Just as the

for his
means

trained
which
he can
A convenient
the

geometry-to
by

of

reasoning.

is a directedline

desires

mathematician

general concepts, so

segment

model

geometric

doesthe physicist.

For

has a reality

physicist-also

\"visualize\" and be aidedin his

geometric model for a vector
(/)

because

this

possesses

both magnitude (length) and direction,simultaneously.

which
suits the needs of physicists, is also
This
model,
our
for
for it is our aim to
quite satisfactory
purposes,
mearlS
of
vectors).
study
(by
geometry
Hence, for our

mathematical development,

we

make

the

for-

following

mal definition.

Definition.
use

boldface

vector

is

a directed

type to indicate a

line segment.

vector. The

e shall

symbol1AI)))

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

5)

Terminus

or

endpoint)

c)
p

Origi n)

.0)

(b))

(a))

FIGURE

that the

event

we

PQ,

being

of

PQ

to designate

used

be

will

(see

the length of vector A.

In

vector we speak of isthe directedsegment

its

emphasize
origin

and

Figure

1a).

the

1)

the
\037

nature by writi11gPQ,
Q being the terminus or endpoint
Another useful conventionwhen
vector

\037

--7

\037

a
vectors OB, OC, and OD with
several
and
common
0 is to call these vectors
D,
origin
with
concerned
a
is
if
discussion
That
respectively.
is,
from a single point, we may
several
vectors
emanating

to

referring

B, C,

them

designate

merely

by

their

individual

endpoints

(see Figure1b).

The
one is called a unit vector.
of zero length (with
direction),
any
conalthough
peculiar, is actually a great
apparently
vector
zero
venience.
We refer to such a vector as the
The
to time.
and shall point to its usefulnessfromtime
of
the
direction
notation
for the zero vector is o. The
4.
zero vector is discussed further in Secti011
A

of

vector

notion

Scalars,

being

bered
scalars
they

length

vector

of a

merely

will

magnitudes,

be real-num-

mathematics
(In more
may be elements of the complexnumbers;indeed,
be from any number field. Our needs,
may

quantities.

advanced

how-)))

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

6)

not require such generalityand will therefore

be
scalars
to
the
real
by restricting
numbers.)
are designated
by lower-case Latin letters: a, b, c,

ever, do
satisfied
They

or

by

3.

FUNDAMENTAL

numerals.)

Our desire
end we must
tors equal.

Definition.
A

(ill)

vectors

Two

and only if I

B) if

(i)
(ii)

PROPERTmS

is to build an algebraof
first present a criterion

is

and

the same sense of

the
length of A equals
\\BI, i.e.,
B

possess

It cannot be emphasized
toostrongly

even

be equal

space.

vector

if

may

do

they

hold:

not

direction; and
the
that

vectors

the same

possess

of B.)

length

may

position in

our definition indicates that

relocated
provided that we move it
to its original position and
parallel
of fact,

matter

be

a position

to

rigidly

that
(see

As

conditions

three

following

vec-

two

to B;2

parallel

IAt

calling

called equal (written

B are

A and
the

for

to this

and

vectors,

its length or sense of direction

It may
therefore
be relocated in a posi2a).
Figure
with
its
in space that we choose.
origin
anywhere
are
vectors
this freedom, they are termed
given
not

do

we

change

tion
When

free.
1
The

phrase

is actually

tion

is,

(a) If

(b)

If
2

We

\"parallel
in

high

where
Section
to

itself.

in

this

on the

conditions
use
or

the
on

\"if and only if\" points

a double implication,
conditions
B, then

(i), (ii), and (iii)

word parallel in
the same line.\"

up the

(i),

(ii)

more

Although

and

A =

then

hold,
the

fact that the

defini-

or logicalequivalence.
general
this

(iii) hold;

That

and

B.
sense to mean
is not given

usage

it is quite common in analytic

school
geometry,
geometry,
two lines possessingequal slopesare called parallel
(see
a vector is equal
and
Thus a line is parallel to itself,
16).
The latter would not be tru\037 if we didn't
use \"parallel\"
vectors
sense. Figure 2b exhibits two equal
generalized

same

line.)))

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

7)

\"

\"

\"

,
\"-

\"

Y)

\
'\\

(b))

(a))

FIGURE

,)

2)

study of geometry this libertyto make

displaceis highly advantageous. In the applicato
other
this freedom is not
sciences
tionsof vectors
for
it
is
to
restrict vectors to
necessary
always
granted,
in
For
the
of rigid
mechanics
some
example,
degree.
that
a vector
be confined to a
bodies it isoftenrequired
line;that is,it may be moved rigidly but only in the line
This
line is referred to as its line of
it lay originally.
In Figure
3a we show three vectors, F, G, and
action.
three forces of the same magnitude,
which
H,
represent
and haviIlg the same sense of)
lines
on
parallel
acting
In the

of vectors

ments

/
//

z/)

(b))

(a))

FIGURE

3)))

(a))

(b))

4)

FIGURE

direction.
our

effect

F represents

definition.

ofthe bar
of

and

and

represents

F and

bar.

the

therefore

would

They

are

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

8)

be equal accordingto

a pulling force
a pushing
force

G would have
considered

therefore

at the center
at the center

the same

mechanical

mechanically equal.

a
effect
However,H appliedat theendofthebar
of
turning
motion, which is quite different from the
F = G.
Thus H is not equal to the otherforces.
it would be natural to insist that
forces
such
studies
different
lines of action be unequal. Thisjustifies
having
would

effect

In

two

inthe
the stipulation
of
of permitting a vectorto be
theory

of rigid

mechanics

displaced

only

along

bodies,
its

line

of action.

If the fieldof applicationwere the theory of elasticity,

still
would be necessaryto restrict(force)
vectors
both
of the
more.
Figure 3b shows two forces J and
K,
of
line
same magnitude and directed along the same
the
K
has
on
a
soft
material.
acting
plasticlike
action,
of
effect
of stretching
the mass, whereas J has the effect
This illustration
indicates why, in the
it.
compressing
then it

theory

of

elasticity,

two

vectors

applied

at

different)))

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

considered

not

are

points

9)

restrictedto its

position;

original

displace it. Such vectorsare

bound.

called

emphasis, once again:

in accordance with
our

with
state,
are free,

We

book

this

In this field a vectoris

there
is no freedom to

equal.

all

in

vectors

of

definition

equality.
any two vectors (Figure 4a).
for vector B so that its origin
of A. Now we construct a third
the
terminus
at
placed
A + B, whose origin coincides with the
called
vector,
A
with the terof
and
whose
terminus
coincides
origin

Let

Addition.

B be

and

is

a location

select

can

We

minus of B.

The construction
of

nal
sense

(ii)

B =

Addition

(A

Part (ii)

the

indi-

both are the same diagothe same parallelogram, and they possessthe same
Hence we have the followingresult.
of direction.
=

Theorem 1. (i)
that is

A clearly

B +

of

4b)

(Figure

cates that B +

of

the
of

definition

A +

B, for

Addition

of

is

vectors

commutative;

B + A.
of

vectors

B)

+ C

theorem
addition.

that is

is associative;

is easily

(B +

C).

established
5 illustrates

Figure

Co>
\037

Co
\037

\037
\037

\037
\037

\037)

B+C

\037)

A)

A)

FIGURE

6)))

by using
the proof.)

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

10)

the
However, the reader is advisedto phrase
proof
from
deduction
elementarygeometryindependent
logical
of

as a

a figure.)

EXERCISE

1. Give an elementarygeometry
vectors areaddedto equal vectors,
As indicated in Section1, the
toricallYr
notably

from

an
It

force.

but nonethelessexcellent,Dutch
experimented

(1548-1620),

replace the
covered
by the

two

by

sums

the

of a

notion

to characterize

attempt
is interesting

a single

theorem: If equal
are equal vectors.

of the

proof

his-

physical quantities,

to note that the little-known,

in

forces

one, called the

the resultant was actually the

diagonal of a parallelogram,of which

sented the two original forces (Figure6).

of
formulation
of the principles of addition
complete
statics.

an effort
He

resultant.

that

Stevin

Simon

scientist,
two

with

used extensivelyin developing

rium-the beginningof modern

vector arose,

force

the
This

forces,

theory
(It is for

to
dis-

represented

sides repreto his

led

which he
of equilib-

this reason
that the parallelogramsof Figure 6 are sometimes referred to
as parallelogramsof forces.)
the many other accomAmong
of
are
his:
work
on hydrostatics,which
Stevin
(1)
plishments
of)
laid
for
the
reclamation
of
the
below-sea-Ievel
land
plans

Force Fl)

Force

Fl)

Force

FIGURE

6)))

Fl)

and (2) developmentof

Holland,
with

the

first

to

11)

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

a
give
entitled

chapter

systematic
\"Stevin

for numbers

notation

decimal

He was the

for computation.

methods

consequent

treatment of decimals. (Seethe

on Decimal Fractions\" in A Source

by D. E. Smith, or A History
oj MatheJ. F. Scott, 1960.)
of vector addition is consistentwith
our
Thus
definition
the
desires
of the physicist who is interestedin applying
techthe
of vector analysis to his problems. (The
of
student
niques
a critical
science should constantly maintain
attitude
applied
toward the mathematical definitions,
care to see whether
taking
or not they accurateiy reflect
situations.)
given
physical
Before continuing, it should be mentioned
that
Galileo
(15641642), quite independently, cameto the sameconclusionas did
Simon
two scientists discovered how
vectors
Thus
Stevin.
two centuries prior to the inven\"should\"
add, approximately
tion
of vector
algebra and vector analysis in the nineteenth
in Mathematics,

Book

matics, by

century.

Our

can

addition

vectors:

of

Of course,

(ii) of

of

definition

sum

the

Al +

this can be doneby

Theorem 1) and applying

the

However,
as

simply

grouping
the

pairs

definition

(note

part

repeatedly.

process might be described

that its origin is at the
so
that
its origin is at the
Aa

geometric

follows:
of

terminus

now be extended to find

\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
+ An.
2 + Ag +

AI;

move
move

A 2 so

of A 2 ; continue
this process until An is placed
its origin at the terminus of An-I.
The
sum Al +
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
A
is
then
the
vector
whose
+
+ An
g +
origin

terminus

with
A

coincides
cides
the
with

with

the

origin

terminus

of Al

and whose

terminus coin-

of An.

What would be the sum of the vectors

that
form a
closed polygon with arrowstakingusallthe way around?
to find the answer before reading on.) Consider,
(Try
for
A + B + C + D + E + F 'of Figure
7.
example,
This is the vector
whose
the
coincides
with
origin
origin
of A and whose terminus
with the terminus of
coincides
F
as)))
after
are placed \"origin to terminus\"
the vectors

FIGURE

sum

We then

length.

This
answer

our

D+ E+ F=

C +

B +

query

for

a polygon

o.)

of n sides, so the

zero vector.

is: The

Multiplicationof a
by
convenient to introduce

a scalar.

vector

In arithmetic
as

multiplication

of addition.
4 + 4 + 4.

the

zero

write

holds

argument
to

the origil1 and terminus of

same point, al1dthe vector
is of

are the

vector

7)

Hence

above.

described

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

12)

For example, 3 X 4 may be

\037\037
rt,\037)

FIGURE

8)))

\037

of

thought

Similarly, we can-at least to begin

it is

extension

an

with-)

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

13)

think of multiplying a vector by a

of vector addition. An illustration
A +. A.
that 2A should
represent
of

we

addition,

parallel to

the

however,

A +

vector

know

and

the

having

of A +

length

is

twice

is

8)

(Figure

From our definition

same sense
A

extension
might be

as an

scalar

a vector

actually

of direction as A;
the

length

of A.

A by
A, the result of multiplying
2 is a vectorparallelto A having
the same
sense
of direction as A but with twice the length of A.

Therefore,

2A

if

A +

the scalar

Before proceedingto the general

case
of multiplying
vector by a scalar, let us considerthe questionof
would

be appropriate

f\037r

ble demand might

for the

In

parallel
of

if

general,

X =

to A, (b)

direction

this

stipulate

moment,

opposite

and

see where
(a)

(c) X must

IAI

(-A)

= 0;

0, we know that

\\xl, and
to that of

A reasona-

of -A.

a definition

be that

(Figure

a
what

9).

so let us,

it takes us.
X

must

be

have a sense
Thus-A

precisely the properties a, b, and c menin the previous sentence. (Alternatively, if

tioned
A + X = 0, then A followed
by X can be thought of as
a closed
in which the origin of X is at the terpolygon
minus of A.) Consequently,our definition
should
(and
that
a
will) stipulate
multiplying by negative scalarhas
the effect of changing
the sense of direction of a vector.
We are now ready to present a definition
for
the
multia
of
a
vector
scalar.)
by
plication
should

have

FIGURE

9)))

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

14)

GEOMETRY)

;1A)

FIGURE 10)

vector parallel to A with magnitude

In \\
=
the
times
of A. In symbols, InAI
magnitude
Inl iAI.
to have the same sense of
Further, if n > 0, nA is defined
direction as A; and if n < 0, nA is defined to have a sense
direction
to that of A; finally, if n = 0, nA
is
of
opposite
to be the zero vector (which follows from the first
defined
Definition.

sentence

nA

of our
n =

Figure
definition).
3, n = -3, and n

for

init.ion

Theorem

2.

is a

m(nA)

(ii)
(iii)

illustrate,
a

nA
3

2A,

The

sy-mbol

(m + n)A

definition

(mn)A.
mA

nA.

B) = mA +
consider m = 5 and
meA +

vector twicethe

Inl refers

as follows:If n > 0, then

rfhe

i-.

If m and n are scalars,then

(i)

To

10 illtlstratesthe def-

asserts that the absolute

of

length

to the absolute value

= n; and if
Inl

mB.

- 2.

A btlt

directed

of n,

which is

< 0,

then

value

of

always non-negative; e.g., 131 = 3, 1-31 = 3, and

=
shall need the fact that
of
\\mnl
Imllnl, the truth
he clear from
definition.)))
the

a
101

Then

Inl

defined
=

number
=

which

O.

-n.

is
We

should

15)

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

(i) states:

oppositely to A.

5(-2A) = (5)(-2)A

(-2))A =

(5 +

states:

(ii)

3A =

5A

5A

-lOA.

or

(-2)A

(- 2)A.

(iii) states: 5(A + B) = 5A + 5B.

Proof.
(i) By examining the length of
ber of (i), our definitionof multiplication
a scalar yields)
1 m(nA)

ImllnAI

that the directions

that

of

same

the

have

the definition
(ii)

they are parallel follows

multiplies of A. The reader

That
length.
that both are

a vector

by

= ImnllAl

ImllnllAI

that the vectors of

1 proves

Equation

mem-

left

the

of

are

(i)

(1)

(mn)AI.

in

equal

fact

from

the

is left

to check

sense.

Use

(Hint.

nA..)

+ n = 0, both sidesof (ii)

point in the same direction \037s A.
If m

vectors

represent

m +

If

n <

0,

that point in the direcboth sidesof represent

vectors
tion oppositeto that
of their
The
A.
comparison
lengths is left to the reader. (Hint. Usethe
(ii)

of

definition

of

nA.)

Let us

(iii)

We consider the

nonzero.
A

suppose that

(see

--7

then P R

and

Bare

B.

and

nOllparallel

trianglePQR,-?

which

11), by having A

Figure
A +

PQ,

defines

-?

B =

QR,

P' Q'

R'

triangle
,
-?
\037
=
=
=
mA
mA
where
+ mB.
P'Q', mB
Q'R', then P'R'
is
similar
to triPQR
SincemAilAandmBilB.triangle

-?

We

construct

-?

angle

is meA + B), and we have

=
mA
+ mB.
+
B)
meA
The reader should consider two questions cOllcerning
of (iii).
The first is: What of the direction
proof

result

the

P'Q'R'.

Thus

P'R'

the

that

of)))

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

16)

p')

p)
A)

mA)

11)

FIGURE

B) as comparedto that of mA + mB? The

and
with
the
proof explicitly concerned itself,
lengths
of
the
two
sense
parallelism
vectors, but it didnotdiscuss
of
The
direction.
second
is: Does the proof
question

m.(A +

break

if

down

A\\.IB?

Since

NOTE.

part

(i)

change of parenthesis is legitimate,we

be no confusion if we eliminate
For
entirely and write mnA.
example,)
= (3

3(2A)

\302\267

2)A

As il1 elementary

Subtraction.

that
traction is operation
we define subtractionof

is

an

2A

the

parenthesis

6A.)

arithmetic, where subthe inverse of addition,

of' vector
the
inverse
real number, we write
the
expresses
equation
and
in terms
of addition
as

vectors

More precisely,if

addition.

\302\267

there

know

now

would

is a

a - a = a + (-a) O. This
fact that subtractioll is
of
addition.
that subtraction is the
-a
is the
that
the
realilumber
maticians
say
=

defined

Mathe-

inverse

a relative

is the

to the

operation
inverse

additive

of

of

inverseof -a).
carry
defining subtraction.

Definition.
to

mean

-lB.)))

B =

or

additioll

(similarly,
these

We

that

states

Theorem

of

(-B)

ideas

simply

a is

that

of

- a

the additive

over to

where

inverse

-B

vectors in

is

written

ELEMENTARY OPERATIONS)

17)

of subtraction
can take
in
12.
Note
that the
any
preeented
Figure
A
of the
is equal to the sum
diagonal
parallelogram
B (A - B) and also to the sum (A - B) + B. Such
who is
for
the
algebraic checking advised
beginner
the

Geometrically

operation

forms

the

of

is

having difficulty in finding the correctorientationfor the

difference
A-B.
With these few tools of addivector
and subtraction
we can begin applying vectorsto
tion
geometry.

elementary

We shall use our vector operationsto work

an
states
exercise, one equivalent to the theorem which
elementary
that
the diagonals of a _parallelogram
Let
each
other.
bisect
not
on one line.
Call M the mid0, B, and C be threepoints
We shall prove that
BC (see Figure 13a).
point of segment
1.

EXAMPLE

--+--+

--+

OM

cussed

(OB
\037

+ OC).

on page

In accordance with

5, we shallwrite

\037

OB,

convention

the
--7

C = OCand M

Then)
\037

= B

+ BM)

= C

- MC = C \037

and

\037
BM

\037

(since

Bill

\037

= MC).)

B)

-B)

B)

FIGURE 12)))

dis\037

= OM.

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

18)

B)

B)

D)

o)

o)

c)

c)

(a))

(b))

13)

FIGURE

we get)

Adding,

2M=B+C

M =

or)

If we considerour figure

(Figure13b),

then

o to the midpoint

to

the

result

of

diagonal

\037

for

IODI

we

conclude

may

eachother.

of a

t\\VO sides

any

one half of

that the line joining the

triangle is parallel to the third

Prove

2.

EXAMPLE

be part of a parallelogram OBDC

states that the line joining vertex
BC is one half the diagonal OD,

In equivalent (and more usual) language

CI.
that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect

\\B

it.

In triangle PQR (seeFigure

of

PQ

and

\037

Then

.C

these

that

(Note

\037

B = PkI

= NR,

vector

Adding

and
D

to

of

that

equality

A - B, we
of vectors)

the segment

and

N be

C+

midpoints

\037

\037
C

J.lfQ,
A

follow from

MN,

to

equal

and

D =

\037

QR.

- B = o.
about

vectors

summing

quadrilateral JfNRQ, respectively.)

both sides of the last equation, we get
C +

Since

- Band
equations

MNP

triangle

111 and

let

14)

midpointsof

Call)

respectively.

PR,

\037

PN

+ C).)

(B
\037

- B = D.

(by the
proves simultaneously thatNM\\lRQ
have

2C

= D, which

NM equals one half

of

the

base

definition

RQ.)))

and

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

19)
p)

R:)

14)

FIGURE

EXERCISES

the easily rememberedSHORTCUTLEMMA:

\037
AB
+ BC = AC. (This lemma has also been appropriately
the Bypass
Lemma by Professor D. W. Hall.)
named
2. Reproduce
Figure 15 on another sheet. Then construct
and labelthe vectorsC - A, B - C, B + C, and -B - C.
1. Establish
\037

\037

\037

3.
four

Show

that

arbitrarily

PQ +
chosen

\037

TlS =

\037

where

2MN,

points

P,

and where

FIGURE

15)))

Q, R,
\037f

and

and S
N

are

are
the)

midpoints of PR and QS, respectively.

around the polygon NMRS and
4.

Draw

5.

\037

\037

point,

+ XR.

current. The
5 mph N.
and give a
the resultant.
is

of the forces. (vectors) acting

is the zero vector, solve the following

in equilibrium

a body

mid-

\037

force
resulting
the direction
of

the

.of

geometricconstructionthat shows
6. Using the fact that the sum
on

\037

X Q

XP

upon by the wind and

mph E and the current velocity

the magnitude

Compute

of A.B, Q the

CA. If X is any

acted

is

is 8

velocity

\037

XB + XC =

NMPQ.)

midpoint

midpoint of

\037

sailboat

wind

P the

with

R the

and

XA +

that

show

ABC,

triangle
BC,

the

Sum

(Hint.

vectors

point of

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY.

20)

problem.

of 100 lb hangs by a wire and is pushed by a horiA weight

zontal force until the wire makes an angle of 1r/4 (or 45\302\260)
the vertical.
with
Find the magnitude of the horizontal
force
and the tension in the wire.

7.

8. If

the

that

Show

A,

D are

any four points

\037
\037
AB + AD + CB +
\037

that

plane),

prove

and Q

are the

of

quadri-

of a parallelogram.

and

C,

B,

sides

of consecutive

midpoints

are vertices

lateral

of

midpoints

and

A.C

in a

necessarily

(not
\037

\037

CD

4PQ

where

(How does

BD.

relateto Exercise

this

2?)

Using
associative
(A

properties
-

B) and

(A

10. Establish the

nology: the
0'

vector

0' =

4.

of subtraction, the

definition

the

9.

zero

of addition,
B) +

B, do actually

that has the

reduce

to

equal

A.

the termithus justifying

Consider the possibility of a
properties of O. Then prove that

uniquenessof

vector.

and

commutative

show that the sums B +

0,

(Hint.

0.))

LINEAR

COMBINATIONS

OF

VECTORS

we have learned to add and subtract

vectors,
we can combine
multiply vectors by scalars,
to enrich
and
vectors
these operations to generate new
our algebra of vectors. For example,if we are given A)))

Now that
and also to

21)

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

can perform our various operationsto get

B,
B, 2A - 3B, 5A + 6B, etc. Such combinationsof A and B are called linear combinations of
A and
B.
The set of aillillear combinationsof A and B
could
be written {xA + yB Ix and y real}. 4 The
defil1ition of linear combinations is now extended in the folB, we

and

If

way:

lowing

Xl, X2,

X3,

xiA

AI,
,X n

A 2, A 3 , . . .
are n scalars,

X2A 2

X3

and

n vectors

the vector
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267

A g

are

, An

xnAn

of AI, A 2, A 3 , . .
to be a linearcombination
of
section is devoted to the study
The present
of certain sets of vectors,
and
the
combinatiolls
contained herein are perhaps the most difficult
Thus we shall proceedslowly.
el1tire book.
The
is cautioned
to study the definitionsand to take

is said

,An.
linear

ideas
the

in

reader
them

literally!

Iloted

We

that

tiplying

earlier that
-A, that is,

Since

-1.

A by

could, in a sense,say

conversely,that

,ve began with

the equationA
X is the vector
X is

that

is

dependent

A =

and)

X =

obtained

0 implies
by

from

derived

mul-

A, we

depe11dent upon A;
UpOll X.
Similarly,

or,
if

we could write

3Y = 0,

be

can

--lA

3Y.)

Y is shown to depel1d 011A and

A to depel1d
on
A
a11d
to
state
that
Y. It might be preferable
simply
that
to
observe
Yare dependent. It is almost trivial
if the
scalar
such dependency would be impossibleto sho,v
Hellce we exclude
coefficients of A and Y were both zero.
Thus

this case

in

consideratiol1

from

making

the

following

definItion.
4

The

defining

satisfying

synlbolism
sets in the
the

{I

},

following

condition

borrowed
\"ray:

or sentence

from
{zIS(z)}

S (z).)))

set theory, is useful in

the set of all
represents

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

22)

Two vectors

Definition.

dependent if and

not both

zero,

if

only

aA +

so that

there

are called
two scalars

and

GEOMETRY)

exists

bB = o.

Remark:The studentshould

recognize

the

linearly

a and b,
fact

that

of words are statements of logical

definitions
equivalence
and
its
(see footnote
1, page 6); i.e., boththe statement
hold.
converse
Using our present definitionto illustrate
this explicitly,
we
would
say that the definition states:
dependent
implies that
and
both of them zero, so that
b, not
aA
aA + bB = 0 holds,
+ bB = 0; and (2) if a relation
a
and
to
not
both
b
zero
with
equal
(i.e., at leastonebeing
A and B are linearly dependent.
then
nonzero),
is equivalent
to saying that
Algebraicallyour definition
B
and
being
(1)
there existscalarsa
A

linearly

two vectors are linearly dependentif and only if (see

\"if and only if\
footnote 1 for explanation of the phrase
one of them is a scalar multiple of the other (show this!).
A geometric
would be the following:Two
interpretation
if and only if they are
vectorsare linearly
dependent

parallel. The

can

reader

verify

these

interpretations

of the
form
formally by constructing a general
that preceded our definition. One
point,
however,
must
be mentioned;
this concerns the presenceof 0 as
argument
fine

one

of

that 0
10 +

vectors

the
and

any

under
vector

consideratio11.
A are linearly

First,

we note

dependent, for

OA
0 and
for
0, which is the definingcondition
be linearly depe11de11t
nonzero
(1 is the required
would say that
Our
scalar).
geometric
i11terpretation
o isparalleltoA, where A may be any vector. This may
howto the beginning student of vectors;
appear
strange
it
is
a
of
conmatter
convenience
to
retain
the
ever,
great
vention that the zero vector is parallel to every vector!
as having no direcInstead of regarding
the
zero vector
tion (as would
to some),
we regard 0 as having
appeal
and direction,
Vectors
direction.
any
specify
magnitude
so we chooseto say that 0 has any or all directio11s
simul-)))

A to

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

the zero vectoristhe only

Of course,

taneously.

23)
vector

a property, for any other vector (line

segment
has a u11iquedirection. Later,when
of nonzero
length)
work
we
with perpendicular
vectors, we shall have occasion regard
zero
vector
as perpendicular
the
to every
such

with

to

vector.

zero

has

vector

In the
we

ent,
we

the idea

with

consistent

is

this

Again,

that the

direction.

any

event that two vectors arenot linearly

dependcall them linearly independent. Summarizing,

that:)

say

of vectors,

A pair

(1)

is a

one

which

of

is a

zero vector,

linearly dependentsetof vectors.

A

(2)

(3)

of

pair

vectors is a linearly

nonzero

parallel

dependentset.
A

of

pair

a linearly

vectors is

nonparallel

nonzero,

independent

set.)

merely
the generalizing
would leave us

contradict
fllrthermore,
of linear

and,
theory

extend
Xn,

so

where not all

If,

that

A 2,

. .
if

example,

of

the

are

x's

the

zero).

implies

one

definition.

following

. .

. , An
a set

exist

X2 A 2

of

is called

n vectors

of scalars Xl,

Xl

. , An
three

\302\267
\302\267
\302\267

(i.e. when

zero

X2A 2
=
is

X2 =
said

XnAn

on the other
+

xlAl

AI,

A 2,

vectors

X2,

that)

xlAI

equal

the

with

Definition. A set AI,

linearly dependentif there

spirit

of

mathematics

of

with a rather meager

We therefore proceed to

dependence.

notions

Ollr

to pairs

attention

our

Confining

would

hand,

the

\302\267
\302\267
\302\267

\302\267
. =
\302\267

to be
\037

= 0,

at least one doesnot

equation

xnAn

Xn =

= 0

0, . then

linearly independent.

vectors,
AB,
cases
must
following

\037

set

the

For

\037

CD, and EF,

occur: (a) It

are

is

given,

possible)))

three scalars a,

to find

\037

\037

not

is

It

to

possible

The

shall

we

of

geometric

3.

any

vector

third

bination of A

are

the
they

It
dealing

segments

be

can
16).

Figure
mille

form

step ill the

C;

and

and

which

are

is parallel

B, can

be

then

independent,

linearly

to (or

expressed

as

in)

the

plane

com-

a linear

B.

be
should be recalled that vectors may
they possess a commonorigin, that is,
with free vectors.
Therefore, even when
A, B, and C might be in space,
representing
to positions in the same plane (see
moved
A and B with a commonorigin deterFor

so that

arranged
we

If

by A and

Proof.

o.

may be rather

theorem.

Theorem
determined

to be linearly
dependto be linearly independent.
a = 0, b = 0, and c =

an intermediate

provide

In

scalars.

said

to n vectors

vectors

two

from

jump

steep,so

if

hold

will

that)

(*))

such

three

find

the three vectorsare

In case (b) they are said

In both cases(*)

such

\037

case (a)

ent.

all zero,

not

c,

+ cEF = o.)

bC D

aAB

(b)

and

b,

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

24)

alld

pla11e;

C (being

parallel to this plane) may

then be displacedsothat it is

actually

the

in

plalle

A and B.)

'B)
\037)

A)

\037

))
A)

FIGURE

16)))

of

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

yBII

25)

B
xA

\037----

A)

and

oX <

> a

/x >o

is a

if C

nOllzerovector, there isa parallelogram

C alld

diagonal

y>O

17)

FIGURE

Now,

and

(b))

(a))

with

A
\037

A)

'\\vith

B.

A and

along

edges

An

in
explicit constructioll of this parallelogramis given
17
and
call
be
as
described
follows:Call0 the
Figure
common
of the
vectors A, B, and C, and call A,
origin
and
C the respective
B,
endpoints of the three vectors.
Constructa line \302\243through
C parallel
to B, alld call D

theintersectionof

the

\302\243
with

line

of actiol1

of A

the

(when

\037

of A

origin

of

multiple

is 0).
A; let

\037

DC

yB.

OD =

us say

xA.

In the

trivially

\037

DC,

let

B;

us

say

Then)

C = xA

(2))

yB,)

of
C to be a linear combination
the
event that C is the zero vector,
true, for)

shows

which

some

is

l\037\"urthermore,

is some multipleof

to B,

parallel

being

Then OD, being parallelto A,

\037

B.

and

is

theorem

OA + OB,)

(3))

and our proof is complete.

Toassociate
more

the

concept

Corollary.

strollgly

of lillear
Any

linearly depertdent.)))

three

the

idea

3 '\\vith

we state the

dependence,
vectors

of Theorem

in

the

same

plane. are

Proof.
Equati<?ns 2 and 3 imply
scalars Xl, X2, Xg, (not all zero), so that

For,

when

\037

zero. When C = 0,

number, say

Xg

one of

and

exist

(2) is

non-

to any

real

y in

Xg equal
X2 = o.

Xl

set

can

we

1, and

there

that

= O.

+ xgC

least

at

0,

X2B

xlA

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

26)

EXAMPLE 3. We shall use the concept of linear combination

to achieve another view of Example
1. Suppose we wish to
bisect each other.
prove that the diagonalsof a parallelogram
Let the parallelogrambe OA.BC
(see
Figure
18), with P the
intersectionof the diagonals.
Again, using the convention of
\037

\037

writing

=
to

meA

be

= OP, A

+ C)

meA

and grouping the A-terms

Because

in

Thus m

n(A

C),)

and C-termsgives

- n)C = o.
C are linearly independent, their scalar coeffi.A and
the last equation must both be zero. Hence
+ n

(m

cients

\037

= OA, and B = OB, we have P = mB

\037\"'hd
\037
- C), where m and n are scalars
+ C) and PA
n(A
\037
Since A = P + P A, we may write
determined.
P

n =

+
,
\037

n =
which

l)A

(m

and
proves

that P

n =

o.

bisects both diagonals

simultaneously.)

B)

o)

FIGURE

18)))

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

tant

in

vectors

the

that

theorem

with

work

the development on linear combinawe next establish an imporplane,

serves
as a very strong instrumentfor

with

Continuing

tionsof

problems.

geometric

Let A, Band C

4.

Theorem

a common origin O.
If

(i)

C has

80 that

located

be

on the line joiningthe end-

its endpoint

points

and

C =

lA

mB,

where

if

C has

a representation

mB,

where

C=

lA

they have

Then:)

of

Conversely,

(ii)

27)

B,

l + m

l + m

= 1.
in the form

= 1,

C has its endpointon the line joiningthe end-

pointsof
that

in

same

the

in
.

and

and

B.

the readershould
with three vectors
(often called coplanar vectors), and
plane
nonzero and nonparallel, then every vector
is a linear
of A and B (C being one

with the proof,

proceeding
is concerned
the theorem

Before
observe

the

are

plane

if

such)

of

combination

and

theorem singlesout

B,

by

Theorem
linear

particular

3.

However, the

combinations

by

coefficients.
condition on the scalar
of
For
the converse
point
view, we would state (and
should
the
reader
verify) that any linear combinationof
A and B, is equal to a
two
independent
linearly
vectors,
A
B
of
in the
and
when
the two are situated
vector
plane
a common origin. Once again, the theorem
to possess

means

of a

states

that

Proof: (i) Here

that

and

B,

A,

C has

that

points

of

and

li\037\037ar

combinations

have

implications.

geometric

interesting

and

of these

certain

we

have

as

our

hypothesis

the fact

C all emanate
from the same point 0,
its endpoint on the line joiningthe endWe follow the convention of calling)))
B.

GEOMETRY)

'VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

28)

o)

FIGURE

B,

A,

(see Figure

Let e

endpoints of A,

e the

and

19)

and

B,

C, respectively

19).

divide

the

in

BA

segment

\037

=
Thus C =

B +
+

(1

lA

mB.

(ii) For the

and C emanate

\037lgebraically

lBA

B +

leA

- B)

- l)B.

converse, our hypothesisstates that

from the same point and C = lA

where l + m =

1.

point on the line

C=
Now

We

jOillillg

lA

or

that

himself

\037

Be = B

lA

l:m, where

ratio

l + m = 1. (The
reader
should
convince
a given ratio can always
be
transformed
so that the two parts sum to Ullity.)
TheIl)

show

must
the

mB

that

endpoints

= lA +

C = B+

leA

C has
of A

(1 -

A,

B,

+ mB,

its end-

and B.

l)B;

B).)

A geometric examination of this

comlast
equation
for
the
be
statesthat
the
equation
pletes
may
proof,
0
reached
from
to
and
BA.)))
then
line
by traveling
B,
along

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

29)

EXERCISES

1. What

happens

2.

What

are

land

3.

What

can

be

stated

4.

(a) l =
(b)

5. (a)

land

(b)

Do the

(c)

Do

the

positive?

for cases

where

j;

-i.

= l:m,

is 2:3

division

of

m so

that 1 +

same for the ratio

same for the ratio

1.

4: 3.
5: -3.

4 reduces Example. 1 (p. 17) to a

and C be threepoints
not
on one line,
M the
JJI divides
of BC (see Figure 20). Then
midpoint
in the ratio I: I( =i-:\037), and Theorem
4 allows us to write
4.

For,

triviality.

BC

C if

\037
;

If the ratio

EXAMPLE

with

! and m
= i and m

find

of

O?)

1 =

(c) l

zero vector?
the location

regarding

are

constructions

Give

is the

= A?

m if C

(a) both land m

(b) l is negative?

(c) 1 =

or B

if

Theorem
let

0, B,

i-B +

i-C.)

o)

c)

FIGURE

20)))

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

30)

A)

c)

21)

FIGURE

POINT TECHNIQUE

5. AUXILIARY

The introduction of

an

to play

point

auxiliary

the role

of commonorigin for severalvectorsunder

consideration
often
the use of Theorem 4. The following
facilitates
three
are devoted
to an exploration of this
examples

technique.
2.

of Example

problem

new approach
Let

shall

We

5.

EXAMPLE

be

may

new

to

approach

difficult

more

perhaps,

the

the

instructive.

ABC be

triangle

now provide
Although

N midpoints

and

jJ{

with

given,

of

sides AB and AC, respectively.

Let 0 be a point in general
position(not coincidingwith any of the already named points
or lines). Applying
4 to the three vectors A, C, and
Theorem
N that emanate from 0 (see Figure21),we get
=

N
and

similarly,)
Since

M =

- M.
N

which
parallel

proves
to

C;)
\037

\037A

\037B

to compare MN

we desire

vector N

\037A

with

must

we

BC,

examine

Thus

- M

both

desired

- B (=

C
\037

\037

(C
\037

results: that N

\037
BC)

\037

and

that

MN

B),)

\037
M

\037

BC.)))
\037

(=

]jfN)

IS

EXAMPLE 6.
a

of

the

31)

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

again prove that the diagonals

each other, but this time by using
Theorem 4,. and still another
technique,

bisect

parallelogram

point

auxiliary

once

shall

We

tool that has heretoforebeenunemployed.

the

position

we

vention,

\037

OA,

write

B =
our

Establishing

\037

OB, C =

\037

\037

OC,

in vector

hypothesis

BC or)

and P

OD,

\037

\037

AD

intersection

be ABCD, calling P the

parallelogram
let 0 be a point in general
Furthermore,
diagonals.
Once again, according to our con(see
22).
Figure

the

Let
of

language, we

\037
OPe)

write

- B.)

(4))

let us pause to discussthe approach.

further,
proceeding
We
in finding the precise ratio in whichP divides
are interested
if we can
AC
and also the ratio in which P dividesBD. Thus,
get a representation of P, say
Before

P =
then

nA

we would know,

(Note how the

where n +

mC,

by Theorem 4,
\037

\037

IPCI:

IAPI
in

coefficients

the

a linear combination

of

1,

that)

= n:m.
statement

related to the vectors in Figure19.)

P as

and

of Theorem

Consequently,

C so

that the sum

c)

A)

o)

FIGURE

22)))

4 are
seek

we
of

the)

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

32)

coefficients be unity. _1\\ fu\037ther observation,

which is the basis
the
new tool we promised, is that P has two
possible
repreas a linear combination of two vectors
sentations
emanating
be n, m, r, and 8 so that)
from 0; namely, there must
for

= nA

determined,

we

where)

can

If we
8 are

and

= rB + sD,
(5))
=
=
n +
m
1 and r + s
1.)
succeed in producing theserelationssothat n, m, r,
P

our end.

achieved

have

will

(5) is to add

OUf first step toward

of

+ mC

+ B

D =

B +

members

C.)

(6))

the sum of coefficientson each side of

we divide both membersby 2, obtaining)

Since

Both members

of

left

\037B

4.

to both

getting)

(4),

\037

with

comply

(7)

\037A

(6)

equation

is 2,

(7))

tC.)

of Theorem

the conditions

a vector

member

from
represents
emanating
whose endpoint must be on BD; and the right member
from
emanating
0, and whose endpoint
representsa vector
the

Thus

0,

and

is

on

the vector (on

Therefore

AC.

for P is the only point onboth BDand AC.

4 once again, we concludethat
divides
the ratio \037: \037, which is the desired result.

EXAMPLE7. Employing
to prove the familiar
result:
a point two-thirds
the way

Let

ABC

triangle

AC, respectively
medians
AM and
Applying

Theorem

the

The

BD

and

AC in

we attempt
techniques,
of a triangle meetin
medians

vertex to the oppositeside.

N midpoints
the

be

the fact

OP,
Theorem

....L\\.pplying
both

(see Figure 23). CallP

BN, and let 0 a point in
4 to

be

same

from a

M and

have

\037

each side) must

of

sides

BC

and
of

intersection

general position.

that M is the midpoint

of

BC,

we have)
\037

OM

Similarly,

N being

the midpoint
\037

ON
Attempting

and also

M. =

N =

tB +
of

AC

tA +

C.
\037

(8))

yields)

tC.)

P as a linear combination of A and

to achieve
as a linear combination of Band
N, \\ve subtract

(9))

M,
(9))))

eliminate C:

(8) to

from

adding

Then,

33)

OPERATIONS

ELEMENTARY

\037A

N to

of

both members by i.

multiply

l
TA

\037B

on each

coefficients

the

2\"\"

N.

side of

2M --

-g-

(10) is

,
\037

we

so

IB + \037.
2N

-g-

member of (11) representsa

and
whose endpoint is on AM,

o and

(10))

Thus

left

The

A
2\"\".

both members, we get

iA +
The sum

IB -

--

(11))

vector whose
the

right

origin

member

is

of

is 0 and whose endpoint

origin
(11) representsa vector whose
is on BN. But the left and right members of (11)are different
This forces us to conclude
of the same vector.
representations
this

that

is P,

vector

that

is,)

+ iM = j-B + iN.
(12)
us that P divides AM in the ratio i:j-.
in the equation allow
how
the coefficients

P = j-A
tells

12

Equation

(Noticeonce

again

us

to

Query:
in a

\037

\037

\037

intersect

point?

Remark.
of

\037

that lAP!: IPMI = !BPI:!PN!= t:t.

Why is it now clear that all three medians

deduce

common

In the examples presented, the point 0

of the vectors ,vas always selected in)
origin
A)

B)

c)

M)

FIGURE

23)))

This is, of course, not necessary.

point of common origin in some

position.

general

the

placing

Moreover,

special,judiciouslychosellposition

leads

often

siderable

to

con-

Exercises 1, 2, and 3, which

to illustrate this point.)
provided

simplification.
been

have

follow,

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

34)

EXERCISES

1.

out

Carry

5 when

Example

point

is the

point

of emanation

of the severalvectorsin the proof.

2. Do

same

3. Do the

same for

the

for

Example

6.

Example

7.

that the midpointsof

lateral are verticesof a parallelogram
4. Prove
4

with

(compare

5.

Given

7 on

Exercise
ABC

triangle

with

MN is parallelto BC,prove

consecutive

by

p. 20).

N on AB
that

of a quadriof Theorem
use
making
sides

AN:NB

and

on AC, such that

ilf
= AM:MC.
What
and
NM/BC?
If>!B

is the relationshipbetweenthe fractions

AN
6. Prove that the line joining a vertex of a
the midpoint of an oppositeside trisectsthe

to

parallelogram
diagonal

crossed

by it.

7. Generalization of 6. Let ABCD be a parallelogram wit.h

interon AD such that AP = (l/n)AD. Prove
that
BP
A is
sects diagonal AC in a point Q, whose
from
distance

[l/(n + l)]AC.

8.

the
of Theorem 3, namely: If A, B,
analogue
three nonzero, noncoplanar (cannot be placedin one
in space
can be expressed as a
plane) vectors, any vector
linear combination
of A, B, and C.
(Hint. A parallelepiped
is the space analogue of the parallelogramin Theorem3.)
of part a, prove that any four
vectors
the result
(b)
Using
in space form a linearly dependentset.)
and

6.

(a)

Prove

C are

OF

UNIQUENESS

REPRESENTATIONS

The importance of Theorem 3 liesin the statement

in a plane call be expressed
as a linear
any vector
bi11ation

of

two

given

that
com-

linearly independent vectors

in)))

35)

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

The question we now pose is: Is such

a
A
B
More
let
and
be
representation
unique?
precisely,
the given linearly independent vectors and C somearbiin the plane of A and
B.
chosen
vector
trarily
by
Then,
m and n so
Theorem 3, we know that there
exist
scalars
that

plane.

that)

But is it

possiblethat

+ nB.)

mA

is

there

(13))

another

representation,

different from (13), of C as a linear

perhaps
of A and B?

there

Suppose, then, that

Then

(m -

and)

r)A

(n

that)

sB.

= rA +

nB

mA

rA +

s so

rand

scalars

are

combination

(14))

sB

- s)B =

O.)

B being linearly independent implies

= rand
m
n = s.
0 and n - s = 0;hence,
C
Thus (14) is precisely
the
same
of
as is
represelltation
(13). As a result, we say that the representation of C as a
linear combination of A and B is unique.
that
statement
Similarly, we could prove the general
the representation
of
of a vector as a linear
combination
vectors is unique. Suppose
linearly
independent
A and

However,

that

C=

r =

a2 A 2

alAI

\302\267
\302\267
\302\267

anAn

= blAl
+

where

{AI,

of vectors.

(al -

bl)A

2,

,An}

is

a linearly

Again, the
the

bnAn,

set

independent

(a2

2 )A 2

\302\267
\302\267
\302\267

(an

the linear indepelldence of the A's

=
b
and an = bn .
al
l , a2 = b 2 , . . .,
5

Then)

Again,

roster of

+ b2 1\\2
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267

brace symbolism

elements

represents

of the set.)))

a set,

bn)An

O.

\037mplies that
reader)
The

with a listing

or

36)

the

observe

of the

uniqueness

B.

A and

of

combination

linear

construction in Theorem3 to
of C as a
representation

the geometric

check

should

We now employthesefacts
geometry.

EXAMPLE8. We return
problemin orderto prove
to

Referring

once
the

some

attack

to

that

24, we

Figure

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

of

problems

to the parallelogram
bisect each other.

more

diagonals

write)

\037

PT

= meA

+ B).)

(15))
\037

one side

as

it

\037

But

since

QT

\037

nQS

another

achieve

can

We

\037

(15)

and

(16) we

\037

PT

= mA

= A

+ neB -

PT

as

PQ

QT.
QT =

\037

write

(16))

A).

conclude that)
+ mB =

(1 -

B are linearly
independent,
a linear combination of A and

Since A and
\037

Thus)

PT
From

considering
\037
\037

by

\037

of triangle PQT, that is, PT

\037
is part of diagonal QS, we may

- A).

nCB

of PT

representation

n)A

nB.)

the

representation

B Inust

be unique.

R)

FIGURE

24)))

of
That)

37)

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

.
IS,)

which

m = n

that

imply

m =

and)

m=1-n)

the desired

proving

,
\037

n,)

result.

The reader should comparethis approach

with
that
of
3 to see how closelyalliedthey
are
(as are the
of linear independence and uniqueness of
concepts
Example

representation).

We

9.

EXAMPLE

new approach.
\037

is a

AP

to
\037

\037

PN

\037

\037

= mAM.

\037

and

Simi-

n.)

\037

\037

= m( \037AB

mAM

the

that

\037

median AM, so we write AP

\037
nBN.
We seek to determinern
AP

(17))

AC).)
\037

\037

we

a pair

AC constitute

and

AB
If

Figure

part of

\037

larly,

median
problem, using
23 again, we note

the

to

turn

Referring

in

succeed

of

representation

\037

linear

and AC, we

To this end we

\037

AP

\037

employ

our

NP)
\037

\037

\037

\037

- n(tBA

tAC
\037

then

may

write)

- nBN)

AC
\037

as a

---4

\037

=, AN +
=

of AP

\037

of AB

combination

new technique.

vectors.
\037

another

finding

independent

linearly

n\037

AC
\037

BA

+
-

tBC))
\037

n\037

(AC

AB).)

Finally,)
\037

AP

Comparing(17)with
m\037
\"2
which-because

AB +
of

I-n\037

\037

AC +

(18))

gives)

(18)

m\037
AC

\037

nAB

2\"

the

nAB.

uniqueness

1-n\037

AC,)

of representation-allows)))

state

us to

that)

pair

to

effort

linear

=-.1

3)

there was a persistent

\037
of AP as a linear
com-

observe that

two representations

get

is)

equations

\037

\037

A usual
specific vectors AB and A C.
encountered by the beginningstudent revolves

of the two

bination

difficulty

aroundthe

of

problem

the

getting

He knows that he will often get

ships by summingvectorsaround
e.g.

2)

and)

3)

should

reader

of

m=The

1- n

to this

solution

m
-

and)

-=n
2)

The

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

38)

two

\"right\" relationships.
relationindependent
two

different

polygons,

,)
\037

\037

AP

\037

\037

BP)

AB +

But where to go from

he

If

here?

\037

\037

+ NP.)

AN

bears

the

in mind
---?

get different

to

aim

general

AP

and)

representations

as a linear combination of
instance)
linearly independent vectors, he may
employ

AP

of

same

the

the

(for
set

of

technique

coefficients.)

of equating

EXERCISES

1.

medians

the

that

Prove

the method

of

Example
\037

of NP.

sentations

Exercises 6 and 7 on page 34,

2. Re-do

method of

3.

that

Show

Given

bisects

AC,

intersection

use

making

of the

Example9.

line join.ing

the

vertex of a triangle

4.

of a triangle meet in a point by

now by getting different repre...

9, but

of AD

of

to a

median

the

intersection

and Be.

the condition that

of AB and CD; call G

with

ABCD,

quadrilateral
call

the midpoints

trisects the side oppositethe vertex.

Prove that AC is parallel

to

BD
the
FG.)))

(This is
Let

\037

difficult
\037

DG

= xDA

\037

and DF =

call CG
\037

x in terms
of
.
in

of u.

terms

tion

of DA

u.

n)

and

you

m: (1

m to

in

the

be sure that

the

have

will

and

CB

a linear

CD

point

AC'
of

intersection

would

the

the

with

CP

(How would

bisect

a linear

desired

Let

- m). Let

ratio m: n.

as

of triangle

parallelogram

its sides. CallD the

AB

expressGF

Theorem:

following

that A'CB'P is a
divides

as

com-

\037

Finally, if you

divide the sides CA

n: (1 -

= mBG and expressBG

and DC, in two different ways, to determine

Follow
a similar procedure to determiney

and DC,

5. Prove the

\037

=.uDA

\037

\037

\037

\037

DB

that

Note

yDC.

\037

of DA

bination

the following hint.

provide

\037

\037

\037

Then

so we

problem,

\037

uDC.

39)

OPERATIONS)

ELEMENTARY

angle

combina-

result.)

points B' and A'

ABC in the ratios
P be chosen so
and CB' as two of
and AB. Then D
you

C?))))

choose

nand

in

vectors

coordinate

systems)

'1.

AND

SYSTEMS

RECTANGULAR

ORIENTATION

is undoubtedly familiar with

rectangular
in the plane, where two perpendicular
lines are chosen as axes. One is called the x-axis, the
the
of intersection
and
their
other the y-axis,
point
on each
is chosen arbitrarily
direction
origin. A positive
The

coordinate

reader

systems

axis, and the

customary

correspondence

is made

between

the
where
numbers,
points of each axis and the real
real numbers are on that side of the origin
positive
as the positive part of the axis (see
arbitrarily
designated
The
standard
convention (by no means
25).
Figure
is to have the horizontal axiscalledthe x-axis,
binding)
with
its positive
side to the right of the origin o. The
axis
is then
vertical
the y-axis, with its positive side
the
above
25b). Now, consider any
origin
(see Figure
P in the. plane.
From P we drop perpendiculars
point
to the axes.
Call P x a11dP y the feet of these per40)))

IN

VECTORS

COORDINATE

41)

SYSTEMS)

y)

y)

P (x, y)
Py

----1
(-3,2)

. (3,2)

t
I
I
I

x\037

(a))

P%)

(b))

26)

FIGURE

x- and y-axes,respectively. The real

P x on the x-axis is calledthe
with
P and the real number associx-coordinate
of
abscissa)
(or
ated with Py on the y-axis is called the y-coordinate(or
P is then designated by a11orderedpair
of P.
ordinate)
of
real
the abscissa occupying the first
numbers:
y)
(x,
in the pair and the ordinate occupyingthesecond
position
position. If the point P is on the x-axis, we give it a
if P is on the y-axis, we give
of
it
y-coordinate
0; and
an x-coordinate
of o. Thus the origin 0 has coordinates
.
of associating pairs of real numbers
This method
(0, 0).
with points has the advantage of associating
one
exactly
with
and
each
one
of
the
pair
exactly point
plane
point,
with each ordered pair of real numbers.
pendiculars
number

on the

associated

Rectangularcoordi11ate

systems

in

space

follow

the

in the
same general pattern as do such
systems
plane.
Three mutually perpendicular (intersecting) lines are
selected
as axes:
the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis,
with
of the three axes being
the
of intersection
point
a
called
the
Again,
positive direction is chosen)))
origin.

on each axis, and the usual

the points of each axis

arbitrarily

between

made

bers. The zeropointoneach

and the positivereal numbers

origin

is

axis

are

has

been

the

same pattern

which

is

correspondence

the real numtaken

at the origin,
on that
side of the
and

as the

designated

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY'

42)

positive side

of

axis.

the

Following

plane, we consider

point

any

of

in the

as

development

in

From P we
space.
we call P x, P y and

to axes, and
drop perpendiculars
P z the feet of these perpendicularson the x-,
and
real
number
The
(see
Figure 26a).
respectively
z-axes,
associated P x on the x-axis is called the x-coordi11ate
the

y-,

with

number associated with Py on the y-axis

y-coordinate of P; and the real number
associated with P z on the z-axis becomes the z-coordinate
of P. If P isonany of the axes, not all the perpendiculars may be drawn.
Thus
we state further that if P is
are
on the x-axis, its y-coordinateand its x-coordinate
if
P
is
xand
both
on
the
its
zero.
Similarly,
y-axis,
both
zero.
z-coordinates
are
Finally, the coordinates

of

of

real

the

P;

becomes

the

the

are

origin

all zero.

It is quite convenientto visualize

not on
solid, with the

an axis) at the
of
a rectangular
as
shown
origin 0 at the opposite
This may suggest to the
other
might prefer in finding the coordinates
corner

in Figure

corner,

reader

of

if

its

coordinates

are

given.

P is

(when

26b.
he

approaches
P,

or in

For example,

locating

suppose we

know the coordinatesof P. We can then locate P by

to its
that
finding the point on the x-axis
corresponds
a
disx-coordinate, then moving parallelto the y-axis
tance
that corresponds to the y-coordinateof P, and then
to the
parallel to the z-axis a distancethat corresponds
z-coordina

te

of P.

in space,
When we designate a pointby its coordinates
the order of the triple of numbersfollows
the
alphabetic
in dealing with
that is: (x, y, z). We stated
order,
that,

plane coordinates, it

is

customary

to

take

the

x-axis

as)))

COORDINATE

IN

VECTORS

43)

SYSTEMS)
z)

z)

/)

y)

y)

A)
x)

x)

(a))

(b))

FIGURE

In space, the conventionis to have

the
upward and the xy-plane horito
have
one positive
axis
customary

etc.

horizontal,

z-axis

positive

26)

pointing

zontal. It isalso

pointing toward us

and the other pointingto

our

right.

to
toward us and which
our
our
influences
vector
right
seriously
development.
before
on the orientation
we
decide
Consequently,
finally
of the axes, it would
to explain
be
well
the notions of
and
right-handed
left-handed
triples of vectors.
Let {A, B, C} be an ordered set of three linearly indecan
be considered
as
pende11tvectors
(which
always

However,

axis points

which

emanating from the

same

Moreover, no two

the

first

a11d

are

second

0).

point

are linearly independent,they

do

not

Since

vectors
one plane.

the

all lie in

same or parallel lines.

A and B, form an
vectors,

on

the

Thus

a11gle

Remember! It's the order of first,

r).l
1
is in
measurement
Here, and throughout the entire book,angle
terms of radians. The use of degrees
is due to an. unfortunate
historical
when
accident
and serves to confusestudents,especially
in
reach
calculus.
the
of
functions
they
study
trigonometric
in good
Because radian measure serves the mathematician
stead
to propathroughout the whole field of mathematics, we prefer
gandize by making exclusiveuse of it.)))
(J

(0

<

8 <

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

44)

GEOMETRY)

c)

o)

{A, B,

C} right-handed

triple

(a))

0\\
\\
\\
\\
\\)

{A, B,

C} left-handed

triple

(b))

FIGURE

second,

tllird

il1 the

triple that

27)

counts. Now, consider

an observerstatio11ed
onthe side

of

the

plane

of A

and B

that allowshim to walk from a point on A through the

right arm
angle 8 to a pointon B, with his outstretched
That
27).
always pointing away from 0 (seeFigure
is,
If
on
his left.
he walks about, keeping point 0 always
side
of)))
of the plane
the observer's head is on the same

45)

SYSTEMS)

COORDINATE

IN

VECTORS

A)

28)

FIGURE

A and

B as
or

ha'nded

{B,C,

the vector C, we
triple.

positive

say

B, C} is a rightbe clear, then, that

{A,

It should

are also right-handed triples,

whereas{B,A, C}, {A, C, B} and {C, B, A} are leftIf you think of the vectors as
handed
or negative triples.
Ai

seats at a

and

{C,

A, B}

circulartable,all

clockwise

{A,B, C} right-handed)

{A,B,

C} left-handed)
(b)')

(a))

29

FIGURE

(a) ()rdinary

(starti11g)

readings

screw goesin.

(b)

Ordinary

screw

comes

out..)))

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

46)

and
all
letter) yield triples of the same orientation
of
the
readings yield triples
opposite
This situation
is described succinctly by
orientations.
a cyclic permutation
of the vectorsof a triple
that
stating
or rightdoes not change its orientation as a left-handed
as
the
case
be.
handed
triple,
may
mnemonic
is found
A
useful
by studying a screw.
Think of the first two vectors of the triple as being

at any

counterclockwise

on the
the

of

head

ordinary
(right-handed)
into
the second through

vector

first

than 1r. If

thishasthe

effect

the general

direction

the

of

of

the angle less

screw
we say

the

driving

third

Turn

screw.

an

vector,

in

the

triple is right-handed.)
8.

AND APPLICATIONS

VECTORS

BASIS

Let i, j, and k
positive x-, y-,

be

to be a positivetriple,

a right-handed
triple, we call
otherwise
right-handed;

system

i, j, and k are linearly

(by Exercise 8, p. 34) that

expressed as a
P

We

may
addition,

linear

\037

z)-coordinate

is

left-handed

(0,0,0)

space

and

can
In

them.

of

know

we
in

vector

any

combination

be
par-

(x, y, z);

referred to as the position

P (see Figure 30c).
of point
to extend
our algebra of vectors so that we
wish
with
the vectors i, j, and k. To explore
work
and
multiplication
by scalars in
subtraction,
yj

zk.

P is

this form, let)

A
and)

y,

(x,

we say it
independent,

where 0 =

= OP

then P = xi +
vector

form

z-directions

and

30.).

Figure

let

rightis,

That

system.

the

Since

ticular,

respective
{i, j, k}
the

establishes

this

and

take

We

z-directions.

handedness of tbe (x, y, z)-coordinate

if three vectors in the positivex-,y-,

(see

in the

vectors

unit

three

and

a1i +

B = b1i+

a2i + a3k
b

2j

bgk.)))

47)

SYSTEMS

COORDINATE

IN

VECTORS

z)

k)
:y)

:y)
j)

(x,y, z)-system

{i,j,k} right-handed)
:JC)

right-handed
x)

(a))

(b))

z)

y)

x)

(c))

FIGURE

Then by
A

30)

Theorem 1,
B =

(al +

and by Theorem2
mA

b1)i + (a2 +

b2)j

(a3 +

b 3)k,

(iii)

mali

+ ma.2j

ma3k,)

and)

mA

nB =

(mal + nb1)i+

(ma2

nb 2)j

+ (ma3 +

nb

3 )k.)))

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

48)
We

linear

general,

sums, scalar multiples, and, in

of vectors expressed in terms

that

therefore,

see,

GEOMETRY)

com1?inations

also be expressedas linear

combinations
and k. That is, every
vector
in space
of these
can be expressed as a linearcombination
three
unit vectors.
Mathematicians describe this situationby
the
the
vectQrs
saying
i, j, and k span or generate
space
the
set
of
under
consideration.
vectors
Furthermore,
the
A basis
space.
{i, j, k} is said to serve as a basisfor
the space.
is a linearly independentset that generates
The
need for a basis to generate
the
is
space
quite clear, but

of

i,

of

k can

j, and

vectors

i, j,

what is the purposeof

pendence? The \"answer

expressed a
that is our
in

(in

A =

the

manner

present

discussion),

we may conclude,as we

li11ear

existence

cli

Thus,

(VI +

if h

= vIi

v2j

C2j +

vgk +

Cg.)

V4

h .)

(19))

set {i,j, k, h}
C4 (not

cgk +

C4

the

implies

all zero)

such

o.)

that)

(20))

alld (20)yields

cl)i +
\037

0,

(V2

we

C2)j +

(V3

cg)k

for

(V4

c4)h.

the existen:ceof
combination of
are an infinite number of)))

demonstrated

have

distinct representations V
there
h.
i, j, k,
Actually
and

a3

C2,

of the
dependence
of scalars CI, C2, C3, and

Addi11g (19)

that)

earlier,

{i, j,

v
rfhe

cgk,

hand, that we used a linearly

k, h} to generate the space. Then
could be written in the form)

set

vector

any

C2j +

c1i +

other

the

on

dependellt

did

if

agk

CI, a2 =

al =
Suppose,

desire to have a vector

to a given basis,
relative

in the

lies

unique

a1i + a2j +

inde-

linear

of

stipulation

as

a linear

49

SYSTEMS

COORDINATE

IN

VECTORS

such representations, which can be demonstrated

by
scalar
an
before
arbitrary
(20) by
multiplying
adding it

to (19).

has no
to
reference

reader

The

Remark.

avoided

have

any

dimensional

and

reasoningis

in

being

space

with

accordal1ce

doubt observed that we

the plane as being two
three dimensional.
Our
the thinking
of mathe-

so-called
\"vector
maticians who deal with
spaces.\"
to
assume
of
do
not
choose
the C011any
They
knowledge
related
to
cept of dimension. They see it as naturally
In fact, they
other
involving vectors.
define
concepts
do so in one of two comof a space-and
the
dimensiol1
pletely equivalent ways:)

(1) The

dimension

basis

vectors

in

is

for the

be

to

shown

(Of course, this number

choice of the basis.)

space.

of the

independent

of a space is the maximum

vectors in the space.)
independent

The dimension

(2)

of linearly

Consequently,

see

we

sional.
is

as the numberof

is taken

a space

of

lishesthe

the

line would

be one dimen-

its corollary
imply that
8 on p.
Exercise
Finally,

dimensional.

two

that

3 and

Theorem

of

character

three-dimensional

number

the plane
34 estab-

what

we have

called \"space.\" The foregoingdiscussion,which

notes
that
and
that
i, j, and k are linearly independent,
adding
would
result
in a
any other vector to this set of three
further
t
hat
establishes
linearly dependent set,
\"space\"
is

dimensional.)

three

EXAMPLE
A

(1, 3,

10. Let
4), B

points be given

= (1,5, 2), C =

and E = (0,2, -2).

(1)

The

4k

and

as

6),

position

How

should

(-2,

(0, 0, 0),
5, -2),

of point A is given by A. = i
vector of point E is E = 2j

- 2k.+

vector

position

the

0 =

follows:

(-2, 1,

3j +

\037

(2)

\037

31, we see

we write

that AB =

B-

A.

the vector AB?

Hence

we

write)))

Noting

Figure

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

50)
\037

=. (i

AB

= (1 =

(3)

How

do

+ 2k) -

+ 5j

l)i +

- 2k

2j

(5

3j +

4k)

(2 -

3)j +

4)k

= E.

a vector

\\ve write

(i

GEOMETRY)

from

emanating

0,

pointing

\037

toward

C but

half the

length

of

C ?

We seek!

OC. This

is

merely)

i( -2i

C
\037

-i

\037

(4)

How

do

segment BC?

= M

= iOB
=

(i
\037

=the

+ 3k.
0

from

midpoint

to the midpoint
of segment BC,

of
we

\037

OC
\037

+ 5j
\037i +

midpoint

(21)

+ 2k)

3j +

Observing that M is the position

coordinatesof

6k)

,,,,rite)

\037

\037

OM

the

it!

employ Theorem 4 to

+ ij

a vector

we write
Calling

+ j +

(
\037

- 2i

+ j + 6k)

4k.
vector

of BC:

of M,

M =

we can

(-t,

state the

3, 4).

z)

y)

x)

FIGURE

31)))

This)

SYSTEMS)

COORDINATE

IN

VECTORS

51)

c)

D)

o)

FIGURE

ment. Call

PI =
Then,

if ill

is the midpoint

=
=

OP2
\037

[(xli
\037

Ylj +

(5) What

the

are

medians

\037

\037

f(

OB
\037

jOM
+

'

YI +

write)

\037

Y2)j

Y2

coordinates

of triangle

coordinatesof
the ratio 2: 1, and using

seek the
=

l(YI +

X2

\037

Z2).

+ OP2)

(OPI
\037

zlk) + (x2 i

x2)i +

Xl

OP

\037

OPI
\037

(Xl
\037

we can

2,

Y2,

(X2,

seg-

Y2j +

\037(Zl

z 2 k)]
+

z2)k.

midpoint is

Thus the

of the

P IP

of

of any

midpoint

P2 =

\037

\037

the

find

and

Zl)

YI,

(Xl,

\037

0111

to

be generalized

can

procedure

32)

'

Zl

Z2

.
)

of the

point

Referring

to

BCD?

of

intersection

Figure

32, we

DM in
4 once again, we write
\037
\037
+ -lODe Employing equation 21, we have OP =
\037
\037

lOC)

P.

Recalling
Theorem

that

P divides

+ iOD,

or)
\037

OP

\037

(t)OB

\037

+ (t)OC

\037

+ (i)OD.)

(22))))

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

52)

GEOMETRY)

Consequently,)
\037

OP

+ 2k) + (j.)(-2i

+ 5j

(j.)(i

+j+

Then

(-1,

these methods
of

the

points

It is hardly

11/3, 2).

are valid

are.

plane, the formula

That is,
(22)

even if

- 2k).

to state that
the relative positions
C, and D are in one

0,

B,

true.

holds

still

+ 5j

necessary

what

matter

no

6k)

(j.)( -2i

EXAMPLE 11. Prove that the (radial) vectors drawn

of a regular polygon to its verticessum to
the center

from

the

zero

vector.

should-before reading the next paragraphto this problem when the polygon is a
attempt
He
may choose to set the
triangle, square, and pentagon.
The reader
a

polygon within

solution
a

coordinate

resortto somehelp from

system

and perhaps, if

trigonometry

Before proceeding, the reader should

does
the original problem, which
not

or elementary
some
give

specify

necessary,
geometry.
to

thought

any particular

case.
regular polygon but concernsthe general
the origin of a two-dimensional coordinatesystem
Consider
to be at the center of the regular polygon of n sides
(see Figure
33) . Let S be the sum of the radial vectors. If S is not the

zerovector, it has a unique

to

the

origin.

to the x-axis. Sincethe

of a

inclination

Rotate the
x-axis.
The sum vector S

radius

polygon 21r/n radians

is now

rotated

y)

respect
about

the

21r/n radians
precisely the same)
a +

inclined

figure

with

has

y)

%)

\037x)

FIGURE

33)))

53)

SYSTEMS)

COORDINATE

IN

VECTORS

appearance on the coordinatesystem

new sum 8' of the radial vectors

one, the

unrotated

the

as

again be inclined a

must

the x-axis.
Thus we have two
vectors
Sand
8'
in
differently while both represent the single sum
Since we know that the sum vector in unique, i.e.,
question.
solution is the vector 8 = 5' = O.)
S = S',the only compatible
to

radians

inclined

regular

proof.
on the lookout

of

student

The

such

for

to

that it was the symmetry

of
enabled us to constructthis
natural
science should always be
intrinsic
that may help
properties
as well as the geometric con-

be emphasized
that
polygon

should

It
the

the

simplify

physical

siderations

his

of

encounter-and

Scientists

problems.

of-symmetry in such diversefields as geomebotany, zoology, electrical circuit theory,

algebra,

make use
try,

mechanics,

and

Hermann

Weyl,
Princeton

metry,

k110W

in

symmetry

World

The

of

of

of Weyl's

A portion

Press.

University

book ,is reproducedin

James R.

by

is referred to the fascinatinglectures

which are contai11ed i11his book, Sym-

science

and

art

role played

prominent

to

who wishes

reader

The

optics.

the

about

more

Mathematics

by

Newman.)

EXERCISES

1.

(a)

on a

Locate

sheet

of

(0,

10,

paper

graph

(6,4,10), B = (-6,4, -10),

(4,

-6,

the

points

-10),

A =

and D =

4).

(b)

Write

(c)

Find

the position

Ii, j, k}-basis.

vectors A,

sum A + B + C +
the computation in the

the

this against

B,

\037

C, and

graphically,

D in terms
and

Ii, j, k}-system.
\037

of the
check

- B, D - C, BD, and AC.

Find
the
AB.
(e)
midpoint of segnlent
X that divides segment
Find
the
of
the
coordinates
(f)
point
'
.
AB in the ratio 2: -1.
B is the midY so that
Find
the coordinates
of the point
(g)
.
of
AY.
point segment
Find
the median point of the triangle ABD.)))
(h)
(d)

Compute

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

54)

2. Let

2i

- 4j,

D = 2i - 3j + k.
(a)

2A as

Determine

B = -i

a linear

combination of

2j,

i + j
i, j,

GEOMETRY)

+ 3k,

and

and k..

-3B as a linear combination

of i, j, and k.
(c) Determine3B - 2A as a linear combination of i, j, and k.
of i, j, and k.
(d) Find A + B - C as a linear combination
(e) Is {A, B, C} a linearly dependent set?
(f) Is {A, B, C, D} a linearly dependent set?
be a parallelogram,
with 0 = (0, 0, 0), A =
(g) Let OAXC
=
the
and
C
Find
fourth
vertex.
(Hint:
(1,
1,
3).
(2, -4, 0),
(b) Determine

How is the sum

3. Do the
A

(a) Is

B,

{A,

and C

A, B,

paralielogram?)

of Exercise1 form

set?

- j,

to a

related

vectors

two

vectors

position

dependent

linearly

4. Let

of

B=i+

j,

C} a linearly

(b) Expressthe vectorV

tion
of A, B, and C.

- k.
set?
dependent

and

2i +

4j

- k as a linear cOlnbina-

of the eight
vectors from the center
vertices is the zero vector. Do this by assignto the vertices, writing
the
vectors
ing coordinates
eight
explicitly, and then summing.
(b) Let \037 be a regular dodecahedron (12 faces) and sits
circumscribedspllere. Prove that the sum of the vectors from
the
How
center
of S to the vertices of \037 is the zero vector.
this
radial
such
look
vectors
are there ? (You might
many
up in a solid geometry text.))

5. (a) Provethat the sum

of

a cube

to the

THE
COMPLEX
PLANE
A two-dimensio11al
space that naturally admits
il1
terms
of vectors
is the complex plal1e,which
analysis
be familiar
to the reader from his studies in algebra
may
and
111 order to see the complexplane
trigonometry.
9.

from

the

vector

coordinate

system

point
with

y-direction

consider a rectangular
basis
of two unit
consisting
il1 the positive x-directiol1arId

of view,
a

1 is taken
vectors:1
i.
i il1the positive
vector i is actually the
and

to

(see
imaginary

Figure

34).
Ul1it

The
i = VI

unit

1.)))

SYSTEMS

COORDINATE

IN

VECTORS

55)

Y)

i)

1)
%)

o)

34)

FIGURE

That

role of basis vector i

is, the

played by

1, and the roleof j is now

J)

i)

\037

If

(x, y),

by

played

is now

8)
i.)

New

Old
i)
.

Section

(of

the vector OP

xl

yi,

more

or,

\037

simply,

vector

the

be thought

OP may

of

as

the

complex

is actually
number
iy. Thus every
complex
a vector il1 the plane. If scalarsare taken
to be real
scalars
cornumbers, the multiplication of vectors
by
numbers
responds precisely to multiplicationof complex
by real numbers
(see Exercise 2, page 57). Is it also
true
that
vector
addition
corresponds to addition of comTo answer this question we considertwo
numbers?
plex

number

complex

their

x +

numbers:

related

CI =

vectors

Xl

being

iYI
Cl

and
xII

C2 = X2
+ y1i and

iY2,
C2

=)))

GEOMETRY

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

56)

y)

(Xl + X2,Yl

Y2)

-----------1

I
I

C2

Yl + Y2

__.J

\"1------

i
I
I

Cl:)
o)

2 i.

numbers allows us

of complex

Addition

>1)

36)

FIGURE

X21 +

\037X)

X2

Xl + X2)

to

say)

CI

and addition of
Cl +
we see

Thus

Cl +

vectors

C2

permits

that

X2) +

(Xl

us to

x2)1 +

(Xl +
Cl

i(Yl + Y2);

C2

(Yl

corresponds

write
+

Y2)i.

to

the

vector

C2.

EXAMPLE

vector

this

C2 =

extremely

Let

12.
Considering
to the
approach

simple and

Example

11 in the light

complex plane, we

elegantsolution.

can

reach

of

an

with
one
be centered at the origin,
radial vectors lying on the x-axis. Figure36 illustrates
the
If the radial vectors are
for the pentagon.
approach
chosen
of unit
from
we
know
algebra that the n vectors,
length,
as complexnumbers,
are
the solutions of the equation)))
simply

of its

the

regular

polygon

x = 1.
for the

SYSTEMS)

COORDINATE

IN

VECTORS

of the roots of

the sum

But

Xn-l

the

of

coefficient

term is

the proof.)

57)
this

is zero,

equation

zero. This completes

EXERCISES

1. Sketch

the vectors

+ 2i.
traction, and

and 3

the

with

2. Exhibit

Give

representing the complexnumbers

this

compare

- i

addition and subview of the operations

for their

construction

geometric

algebraic.

the following scalar

j(2 -

2(2 - i),

fact

What

geometric

scalar

multiples

Remark

i),

on

of a
Length

\037
(2

multiplesof
i),

- i:

-2(2 -

-(2 - i),

can one deduce about the set

complex number?
Absolute

and

our
can

which

is

I
real

\\,

or

complex)

y)

x)

36)))

(real)

Value.
From
vectors
we

brief discussionof complex

numbers
as
some
the
gain
symbolism
insight
regarding
used to denote the absolute value of a

FIGURE

of

i).

as well as

number

the

notions, absolute value and length, are actually

more

or,

value is

a special caseof the

basisfor the
The

stated,

accurately

related,

of

choice

same

37), then the

(see Figure

can be determined by
lal +

are

we

if

the

of

the
V

But

complex
= al +

bi

theorem

fa +

with

dealing

may treat themas a subset

in
of

length

2
+ b

n umber

2
2
V a + b .

orean

Pythag

V a2

bit

In the event that

the

the

symbolism.

or modulus of a complex

absolute value

a + bi, written la + biL is defined

as
if we view the complex number asa vector
plane

of absolute

This is

vector.

of a

length

inter-

notion

the

two

The

vector.

of

length

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

58)

bil.

real numbers, we
numbers.
complex

That is,
=

R#

Thus

the

length

In both caseswe

of

see

{a +
r

that

bit

al +
the

O}.

Oi is

absolute

=
Irl

v?

value of

iy)

a + bi)

b)

x)

FIGURE

37)))

lal.

a number)

< -2)
,
-6

-5

3)

>

1'1'1

-2 -1 0 1

-4 -3

59)

SYSTEMS)

COORDINATE

IN

VECTORS

::.-)

131=3=131

1-21=2=1-21)
38)

FIGURE

is merely

the length

with

associated

vector

the

of

that

One may also considerthe real numbers

as
a
a
one-dimensional
as
line
constituting
(see
space, Le.,
with
the same result: absolute value of the
Figure
38),
real
number
equals length of the vector.
Fromthis geometric
of absolute
view
value one can see
number.

the plausibility of the

of

properties

following

absolute

value:)

(i)

I al

la +

(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

1- al >

lal
\\lal

bl

\\b(

Ibll

<

lal +

<

\\a +

<

\\a

Ibl

bl

bl.)

EXERCISE

1.

Considering
interpretations
above.)))

a and b
of the

to be complexnumbers,
give
geometric
algebraic properties (i) through
(iv)

Inner

products)

10.

DEFINITION

In

this

chapter

aspectsintoour

to introduce quantitative

we begin
vector

Of

algebra.

particular

interest

notions of distance and angle. In orderto see

how
to introduce
best
such concepts, it might be advisabletohave a look at them in the framework of coordinate
are the

geometry.
Sincethe plane is

more

than

with

dealt

easily

three

dimensions, we let A = (aI, a2) and B = (bl , b 2 )

distance
points in the (x, y)-plane (Figure39). The
A and

B,
(by the Pythagorean theorem)from

between

d
or)

Note

\\vhich

2 =

(al -

d =

vi (al

w\037

l )2

denote

+
1 )2

(a2
+

can

IABI,
the

(a2

60)))

d,

be found

formula)

(23)

2 )2,
b

(23a))

2 )2.)

that it makes no differencewhether

to
first, for d is alsoequal

is considered

be

or

PRODUCTS)

INNER

61)

V (b 1 -

al)2 +

(b

a2)2.

Expanding (23) results in

a1

+ a2

b1

b 22

- 2(alb 1

If we introduce--for convenience
in
notation

cussion-the
(24)

*B

alb l +

as

IABI2

we have

Hence

in

completely

and

A *A

+ B*B

the

a 2b 2).

(24)

present

dis-

a2b2, we

can rewrite

*B.

2A

(25)

distance between two points described

of the symbol * (al1d, of course,
+

terms

-).

we examine
Turning to anglemeasurement,
Figure
39a,
an
for
the
seeking
expression
angle (J. By the law of
cosines we write)
- 21oAIIoBIcos(J;)
=
IOAI2 + IOBI2
IABI2

y)

x)

tal

bII

--------,F
I

lI a 2

b21

I
A)

(4))

(b))

FIGURE

39

N ate. In (b) above,

it is possible that a - b is positive,
negathe distance (non-negative)
or
We
zero.
therefore
tive,
designate
between A and F (also B and F) by absolute value in order to
assure the non-negative character of distance.
Consequently
- bll 2 + la2 - b21 2 .)))
d = Vial
(23a) can be written

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

62)

our * notation,)

or, using
=
IABI2

Upon

GEOMETRY)

A *A

+ B*B

- 2V
from

(26)

subtracting

v' B*B
and

(25)

cos 8. (26)
we

simplifying,

find)

A*B

8 =

cos

(27))

V A*A VB*B)

so we see that angles

* notation.

this

from

motivation

Drawing

discussion-primarily

from (27)-we start afresh with

vectors
two dimensions) and definethe inner
as)
\302\267
B =

cos

IAIIBI

of the

in terms

be expressed

also

can

(not
product

to

restricted
of A

and B
(28))

8,)

when
the angle between the two vectors
they
from
same
to
emanate
the
are arranged
point. Accordof distaIlce (length) and angle are both
the notions
ingly,

8 is

where

incorporated
in

for

cos
Because

8 =

whether

cos ( -

of the

is alsocalledthe

of

definition

our

that it is immaterial

8)

cos

notation
dot

8,

inner

product.

8, or 2r

- 8 is

another

name

Note
chosen,

- 8). (SeeFigure
40.)
employed, the inner product

product.

FIGURE

(2r

Still

40)))

is

the)

INNER

PRODUCTS)

scalar

product,

vectors
these

63)

for this method

a scalar

yields

two

\"multiplying\"

(examine equations 28).

in

popularity

enjoy

terminologies

of

and physics textbooks, so we

feel
order that the reader may

shall

at

them

employ

home

All

mathematics

with

all in

anyone.

Two immediate corollariesto the defillitioll

are)
A

\302\267
B =

and

If

However,

is

\302\267
A
\302\267
A =

IAI2

perpendicular
\302\267
B =

if A

(1)

0, there
=

(2) B
(3)

of dot

(commutativity

0,

= 0,
to B.

is perpendicular

product)

(since cos 0 = 1).

to
B, A. B = o. (Why?)
are three possibilities:)

is perpendicular
If we agree that the zero vector
to every
22
of
this
for
vector (see page
justification
convention),
in
a single
statement:
we can combine these conclusions
B = ();
5. If A is perpendicular
Theorem
to B, then A \302\267
B = 0, then A is perpendicular to B.
and conversely, if A \302\267
Word
of Caution.
Many beginning students have
in space are perpel1in
that
vectors
difficulty
believing
It must therefore be
dicular if they do 110t intersect.
emphasizedonceagain that the definition of equality of
a free
as long as it is
vector
vectors permits us to move
this
enables us to
to
its
position;
kept parallel
original
It is the sinof any
two vectors
as intersecting.
think
that the reader has long since
of the
author
cere
hope

understoodthis point

and

the word
11.

of

is thoroughly

hence

bored

with

caution.)

PROPERTIES

OF INNER

An examination

of

geometric interpretation

PRODUCT
41

Figure
of

the

leads
inner

to an
product.

interesting
From)))

64)

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

B)

o)

c)
41)

FIGURE

see that cos ()

OCB we

triangle

A)

or)
:\037I

\037

\037

loci
\037

on

= Band

A, we

write

OC is

projection

which smacks
multiplying IAI
of

by

of

(projection

IAI

which
product

gives us
concept.

of

the \"vector projectioll\"of

A

BOll

inner

the

product
ill the

results

IBI cos

8,1

(29)

A. B.

In fact,

right member

B on

A) =

lAllBI

cos

8 =

we must clarify

Note

that

(29)

\302\267

may

feel-and

(29) gives the

may

projection

be positive,

the

contained

rather

perspecial

definition.)

vector

negative, or

inner

so-that

rightly

of one

(30)

B,

ideas

the

a
from
haps too much has been iIlferred
We
therefore
the
picture.
provide
following
1

a geolnetric association with

Before proceeding,
in (30).
The reader

as a scalar, which

of

That is,

A.B.

becoming

(J.)

\037

OB

Since

cos

lOBI

zero.)))

upon another

PRODUCTS)

INNER

65)

of B on

By the projection

Definition.

we mean the

written

A,

pr AB,

of
orthogonal projection of
obtained by dropping perpendiculars
from the origin and endpoint of B to the line of act\037.on of A
the
The distance between
42).
feet
of these
(see Figure
the
the
(J
is
the
of
pr AB. If
perp\037ndiculars
magnitude
angle
B are arranged
A and B (when A and
to emanate
between
is acute,
then prAB is positive; if (J
from the same point)
is obtuse
then pr AB is negative.
on

the line

actio\"n

pr AB is

The

A.

of

Now that the notion of projecting

one
vector
has been made precise,we restate
as
(30)
=
Theorem
6. A. B = (prBA)IB\\
(prAB)\\A\\.
as
an exercise
The completion of the proof is left

upon

another

for

the reader.

From this result we

distributive with respect

Theorem 7. A.

(B

that

prove

C)

the

which

to addition,

B + A.

= A.

inner

product
we state as

C.)

I
I
I
I

\037

I
I

rv
\\
prA

<

y
B>

II
\\)

0)

-CL__
/)

y
prA

B < 0)

\037)

_ -..t:L

ri

\\

>

__

_J:J__

I)
y

prA B>

prA B>

0)

FIGURE

42)))

0)

is

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

66)

I
I
I
I
I

I
I
I
I

'----v----/'--v---'

prAC)

\\.)

prA
J)

prA(B +

\\)

(B

A B)
1)

\037

<

0)

43)

43.)

C)

= prA(B +
C)IAI
= (prAB + prA
=
(prAB)IAI +
=

pr

pr A C

(See Figure

Proof.
\302\267

(B -I: C)

C))
FIGURE

A)

___-1_____

11._____b...____

\037
prA

I
I

C)

Theorem

IAI

(justify!)

6)

(prAC)IAI

D) =

\302\267
B

(by

\302\267
C

6 once

Theorem

using

(by

again).

Corollary
.)

(A

B)

Proof.
(A

and

leave

\302\267

(C

\302\267
C

(A +

\302\267
D

\302\267
C

B.D.)

By Theorem 7 we write)
B)

\302\267

(C

D) =

the remainder

(A

B)

\302\267
C

B)

\302\267

D,)

of the proof for the reader.

by vector methods that the pertriangle meet in a point.

we adopt what may seem
Becausevectors
be \"moved,\"
may
to be a strange approach. The reader should become familiar
with
when
useful
several
it, for such an approach is extre\037ely
lines meeting ill a point must
be sho\\\\yn.
Let the triangle be ABC, with
the
bisectors
perpendicular
of AB and BC meetingin point
Let M, N,
0 (see Figure 44).
and
P be the midpoints
of sides AB, BC, and AC, respectively.
1\"he approach.
\\ve
is to show that OP is actually
adopt
perto A C.)))
pendicular

EXAMPLE

13.

pendicular

bisectors

vVe

prove

of a

PRODUC.TS

INNER

67)

by stating the hypothesis

We begin
\037

OM.

\037

language.)

\037

= 0

AB

(by Theorem 5, for

Rewriting (31), using the

we

vector

in

is the

that

fact

\037

(31)

..L AB).

OM

midpoint of

AB,

get.)

(}A

(B

to the

according

expanded

which,

- A)

\302\267

+ j-B)

0,)

corollary

Theorem

of

7,

becomes)

iB
Hence

A.

\302\267
B

\302\267

iA

which

B,

\302\267
A =

expresses

length of A equals the length of B.

that)
to show in a similar manrier
B

o.

\302\267
B =

We

the
leave

fact that the

the reader

it to

\302\267
c.)

-+

\037

Now
which

what must

be shown is that OP is perpendicularto

P

We

therefore

is)

vectorially

expressed

expand

hypothesis in the

AC,

\302\267

(C

p. (C

hopes of

- A)

A),

o.)

using

this

showing

relations

dot

our

from

product

to

be)

c)

A)

M)

B)

B)

(a))

(b))

FIGURE

44)))

zero.

Thus

which

from
This

GEOMETRY

Thus)

\302\267

(C

\302\267

(C

- A)

we conclude

example

= (\037A +

!C)

:c: \037C

- A) :c: 0

of

\302\267
C

(for

- A)

\302\267

(C

tA

\302\267
A.

A \302\267
A =

\302\267

C),

the desiredresult.)

illustrates

judiciousselection

the

once
point

vectors'are consideredto emanate

solution to an otherwisedifficult
12.

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

68

again
from
often

the fact that a

the several

which
leads

to a

simple

problem.)

COMPONENTS

In the study of mechanics

it is frequently
usefulas
the
and often necessary-to considera singlevector
in
sum or resultant
of two other vectors. For example,
F
a lawn
mower (see Figure 45a), the force
pushing
is exerted
but the questions
along the bar of the mower,
is the
force Fh that contributes)
asked in physics are: What

Fh)

(b))

(a))

FIGURE

45)))

PRODUCTS)

INNER

force

motion

horizontal

the

to

69)

\"wasted\"

is

Fv

the

of

being

by

ward? Thesequestions

mower?

applied vertically down-

answered

are

what

And,

by

considering

is called the
the vertical
component
of
of
F.
1'he
the
component
problem
determining
in
as is easily
dot
components is a problem
products
of a component is
seen by noting
that
the magnitude
the magnitude
of
the
of F.
For example,
projection
=
81, and this relation can easily be transIFllcos
IFhl
into
a dot product
formed
by making use of a un\037t vector
U along
the horizontal.
and
Then IFni = IF \302\267
we
ul,

sum

as the

of

Fv (Figure
45b). Fh
and
is called
Fv
F,

and

Fn

horizontal

may further

of

write)

Fn
The unit vector U serves

(F.
as

U) U)

In plotting

14.

(Figure 46) it is found

F = 3i +

that

\\tvind

the

in two

a \"gimmick\"

ties. First, to assistus in writing

component in the language of dot
it enables us to write Fh explicitly
U itself, in (32),imparts
a direction
while it doesnot distortthe magnitude.
EXAMPLE

(32))

capaci-

of a
magnitude
and second,
product;
as a vector
because

forces

the

to the

right member

on

,vind force,

plane graph paper

at present, is vector

basis vectors in the xy-plane). We

of scalar products: (1) the magnitude
of F; (2) the component of F in the direction
of the x-axis;
F
the
the
and
the
of
y-axis;
(3) component
along
(4)
component
of F along
vect or A = -i + 5j.

shall

(1)

IFI

than as

j are

in terms

yF.

(2) Fx =
2 Some

and

(i

4j

express,

F =- Y

(3i + 4j) \302\267

(3i + 4j)

(F. i)i = [(3i+ 4j)

\302\267

i]i)

authors
prefer to define components
a matter
vectors. This is purely

as

of taste,.

scalars

rather

which is

ofteI;l

considerations.
Readers of mathematicai
do well to heed the advice
to Alice by
literature
would
given
I use a word, it means just what
I
Humpty Dumpty: \"When
choose
it to mean-neither
more nor less.\)

colored

by

pragmatic

ELEMENTARY

70
(3)

Fy

= (F.

(4)

The

unit

j)j =

[(3i +

GEOMETRY

\302\267

jJj

4j)

vector along

VECTOR

is

11

the

Thus

component

of F that we seek is)

F.. =

13.

+
\302\2533i

and

= (F\" A)

IAI

4j)

\"

of

of

the

such

A
(F\" A)

IAI2

+ 5j))

(-i

PRODUCT

INNER

The form

some

'AI

\"

A\" A
\

(-i +

:(
\037\037

\037i

5j)

FORMULAS
in Example

answers

that it

a nature

14 is qllite cumber-

is difficult

gain any insight from the answers.

We

for

anyone

y)

x)

-3)

-4)

-5)

FIGURE

46)))

to
turn)

therefore

PRODUCTS)

INNER

expressiollS that

to simplifying
those
ill
of
vectors
product

attention
inner

the

71)

directions

(in the

components

take advantage

We shall

terms

our

Thus

pla\037e.

First,

directly with
of

the basis
k = 1.
Vk.

the length of

that

fact

the

note

we

in space
vectors in

the possibility

admitting

in

axes).

than

will deal

computations

vectors three dimensions,

i, j, and k components.

rectangular

vectors

handle

to

involve

rectangular

that

fact

are generally no moredifficult

a

the

of

the

of

their

of

vectors is one implies V i. i =.V

\302\267
=

Hence)

i
i

from the
Now, let)

k.
=

+ a2j

ali

Then,
(33)

\302\267
=

follows

which

and
A

\302\267
=

\302\267
k =

1.

(33))

\302\267
i =

0,)

(34))

that

we observe

Secondly,

and

\302\267
i =

+ a3k)

\302\267
k =

mutual perpendicularityof
=

and)

b1i +

makillg use of Theorem 7 (and

(34), we compute as follows:
+ a3k )

b.Gj

its

i,

j,

b 3k.)

corollary),

+ b 2j + b3 k)
a1i \302\267
b3 k
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
b
+ a2j
2j + a2j
b3 k
b1i +
a2j
\302\267
\302\267
b 3k
+ a3 k b1i + a3 k b 2j + a3 k \302\267
\302\267
= a1i \302\267
b 2j + a3 k \302\267
b 3k.
b1i + azj

\302\267
B =

+ a2j

(ali

a1i

\302\267

b1i

we have

Finally,

a1i

a -Simple

\302\267

(b1i

\302\267
b

2j +

for

formula

the

inner

product

of two vectors:)
A

The length
IAI

\302\267
B =

of

V A

a1b 1 +
ca n

\302\267
A =

a 2b 2

ll0 \\V
Va12

be

(35))

a3b3-)

found

+ a2

the

by
2

+ a3

formula
(36))))

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

72)

of A

definition

the

From

\302\267

B,

cosine of the anglebetween

cos 8

2
Y a1 +

a2

a3

and

solve for

(36), we
B, getting

and

(35)

a2 b 2

a1b 1 +

GEOMETRY)

a 3b 3

\302\267

Y b 12 + b2 2

2
+ b3

(37)

are
the formulas
(Note that (35) and (36)
precisely
used in our heuristic reasoningon pages60-62,
where
we
were
a
method
for
informally
exploring
introducing quan-

titative aspectsinto

vector

our

We return to Example 14 to make

answers given there in unsimplified

15.

EXAMPLE

(2) Fz

[(3

(3) F y

[(3

(3(-1)

IF\\

Fa

(4)

explicit

of the

computations
(1)

algebra.)

.
#

4 .4

1) +

(4

(4

= 5

\302\267

3\"+

0)

\302\267

O)]i

. 1)]j =

+ 4,

form.)

3i.

4j.

-i + 5j
(-1)(-1) + 5.5

5)

-i

\037\037

We now ask the

and A

of

cos

ex

is

the

angle

a between

14?

Example

Using (37),

question: What

+ 5j).)

we V\\Trite
F.A

\037

yF

Y A

\302\267
F

\302\267
A)

+ 4j)

(3i

.3 +

y3
-3

5y

+ 20
26)

.4

\302\267

(-i

+ 5j)

5
(-1)( -1) + 5 \302\267

17

y 26

')

or)

cos

ex

17 V26

130

If we were interested in a precisevalue

for a in terms of degrees
ex by
or radians, it would
be a simple matter to find
now
consulting a table for the values of the cosine function.)))

INNER PRODUCTS)

\\)

73)

J)

Q)

s)

prSF)

47)

FIGURE

14. WORK

applying a
is defined
fs. Thus work is done

The work done in

a distance 8
through
product
occurs.
only that

pute

to

work

the

an

object
compute

If we

done.
(see

object

Figure

be

the
if motion
to

only

be

that

emphasized

motion

have a

47) with

and

if

magnitude

physicists

by

Furthermore, it s\037ould
force which produces the

of

force

used

is

to com-

force vector F applied

the effect

of

the

moving

along a straight line from P to Q,the force

the work done is that of the
component

used

to

of F

\037

That

PQ).

(along

is, calling
=

S = PQ,)

(prsF)ISI.)

(38))

of F to allow
(We write (38) in terms of the projection
the possibility of work
being
negative.
Although
negative work may sound strange to the uninitiated,
the
is one of great practical vallIeto the physicist
concept
and
who need it for an adequate mathematical
engineer,
laws of mechanics and
formulation
of
the
fundamental

electricity.
)

But

formula

(38) can
W

or,

be rewritten
IFI cos

8\\sl;)

finally,)

W=F.S

,)))

that

which expresses the idea

as work done by one vector

reader

or perhaps the

in

product

the

direction

dot

the

be viewed
the
of
other;
view
work as a
can

dot

to

prefer

might

physical interpretation of

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

74)

product.)

EXERCISES

1. Using the
of

approachof
meet

triangle

two medians

section; then
sideAB.

2. Let
one

a right

be the
of

force

that

show

of

foot

triangle
the

magnitude

with

inter-

and

BC,

from A.

acting in the

-.:

point of

hypotenuse

perpendicular

be

BN

and

actually bisects

of CP

extension

the

their

call

medians

that the

13, prove

Example

point. That is, let A11f

of triangle ABC, and

be

ABC

on BC

in a

Consider

direction of

.iE,

IABI

of magnitude

and another

in

acting

\037

the

direction

AG.

IAcl
Prove that the resultant is a force of

magnitude

the

3.

Find

(Hint. Use components.)

to V = 2i - 3j and whose
perpendicular

of AD.

direction
a

acting

IADI

\037

in

\037

vector

length is four times the length of V.

4. The coordinatesof two points are
Find

the

of the

cosine

originto thesepoints.

5.

Prove

that

the

sum

(3, 1, 2) and (2, -2, 4).

between
the vectors joining the
angle
of the

squares

equal to the sum of

6. Prove that the sum of the squares

parallelogram is

the

of

the

squares

diagonals

of the

of a

sides.

of the sides of any (not

exceedsthe
sum of the squares
necessarily
plane) quadrilateral
of the diagonals by four
the square
of the line segment
times
.

that joins the midpoints

7. By

means of

semicircle
is a

dot
right

of

products
angle.

the

diagonals.

prove
(If AB

that an angle inscribedin a

is a diameter, 0 the center,)))

PRODUCTS)

INNER

75)

--+

--+

on the circle,then
point--+
--+
the dot product AP \302\267
BP.)

and P any

8.

the altitudes

that

Prove

(Hint. Use the approach of

Theorem 5.)

9.

if

that

Prove

of

meet

triangle

13, and

Example

in a

point.
on

rely heavily

the line joining their

circles intersect,

two

- OA. Evaluate

OB

centers is perpendicular to the line joining their

of

points

in tersection.)

10. Let)

Find

(a)

- 3j

2i

- 2i

+ j -

4k
k.)

A-B.

(b) Find prB A and prA \"B.

B.
the component of A along
Find
(e)
the
work
force
vector
Find
done
by
(d)

ticle from the origin to

the work done by
Find
(e)
to (1, 2, -1).
origin

11. Let F be the

at the

of n

sum

point O. Then

W=F-S=F l .S+F
In addition, if

sented by
F

8 1, 8 2 ,

\302\267
8 =

\302\267
8

a par-

moving

x-axis.

a particle from

F2 ,

+Fn-S.

, Fn,

(Why?))

consecutive displacements

\302\267
8

\302\267
\302\267
\302\267

\302\267

8n.

the

all acting

then)

, Sn,

+ F

along

.S+...

the

in moving

forces F 1,

in n

results

(2, 0, 0)
A

in

(Why?))))

repre-

analytic

geometry)

15.

POINT

OUR

VIEW

OF

should note that the definitions

of addition,
product of vectors werenot madein
termsof-coordinates.At the outset we treated ve.ctors in
a coordinate-free
fashion. (When
such
is the case, it is
The reader

subtraction,

and inner

often stated that the

coordinate

concepts

are

of

\"independent

And yet, manyapplications-par-

system.\")

ticularly to geometry-were
possible. we proceeded
in our development,
it is
new techniques were employed;
this
that
one should view coordinate systems.
light
As

in

That is, coordinate

be

should

systems

looked

UpOll as

'another instrument rather than as allother

branch
of
mathematical
The philosophy that the authoris
study.
suggesting

The
deals

the

takes

form.

following

branch of mathematics that

with, among other things, the

planes,circles,
and

The

spheres.

in this field may be

reached
76)))

by

we

call

geometry

propertiesof lines,

solutions
various

to problems
approaches,

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

some

the

on

depending

learned is

or stronger than othersThe first approach

natural

more

being

77)

at hand.

problem
the

usually

which

method,

synthetic

has

some approximation to that exhibited

in
Euclid's
EleThe present work is devotedto a study
of
the
and
a
Hence
vector
analytic approach.
given geometric
one could
give it a vector interpretation, or one
problem,
couldimpose
a coordinate
on the problem and use
system
ments.

analytic techniques. course,

any
three methods is alsopossible.

In

coordinate

summary,

not be

should

systems

of the

combination

Of

viewed as

as another (very powerful)

intrinsic geometry
but., rather,
mathematical with which one attacks geometric problems.
those
Combining our notionsof vectors-particularly
to

tool

scalar

the

of

product-with

tems,
geometry.)

shall

we

16.

some

develop

sys-

elements of analytic

LINE

STRAIGHT

THE

We begin

of coordinate

those
of the

with the

problem of

the

finding

equatioll

of a

if P = (x, y)
straight line in the plane. More
precisely,
is an arbitrary point ona givel1
line
seek
a mathewe
\302\243,
=
matical relation that distinguishesP
those
y) from
(x,
\302\243.
points in the plane that are not 011
of course,
There
are,
many ways to specify a unique
line.
We begin
by specifying two points P1(XI,Yl) and
P 2 (X2, Y2),1 and seek the equation of the
line
determined
these
The
aim
is
to
in
arrive
at
an
by
points.
equation
terms of the coordinatesof the specified
points.
Since P, PI, and P 2 are all one line (see Figure 48),
we may employ
4 to write)
Theorem

--+--+

\037

OP =
1

This

freely
joining

to be

appears

line. It was,

in

translated,
two

points.)))

fact,

(1 - t)OPl + tOP

2 -)

the most natural

included

way

as Euclid's

states that one and

only

one

to specify
first

line

a unique

axiom,

can be

which,
drawn

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

78)

GEOMETRY)

y)

y)

x)

%)

(a))

(b))

48)

FIGURE

in accordance
with
a common
with
vectors
Or,

this

rewrite

we

the

of

equation

points)

Equation

line

our convention of designating

origin by their endpointsalone,
in terms of the positionvectors

PIP 2.

= (1

- t)P1 +

39 is

often referred

As

takes

on

is

the

(1

of the

The auxiliary variable t

is also referredto as a
of line

is

(39))

For
=

midpoint
called

parametric

of

j-P

values,
if t =

example,
\037P

of

equation

number

real

j-,)

2)

Pt P

2.
and (39)

segment

a parameter

representation

(vector)

\302\243.

Rewriting

xi

P.

- j-)P1 + j-P2

vector

position

2 .)

to as a vector

different

we get different vectorsfor

P

tP

(39)

yj =
=

in terms

of the

basis vectors, we

- t)x1i+ (1 - t)Ylj
- xI)]i + [YI
[Xl + t(X2
(1

However, the representationofa vector

tX2 i +

+
+
in

t(Y2
terms

have)

tY2j

- YI)]j.)
of basis)))

79)

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

Therefore

is unique.

vectors

{Y
are the
coordinate

Xl +

t(X2

YI +

t(Y2

is

case by using

(40). Taking two

(0, 1), on the x-axis,we

{

0 +

t(1

0 +

t(O

X =

matter

what
=

Calling

the value of t,
a sufficient

the

(40), yields)

simplified

X =

3 +

1 +

If, instead,we
would

had

different
see

that

(-2,

line.

3),

and applying

2 - 3)
t(3 - 1).)

t( -

1 +

with PI

begun

we

zero.

the

5t

2t.
= (-2,3)andP2

= (3,1),

yield:)
X

is always

y-coordinate

form:)

x =

(40)

O.)

(3, 1) and P 2

{ y

x-axis are)

description of

0 is

PI =

and

{ Y

Therefore y

(0, 0)

- 0)
- 0).)

of the

equations

parametric

say

points,

write)
X

In

or

analytic

3).

x-axis

(b)

Yl)

of (a) the
parametric
representations
line joining (3, 1) and (-2,
reader
of course, that the equation of the
knows,
=
this
that
0, but we shall now attempt to verify

is the

No

(40))

the

(b)

The

the

Xl)

Find

16.

x-axisand

Thus

parametric equations of line \302\243in

(in contrast to vector) form.

EXAMPLE

(a)

- 2

5t

2t,)

of the
representation
the parametric repre8entationof a

parametric

same line.
line

i8 not

Thus

unique.)))

choiceof

It depends on the

to derive

used

points

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

80)

the parametric

equations.
it
is desirable
In
instances
a
in some
and
to
line
parameter
auxiliaryvariable. In orderto
write

xY

YI

is the

the

form

two-point

for

of

order) of any

two

by the first, getting)

-

Y2
X2

YI

the

points

the equation
the

difference

of a

(taken

(41) is called

line. This form

in the

line is

coordi-

of the

terms

reason

x-coordinates

on the

(41))

Xl)

this

For

2 alone.

statesthattheratio
to the differenceof

YI).)

of the line,2in

equation

PI and P

= t(Y2

YI Xl

which

- Xl)

t(X2

equation

nates of

Xl

second

the

divide

and

elimina-

such

accomplish

(40) as

we rewrite

tion

y-coordinates
in the same

the same,namely

.
YI
- Xl (see Fl gure 49). Not e th at th is isequiva

Y2

X2

the stateme11tthat all the

similar.

in

triangles

Ien t t 0

Figure

It should also be notedthatthisratio,

Y2

49
-

X2

the ratio of the

is precisely

metric form
parametric

the
an

to eliminate
form without

many

of

the

form

line.

coefficients

Thus

is independent

of

at least

t in

the

one feature

of the points

are
YI

Xl

paraof

the

used

to)

(41) is not the equation of the line, for it is

The equation
satisfied by all points of
Y2
Yl
- Xl), while
the
this
line is Y - Yl =
describes
(41)
- Xl (x
X2
in
line with
the
We chooseto use
point
(Xl, Yl) deleted.
of
remembered
the
of
because
its
slight inaccuracy,
easily
spite
2

Strictly

speaking,

not satisfied by

(Xl,

Yl).

(41),

symmetric

form.)))

81)

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

y)

Y2

X2
X-Xl

Xl)

Yl)

:>1)

\037)
X)

o)

49)

FIGURE

the equations.
(See Example
ratio
of the coefficients of t.)
\302\267
\302\267 ..
.
\302\267

derive
the

SIncet e ratIo Y2
h

X2

representation
of it
light

Figure 49.
the

angle

of a

Yl

of the

first

by

proceed

of line

of inclination

line is the angle

the

\302\243. The

formed

positivex-axis. Thatis,a is

the

by

\302\243
that

the

a name,

of inclination

angle

line and

given

positive side of the x-axisto the

lies above
the x-axis. If \302\243is parallel

say that the angle

of the angle
The
tangent
slope of the line. Thus)
x-axis, we

slope

of

=
\302\243

portion

of
of

tan

of

inclination
is

inclination

a =

the

counterclockwise

measured

from

a in

labeled

angle a

giving

the

in

further

angle

is

Xl
of

Igeb ralC

h
tea

to

line, we discuss it

being the tangent

We

IntrInSIC

SO

IS

16b where

Y2

X2

YI

of

to
\302\243
is

termed

line

the
zero.

the

\302\267

(42)
Xl)))

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

82)

Consequently,

a line in
effect,that

terms

yield the very

A difficulty

any

GEOMETRY)

(42) states the formula for the slopeof

of
two
and (41) says, in
given
points;
two
in the computation
used
points
same

slope.

occurs when

that produced(41)is

X2

not

Xl =

0; then
for

legitimate,

the division
dividing

by

undefined in arithmetic. Analyzing

this
case
we
see
that
the
line
must
be
(see Figure 50),
separately
in order that Xl = X2.
vertical
The angle of il1clination
is 1r /2. The reader is undoubtedly familiar with the
is undefined;
of 1r/2
fact that the tangent
i.e. there is no
tan
real number
that
Thus
vertical lines
1r/2.
equals
the concept
is merely undefined for such
no
have
slopes;
a \037 1r/2
if
and
0 < a < 1r, then
lines. However,
zero is

tan a is
have

no

defined,

hence

vertical

lines

are the only

slope.)

Y)

(Xl, Y2))

(Xl, Y1))
x)

X=X1)

FIGURE

60)))

ones

that

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

The
x =

equation

Xl

83)

of the vertical line under

discussion
is
to
the
should
be
confusing
reader,
for every value of Y, X is always
stating:
if

which,

as

thought

of

equal to

Xl.

the reader

and

have the

constal1t;

can easily show

horizontal

that

lines

all

form)

our analysis

Continuing

constant.
the

of

41for
line, we solveequatio11
Y =

this

Simplifying

Y2

m=

X2

we

the form)

have

all

erticallines

Y2

X2

Y2
+

Yl

Xl

X2

Yl
and)

Y2
X2

Xl)

YI.

Xl)

the replacements)

by making

expression

straight

y:)

Yl

- Xl X

of the

equation

Yl

Xl +

YI,

Xl)

get)

(43))

y=mx+b)

the
line.
Note
that m, the coefficient
of
Is
the
line.
therea
interx,
slope
geometric
of the constant
b? The answer is easily
deterpretation
mined
the Y = b when x = o. Thus the
by observing
point (0,b) is on the line. This is the point at which the
line
(43) crosses or intercepts the y-axis, and it 'istherefore
called
43 is termed the
the
y-intercept.
Equation
of
a line, for, from
for
the
slope-intercept
equation
form
this equationwe can immediately
off the slope m
read

as the

equation

of

is the

of

and the y-intercept,(0,b)

EXAMPLE
determined
pertinent

(1)

What

of

the

line.

17. We return to the line (of the last example)

by PI = (3, 1) and P 2 = (-2, 3) and ask several
questions
is its

it.
regarding
in
equation
two-point

form?)))

84

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

By

(41) we

GEOMETRY)

have)

- 1

x-3)

3-

-2 -

1
3)

or)

- 1

x-3)
(2)

Solving

b =

What

for

11 \302\267
5

- ---2
5)

Observe

that its

slope is 5
.))

of the line in slope-interceptfornl?

1=
and
\037x +
15 , so that m
\037

is the equation
y, we get y =

the line (Figure 51). A simple

that
procedure
form
is first
to locate the y-intercept
slope-intercept
of the
use
(0, 15 1 ) as one point of the graph. Then, making
we
five
to
units
the
two
units
and
slope idea,
proceed
right
downward to locatea secondpoint of the graph.
(4) What is the x-intercept?
In the process of answering this rather simple question we
a bit and reflect on the nature of \"the equation
shall
of
digress
the line.\" Logically, the equation y = - ; x + 15 1- is a senis true
for only certain choices of x and y.
That
tence, which
the sentence
is, some ordered pairs (x, y) render
true; these
that
are said to lie on the
pairs are the coordinatesof points
line y = - \037x + 151- . All the ordered
pairs that render the
1
not on the line y = - \037
statement false represent
x + 15-.
points
(3)

We

graph

applies the

We

therefore

to see

check

\\vhether

given

point,

say (3, 1),)

y)

x)

FIGURE

61)))

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

85)

the
the line by substituting
coordinates
in the sentence
and determining whether the sentenceis renderedtrue. Here
1 = - \037(3) + 15\037' which
we
have
is true.
Hence (3, 1) is

is on

on

actually

a set of
pairs.

is (0,b),

the

line.

be said that a line is

is a set of ordered
points
that,
expressed
analytically,
whose
is m and whose y-intercept
Thus a line \302\243,
slope
is defined
by the statement:

In the

language of

set

=
\302\243

the

{(x, y)ly =

the

+ b}.)
set:

following

\037x

line of reasoning,
point of intersection

the

Continuing
finding

= mx

y)ly

{(x,

The line in Example17is then

of

it would

theory

151_

}.

we considerthe
of

two

lines,

problem

and
\302\2431

\302\2432,

where)
\302\2431:
y
\302\2432:
y

+ b1

m1 x

m2x + b 2 .)

(44))

=
intersection (there is, at most,oneunless\302\2431
\302\2432)
statements
both
and
\302\2431
\302\2432
pair rendering
true,
That is, we seek the ordered pair that satsimultaneously.3
both
isfies
equations
simultaneously.
Finding the pair, if it
is then a matter of elementary
for the
exists,
algebra-solving
solution to a set of two simultaneous
linear equations.
Thus finding
the
of our line is the problem of
x-intercept
for the solution of the pair of equations:)
solving

The

is

the

point of
ordered

y
y

\037x

J5\037

(x axis).

The x-interceptis therefore C\302\245-,0).)

to mean
use of the symbols \302\2431
and
both lines and sen\302\2432
tencesin one paragraph
might be frowned upon by some logicians,
but this economy
of sYlnbols
should not cause the reader any
confusion.
In
the rigorous axiomatic treatment. of analytic
a straight line may be defined
as a set whose defining
geometry
sentence
is of the form ax + by + c = 0 (see equation
(49)).
This definition
includes vertical lines as well as those that have
3 The

slope defined.)))

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

8'6.)

A Euclidean theorem states: If two

are cut by a
lines
of
transversal so that a pair
are
corresponding
angles
if two
conversely,
equal, the two lines are parallel;and
lines are cut by a transversal,
parallel
corresponding
of
Applying this to our treatment
angles are equal.
lines
are
we may say that two
analytic
geometry,
parallel
the same
possess
if and only if they
angle of inclination.
For nonverticallines, it may be stated that two lines are
parallel if and only if they have the same slope.

EXAMPLE18. To find
=

Since

discussion,
it
render

\037x

the

;x +

equation

(For another

2.

Exercise8

m =

slope

,
\037

we

may

(45))

b,)

In accordancewith
of (10, -2) in

Thus -2 =

true.

quently, b = 2, and

line parallel to

-2).

(10,

to be determined.
the substitution

b remaining

foregoing
should

,vith

of the

equation

form)

in the

it

\\vrite

the

+ 1;- and passing through

have
the line we seek must

x
\037

(10)
\037

the
(45)

Consedetermined:

+ b.

is completely

approach, see (equation46) in

below.))

EXERCISES

1.

(3, 1)

of the line determinedby

the equation

Derive

(5,

4)

and

in:

(a) the vector form

(b) Parametric
(c)

2. (a)
(b)

as

slope of the line determinedin

its x- and y-intercepts?

the

What

is

What

are

through
whose

(c)

parallel

4. What
is 2x -

is
3y

-5).

slope is
to 2x
the
=

point
12 and

2 and

ExerciseI?

line:

the

4) and

(-5,

through (0,
(b)

in (39);

form.

two-point

3. Derivethe equation of
(a)

expressed

form;

having

-5;

y-intercept

that

is,

x-intercept is. -3.

3 and

through

(1, 1).

of intersection of the line whose equation

the line whose equationis 2x - 5y = 121)))

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

(a) 2x

5. Sketch

12.

o.

2x =

1.

4.

(e)

(f)

x =

(g)

12.

5y

+ 7 =

(c) 3y

(d)

3y

2x

(b)

87)

{Y

?r.
=

-1

(h)
\037

{:

- 2t
+
_

t.

Find the

point of
A
determined
by
triangle
the
use
(3,
2). (Don't
6. (a)

of

intersection

medians

the

1), B = (5, -2),

(-2,

of the

equations

of the
C

and

medians!)

median emanating from B?

of
Find
the
the
interior
(c)
equation
angle bisector at A.
A
from
vector
which
bisects angle A,
(Hint.
A,
emanating
(b)

is

What

the

\037

is V

of the

equation

\037

AB

\037

AC .
\037

IACI

IABI

Find the equation of the

and
r/6
(1,
passingthrough
-2).
(b) What is the equation of the
7. (a)

line

line

an inclination

with
through

slopeis undefined?
(c)

is the

What

equation of the line through

(1, -2)
(1,

of

whose

-2)

whose

with

slope

slope is zero?

8. (a) The equation for

m, is

given

x
Justify
(b)

y-intercept

Yl -

m.

(Xl, Yl),

(point-slope form)

equation
of

(0,

b) is

a
(47).)))

through

(46))

Xl)

Justify

line

(See footnote 2, page 80.)

for the line with
x-intercept

(46).
The

the

by)

given
Y
b)

1.

of

(0, a)

and

by)

(intercept-form)

(47))

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

88)

9. Booby traps:

(a)

Sketch

(b) Sketch

. whose
17.

x +

{ y = t.
(c) Find an equation
is

x-intercept

y.

a line

for

OF THE

GEOMETRY

ANALYTIC

Returning to the useof vectors,

is the equation of the line

LINE CONTINUED

we

What

Po = (xo, Yo)
=
N
ai + bj?

and

point

If P

y)

(x,

\"is

the

the

pose

to

perpendicular

general

52),

we know

question:
fixed
the

\302\243
through

point

of the

the

vector

line

\302\243
(see

---?

\037

Figure

is 1r/2and

whose inclination

o.)

that PoP 1..N

or

pop.

= o.

Therefore)
[(x
or)

which is

xo)i + (y

a(x -

xo)

\302\267

(ai

yo)j]

bey

Yo)

the equation of line\302\243. We

ax +

by

(axo + byo)

bj) =

+
=
can

0
(48)

0,

(48) as)

rewrite
0)

y)

%)

FIGURE

52)))

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

simply, as)

more

or,

ax +
which is

c = 0,)

by

the

where c

(axo

(49))

byo),

the (x, y)(provided

straight line in
be solved for y

can

49

= -

for a

equation

general

Equation

plane.

89)

case we will have the line in slopeform.

In the event that b = 0, (49) yields the
intercept
=
and
b cannot
vertical line x
both be zero, for
(a
the trivial
then (49)would
become
sentence 0 = 0, which
is true for all points in the plane). Thus (49) includes
b

\037

which

in

0),

-cia

all possible

concept of slope is carried

the slopeof N'is bla (if
from
(49), which can be found

- cia, is

y = -(alb)x

nonvertical.

and

vertical

lines,

straight

If the
find that

-alb.

\037

its

we
vectors,
the slope of

to

over

and

0)

form

slope-intercept

conclude

therefore

We

that:

two lines (neither of them

vertical)
and only if their slopesare negative

are

if

perpendicular

of one

reciprocals

another.

That is,

line

if

is the

m1

of line

slope

and
\302\2431,

slope of

the

m2

\302\2432,)

.1
\302\2431

and

if

\302\2432)

only

if)

ml=)

1)

--.)

mt) 4J)

be observed that there are two

to this
parts
but only one has beenjustifiedhere. The reader
should
the justification.)
therefore
complete
If \302\2431.1 \302\2432and \302\2431is vertical
must
(no slope), then \302\2432
=
be horizo11t.al,
O.
m'],
i.e.,
should

(It

result

EXAMPLE19.
and

Following

the
of the
equation
the vector 3i scheme
of reasoning that
Find

4j.

to

perpendicular
the

line through (2,

climaxed with

\\ve write)

[(x

- 2)i +

or)
3(x

(y

(3i -

(-l))j].

- 2) -

4(11

1) =

4j)

0,)))

0;

-1)
(48),

which, simplified

and put in the form

3x

EXAMPLE20.
and

Find

to

perpendicular
the

Writing

given

the

equation

3x line in
Y

4y

of

10 =

4y

O.

of the

10 =

43,..N

reads:

(49),

o.

line through (2,

slope-intercept
_-

(-1). =

x-2

--,4

_ 5

2')

of the desired
N in Example
the line
(46),

- 5=

- 3y

4x

or)

-1)

form)

we see that its slope is I.

Therefore
the
slope
this
line is -1 /: = -t.
with
of
(Check
slope
19.) Therefore, by using the point-slopeform
we seek can be written)
y

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

90)

O.)

EXERCISES

1.

line \302\243
is given
by ax + by + c = 0,
vector N perpendicular to \302\243,
in terms

If a

for a

in the
2.

equation of
the

through

3. Find

an

of the

expression

coefficients

\302\243.

of the line perpendicularto 2x -

the equation

Find

o and

find

origin.

the equation

of

the

bisector

perpendicular

of the

ment joining (1, -3) and (3, 5).

4. Find two vectors of unit length perpendicularto 2x =

1 =

seg-

O.)

DISTANCE

18.

The

problem

A POINT
of determining

FROM

betweena pointPo

Yo)

(xo,

\302\243:ax

TO A LINE
the (minimum) distance

and

by +

a line)

c =

is easily
vectors.
We shall actually derive
by
a formula for this distance,but it is
author's
sugthat the reader not memorizethis formula.
gestion
handled

the

One

of

the

as
need

stro'ng advantages
to pure
opposed
to be remembered.

of thinking in

analytics-is
A

thorough

terms of

that

fewer

familiarity

vectorsformulas

with

the)))

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

91)
Po)

\302\243)

53)

FIGURE

often enables one to solve

from
pattern of reasoning

vector tools
a basic

basic

following

as easily
ciples-just
The present problem

Let P

applying

first

prin-

formula.

complicated

is a caseill point.

a general point on
d from Po to \302\243
could

be

y)

(x,

distance

minimum

as

by

problems

\302\243.

be

Then

thought

the

of

\037

as

the

projection of PPo 011the per-

of the

magnitude
\037

uct

will

the

last

to

PF

pendicular
serve

as

section,
ai + bj.

\302\243
(see

to finding

an aid

we write

Thlls

53).

Figure

the dot

d. Using the result

Applying Theorem 6, we

have)

\037

IprNPPol =

NI

t.PPo.
INI

[(

x-

Xo

)1 +

(y -

Yo

)J J

a.i +

e
_

-_

taxo

- ax

byo

vi a

of

a vector perpendicular
to \302\243ag

\037

d =

prod-

2)))

byl

2
a

bj

2
+ b

But,

- ax

by

+
d = laxo 2byo
formula
coordinatesof the

Po

point

given

c\\

(50))

terms of
the constants

d in

distance

the

for

2
+ b

Va

which is a

have

we finally

c, so

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

92)

and

the
in

the given line \302\243.

21.

EXAMPLE

line

\302\243:
y

jx

formula

Although

the distance from

Find

- 1.

(50)

for the

Po = (1, 3)

distance has

shall illustratethe point

made above by abandoning the use of (50)
from first principles.

this

section, we

very

We

writing

by

begin

that a vector perpendicular

as i

- 2j. In

the

reader doubtlessly
INI,

which

jection

by

to

in
we were

we were

that
on

projecting

fore, be more convenient

the unit
if we

2y

immediately

used

that

observed

meant

\302\243
can

computation

the

2 = 0, so
be written

arriving at d, the
forced to divide by

actually computing the provector

convert

\"

I:'

It

might,

the perpendicular

y)

J\\(l,3))

\302\243)

1)

%)

-2

-1

in

suggestion

of working

in favor

the

been derived

of

form

the

\302\243
in

to

0)

FIGURE

64)))

there-

vector)

to a

93)

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

-+

PoP I on U,
choice for PI

where

is the y-intercept
-+

IP\037I. UI

(-i _

V5

o
of

projection

\302\243. A

(0,

\302\243,
namely

(pru

rather

.i -

- 2j

of
simple

Hence,)

-1).
\037

PoPI)IUII

+ (-1 _ 3)j]

4j)

the

of

\037

- l)i

[(0

is

PI

- 2j
.

the magnitude
any point on

is then

distance

present computation.

is)

vector

The

of our

outset

the

at

vector

unit

Sucha unit

Ipru PoP

II

2j

_ 1-1 +

81

5)

Any

other

say PI = (2,0), should

of PI,

choice

result:)

l)i + (0_ 3)j].

[(2 -

d=)

same

2j

70

1+6

5)

o)

Even a generalpoint

i-

the

give

PI

= (Xl,

YI)

l)i +

(Yl

of \302\243
would

the explicit

yield

computation:)

d=

[(Xl

3)j]

.i
\037\037j

IXI

V
But,

since

(Xl, YI) is

2YI

51

5)

on \302\243,
we

know

that

Xl

fore)

d =

!2 +

51

\037

0
5)))

2YI\"

2.

There-

vector

had

we

Suppose

to

perpendicular

jection

be

would

the

of

value

our

same

method

to a formula.

of. vector

standing
of

such

exercises

taking the
the value

is grasped,
the
without
directly,

projection
and

However,a

from (1, 2) to x

the distance

2. Find

the distance

from

(1,

-2)

to x

3. Find

the distance

from

(1,

-2)

to

4. Find the magnitude

on the line x - 2y

the

of
=

5. Find the magnitude

vector 3i - 4j where

5, where
of

the

A and

METHOD

ANALYTIC

pro-

computations.

previous

EXERCISES

19.

under-

thorough

comes only with the practice

it is precisely to promote such
Be sure to do a
are
included.

And

thinking.

Find

umt

thinking

practicethat
good shareof them!
1.

of the

sign

projection,

simply

any reference

2j as the

we are

since

but

changed;

the

Then

\302\243.

magnitude,or absolute
for d would bethe
as in
As soon as the
of
can
be
made
computations

- i+
V5

With U

begun

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

94)

5.
=

2y

2y

5.
+

and

5 =

O.

segment AB

of the

(1, 1)

projection

B are

-x +

projection

A =

2y

(2,

of segment AB

-1).

on the

the sameas in 4.)

OF PROOF

In accordance with the philosophy

in Section
described
shall
of
we
now
illustrate
the
15,
application analytic
methods
to proving
results of geometry. The spirit of
will be to divorce our work from the
these
illustrations

ideas

of

in favor

of

with

working

notions that are analytic

two

sides

of a

one half of it.

Again,

in

in

tion 15, we

character.

Prove that the line joining the

side
triangle is parallelto the third

22.

EXAMPLE

similarity)
congruence,
coordinates,
slope, and other
(e.g.,

geometry

synthetic

accordance
view

this

with
as a

midpointsof
and

equal

to

the philosophy put forth in Secgeometry problem and impose a)))

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

95)
y)

B(b,

C))

%)

A (a, 0))

0(0,0))

66)

FIGURE

coordinate

upon it.

system

nate system in

such a

therefore

vVe

to

as

manner

the coordiour work. For

impose

facilitate

the origin as one vertex of the trichoose

x-axis to be along one side of the triangle
(see
Figure 55). If we do this, and if we desire our proof to hold
all triangles,
for
there is no further choice available. Calling
the
triangle
OAB, we assign coordinates as follows:)

example,we
angle

may

and the

= (0,

Next, we
and

in Example
M

midpoint of

M N

slope

(a,

0),

OB, by

B = (b,

of M,
means

c).)

the midpoint

of the

formula

N =

\037

of

AB,

derived

lOde)

(
The

coordinates

the

compute

N, the

0),

of MN

is parallel

and)
\037

,\037))

c/2

- c/2

bj2 _ (a +

to 0 A.)))

b)/2

( 2'

0, whIch

2))

proves

that)

secondpart of

As for the
of

\037

(;

(\037

\037r

each other.
we

Again

elect

the

Let
(a, 0),

coordinates,

and C
say

=
\037 \0372

,
1;1

\037IAOI.

that

Prove

23.

shows that 11IINI =

EXAMPLE

position.
=
A

IMNI

bisect

the length

we compute

result,

MN.)

segment

which

the

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

96)

the diagonals

of

parallelogram

the coordinate axesin a convenient

be OABC, where 0 = (0,0),
parallelogram

to place

= (b, c), asnotedin Figure56.

to point B, we find that

If

we

ascribe

d and
three
other

(d, e),

e are

verdependenton the coordinateschosenfor the

the
that
tices of the paralleiogram. That is, the condition
a
that
its
are
is
sides
opposite
figure
parallelogram, namely,

parallel,forcescertain

coordinates

B.

upon

parallel to OA, the slope of CB is zero; that is,

that
e = c. And,
since
(e - c)/(d - b) = 0, which
implies
OC is parallel to AB, (c - O)/(b
0) = (c - O)/(d
a); or
B = (a + b, c).
d = a + b. Thus,
the parallelogram
Now that we have imposed
condition, we
are free to attack our problem-findingthe mid-points
of the
= \302\253a
the
The
of
and
OB
+
b)/2,
c/2)
diagonals.
midpoint
of AC = \302\253a
+ b)/2, c/2), which establishes the result.)
midpoint
Since

CB is

y)

B(d,e)

C(b,c)

= (a+b,c))

x)

A (a,

0(0,0))

FIGURE

66)))

0))

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

97)

y)

B(b,

C))

%)

A (a, 0))

0(0,0))
M(\037,O))

67)

FIGURE

angle

point.

Let the triangle be

o =

(0,

of OA,

0),

N the
a

M =

Then

= (a,

ON: y

For
t\\VO

the

in

sho,vn

B=

(b,

AB,

and

Q the

a+ b C
'
N=
( 2 2)

0,

lines

median

the

and

57, where

Figure
the

CaHill

c).

midpoint

midpoint
b

tri-

of

OB.

( 2' 2 )

are found to

be:)

a+b

BM: y =

AQ

of

midpoint

The equationsof
c
=

as

OAB,

0) and

2' )

mediansof

Prove analytically that the

24.
meet in a

EXAMPLE

\037a/2)

c/2

y =

or)

;))

(x

(x
b/2 _ a

point

equations

b_

a))

or)

11

2cx

2b-a

c
b _

of ON and B]1,l,,ve
simultaneous
pair, getting)

of intersection
as a

x=

a+b

3)

and)

-.

3)))

2a

(x
solve

ac

2b-a)

- a).)
the

first

For the

point of

+
\302\253a

point

AQ, we solve the

arriving at the same

ON and

of

intersection

third

and

first

at

all meet

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

98)

equations
simultaneously,
Thus, the medians of
b)/3, c/3).
+ b)/3, cj3).
\302\253a

OAB

triangle

For the purposes of further

we use the
illustration,
vector approach to checkthe coordinatesof the point P
of the medians. Referring to Example
of intersection
the
vector of P is written
position
lOe,

P=

}-A +

}-O

= }(Oi +

lB

OJ)

= j(a + b)i+
=

Thus

-i(ai)

+ cj)

+ }(bi

(a + b)j3, cj3), which

above

the

with

checks

com pu ta tion.

It

handled

of vectors

use

by

median problem is more

than by pure analytics.

the

that

clear

seems

easily

EXERCISES

1. Prove:In

the

triangle

any

sum of

to three-fourths the sum

is equal

of

the squares of
the

medians

the

of the

squares

three

sides.

2. Prove:The sum
equal to one-half
twice

the

median on that

of the

sum

The

lelogram is

the

of the

square

3. Prove:

of two sides of a triangle is

squares
of the third side, increased by
square

the

of

(Comparewith

vector

of the

squares

equal to the sum

of

the

The sum of the squares of

quadrilateral is equal to the sum of the
points

of

5. Prove

the

four

of a

sides

four

of the

squares

paral-

diagonals.

proof.)

4. Prove:

increasedby

side.

times

the

four

the

sides

of any

of the

diagonals
square of the line joining the midsquares

diagonals.

analytically:

(a) the median of a trapezoid.is

(b) the lines joining the midpoints
rilateral

form

a parallelogram;)))

parallel
of

to the
the

sides

bases;
of a quad-

99)

GEO.METRY)

ANALYTIC

(c) in any

joining the midpoints

point that is the midpoint
of the
segment
joining the midpoints of the diagonals.
a slope of m1 and an angle of inclination
8 1,
6. If line \302\2431
has
a slope of m2 and angle of inclination
8 2,
and if line \302\2432
has
use the formula for tan (82 - (J1) to determine tan (J, where
(J
of

is

the'

from

\302\2432).

the

7. Discuss
the

lines

of

are
\302\2432

(a)
(b)

(2,

of

slopesof

the

10.If 0

equation

of

lines
(0,
the

counterclockwise

\302\2432
(measuring

using

the result

of Exercise 6 when

perpendicular.
the

triangles

(-4, 13).
(-3;

(6, 0),

6),

9. The slopes

in a

58.

Figure

difficulty

and
\302\2431

the angles of
(5, 0), (8, 4),

8. Find

and
\302\2431

See

segments

intersect

sides

between

angle
to
\302\2431

the

quadrilateral,

opposite

8).

as -2 and 3. Find the

the
bisect
angles betweenthem.

lines

two

that

are given

(V3,
0), A
line bisecting

1), and B =

(2

V3,

1), find

angle AOB.)

y)
\302\2432)
\302\2431)

%)

FIGURE

68)))

the

11. If

is given
by a1X + b 1 y + C1 = 0 and \302\2432
by
=
a linear
of \302\2431
combination
and
+ Cl
0, we define
of the form
equation

is
\302\2431

alX +

b1y

an

as
\302\2432

given

m(alx +

(b)

is the point

If P

P; and

conversely, every

and
\302\2431

\302\2432.

The

of all lines through

P, can be written

over all

range

(c) If

the

\037y

zero?

and
\302\2431

also
\302\2432

\302\2432,
prove

single

the real numbers(excludingthe casem

is
\302\2431

to

parallel

them
is also parallel to each of \302\2431
and
(51) represents the set of all lines parallel to
a pencil of parallel lines.
called

\302\2431
(or

12.

line

the

of Exercise

results

11,

the

find

\302\2432.

n =

any linear

that

\302\2432,
prove

tion of

Using

through

passes

a linear combination
the
set
of this result is that
vertex
the pencil of lines with
51, where m and n
equation

called

often

(51)

P is

through

consequence

P,

of

combination

a linear

of \302\2431and

line

C2)

are not both

intersection

of

b2Y

by

m and n

any linear combination

that

of

described

l\037cus

a line, if

also

lines

n(a2x +

C1) +

b1Y

is the

(a) Why

of two

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

100)

0).

combinacase

this

In

\302\2432),often

the

through

point of intersection of x - 2y = 3 and 4x - 2y = 15, and

the point of interpassing through the origin, without
finding
section of the given lines.
follow
(Be sure to
(51)
carefully!)
13. (a) Write an equation that represents the pencil of lines
(1, -2).
(b) Write an equation that

through

inclination

\\vith

7r

(a) Find the

14.

lineswhose
0, and
(b)

through

Find

lines whose

triangle

the

through

are

(0,

point

the

meet

(;

point

4 =

the point
2y

8 =

3y

3 =

of

of the

intersection

0 and x

8y

7 =

, 0).

of Exercise

results

0 and 2x +

\037
).

the line through

the

of the

of intersection

point
+

2y

equations are 3x +

0, and through
15. By using

lines

/6.

line

equations
the

representsthe pencil of

11, prove the

n1ediansof

in a point.)

20. CIRCLES

Let Po =

and

P =

(xo,

Yo)

be

the

center

(x, y) a general point of

of a
the

circle of
circle

(see

radius

Figure)))

GEOMETRY

ANALYTIC

101)
Y)

x)

FIGURE

vector

the

Then

59).

59)

of the circle is

equation

easily

\037

found
lizing

tor

the

imposing

by
the

vectors

position
of

equation

condition that IPopl = r. Utiof the points, we write the vec-

circle

the

Ip
or

V (P
we

form,

- Po) \302\267
(P

as

- Pol =
Ir

Po) =
as
(52)

rewrite

I(x

- xo)i +

(52)

r. To get the
-

(y

yo)jl

r)

r.)

analytic

or)

Vex
Finally,

by

squaring

(x as

the

whose

of
equation
radius is r.)))

XO)2

both
XO)2

(y

YO)2

members,
+

(y

YO)2

we get
=

2)

the circle whosecenteris (xo,

(53))

Yo)

and

the

Concerning

is

of

the

coefficients

form

the

in

when

x2

quadratic

y2 both

and

- 2xox+

X02

y2

which is, of

We

+ y2

pose

the

C =

By

of a

equation

write

(x

In.orderto
(

+ Ax

do

form

of

(y2 +

Ax)

A 2/4

add

we

so

We

(53).

how

y2

By

the

in

to
paren-

) =\"\"4

+\"4

members:)

to both

B2
(

we

whether

attempt

By) = -C.

and B 2 /4

+\"\"4)

(54)

a circle,

questionsdependon

in the

(54)

form

the

of

represent

accomplish this by completingthe squares

theses of the expression

such

of

and radius?

center

the

find

does

it

If

(2)

The answers to both

(54))

0,

circle but

equation

every

can

write this

we may

obscure its essentialcharacteristics,

namely,
center of the circle.
two
which can be answered simulquestions,

represent a circle?
we

coeffi-

designating

letter,

- Ax +

taneously. (1) Does

can

and

= r 2.

yo2

and

radius

the

course,

as to

nature

2yoY

form

the

in

equal (to unity),

we get

By grouping the constantterms

cients of the variables by a single

equation

it should be
and
y;
(2) it has

circle,

x and

in

(5\037).

(53),

Expanding

the

of

equ\037tion

noted that: (1) It

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

102)

c)

or)

A
x+-

2)

(
which

center

is in

the form

of the

y+-

2)

=-+--C
4

2
')

of (53), enablingus to say

circle is

(- A/2, - B/2)

and

the

that

radius

the
is)))

.103)

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

+ B2/4 - C. The
overlooked is the questionof
real or imaginary. If A 2/4
V A 2/4

For

exists.

circle

example,

one

do

the circle

y2

of x 2

coefficients

the

the equation

y2

2x +

1) +

(x

the locus

radiusis r =

3y +

y2

- 1)2 +

is a circlewhose

in terms
P =

We

therefore

- 6x +

9y

rewrite

= o.)

443
)
2

-3

2)

2
- -,

=-.31
12)

is (1,

center

-j)

and whose

\03703.)

= xi

written

zero,

equals

= 1 + -9

-9

consider a circle of radius r

in
(as
Figure 60), the positionvector)

be

3y2

> 0,

/4

get)

If we

can

real

cannot repre2
- C
B

equal, we may
to unity:)

3y

(
or)

equal

- 2x +

Completing the squares,we

-

3x2

y2 are

and

coefficients

these

with

Hence,

-1

expression

the locus

Examine

25.

-_ 0 .

(x2

A 2/4

this

if

- C < 0, no

degenerates to a point.)

EXAMPLE

Since

+
if

circle; and

a real

have

B 2/4

sent a real locus. However,

we

this

whether

x2

has been
root is
square
that

difficulty

conclude

the

origin

yj)

of its angle of

r cos 8i

at

centered

inclination

8:)

+ r sin 8j.)

that)
X

r cos

8
(55))))

{ y=rsin8)

GEOMETRY

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

104)

Y)

x)

60)

FIGURE

are the
the

equations of the givencirclewhere

parametric

parameter.

The single equation of the form (53)

sents a circle of radius r, centered
at

recovered from (55) by

y2

from

x2
But cos2

equation

= 1.
x

the

of the

(54)

2 sin 2

adding

8,)

Thus)

+ y2 =

specified

r2)

circle.)))

that

origin,

cos 2 8

r 2(cos 2

y2 =

sin 2 8

or

the

that

we deduce

which

alld

squaring

x2

is

8 is

sin 2 8).

repremay be

as follows:)

105)

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

EXERCISES

1. Write the equation

(a) center (0, 1) and
(b)

center

(0,

(c)

center

(-2,

(a)
(b)

passing

2x2

(b)

2
(c) x +
2

(d) 3x

centers and

y2

lOx + 7y
- 4y
3y2 + 8x

4. Find the points

origin;

and

passing

9 = 0;
+ 15 =

O.

of the line
the circleswhose
equa-

the equation

and

chord to

common

the following

having

0;

intersection

of

the

contributes

that

12y

circles

of

radii

- 16x +
y2
- 2y 2 = 9x;

the

(2,

the origin.

through

(a) x2

circle

-1) and passingthrough

through (1, -1), (2, 0), and (0, 3);
x-intercept 8, y-intercept -12

(c) having

equations:

2;

the

of

at

center

3. Find the

radius

-1) and radius 2;

3) and radius 3.

2. Find the equation

\\vith

with

circle

the

of

are

tions

2
(a) x

x
(b)

y2 + 8y
- 6x
y2

+ y2 +

= 16;
4x
25 = 0

8y

y2

of the

5.

through

Carry

of

equation

3 =

o.

(Hint.

interesectionof

meaning

the

= 64

is

What

the

algebraic

loci?)

the following vector

line tangent to a

the

approach to determine
a given

at

circle

given

point.

Let the circleX be centeredat C = (xo, Yo)

(a, b) be a point of X. Call P = (x, y) the general
line gJ, which is tangent to X at (a, b). Using
radius

gJ

is

vector

represented

(xo
6. Verify

CQ is perpendicular
by the equation)

- a)(x -

the equation

point-slopeequation
perpendicular

to

the

let

point
the

Q =
of the

fact

that

that

line

\037

\037

the

and

of

a)

for

the

tangent

(Yo

- b)(y

gJ given

line

to QP, prove

and

line at

b)

in Exercise

the fact

=.

o.)

5 by using the
that a radius is

the point of

contact.)))

7.

of the line tangent to

lOx = 60 at (4,2);

y2 +
2
x
+ y2 x = 2 cos

(b)
(c)

12y = 36at (6,0);

8

y=2sin8
x

(d)

GEOMETRY)

the equation

Find

(a) x2

at CV2, V2);

}
8

2 cos

at CV2, -V2).

y=2sin8) }

8.

Prove

at

(xo, Yo) and

9.

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

106)

that

the

Xo +

r cos

{y

Yo +

r sin

8.)

a parametric

Find

of a

equations

parametric

circlewith

center

radius r is

of the equation

representation

of

the

circle

with center ( -1,

- 6x
3x 2

(a)

+ 3y2

(b)

10. Find the points

are

(b)

9y

radius

2 =

2x 2x -

5;

O.
loci whose equations

of the

intersection

of

+ y2 x 2 + y2 -

(a)

2) and

2y

1 =

2y

1 =

0 and x +
0 and x2 +

1;

y2 =

1)

SPHERES

21.

The

which

sphere,

are

three-dimensional

a fixed point.
to be precisely that

from

equidistant

easily

be

may

analogue of the
defined as the locus

recognized

circle is the
of

This
of

the

that

points

definition

is

circle

if the

is restricted to a plane. Actually,

the
very
carries over to four-dimensional,fivedefinition

discussion
same

n-dimensional

and

dimensional,

spheres

(sometimes

called hyperspheres).

Confiningour discussionto

Po =

(xo, Yo,

zo)

the

generalpoint the
(radius the sphere)
of

of

fixed

three

sphere,

between

dimensions,

we

call

(center), P(x, y, z) the

and r the constant distance
Po and P (see Figure 61).)))

point

107)

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

2)

.y)

s)

FIGURE

position
Ip

vector

the

Then

precisely the

of Po and P,
or)

r)

vector

the

is

equation

of

have

we

form

(y

the

=r,)

V(P-Po).(P-Po)

coordinate

- xo)i +

of

terms

is)

same as (52),\"\\vhich

the circle. In
I(x

of the sphere, in

equation

vectors
pol =

61)

(z -

yo)j +

zo)kl

r,)

or)

Vex

Finally,
we

XO)2

(y

YO)2

(z

get)

XO)2

as tl1e equatio11of

(y

the

radius

is

sphere

r.)))

(z -

--.:.
YO)2 +
whose

Po = (xo,Yo,
,vhose

ZO)2

r.

both membersof this last equation,

by squaring
(x

and

zo)

ZO)2

center

is

The problem

tion

of

(similar
to that form

discussion

in Section

to that

would be quite repetitiousof

20 on

circles.

shall

We

unit

y2 +

Z2

the components

analyze

matters

whose

radius,

the

for

other

of

the

relegate

an

The unit sphereor sphere

at the origin,hasthe equation)
2

therefore

We

discussionas
exercise
turn attention to

of such a
details
reader
while we now
to the sphere.
relating
the

form for the equaof (54)) and of converting

a general

at

arriving

a sphere

equations

of

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

108)

center is

1.)

of

(56))
the

vector)

position

P=xi+yj+zk)

of point

P on the unit

If a is

the

angle

P makes

with the

62a.

x-axis, (3

the

angle

the

that

z-axis,)

\302\267
=

with the

P makes

with the y-axis,and \"I

P makes

that

in Figure

shown

sphere,

that

angle

cos a

Ipllil

a)

COS

and)

\302\267
=

yj +

(xi +

zk)

\302\267
=

x.)

= COS a;
similarly, y = cos (3 and z = cos \"I.
cos ai + cos (3j + cos 'Y k .
V (see Figure 62b) in three dimensions
vector
Every
to
the
vector of a point P on the unit
parallel
position
that
so
the
direction
of V is completely
specified
sphere,
P.
with
the vector
\"I associated
by the allgles a,. (3, and
x

Therefore

Hence

is

For this reason we

angles

of V (and

Since Ip!

vector

satisfy

the
of

angles
and
P),

of V (alld
= p \302\267
P = 1, the
the relation

cosines

direction

the

call

also

cos 2

cos

{J +

ex, f3, and \"I the

cas a, COS(3,

direction
and

of P).
direction cosines of
cos 2

'Y

1.

cos

\"I

every

(57))))

109)

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

z)

y)

z)

x)

y)

x)

(a))

FIGURE

Suppose

which

V is

mj +

li +

nk.

(b))

62)

Then the

to

vector

unit

parallel is
V

Ivl

+ mj + nk \
2
2
2
VZ
+ m + n
li

Thus)

cos a

l2

cos

2)
+ n

13

::::a:

+\"m

n2

(58)

and

COB

'Y

Z2

'

n)))

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

110)

which we see that l:m:n = cosa:COS (3:cos 'Y;

that is, the numbers l, m, n are proportional
tothedirecfor
this
It is
reason that l, m, n, are
tion
cosines.
direction numbers of V. We
of the ordered
called
speak
set {l, m, n} as a set of direction
numbers.
Since the
=
tli
of
tV
is
the same as
direction
+ tmj + tnk(t \037 0)
that of V (tV is parallel to V), we also call {tl,tm, tn}
a set
of direction
t \037 0)
numbers for V. If
(where
is a set of direction numbers for a
sometripleof numbers
nonzero
any
given
multiple
of the triple is also a
vector,
set
numbers
the
direction
for
of
vector, for both triples

from

designatethe

direction

sa\037e

the

(with

of

pOBsibility

condition
the
opposite sense) and both triplessatisfy
4
to
the
direction
cosines.
proportional
being
26.

EXAMPLE
We

(a)

give

Let V = 2i
three equivalent

the given

From

{2, - 3, 6} form
of

direction

the

cosa =
It should

3t,

2 yields

V.

that

6t}

; e.g.,

t =

-1

12}.

write

(-3)2 + 6

2
= -,

\037i

cos{3

be noted that the unit

which the

for

immediately

numbers. Two other sets

by allowing t to take on two

{4, -6,
cosines of V.

we

(58),

!.V
7

from

t =

direction

V 22 +

we see

orderedtriple {2t, -

and

Making use of

of

of direction
can be found

yields {-2, 3, - 6}
Find

sets of directionnumbers

set

distinct values in the

(b)

- 3j + 6k.

representation

numbers

of

=-,

-3
7

cos 'Y =

6
-.
7)

vector)

.
7J

\037

\037k

7')

direction cosinescan be read off

directly,

has)

4
it may be advantageous
to have
In
some
a
developments,
V actually
set of direction numbers for a vector
information
impart
about the senseof V. If this were the case, we would impose the
restriction t > 0; for if t < 0, then {tl, tm, tn} .would imply a sense
triple
oppositeto the original
{l, m, n}.
However, our development
of direction
numbers is principally for applications to lines,
in contrast
we make
to vectors, have no sense. Thus,
the
which,
simple restriction that t \037 o.)))

111)

GEOMETRY

ANALYTIC

the same

sense of

as V.

direction

=
-1.V
7777')

However,)
.
J

\037

-\037i

\037k

although oppositelysensed,is alsoa unit

also yields a set of direction
cosines
{tor

and

vector

, \037
,
\037

} for
\037

therefore
the vec-

V.)

EXERCISES

a set

Find

1.

of direction cosinesfor

the

position

of

vector

the points

(a) (4,3, 5),

12),

-4,

(3,

(b)

(c) (0,

0, 1),

(d) (0,2, 0).

2.

of Example

method

the

Using

of the

sphereswhose

(a)

4x 2 + 4y2

2
(b) x +

y2

equations
2 =

4z

z2 +

the equation

3. Find

of

4x
the

25,

find

the

center

and radius

are

8y,

6y

sphere

3.

with

at (1, -1, 0) and radius 2,

center
at (-1,2, -3) and radius V 2,
(b)
(c) center at the origin and radius 12.
4. Find two sets of direction numbers and two
cosines for the vector
(a) V = 3i + j - k.
V = 2i - j + k.)
(b)
(a) center

22.

sets

of direction

PLANES

is the
locus, or surface, that we discuss
in
in
is
t
o
theline
some respects analogous
plane, which
two
dimensions.
we have several equivalent
Although
our
of the momellt will best
choicesfor a definition,
needs

second

The

be served

by

Definition.

locus

the

following:

If Po

of points

is a fixed point and N a fixed

P so

--7

that

called a plane. (In Figure

so that its origin at Po.))))

PoP
63,

is
we

vector,

the

to N is
perpendicular
N positioned
picture

FIGURE

An

immediate

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

112)

63)

definition is that

Po
P = Po, then PoP is the zero
to N (see Theorem5).
of the

consequence

--7

is on

itself

that

vector

the plane, for

is perpendicular

(P
the

vector

in terms

language

of

we have)

vectors,

position

in vector

definition

the

Writing

if

- Po) \302\267
=
N

of the plane

equation

(59))

0,)

Po

through

and

perpendicu-

lar to N.

In order to derivean al1alytic

expression
we follow the usual procedureof calling
The
POillt of the plane P = (x, y, z).
will be Po = (xo, Yo, zo) al1d N = ai +
(59) becomes

[(x -

xo)i

(y

- yo)j +

(z

zo)k]

\302\267

(ai

for the

elements

fixed
bj

ck.

plane,

variable

the

Then

ck) = o.

bj +

Expanding

yields

a(x

which
Yo,

zo)

is
and

the

xo) + bey
analytic

perpendicular

Yo)

c(z

of the

equation

to the

numbers are
by
character of the equations
specified

of

{a,
the

zo)

0,

(60)

plane through (x.o,

vector whose direction
The analogous
b, c}.
and the lil1e is)))
plane

easily
(60)

113)

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

(60)

seen by comparing
may be written

ax +

whered = -

(axo

by

byo +

of (49), which clearly

in
all three
plane is
be noted that the
equations 49 and 61
and

linear

vectors

(48).

Furthermore,

d =

0,
(61)
cZo), which is the counterpart
shows
that the equation of a
variables.
Finally, it should
cz +

of

coefficients
are

with

the
to

related

variables
the

in both

perpendicular

N.)

27.

EXAMPLE

(a)

What are

the equationsof

the

coordinate

planes?

The xy-plane can be describedas the plane perpendicular

the origin. Therefore, its equation
k and passing through
- O)i + (y - O)j + (z - O)k] \302\267
k =
is found
by simplifying [(x
=
z
the
O.
reader can show that)
O. The result is
Similarly,
to

z)

z=zO)

(XO,

YO, zo) \302\267)

y)

x)

FIGURE

64)))

the equation
is y

xz-plane

(b)

the

for

the

are

What

is x

yz-plane

= o.

= 0, and the equation

for

parallel to the coordi-

of planes

equations

nate planes?

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

114)

and
plane parallelto the xy-plane
as shown
in Figure 64. Then,
as in part (a), we arrive
at z = zo,
the
same reasoning
following
which states that for all choices
of x and y, the z-coordinate
of
a point
on the plane is equal to Zo.

(xo,

through

passing

on a

attention

our

fix

We

to the plane whose

vector

perpendicular

the plane
the coefficients of the

using

vectors

unit

(b)

What

2i+j-2k

the pointsat which

of the
of

the

x-intercept

Intercept by
plane.

of the

the

plane
of

point

placing y

gives 2x

This
is (1,

or

equal to zero,

z-coordinates

variables (see(60)

3)

axes?
x-intercept. Since every
and

to the given plane.

can immediately be

plane are then

to the

the intercepts

are

O.

- 2k.

+ j

perpendicular
+
-

what are

- 2=

to

2i

y-

2z

as)

(61)),

Two

vector

unit

perpendicular
by

written,

find

To

(a)

questionsrelating

is

equation

2x +

discuss several

vVe shall

28.

EXAMPLE

zo),

Yo,

given

the

0 in the

the

have its

x-coordinate

given equation

- 2 = 0 or x =

0, 0).

is,

the coordinate

x-axis must

we solve for
z =

That

locus?

intersects

1.

Thus

the

to verify
The reader can carry
the
through
computation
that (0, 2, 0) and (0, 0, -1) are the other two intercepts.
are the traces of the plane
whose equation
is
(c) What
2x + y - 2z - 2 = 0, in the coordinate
We define
planes?
the trace of a locus oC in a plane II to be the points
of oC that
lie
in II, or simplythe intersectionof oC and II.
If we ask specifically for the trace
in the xy-plane, we are
askingfor the locus satisfying the simultaneous equations
- 2z - 2 = 0
2X
+ y

{z

(xy-plane)

.)))

115)

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

z)

>

Trace

y)

in yz-plane)

x)

66)

FIGURE

sketch the graph of 2x + y - 2 = 0 in the

the
xy-plane (z
0) to see the trace in that plane. Again,
reader
can verify that the other traces areobtained
by graphing
x - z - 1 = 0 and y - 2z - 2 = 0 in the xz-plane
and yzplane, respectively. Graphs of the traces in the coordinate
in sketching
locus
a three-dimensional
plane are quite helpful
(see Figure65).)
Thus,

we would
=

23.

DETERMINING

BY POINTS

PLANE

ON IT

How many points are actually

to determine
necessary
Geometric intuition indicatesthat three
points
would
be necessary
and sufficient, but can this fact be
a plane?
shown

algebraically?

If

four

the

determined.

pletely

the
a, b, c, and d are known,
=
comis
ax
d
0
cz
+
+
+
by
plane
that fOllr, rather than
This
suggests

constants
the

of

equation

three, conditions necessary.

did not lead us astray,
one
be chosento be
Not
are

for

so

unity.

,ve

can

divide

through

by

However,
of
all

the
of a,

one of

four

our

intuition

constants

b, and c are

them,

say

can

zero,
\037 0,)))

ELEMENTARY VECTOR GEOMETRY)

116

and

get)

x +

Making

- =

o.

(62))

a)

(3 =

substitution

the

-b y
a

bfa,

'Y

and 0

cja,

= dja,

(62) becomes)

x+

0 = 0,)

'YZ +

{3y

three
conare
from which we see that there
essel1tially
turn
out
that
stants to determine. In practice,it may
=
was
a
performed
just
0, in which case the division
choose one of the
If this be the case,then
we could
illegal.
until
we hit upon a legitimate
other numbers as a divisor

division (see Example30).

and

(2,

the

Find

29.

EXAMPLE

-4).

-3,

Assuming

1, we

solve for a, b,

ax +
By

a +

that (1, -1,

renders

and that (2, -3,

this system
We can reduce
to two equations in two

second equation, which

is

1 =

(63)

true

- 4c

3b

\037

(63))

renders

first by

6a -

....\\ddition

yields

+ 1=

O.)

of three equations

in

most

unknowns

devoid

already

12c +

4 = 0

9b

12c +

O.)

lOa

3=

7 =

0,)))

three

easily

of c,

8b

yields)

we

0;

the first and third. To this

4 and the tl1ird by 3, getting

4a +

true,

0;

c from

nating

(63)

yields

renders

4)

2a

the

true

(63)

1=

3c +

2b

0)

o.)

that (1, 2, 3)

the condition

imposing

get)

1=

0),

the equation)

c in

and

cz +

by

3), (1, -1,

(1, 2,

plane through

unknowns

by using

the

and then elimi-

end, we

multiply

GEOMETRY

ANALYTIC

which,

together

117)

- b +

with

-- 2

a =

1 = 0, implies
b

and)

that)

=-.

3)

these
values
into the original
Therefore the desiredlineis -ix +

Substituting
c = -t.

0, or more

2x

z =

2, 4).

Imposing

tz +

1=

3.

EXAMPLE 30. Find the plane through

(2,

equations gives
ty

stated,

simply

and

1
3)

(0,

points on equation

the three

63

1, 2),
yields

(1,

-1, -2),

the system

b+2c+l=0

a-b-2c+l
first

the

Adding

adding

However,

4a + 3 = 0 or a

card the assumption

r!=

0;

particularly

equations gives a + 2 = 0 or a =
the second equation to the third gives
= \037, an inconsistency.
So we must disthat
d \037 o.
let us assume that
Instead,
that a = 1. Then we seek b, c, d in)

-2.

two

twice

x +
the three

Imposing

4c +

2b +

2a

=0
1 = o.

by

cz + d

O.)

given points on relation

(64))

(64), we

get

the

system)

b+2c+d=0

(65))

I-b-c+d=O

2+

2b

4c + d

= o.

of (65) gives 1 + 2d = 0 or
to the third gives
second
adding
-t;
4 + 3d = 0 or d = -t, which is another inconsistency.
So we
discard the assumptionthat a r!= 0, upon which the form (64)
was based. We now try b \037 0, and use the form of the equaAdding

first

the

d =

two

but

tion with

b =

getting

again
the

the

twice

1)

ax
Once

equations

we impose

cz + d

the given

= o.)

(66))

points, this time on (66),

system)

1+2c+d=0

a-1-2c+d=0
2a + 2 + 4c +

(67))))

d =

o.)

Adding the first two

equations of

4a +

3d

68 and 69 now form

two unknowns, the solution of
in (67) permits us to
back
tuting

Equations

we put these values in

-

the

(Actually,

\037z

However,

find

find

or)

in
two
equations
a = d = o. Substithat
c = -\037. Therefore
the desired
plane to be)
is

could have

computation

been

have

might

2y

had set d

this

(69))

a system of
which

(66) and
0)

yields)

O.)

= 0 after the
set
and
then
a = 0 after
inconsistency
if we

what

(68))

to the third

second

the

gives

(67)

2d = 0,

a +

and adding twice

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

118)

O.)

been

of the

first

inconsistency.

too far and

jumping

some-

simplified

appearance
the second

too fast

for

an illustration.))

These cumbersome methods of finding

a plane through three given
will
points
by a far more simpleand elegantvector
next chapter.)

24. DISTANCEFROM
A
The problem of determining

point Po =

(xo,

zo)

Yo,

ax +
is

handled

problem
Call

8 the

(x,y,z)

distance

be an

Figure

superseded
in

approach

A PLANE
from

distance

the

a given

given plane)
cz +

d =

0)

earlier

the

to a linein

from Po to the given plane,and

arbitrary point of)
ax

(see

of

equation

be

in precisely
the same manner as was
of finding the distance from a point

the plane.
P

the

to a
by

TO

POINT

the

66).

vector perpendicular

Then

by +

8=

cz + d =

let

0)

--7
\\prNPopI,

where

to the plane. Let us-as

N
before-)))

is

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

119)
Po)

FIGURE

use a

unit vector for N.

Then)

the

determine

bj +

2
a

b2

ai

N=
To

66)

ck
+ c

\302\267
2)

projection we resort

desired

to

inner

product)

--7

\037

\302\267

IPop

Nt

= 8.)

IprNPoP(

Then)

8=

[(x -

xo)i

(y

- yo)j

+ (z -

ai

\302\267
Zo )k]

But

--

ax

axo +

by

2
V a2 + b

ax +
I-axo

by +

cz =

- byo 2
v' a + br

cz -

byo +
+

- d.
-

cZo

+ c

bj +

b2

ck

2
a

2)
+ c

CZo

2)

Therefore,

dl -- taxo + byo
2
V a +

cZo +

2)))

dl

\302\267

EXAMPLE 31.

to

the

plane

equation

x
to our

Conforming

the

2y

from Po

distance
is)

the

find

We

whose

2z +

1=

policy of minimal

GEOMETRY

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

120

= (1, -2,

O.)

we ignore

memorization,

derived above and instead reason

formula

-3)

from

first

principles.
\037

the projection

seek

we

Since

of PoP on the perpendicular,

P is any point of the given

where
we shall find some
plane,
particular P on x - 2y - 2z + 1 = 0, with which to work.
in simple
result
One choice for P that would
can
computation
=
=
=
=
z
x
-1
be found
o.
P
and
y
Then,
by
letting
( -1, 0, 0).
Therefore)
\037

8 =

IprN PoPl

[(-1 -

l)i +

(0

(-2))j

+ (0 .

(-3))k])
i - - 2k
2j

V1

- 4

1-2

61

----12

-3-.)

22 +

2 2)

EXERCISES

1.
and

(a) x +
(b) x -

(c) 2x
=

2y

z
y

(b)
(c)

(d)

(e)

3;
+

2z +

9 =

0;

-3.

the equation of the plane

(1, 1, 1), (3, -2, 1),and (2, -4, 3);
(1, -1,0);
parallel to -x + 2y - z = 5 and through
perpendicular to 2i - j - k and th\037ough the origin;
the
origin
perpendicular to 2x + 3y - 6z = 12, through
and (2, 1, -4).
through
(-5,
0, 8) and perpendicular to a vector whose
directionnumbers
are
given
by the set {4, -3, 12}.)))

2. Find
(a)

their intercepts

in the

traces

(d) y

following planes, determining

coordinate planes:
- z =
3;

the

Sketch

through

121)

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

z)

ce)

y)

\037)

67)

FIGURE

the distance from

(3, 0,
(a) 3x + 4y - 12z = 52,
(b) 2x - y + 2z + 81 = 0,
(c) 4x - 3y = 100.)

3. Find

25. THE

IN

LINE

STRAIGHT

Our discussion of

pattern as the

attention

was

Applying
collinear

equation

confined

a line

to

THREE

DIMENSIONS

the straight linein

the same

by specifying
and seek an
P =
Let

-2)

\302\243
by

space

shall

discussionof the line

to the
two

plane.
of its

We

therefore

points PI

follow
our

when

begin
(Xl,

YI,

Zl)

analytic representation of \302\243.

(x, y, z) represent the general point of \302\243.
4 to the position vectors of the three
Theorem
points
(see
Figure
67), we may write the vector

of

\302\243
as)

(1

- t)PI + tP2 .)

(70))))

In

xi +

- t)xli +

= (1

zk

yj

= [Xl +

Therefore)

=
=

is the

txli +

t(Y2

Zl +

t(Z2

t(Y2

YI)]j

- zl)]k.)

t(Z2

- Xl)

t(X2

YI +

tZ2k

tY2j

YI)

(71))

Zl).)

in
of line \302\243

form.

analytic

of the parameter t can be accomplished

to that in the discussion
the
of
analogous
in
We
for
solve
t
the
plane.
parametric

manner
in

t)Ylj

xI)]i + [YI +
+ [Zl +

representation

parametric
Elimina tion
a

Xl

(1 -

- t)zlk +

(1

t(X2

x=
Y

line

GEOMETRY)

basis vectors, (70) becomes)

of the

terms

in

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

122)

the

getting)

form,

X2

Thus we

Xl
Xl

YI

Y2

Z2

YI

Zl

= t.

Zl

devoid
may write the equationof \302\243
X

X2

which may

Xl)

Xl

Y2

be called the

YI

Z2

YI

Zl

(72))

Zl
line

the

of

form

two-point

t as)

of

in

three dimensions.
a
The reader
that
observe
(72), which describes
locus in termsof coordinates
a11dno
variable,
is not a single equation.
It actually consistsof three
will

auxiliary

equations,of
X
X2

Xl

Xl

Y2

are

two

which

YI
YI

X
X2

Xl

Z2

Xl

and

Y
Y2

It

may

necessary

appear
strange
to describe
a

to deduce

sufficient

Zl

Zl

YI . YI

the third:)

Z2

Zl

(73)
Zl)

that more than one equatio\037

locus, but a moment'sreflection)))

is

123)

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

it appear quite reasonable. For when

we
contwo simultaneous
linear equations in plane
that they defined a point,
we stated
analytic
geometry,
two
the pointof intersection
of
lines
(if such existed).
Each of the equations in (73) is linear and therefore
a plane.
Two of these considered simultaneously
defin\037s
consistof the locuscommon
to
the
a line.
two, namely,
That is, the intersectionof two planes
is a line.
Each

makes

sidered

plane in (73) is

but

such

to

define

parallelto oneof the coordinate

axes,

In fact,

a line.

be the

need not

planes

special

two

any

only

simultaneous

ones

used

linear

equations)

a1x +
{ a2X

unless

line

define

planes.

have

shall

We

sentationsof lines.

1y

CIZ +

+ C2Z

b 2y

d1 =
d2

0
(74))
0)

the equations represent parallel

more to say later on such repre-

\037

P 1P

P IP

vector

The
\037

2 =

(X2

fore has a

is parallel

that

x1)i +

(Y2

Yl)j +

set of direction

numbers

to (or
(Z2

{X2

is
along) line \302\243

zl)k and thereYl,

Xl, Y2

If the concept of di,.ectionnumbers

is applied
Zl}.
that
to lines (see Figure 68), we see
the denominators
the
form (72) are precisely the directionnumtwo-point
bers
Given a set of directionnumbersfor
of the line.
direction
for the line can be found by equations
cosines

Z2

in

\302\243,

58.

with direction l1l1mbers {ll, m1,nl}

is
direction
11l1mbers {l2, m2, n2}. \302\2431
=
k
if
if
vectors VI
to \302\2432 and only
lli + m1j
parallel
=
and
.This
V 2
latter
l2i + m2j + n2\037 are
parallel.
if
a
condition is satisfied if and
V
is
1
(nonzero)
only
Let

and

be
\302\2431

a line
\302\2432

line

with

+ n1

multiple

of

V 2,

say)

V1 =

tV

2,)))

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

124)
z)

,\302\243)

Pl(Xl,Y1,Zl))
Y)

x)

68)

FIGURE

case II

in which

ml

tl2,

II
_-_

m1

l2

m2

Hence
and

a necessary
be

to
\302\2432

and

parallel

tm2,

and n1

or)

tn2

--_en1

(75))

n2)
condition

sufficient

for

their direction

is that

lines

\302\2431

numbers

be

proportional.)

26.

BETWEEN

ANGLE

TWO LINES

The angle betweentwo lines

between two vectors, one parallel
lines. As a consequence
of
this
of the angle betweentwo lines

is

as the angle
of the given
we may speak

defi11ed
each

to

definition,
even

if the

lines do

not

intersect.

Consideringthe lines

and
\302\2431

we shall

derive a formula for

between

and
\302\2431

the

lines.)))

in
\302\2432

terms

as
\302\2432

.specified

the cosine

of the

of

direction

the

earlier,
(J

angle

numbers

of

ANALYTIC

GEOMETRY)

125)

The angle (J is the angle between V I and V

lli + mIj + n1kand V 2 = l2 i + m2j + n2k.
scalar products, we have)

where

2,

VI =

COB0

V I

.V 2

\302\267

V2

VI

Iv11lv

VV

2 1)

\302\267

Using

VI

V' V 2

\302\267
V 2)

or)

lIl2

(J =

COB

Vl

+ mI

mlm2

+ nI

+ nIn2
12

as well,

given direction numbersare

(76) simplifies to become

cos

cos al

If the

(J

cos a2

COS

direction

n2

(76)

cosines

{3I COS {32

As a

\302\267

m2

COS'Y

corollary, we may concludethat

I COS 'Y2.

the

two

(77)
are)

lines

z)

\302\2431)
, .)

VI)
y)

x)

FIGURE

69)))

if and

perpendicular

PI

+ nln2

o.)

(78))

the equation on the line

Find

32.

-1,3) tOP 2

= (2,

if

mlm2

lll2

EXAMPLE

only

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

126)

\302\243
joining

-5).

(1,0,

Form. From (71) '\037le have)

(a) Parametric

X =
\302\243:

(1 -

2 +

2)t

y=-l+(O-(-l))t

{ z

= 3

+ (-5

3)t.)

yields)

Simplifying

X=2-t
\302\243:

-1

{ z =
that

We

see

set 0f

..

..

d lrectlon COSInes

x-2

- y+1.

-1

(a)
which

line

x-I
We

set
2

can

be restated

oC

of (72)'we

of

Example

y+3

= z

-1

as a

8
/-

66)

\302\243.)

\302\267

have)

z-3

-8)

1.

of \302\243';(b)

representation

and
\302\243'

between

V 66

66

I-='

1.)

01
EXAMPLE 33\302\267a 1ven 1Ine d...J:
a parametric

/_'

for

numbers

direction

IS

By means

form.

Two-point

8t.)

1, 8} is a set of

{-I,

(b)

the

+ 3
_ 1 = z,

cosine

fi

of the

n d

( a) )

angle

32.)

t ')

parametricrepresentationof

x=I+2t

y =

-3 -

z =

t.)))

\302\243')

(J

(b)

127)

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC
set

therefore

of

apply

cos O =

numbers for
which
(76),
gives)

direction

\302\243'
is

Y(-1)2 + 1 +
2

Since

\302\243\"
is

to

parallel

zt,

where

\037

is given

as

a point

x-I
are

-1,

+ 1

2)

I} .

-1(2)+1(-1)+8.1
82

y2

(-1)2

=y=

-1

(Xl, YI,

of

Zl) is

\302\243\".

to

of the

\302\243\"
is
\302\243,

We

EXAMPLE 34. Find the line\302\243\"

parallel
and passing through (1,'0, -2).

{ 2,

the

6Y

=t

\302\243\".

32)

Example

form

a point of

Therefore

\302\243
(of

ll)

But

l=Y

YI
\037

(1,

0,

of the

equations

-2)

line

z+2
8

Thus far we have ignoredthe possibility

one
of the
of
twothe
case
numbers being zero, in which
point form (72) could not apply becauseof the illegality
of division
Before proceeding with the algebraic
by zero.
us determine
let
the geometric meanproblem
involved,
direction

This
number
zero.
direction
ing of, say, the
being
=
=
a
would mean that cosa
1r/2.
implies
0,
The line in question wo1ildthereforebe
to
the
be
or
the
line
x-axis;
equivalently
stated,
a
to (or actually in) the yz-plane. In
parallel
line
is parallel
with a set of direction numbers
m, n}
a
that
to the yz-plane. Similarly, the
can
show
line with a set of direction
is
parallel
{I, 0, n}
to the xz-pla11e;
a set of direction
numbers
and a line
of the direcIf two
{I, m, O} is parallel to the
to one of
tion numbers are zero,
line
the
is parallel
the axes.)
first

which

perpendicular

would

summary,

{O,

reader

numbers

with

xy-plane.

then

35.

EXAMPLE

and (3, 2,
A

set

of direction

that the

Find

equations

-2).
two-point

numbers
form

of the

line through

is easily found
(72)

cannot

to

be

be used.

(1,

2,

-1)

-1}, so
However, a)))

{2, 0,

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

128)

be written

parametric form of the line can

x=I+2t

y=2

-1 -

z =
the

of

Elimination

yields

parameter

= Z+l

X-l

-1

2
{
is a

which
we

nonparametric

to writing the
these
representations
z are.
That
x and

both

2,

line

the

of

form

come

may

from

t.

two-point
that

and is
It

form.

2 no

as closeas
to see

is easy

matter

what the

is, the line must be in the plane

= 2 and
y
is, therefore, parallel to the xz-plane.
EXAMPLE
36.
the equations
Find
for the line through
with direction numbers given by the set to,4,OJ.
(1, -1,2),
An
set of direction
numbers is to, 1,O};indeed,
equivalent
to, m, O} (when m \037 0) is an equivalent set of directionnumbers. We may thus write a parametric form as:
values of

x=
=

Actually,

the line

the equation

is

value,

z =

is what

which

-1

z =

2.

-1

is

superfluous,

quite

the

as

determined

completely

planes x = 1 and

1)

intersection

for

of the

2.
The y-coordinate may take on
may happen in the foregoing
parametric

of the line.
We now return to the

any

form

section

of

course,

been

two

35, (79)is the

it.

Let us

EXAMPLE

a line
as the interequation 74). This idea has, of
for instance, in Example
throughout;
of a line in terms of two
planes
through

representationof

(see

planes

employed
equation

examine a more generalcase.

37.

a line

Given

\302\243
whose

IS)

2x

+ 3y
x

algebraic

z =

1
2,)))

representation)

129)

GEOMETRY)

ANALYTIC

exhibit a method finding

we shall

for the

forms

other

equations

of aC.
adding the two

z by

Eliminating

3x +
the

x from

Eliminating

3z

3z-3

-2 =y=

which

yields

-3.

3x-3

and

3.

allows us to write

of these

each

in

2y

equations

given

5y

Solving for

equations gives

5)

may now be put in the form (72) by dividing

denominator
of the first and third membersby

x-I

-(2/3)
a set

Therefore

3:

z-1
(80))
5/3.)

of directionnumbers

By setting)
x-I

-(2/3)
we arrive at a

numerator

is

z-1

= t,

5/3

parametricrepresentationof
x = 1 - it
I

z =

1, i}.

-i,

line

the

1 + it.)

EXERCISES

1.

as

equations,
follows:

through
(b) through
(c) through
(d) through

(a)

= 1;

(e)

through
\037(two

(f)

1, -2)

(-4,

-2)
(-4, 1, -2)

(-4,1,
(3, 2,
(3,

form, of the

in two-point

the

Find

mined

5)

2, -5)

and

and

parallel

and

(5,3,

and

(3,

lines deter-

to z-axis;

-1);
1, 2);

perpendicular

and having

to 3x

cos a =

\037and

2y

cos {3 =

possibilities);

through
(-4,
3, 4, 12;

(g) parallelto 5i -

1, -2)
4j

and

having

6k and through

direction

the

origin.)))

6z

numbers

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

130)

2. Find

of
parametric representations

lines

the

GEOMETRY)

1.

in Exercise

Prove that
3. Let AB, AC, and AD be three edges of a cube.
plane through D and the line joining the midpointsof AB and
AC is tangent to the sphereinscribedin the cube.
4. (a) Find a set of direction numbers for the line)
-

x-

= 0

3y + 7
-

2z

4 = o.)

(b) Find a parametricrepresentationfor the line of part (a).

of the form
5. (a) Find equations
(72) that represent

3x -

6z =

2y

-9

x+4y-8z=-16.)
(b)

6.

a parametric

Find

Prove that the

(a) (0, 7, 6),

(b)

7. Three
(0,6, 0),
8.

Find

of

the direction

taneously,

triangle:

Find the

cosines of

vertex.

fourth

line

simul-

perpendicular,

to)

--

x-I

y-l

--

z-l

9. Find the cosine of

and

Exercise

(a).

part

are (4, 3, 5),

ill order

parallelogram

1, 4).

(-8,

of a right

-2), (2,4,1).

-4,

(-3,

of the line of

(6, 4, 8);

1, 3),

vertices

and

vertices

are

following

(-2,

-2,4),

(0,

representation

the

angles

made

x- -----.
Y

12)

by the two

lines

of

8.)

27. INTERSECTION

OF

LINE

WITH

A PLANE

of
line may be representedby the equations
there
two planes through it, the point of intersection
(if
a plane
is one) of the line with
may be found by solving

Since a

the three

linear

illustrate
utilizing

equations

simultaneously.

However,

we

another method for solving this problemby

of the line.)))
the
parametric
representation

AN AL

YTIC

131)

GEOMETRY)

EXAMPLE 38. Find the point of

2x +

intersection

z =

3y

line

of the

\302\243:

{
and the

plane)

(j-, 1,I)
native

II: x +
of
point
we use

the

as

approach,

2y

2z =

-3.

linear

three

these

Solving

x-y+z=2)

equations simultaneously
intersection.
However, for the
the parametric form of \302\243:

yields

alter-

x=l-jt

y=t
.z
which

found

was

= 1+

in Example

-it,

37.

in the equation
Substitutingtheseequations
(1 - it) + 2t - 2(1 + it) = -3, the solution

give the
that

value of

is also

the point we

on II
seek

the

parameter

of

by x =

This

j-, y

FIGURE

70)))

will

yields the point of \302\243

value
is t = 1. Thus,
= -i.)
=
z
1,

y)

%)

II gives

which

t, which

(see Figure70).
is given

of plane

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

132)

GEOMETRY)

AND
28. ANGLE BETWEEN A LINE
A PLANE
How can we extend our understandingof the angle
of a pair of lines to define the concept of
intersection

angle

between

and

line

If

a plane?

\302\243
is

the

line

of

the

and II
plane II

in the
of lines \302\24311\"
the plane, there are an infinity
that might conceivably be usedto find an angle between
II (see Figure
and
\302\243
of choices
71). Since such an infinity
for the angle between a line and a plane
is undesirable,
the
one usually selected as the
of
intersection
angle
II is the minimum
and
between
\302\243
of
the
{3
infinity
angle

formed

by

the

and
\302\243

lines

a defini-

such

\302\24311'. However,

difficultthe problemof finding

{3 extremely
to
turn
at
this
We
therefore
point.
impossible
indeed,
between
the more convenient definition: The angle
{3
II is defined to be the complement
line \302\243
and
of
the
plane
a line m perpendicular
\302\243
and
to II.)
between
angle

tion renders

EXAMPLE

line \302\243
and
A

vector

pendicular

plane

parallel

to plane

angle of intersection between the

Example 38.
is L = -fi
\302\243
+ j + j-k. A vector
perthe

Find

39.

the

II of
to

II is N

i +

2j

- 2k.

ffi,)

FIGURE

71)))

Thus

the

comple-)

GEOMETRY

ANALYTIC

be'found by dot products)

of (j may

ment

r _

cos

is

+ 2

= \\-2/3

(3

( 2
which

133)

(j =

to sin

equivalent

\037O/3\\

2_

y39)

y9

09/9

2/09.)

EXERCISES

1. In

the

to take
of Example
39, we were careful
value of the numerator in the determination of

computation

absolute

the

COB

Why?

(3).

(;

coming, which the

tion of the definition.
2.

a general

Find

our definition

that

indicates

This

reader

3.

two

Using

different

of intersection

4. Find the anglebetween

3 above.

5.

Find

of the

the

a representation)

y+2

z-3

-1)

the

6.

lOx

(a)

planes.)))

Give

line

z =

2y

and plane

a suitable

+ 2y

3)

6)

- l1z =

3.)

definition

of

the

5.

given in Exercise
intersection

z+3

y+3

2)

and)

is 3x +

of intersection

x+3

angle

3)

and the angle of

whose
equationsare)
plane

point

line and

the

coordinates

with

whose equation

plane

{3 is

where

find the

methods,

2)

the

shorta slight
modificaa
small
by
has

plane.

of line,
x-3

and

{3

formula for the sin {3,

formed by a line meeting a

point

of

eliminate

should

for

the

angle

between

two

(b) Find a generalformula

whose equationsare)

and)

(Hint. Use two

planes.

alx

+ b1y

a2X

b 2y

CIZ

+ C2Z

each

vectors,

angle

between two planes,

d1 =

d2

the

for

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY\"

134)

= o.)
to one

perpendicular

of the given

of the planes
(c) Find the angle made by the intersection
whose equationsare2x + 2y + z = 1 and 2x + 10y - llz = 3.
the
two planes
whose equations
(d) Find the anglebetween
are x - 4y + 8z = 2 and 2x + y - 2z = 18.

7.

Show

that

line given

the

{x
(a)

is parallel

= 0,

fundamental

Apply

3y + 7
2z

plane whose
vector

= 0

4,)

to the plane whose

(b) lies in the

8.

by

equation

is 3x

equation

is 12x

techniques

+ 4y +

to

problems.

(a) Find the angle between

of

its

the

diagonal

of a

6y

2z

6z = 1.

the following
cube and one

edges.

the angle between the diagonal of

(b) Find
diagonal of one of its faces.
of a
(c) Find the angle betweenthe diagonal

of its faces.)))

cube

cube

and

and one

cross

products)

29.

CROSS

PRODUCTS

As we

have seen,

the inner product of

vectors

two

yields

a scalar quantity, hence the synonym

scalar
product.
In the present
section we introduce another kind
which leads to (1) a vector
of vectors,
multiplication
and
a
relation
of the angle
quantity
(2)
involving the si11e
vectors

two

between

(as opposed

the cosine dot products).

has gainedsome
the liberty of a longer
in

security

Since,
in

dealing

excursion

of

to the appearance of
by now, the reader
with vectors,
we take

through

the

algebra

of

before illustrating the theory.

two
Let A and B be any
product.
and
call 8 the smaller angle between them.
A X B, is a
cross product of A and
B, denoted

cross products
vectors,
Then

cross

of

Definition

the

vector)

IAIIBI

where U is

unit

vector

sin

8 U,)

perpendicular
135)))

(81))
to

the

plane of

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

136)

AxB)

B\037

\037\037
A

U \037\037 A

\037)

\037)

BxA)

FIGURE

72)

as to

and pointed in such direction

a
triple. That is, if
{A, B, U}
right-handed
who walks
from the terminus of A to the
and

B,

B through the
emanate from a

then he is always
B,

{A,

being

X B}

vectors

three

the

upright

standing

and lengthsof
Because

are

vectors

the cross

right-handed triple if
as

<

vector

popular-terminologies.

immediate
product

corollary
defines

of the

X B (if

scalars.
a

vector

We
often termed the vector
product.
our earlier policy of utilizing both names
reader will become familiar with all the

An

of

none

nonThis assertion
U.
of U in (81) can1 when 0 < 0 < 1r,

non-negative

product results in

it is

equally

left,

with his
the direction of U.

are the zero vector,for

direction
null) points in the same
follows from the factthat the coefficient
not be negative because0 < sin0

of
both

to U,

parallel

precisely

form a

to his

has

always

terminus
vectors

two

the

(when

direction\"

\"\037pward

Thus,

angle 0
singlepoint 0)

make

observer

the

quantity,

shall
so

continue
that

the

standard-and

definition is that the

a noncommutative

multiplication.)))

CROSSPRODUCTS)
In

137)

the

we have

fact,

Theorem 8.

This result

follows

- B X A.

the

from

simply

quite

observation

that B X A has the same magnitude

as A X B but points
in the opposite direction (seeFigure
72).
the word \"smaller\" were left out of
Query:
Suppose
the
definition
of vector
Would the resulting
product.
to
the
be
definition
equivalent
original one?

Attempting to gain further physical or geometric

of cross product, we observethat)
into
the notion
insight
A

for

if

and

is parallel

B are

(Is the converse

of

to B

implies

(82)

0;

then 0 = 0 and sin (J

parallel,

A geometric

true?)

(82)

o.

interpreta-

tion of the magnitude of the crossproductis given

by
Theorem
9.
The area of the parallelogram
by
generated
vectors A and B is equalto IA X B \\.
The area of the paral73.)
Proof.
(See
Figure
A
B
and
is equal to)
lelogramgenerated
by
IAlh

30. TRIPLE

IAIIBI

sinO

IA

BI.)

SCALAR PRODUCT

The product A. B X C is called the triple scalar

product of A, B, and C.
N.B.
(1) Although parenthesesmight appearneces-

sary-at leastto assist

the

operatioll
it should

beginner-to

is performed
(the \"cross\"or the \"dot\")
be noted that such parelltheseswould

\037h)

first,

))
A)

73)))

com-)

be

hl)r\\

A)

FIGURE

which

indicate

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

138)

I
I
I

\037-----------------

\"

\"

/ //B

C)

FIGURE

order for the

two

\"Cross\"

operations.

we would have

\"dot\"; otherwise

one possiblelogical

is only

there

for

superfluous,

pletely

74)

vector, which has no meaningfor

A X B \302\267
C also
The product
(2)

must

precede
with a

scalar

crossed

yields

a scalar

scalar

product

us.

quan-

of
tity and thus is alsocalledthe triplescalar
product
A, B, and C (in that order). Callingboth quantities,
A

\302\267

A X

C and

\302\267

C,

the

triple

be reasonable and warrantedonly

so they are, as we shall
equal-and
10. The magnitude of A
Theorem
volume V of
A,

B,

the

parallelepiped

(See Figure

Proof.

IB X ci =
IAI

IA.

cos

Therefore +
=

were

they

always

see.

generated

the
vectors
the
by

(Theorem

9)

\302\267
B

C represents

C.

and

and

if

soon

would

xci.

74.))

area

of

base

+ altitude
IAIIB

X CI

of parallelepiped.
cos a, which

states that

The reader should investigatethe questionof sign by

the following
answering
question: What kind of orientaof A, B, and C leads to a positivetriple scalar
tion
product?
kind to a l1egative triple scalar product?)))
What

CROSS

PRODUCTS

139

In which case does the triple scalar

- V?
and in which case does it equal

equal

product

A. B X C = A X B.C.
Since both triple scalar products represent
Proof.
the
same
and since the sign dependsonly
on
volume,
of
the
the
two
orien\037ation
triple {A, B, C},
products
Corollary.

the

be equal.

must

-Our final result on the algebra

of
embodied in the following theorem.

Theorem 11.

vector

The

(i)

(ii)
Proof of
D
Our

proof

C) =

(B

(A

distributive

is

product

is

products
with

That is,)

to addition.

respect

vector

X C

B)

A X
B X

C, and
C.

Let

(i).

= A X

(B + C)

will be

completed

C.)

D is

that

show

can

we

if

necessarily the zerovector.

We

scalar

the

take

with an

of D

product

arbitrary

V.)

vector

\302\267 =

\302\267

= V

\302\267

[A

C)

C)

(B +
(B +

\302\267

C]
\302\267

(Theorem

\302\267

(B

C)

\302\267
B

(Corollary
of
Now, using the distributivity
first term of the right member,we

V.D

dot

C
V X A \302\267
to Theorem
10).

on the

product!

get)

-VXA.B

=VXA.B+VXA.C

7)

\302\267

C.)

Hence)

\302\267

O.)

(83))))

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

140)

V is

that

Recalling

statesthat the

Consequently, D = 0
Part (ii) is left as

an

Theorem8.

from (i) and

Weare

in

now

in terms

our

of

i
i

and imposing

are

we

First,

k}-basis.

kXk=

j =

(81), we

O.

(84)

further see that

k = i, and k

j X

k,

Theorem 8 on the relationsof

k X j = -i,

= -k,

j X i

j X

definition

the

Applying

develop
that

vectors

two

{i, j,

note that

readily

tools to

of sufficient
of

represented

follows

it

for

a formula for the crossproduct

C.)

A X

B +

exercise,

possession

vector.

have)

we

and

that (83)

to any

is perpendicular

C) =

(B +

A X

we see then

arbitrary,
D

vector

GEOMETRY)

and

yields

(85)

k =

(85)

j,

-j. (86)

Now let)
A

a1i +

a2j +

ask

B =

and)

b1i +

2j

bsk.)

Then
A

a2j + ask) X

(a1i +

= (a1i +

a2j

ask)

(b1i

b 2j +

bsk)

X b1i

+ (a1i + a2j +
+

ask)

b 2j

(a1i + a2j

+ ask) X

b 3k)

= a1i

X b1i + a2j X b1i + ask X b1i

+ a1i X b 2j + a2j X b2 j + ask X b 2j
+ a1i X bsk + a2j X bsk + ask X

By using
to obtain)

A X

B =

(84),

(a2bS

(85), and
-

a Sb 2)i

(86), we simplify
+ (aSbl

this

bsk.

expansion

- a1bs)j

(a

1b 2

- a 2 b 1 )k.

(87))))

141)

PRODUCTS)

CROSS

reader who is familiar with

determinants
to
it
is
see
how
convenient
pleased
express
for A X B in the language of determinants.
The

(87)

be

will

to

formula

the
1

Equation

states)

A. X
or, more

B = i a2 a3
b2

-j

b3

simply

ple 28,

b3

of

a2

a3 .

b2

b 3)

a vector

finding

b1

a2
b2

(88)

of the use

this conceptto the

to apply

namely, that

al

+k

al

illustration

first

Our

40.

will be

products

a3

b1

1. .
AXB=

EXAMPLE

al

problem

of

cross

of Exam-

to the

perpendicular

- 2 = O.
plane
equation
y
the cross product
of two vectors is a vector perpenSince
dicular
to the
determine
plane of the given two, we need only
in the plane 2x + y - 2z - 2 = 0 and take their
two vectors
cross product.
We therefore select three points,
arbitrarily
in the given plane: A = (0, 0, -1), B = (0,2,0),
C = (1, 0, 0).
\037
\037
AB = 2j + k and AC = i + k.
Then
is 2x

whose

2z

Hence)
\037

AB

\037

X AC

= 0 2 1 = 2i +

j-

2k

101)

vector perpendicularto the plane of

reassuringto note that this answer agrees

is a

in our

first

Although

solution

to

the area

this
of

B,

with

C. (It is
the one found

and

problem).)
a

simple theoretical
task to compute
cumbersome
when given the coordinates
the power
of vector products

triangle

a
problem, it is quite often
an area by the usual formulas
of the vertices. We exhibit
in attacking such a problem
1

A,

is a

as)

For the reader who

with determinants,
is unfamiliar
brief word of assistance in the appendix.)))

\\ve

have

ELEMENTARY VECTOR GEOMETRY)

142)

A)

FIGURE

-5, 2), B =

= (1,

---7

AC

3k

-3
4

---7

---7

Since

lAB X ACI

Figure 75),

three

the shaded
Therefore)

of

our

earlier

\037

AC

and

(5, 0,

2).)

whose

i-115i-

= 15i-

desire is

12j+

the

of

are A,

vertices

work we

+ 5j.)

4i

12j

17k.

0)

equals the area

triangle we

K =
In

of

and

j k
8 -3

---7

---7
AB

(-2, 3, -1),

by)

---7

8j -

Then AB = 3i +

be given

vertices of a triangle

Let the

41.

EXAMPLE

75)

precisely

17kl

(see

parallelogram

B, and

i V

the areaK
C,---7
---7

\037
IAB

ACI.

658 .)

methods,
solved, by analytic
the equation of a plane
The vector approachto

of determining
problem
three
through
given points.
the

thisproblemis

demonstrated

in

the

next

example.)

A = (1, 2,3),
EXAMPLE 42. Find the plane through
B = (1, -1, 0), and C = (2, -3, -4). (The analytic
solution
The vector
to this problem was given
in Example
29.)
---7 ---7
AB X AC is perpendicularto the desired plane and is therefore
to every
vector in the desired plane (see)))
perpendicular

143)

PRODUCTS)

CROSS

Hence P =

Figure 76).
if and

\037

\037

Writing

- l)i +
In terms of
[(x

(y

condition
+

explicitly

+ zk] \302\267
(-3j

l)j

x-I

y+1

-5)

dot

of

31.

we

product,

the

determined

plane

DISTANCE
The

-2x

distance

by

FROM

from

A,

5j

7k) =

o.

becomes)
= O.,

-3

-7)

formulas for cross product

- z + 3 = 0 as the
equation

of the

means

get

X (i -

-3

gives

- 3k)

relation

this

determinants,

or, expandingby

point in the plane

X AC = o.

only if BP. AB
this

a general

z) is

y,
\037

(x,

B,

and

and

C.)

A POINT TO A PLANE
a point to a planewas found

by

pro-

unit perpendicularto the plane. But now

this
for by means of cross
may be facilitated,
procedure
a planemay be found
to
the
unit
perpendicular
products,
of
the
from
three
directly
points
plane without any need
for determining
the equation of the plane.
EXAMPLE
a plane be determined by the points
43.
Let
B = (-1,1, -1), and C = (2,1, i); and let
A = (-3,0,1),
P = (1,- 2, - 3) . We shall determine the distance d from
jecting

Po

on a

to the

plane of

Example31,which

A,

is

and

B,

the

\037

C.

present

AB x

(The reader is referred

problem in disguise).)

\037

AC)

P(x,y,z))
A)

B)

FIGURE

76)))

to

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

144)

GEOMETRY)

\037\037
X AC)

AB

----

i
d

---:-\\

1
;:\\\\\037)

B)

FIGURE

vector

77)

to the

given
plane may be found by
\037
AB X AC (see Figure 77, which

perpendicular

\037

cross product
the geometry)

the

taking

symbolizes

\037

\037

AB X AC
a unit

Then

lAB

with

(Compare

Example

3(ti - j

- k).

is)

.!i-j-k
v i + 1+

]
3
1 =!(i-2.-2k)

31.))

= IPoB.

+ 3j

NI

+ 2k) --l(i

- 2j -

2k)1

t(2

+ 6

+ 4)

4.)

DISTANCE

32.

3k =

\037

IprN PoBI
1(-2i

=
ACI

\037

3j

\037

ABXAC

N=

\037

perpendicular
\037

= 2 1 0 = ji

BETWEEN

TWO

LINES

We now direct attentiontooneofthenastiestproblems

of

elementary

analytic

geometry,

namely,

the problem

of)))

145)

PRODUCTS)

CROSS

space.

to this

refer

We

is usually

student

beginning

means

is the

geometry

analytic

pure

between two nonintersectinglinesof

as a nasty problem because,if

the distance

finding

plagued

by

of

the

analysis,
the

of

problem

is required to \"see\"the derivation

the
and then he is plagued by another
complifQrmula,
formula
to memorize. Once again, the vector
cated
that

visualization

both

with

assists

approach

and
If two lines \302\2431

of

difficulties.

are
\302\2432

the

given,

minimum

distance

and
d between them is the distancebetween
\302\2432
\302\2431
along
in
mutual
the
perpendicular
(QR
Figure 78). Thus,
A and B points of \302\2431
and
we
call
\302\2432,
respectively,)

if

\037

(Readers who
are encouraged
The

jection.)

EXAMPLE
=

(1, 0,

point
of

proin

the

44. Let \302\2431= AC, where A = (2, -1, 3) and

and let \302\2432= BD, where B = (1, 3, 0) and

-5);

D = (3, -4,
and
\302\2431

this
have difficulty
understanding
to check back on the definition
procedure for computing d is given

example.

following

IprQRABI.)

1).

We

shall

determine

\302\2432.)

FIGURE

78)))

the

distance

between

that is simultaneously

A vector

\037

= AC

to

perpendicular

\037

X BD

= -1

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

146)

= 55i -

- 8

and
\302\2431

is)
\302\2432

15j+ 5k.

1)

-7)

Then)

---7

d =

=)

ABI

\\prlf

ABo

1N !

- 3k). 5(11i- 3j
5 v'121 + 9 + 1

+ 4j

I(-i

-_

1-11 -.12 -

3\\

131

v'

+'k)1

26
.)

v' 131

EXERCISES

1.

the following

Evaluate

(a) i X (j

+ k),

+ j)

X k,

(i

(b)

(c) (i + j + k) X
(d) (2i - 3j + k)

a tetrahedron,
(b l , b 2 , b a ),

B=

k),
- k),

(2j

(e) (-i + 2j + 4k) X

2. Using the fact that a
tetrahedra of equal volume,
of

j +

(i +
X

(i +

2j +

parallelepiped
determine

4k).
can be sliced into
a formula for the volume

six

the four vertices of which

are A = (aI, a2 aa),
=
=
C
(dl, d2 , d a ).
(CI, C2, ca), and D

the volume of a regular pyramid whosebaseis a square

whose height is h. (A pyramid
is called regular
when its base is a regular polygon
and
the altitude from
when

3.

Find

of

side

a and

the apex meetsthe base in its center.)

4. Prove that the answerto Exercise
if the sec3 is unchanged
ond condition of \"regular\"
That is, a change in
is omitted.
the positionof the apex does not alter the volume
of the pyramid as long as the apexremains
at a fixed height h above
the
base.

5. Determine
and

parallel

= 0,

the equation of
to

li +

where P = (x,

y,

the

line

.\302\243
through

Po

mj + nk by observing that
z) is any point of cC.)))

= (xo,

Yo,

zo)

\037

PoP

CROSS

PRODUCTS)

6. (a)

If P = (x,y,
the

justify

point of

plane ABC,
AB X AC = 0 as being a vector

an

is

z)

---?

\037

AP.

equation

arbitrary
\037

(See Example 42.)

of part
(a), q.erive the equation
=
= (0, 1, 0), and
A
(1, 0, 0), B
by

the

of

equation

147)

plane.

(b) Usingthe method

determined

plane

(0, 0,
7.

distance

the

for

be

and

to plane

parallel

II2 .

to plane

parallel

and x =

x =

x-I
(b)

t,

-Y = z

x- = y+2
2
-1)

and

(c) line AB

2t,

z =

-t

2t,

z =

assumption

4),

B)

\302\267

(C

= z.

CD, where

(0, 1,

2), B

D)

11. Find a set of

of

the

and

a2X

cross

products.)

33. TRIPLE

b 2y

= (1, -1,

B, prove

that

= O.

direction

whose

planes
+

0), and

(0, 2,

that

- t.

D ;= (-1, 2, 2).
10. If C is perpendicularto the plane of A and
C =

Yare

Wand

while

+ 1

line

and

t,
1

III,

further
Y) = o.

the

Under

III 1. 112 , prove (U X V) \302\267

(W
9. Find the distancebetween)

of this chapter, determine a vector

from the origin to plane ABC.

methods

the

Using

8. Let U

(A

\037).

formula

(a)

the

of

C2Z

numbers

for the

equations are alX

+ d 2 = 0, by a

line of intersection
+ dl = 0
CIZ

bly +

direct

application

of

CROSS PRODUCTS

to more
For the application
of
complex
algebra
problems of geometry and, particularly,to the developthe reader will see in the next
of trigonometry-as
vector

ment

chapter-we

shall

find

of three and morevectors.)))

\"it useful

to expand

cross products

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

148)

GEOMETRY)

by obtaining an expansionfor the triple

A X (B X C). Unfortunately,
there
is
product
and well-motivated development for su.cha
no simple
A
of the efforts of several matheformula.
summary
We begin

vector

maticians
tions

the

of

in a

appears

problem

VectorTriple

S. Klamkin

can Mathematical Monthly,

December
an approach, the virtue of which
If we are given the three vectors

sider the three emanating

from

to bethe originofa
Figure
(i)

79)

(ii) the
(iii)

the

system,
It

with

follows

C =

adopt

A,

C, we conwhich
is taken
0,

B,

and

coordinate

We

system.
way

(see

:)

is taken

x-axis

the

1954).

system in the following

the coordinate

impose

(AmeriWe

is simplicity.

a point

rectangular

simplifica-

short paper, \"On the

Murrey

by

Product,\"

various

to

contributed

have

who

is

y-axis

from

c1i + C2j.

plane of Band C;
so that the xyz-coordinate

in the

taken
k} as a
is

z-axis
{i,

along B;

taken

j,

(i)

basis, is right-handed.

Since A

b1i, and from

B =

that
is

free

from

C =

FIGURE

79)))

any

cli +

(ii)

stipulation,

C\037)

that
it)

149

CROSS

PRODUCTS

must

be written

+ a2j

ali

1. .
B

C =

+ a3k. Then)

bl

0)

o =

CI

C2

0)

blC2k,

and)

(B X C) =

A X

observe that
C, that
is,

We
B

k)

al

Q.2

Q.:\037

0)

coordinate
X

(B

must be

plane.

of
be a linearcombination
fore simplify (89) by factoring
the
it is exhibitedas a linear
combination

Band

right
of
li

C.
We thereso that
member
Band
C. Thus)

- a l b1(cli

C2j).)

\\ve have)

Finally,

(B X C)

A X
an

+ a2c2)b

= (alcl

X C)

(B

\037o

to
(B X C) is perpendicular
the
cross
Thus
triple
product,
of
Band
C.
in the
Hence,

it must

perpendicular

the

must be

X C),

- alb1c2j. (89)

a2blC2i

1c2)

X C)

(B

X
k.

vector

C)B

(A

\302\267

(90))

B)C,

triple cross product in

of the

expansion

= (A.

elementary

tern1S.

By using
sho,v that

Theorem
the triple

8 and (90), the reader

cross product (A X B)

ca11

X C

easily

has the

expanSIon)
X

(A

EXAMPLE
C = -4i
A

45.

+ k,
(B X

X C

B)

Given

= (A.
A

B)

- j,

and

,ve computeA X (B X C) and (A X B) X C.

C) = (A. C)B - (A.B)C
- 3)(i - j) - (2 + 3)(-4i + k)
=
(-8
= - IIi + IIj + 20i - 5k

= 9i + lIj -

(A

2i

C)B - (B \302\267
C)A.
- 3j + k, B = i

X C =
=
=

5k

(A. C)B - (B \302\267

C)A
-IIi
+ IIj - (-4)(2i
- 3i - j + 4k.)))

- 3j +

k)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

150)

EXERCISES

1.

Verify

2.

If A,

B) X

(A X

that

B, and

C = (A. C)B

C are given

(B X C) X

in

as

(B

\302\267

C)A.

45, compute

Example
B X

and

GEOMETRY)

(C X

A).

3. Prove the identities:)

X

(A

B) X

D) =

(C X

(A

\302\267

D)C

(A X

B \302\267
C)D

(91))

and)

(A X
4. By

(A

(C X
B) \302\267

D)

making use

of

\302\267
B

= (A.
(91),

- (A.
C)(B \302\267
D)(B \302\267
C)
D)

show

that

(A X

B) X

(A

(92)
C)

C)A.

5. Prove

Lagrange's identity:
(a2 b s - a Sb2)2 + (aSb l - a 1bs)2 + (a1b 2 - a 2b1)2
= (a12 + a2 2 + as 2 )(b 1 2 + b 2 2 + b S2) - (a1b1 + a2 b 2
Use (92), which is, indeed,sometimesreferred
(Hint.
the Generalized Identity of Lagrange.)

6. If A,

B,

C,

and

D are
(A X

coplanar\"

B) X

prove

that)

(C X D) = o.)))

+ a sb s )2.)
to

as

trigonometry)

short

This

of

application

standard

the
chapter is devoted to illustrating
notions to the development of
vector
of

formulas

and

plane

trigonometry.

spherical

We shall see that spherical

trigonometry,
admits
to a simple analysis in termsof vectors.)
34.

PLANE

Law
where

TRIGONOMETRY

of cosines.
= a,
IAI
IBI

Consider the triangle of Figure

= b, and lei = c. It isclear
C =

and

that)

\302\267
e

c2

gIves)

c2
of

sines.

(B
2
a

\302\267

(B

A)

2
+ b

2
+ b

Here we

2A

A)

\302\267
B.)

get

the

- 2ab cosI')

seek a relation involving

151)))

80,

that

A,)

the last dot product,we

When we expand
law of cosines)

Law

particularly,

familiar

(93))

the

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

152)

FIGURE

of

sides

angles.

the

triangle

We

therefore

80, and the sinesof its

the

c X C = CX
which implies)

80)

of Figure
employ

o =C

(B

GEOMETRY)

cross product)
-

A),)

C X

A,)

or)

A =

C X
Equating
(94)

the

CX

of left

magnitudes

B.)

(94))

and right membersof

yields)

sin {3 =

ca

which is

law

the

to

equivalent

a
sin

By repeated
the variables,

cb sin

a,

of sines
b)

sin {3

application, or simply by the

we have the completerelationship)
b)

c)

sIn

c)

'

-.

.
a)

sin

\037)))

SIn

'Y)

symmetry

of

(95))

153)

TRIGONOMETRY)

states that the sides of a triangleare proportional

sines of their respective opposite angles.

which
the

to
Sum

and

difference

formulas.

sum

and

difference

formulas

requires somewhat

The usual treatment of

in high school textbooks

are

fU:fther complicated

eral

cases,
lie.

angles

vectors,

by

Once
by

by the need to

again
means

consider

sev-

quadrants in which the

matters
are greatly simplified
of which all cases are treated
the

on

depending

that

arguments

geometric

messy

simultaneously.

Let

Q and

R be

points on the unit

circle

origin)

as

of radius one centeredat

81, so

on a

R =

\302\267
=
R

cos

{3i

sin {3j

cos ai + sin aj.

IQIIRI

cos (a

(3).)

:y)

R)

x)

FIGURE

81)))

circle

in Figure

that)

Then,)

the

(i.e.,
shown

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

154)

Hence)

cos (a

(3)

COS{3

COS a

Once again, referringto Figure

i
cos

sin

Thus.

which

{3

sin a

cos a

= (sin

sin

(a

(3)k.)

a cos {3

sin

{3

cos

a)k.

0)

- (3)k =
.)

(a

write)

may

sin

{3

(3)k

(96)

this cross product becomes

of coordinates

terms

In

we

81,

= IQ11RIsin (a .-

Q X R

sin {3.

sin a

(sin

cos

- sin

{3

cos

{3

a)k,

implies
sin

- (3) =

(a

sin a cos{3

sin

a.

cos

{3

(97)

EXERCISES

1. Using
sin

(a

(96)

+ (3),

2.

By

as

requested

and

cos 2a,

methods,
in Exercise 1.

3. Observewhat
(96) and

cos ( -

0)

derive direc.tly

vector

using

(97).
and

Area. The

for

formulas

deduce

(97),

sin 2a.

if {3

happens

- a

is chosenfor

the

area

the

for

formula

familiar

two

terms

(3),

the sameformulas
expansions

Is the result consistentwith the facts

sin 8 = - sin ( - 8) for all angles8?

of
triangle of Figure 80 in
included angle is an immediate

sides

cos 8

K of

the

and

the

of

consequence

cross

for

products,

K =

\037
\\A

Hence)

Since

cos (a

a triangle

sides,its

area

must

B\\

= lab

sin

is completely
therefore

\037
\\A\\

\\Bl

sin

\"I.)

'Y.)

determined by its

be completely

terms of the sides. We shall now apply

to the determinationof such a formula.)))

three

expressible in
vector products

155)

TRIGONOMETRY)

2K

1A

BI.

product to expressthe length

the scalar

Using

Its

the triangle of Figure 80.

K = ilA X BI, which implies

once more
may be written

Consider
area

of

X B,

we have)

4K 2

IA X

= (A.

B\\2

A)(B

B) \302\267
(A
(A. B)2

(A X

\302\267

B)

= a b 2 -. (A . B)2
- A
=
+
B)(ab

B)

(by (92))

derivation

in the

But,

\302\267

(ab

\037f

(98))

B).

- c2

that

we found

of cosines,

law

the

A.B

\302\267

2)

ill (98) gives)

2 - c2
- a2 + b

and substituting

4K 2

ab

=
=

Calling
- 2a
t
t

2c

ble

a 2 - b 2 + c 2)(2ab + a 2
+ b + c) (a - b + c) (a + b

\037
(

-a

a +

- a +
= a + b 4K 2

c, we make

b +

c,

half

then)

- 2b)(t -

2c)t,)

c,

c).)

and

c.)
-

\037
(t

2a)(t

that a greater simplificationwould

were clever enough to introducea
of t. Because, if 28 = t, that is,

4K 2 =

the substitutions

- 2b = a

if we
that

- c2 )

- c)(a +

we observe

resulted

\302\267

2)

\037
(2ab

Thus)
and

c2

a2 + b2

we get

Simplifying,

4K 2

ab +

(28
\037

8 =

i(a +

2a)(28

c),)

- 2b)(28-

2c)28.)))

(99))
have
varia-

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

156)

GEOMETRY)

A)

82)

FIGURE

Hence)

and we

a)(s -

S(S -

2 =

arrive at Hero'sFormul

s(s-

b)(s

the

a for

c),)
area of

a triangle

- c), wheres = j-(a+ b + c).

A theorem
in Euclidean geometry states that the
area
a
is equal to one-half the product
rhombus
of
of its
a
Before
ofthis
diagonals.
giving simpleproof
theorem,
we
first
a preliminary
result: The diagonalsof a
prove

K=v

are

rhombus

b)(s

perpendicular.

sides of the
as shown in Figure

Let
B,

a)(s

are

the

by

have

we

equal,

rhombus be designated
82. Sinceall sidesofa
IBI.

IAI

pendicularityof the diagonals,

(A +

(A
B) \302\267

B) =

which shows the diagonal

the

the

quantity

K of

area

=
inside

the

rhombus

the perproduct

= 0,

is. given by

B) X leA

absolute

inner

and

be perpendicular to

B to

the rhombus

21i-(A +

IBI2

IAI2

the diagonalA-B.
Now,

the

take

we

determine

To

value

- B)I,
signs being

twice)))

TRIGONOMETRY

B) X

i-ICA +
K =

Hence

shaded region in Figure82.

of the

area

the

157

\037
IA

and

center

is

form

the

Call a, {3, and

O.

result.)

triangle.

involving the
We therefore

on a unit

sphere

'Y

the

whose

arcs

circle

great

the spherical triangle ABC;a

sides of

B, and

opposite

{3 being

A,

opposite

and

B,

A,

1r
sin

B(

desired

the

is

basic relations

a spherical
C as points

of

angles

consider

- B(,which
the

derive

to

wish

We

B(IA

BIIA -

= i-IA +

B)(

TRIGONOMETRY

35. SPHERICAL

sides.

(A

Then

Since

C.

opposite

\"I

that

being

the sphere is of unit radius, the arcs

also
\"I are
{3,
the radian
measures of the central angles formed
by
A
A
Band
and
an
and
We
further
C,
B, respectively.
C,
stipulate that a, {3, and 'Y be less than 1r.
in terms
information
of the
Amassing all the given
0 of the sphere, we
vectors emanating from the center

a,

and

have

\302\267
A
B = cos \"I, B \302\267
C = cos a, and A \302\267
C = cos {3.
As we saw earlier, the angle
is
two
between
planes
determined
most easily by finding
the
between
angle
A
to
Thus
the
interior
the
angle
perpendiculars
planes.
as
is
the
and
OAC
same
between
OAB
the
plalle
plane
A X B and A X C.
Since by equation 92
allgle between

(A

B)

sin
2A

\"I

circle

great

a plane through
globe

(A

on a

are all great

shortest

and B

not

distance

C)

antipodal,

\302\267
C

cos a

(A. B) (A

sphere is the intersection

of the sphere.

of

great

paths

on the

is along

the arc

A and
great

with

sphere

of

path,

circle arcs.)))

if

Thus,

(unless

points)
we

see

that

A
the

on

lying

unique

Finally,

the

the so-called

sphere.
the

the

than

(other

opposite,

B.

(101))

{3,

the

circles are

the shortest

diametrically
are

latitude

surface of a

a sphere,

or

circle that passes through

sides of a sphericaltriangle

Great

(100)

C)

Meridian circleson

circles, but parallels of

circles.

\302\267

cos

cOS'Y

center

are two points of

that joins A to B

and B are

= B
A =

{3 cos

sin

the

equator) are

sphere

\302\267

great
the

158)

FIGURE

is often termed

which

the

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

83)

law

cosines

of

for

spherical

triangles.

EXERCISE

The perpendicularvectors to
angle equal or supplementary
planes. Verify,
by considering

lars,

that

B and A

the

angle

supplement

of

triangles

by first
(A

(See

X C

equation
the

Taking

does, in

to

angle
the direction

in an
the given

intersect

may

planes

the

between

of the perpendicuthe
scalar
by
product (100)of
A and not the
fact,
yield
angle

A.

now

shall

We

determined

two

B)

derive

the law

of

sines

for

\302\267

spherical

considering the expansion)

X (A

91 or

X C) =

(A

(102)

C)A.

Exercise 4 of Section33.)

magnitudes

of both

members

of (102), we

get)

IA

BIIA

X ci

sin

IA X

BI.lcos

01,)))

159

TRIGONOMETRY

the angle between A

0 is

where

C.

Band

Thus,

we

have)
X

IA

to

is equivalent

which

sin ,8 sin

X (B

A)

yields

IB X

X C) =

(103))

01.)

both membersof

and

Simplifying,
we

(103)

of

BllCllcos

(91)))

(see

of,)

Icos

81.)

of the angles of the

have

sin B

(104) we

and

= Icos01

(104)

deduce)

sin,8sin

A,)

law of sines for sphericaltriangles. Again,

of letters, we may write the complete
interchange
sines
in the more usual form)
is

an

C)B)

in terms

rewriting

sin a sin B =
which

IA

cl sin B =

sin a
From

\302\267

(A

to)

IB X

triangle,

A((B X ci sin B =

is equivalent

which

law

cos

expression)

(B

by

the magnitudes of

evaluating

Now,

the

= Icos OJ,)

sin A

cl

the

SIn

sin

A)

sin

,8

sin

B)

SIn

'Y

sin

C)))

more

this

devote

We

geometry)

chapter

to a

BY

INEQUALITIES

considerations.)

36.

DEFINED

LOCI

potpourri

of geometric

we
earlier work with lines, planes,and spheres,
discussed
loci that were defined by algebraic
vector)
(and
that
It has no doubt occurredto the reader
equations.
relations
other than equality may be utilizedto specify
a locus.
the
conditions
For example, if P is the
defining
a
in
vector
of
three-dimensional
position
point
space,
< r defines
a
a
that
of
then
locus
consistsof
sphere
Ipl
radius
r and all points interior to the sphere,whereas
> r defines the locus that consistsof the sphere
and
all
I pi
relations
exterior
to it. Analytically, these two
points

In our

be expressed

would

x2 +

y2

x2

and

46.

yv e

y2 +

Z2

>

r,

examples of loci so definedfollow.

sketch the locus defined by

Further

respectively.
EXAMPLE

Z2 <

-2x - 2 <

160)))

<

x +

1.

MORE

161

GEOMETRY
.\\\\\\ \037\\

y
I

\302\2431
\\
.'

1
Iv
\037

\\II
i\037

r-

,- x)

(a)

y
\302\2432

1
1

(b)

(c)

FIGURE84)

We

first,

consider,

that

represents the familiar

Figure 84a). Sincey
desired

locus

line itself

The

locus

consists

is

(but

x +

larger

of points

(see Figure 84a).

- 2x + 2 <
y,

the points below

<

straight

not

by

1.
line,

than

The equation
which

or equal

to x +

above the line as well

similar

including)

= x

+ 1

in

is sketched

reasoning,

the line y

as

1,

the

on the

consists

= -2x +

of
2.)))

84b.

(See Figure
is
\302\2432

a broken

used

have

We

in the

included

not

the

both

\302\2432.

the

includes the darkened

not include any point of

does

is indicated by the fact

is drawn as a broken line.)

latter

The

but
\302\2431

boundary

of the plane that

This region is

locus

desired

The

of line

portion

the region

simultaneously.

inequalities

shadedin Figure84c.
lower left

may

determine

to

sketches

two

satisfies

indicatethat

two
simulinequalities
be found by combining

the

solution

final

line to

locus.)

The original problem imposes

taneously, so the

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

162)

that the

\302\2432-portion

of

EXERCISES

1.

(a) x > 0

and

(b) x < y

< 1.

(c) -2 < <

- 1<

y.

the

is

What

3. Let 0

the

be

x +

2.

of the region 1 < Ipl < 2 if

P is a planepositionvector?
P is a position vector in three dimensions?

shape

vector

the

<

2y

(a) the vector

(b)

o.

<

(d) 4x

2.

defined by the relations

the regions

Sketch

of a

origin

rectangular coordinate

system and

\037

P,

-4

IPQI

= 1.

radius is 3

lie

inside

and

triangle
(0, 1).

6.

(b)

- a = b;
- a < b.
locus

the

is

What

(a) x < I?
(b)

(c) x

(d)

2xl

that the points (x, y)

region whoseinner radius

<

Iy

ABC, where

of points

II?)))

is

2 and

(take the centerat (0,0));

(Assume

y?

< y?

and

of Q?

5. Confining attention to the x-axis, give

pretation of the points (x,0) such that
(a)

fact

the

an annular

lie inside

outer
(b)

locus

the

is

What

4. Expressanalytically
(a)

dimensions such that lopi =

in three

points

Q any

b >

0 in

(1, 0),

B =

geometric

both parts.)

(x, y) suchthat

(1, 2),
inter-

(For assistance

to Section37

5 and

Exercises

with

reader is referred

6, the

c.))

BOOBY TRAPS

A FEW

37.

163)

GEOMETRY)

MORE

(a) How shall

the

sketch

we

locus

plane

defined by

the equation)

x+

x +

y?)

because
the
line
glance it appearsto bea straight
is
But
linear.
look
once
of
the
appearance
equation
like terms, that is, by subtracting
By
again!
grouping
x + y from both members, we get)

At first

0=0.)

(105))

If you suggest that there isno

are
you
us consider the problem in the light of primary

locus,

ordered

What

ordered

any

(x, y) satisfy the

be substituted
may

pairs
pair

statement

choice values
for
the
graph consistsof the
of

entire

is the

What

(b)

t ranges

which
Adding

the

line

straight

locus,

for

x=

two

the

- 1!

there
The

is an

every
the

xy-plane.

locus of the parametric eqllations)

x

in

question:

relation? Clearly,
in (105), and the

identity, true for

variables.
Consequently,
It

true.

remains

Let

wrong!

cos

sin

2
t,)

the real numbers?

is
yields x + y = 1, which
equations
in Figure 85a. But this cannotbe the
x = 2 or
of t that
is no value
yields
over all

occurred

slip-up

when

2
sin
t

we

blithely

are
ignored the fact that cos t alld
non-negative.
The locus (see Figure 85b) is, therefore,the segment
of
x + y = 1, with the further restrictionsx > 0 and
y > 0, for the given parametricequationsplace such
2

restriction

on

x and

y.)))

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

164)
y)

y)

1)

x)

%)

o)

1)

(a))

(b))

85)

FIGURE

is the graph of the relation

(c) What

It <

Ix

In order to

insight

geometric

gain

2?)

we begin with an algebraicanalysis.

it true that Ix - 11= 2? The reader
question in several ways:

(i) Using the

that x-I

or x =

-1.
he

Or,

(ii)

and only if

may
2

to the solution
of

the

aware of the

become

point

point 1.
the

the

(on

distance

In

-2,

axis)

general,

between

fact that
is at
the

this

value,

results

he reasons
in x = 3
=

Ibl

if

problem

equation

- 1)2 =
3 or x

x is

approach

may

which

polynomial

x =

yields

again

relation,

which

For

be aware of the fact that lal

, in which case he reduces the

(x
which

absolute

of

definition

= 2 or x-I

this

into

4,)

= -1.

In

case

either

we

states that the

Ix
11
a distance of two units from
-

quantity

x and a.

...:..-2

Ix

Thus it is

al

symbolizes

reasoned

that)))

165)

GEOMETRY)

MORE

-'

x
r

A.)

-1)

,r

locus
x

and

1)

2)

86)

the segment between x = - 1

the endpoints.
The bobby trap
the question, \"What is
overlooks

2 is

including

3,

arises

the

when

reader

the dimensionin which

Hence

setofall
is that

if

our

(x,

y)

the

< 3,1

Ix

and

- 11<

any real number,

which impliesa locusconsisting

not only of the
on the x axis but alsoof the entire strip between
including

lines x

the

= -1 and x

now

answer

The

be

may

2.

stated?\"

we seek the

the plane,

is of

that

such

been

has

problem

discussion

-1 < x

L3)

<

I x-II

X
\\

o)

FIGURE

the

A.)

segment

= 3 (see

Figure

and
87).)

)')
I,
\"':I
\037/,
\037\037
\037/

\037

-2

-1

....
\". x)

\037
I'

//,

i%:'l)

FIGURE

1 In
the

terms of set theory,

sanle set

we

seek

as {(x,y)ll < x < 3}.)))

87

{(x, y) Ilx

- 11 < 2},which

is

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

166)

(d) What

is the graph of)

(x

Again
ordered
note

that

y) (x

y)

O?)

(106))

to the fundamental question:What

(x, y) render the given relation true? We
pairs
(106) is true if and only if)

that is, if

and

satisfying the

or)

only
given

origin. If point

(x,

from

we resort

x+y=O)

relation

GEOMETRY)

is
b\037th

satisfied.
relations

if y =

-x or y

relation

is a

x.
Thus, the locus
of
lines
through the
pair
one of these lines, the
y) is on either
that this is quite different
(Observe
then
satisfied
simultaneously;
being

we would have had an

(107) and the locus would

the two lines in

the

(107))

x-y=O)

\"and\"

be

between

the

point

the

equations

of intersection

figure.))

y)

x)

FIGURE

88)))

in

of

167)

GEOMETRY)

MORE

to

The language of set theory helps clarify

sort.
Since the locus is defined with
must have the union of two
Therefore
sets.
this

of

matters
an

we

\"or,\"

locus

the

may be written as the set)

s=

= -x}.)

{(x,y)ly=x}U{(x,y)ly

This description of the locus

and clarity that often resultfrom
tion of the ideas of set theory.)
38.

the

illustrates
an

simplicity
applica-

elementary

AND CONVEXITY

SEGMENTS

and sufficient
Theorem 4 providedus with a necessary
condition for a vector to have
its endpoint
on a line.
We
now turn to confining
a
the
vector
to
specific
endpoint
segment.
Let A and B be two points and C some point of the
AB.
can be described by stating
This
situation
segment
-4
-4

that BC =

< 1.

< t

where

tBA,

In the languageof positionvectors

fixed point 0, we write)
=

C=

tA

teA
(1

t =

<

That

1.

The

1.

tains
of the

set

all

<

1.)

(108))

form

tA

is

{pIp =

called

tA

convex if and

only
any.

be

points
in

\302\243.)))

rep- t)B,

- t)B}.)

(1

entire line segment that joins

set. That is, a set S issaidto
convex
A

(1

occur when t =

endpoints

the

any two

can be

that

points

is,

segment AB =

Definition.

o<

of the

vectors

position

by

where 0 <

contained

- B),
- t)B.)

the segment AB consistsof

Thus

resented
and

B +

some

to

relative

and

B of

S, the segment

it

if

two

con-

points
if,

given

AB is entirely

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

168

EXAMPLE 47.

We

Let the sphereof

A and

B be any

set.

<

sphereand

its

and

let

origin,

of the

points

IAI

centered at the
set. Then,)

r be

radius

two

of a

the points

that

prove

a convex

form

interior

GEOMETRY

IBI <

and)

r)

r.)

AB is also a
We must show that any point of the segment
distanceof less than or equal to r from the origin. The series
of

inequalities)

ItA +

(1

t)BI

<

ItAr +
=

the

establishes

desired

EXAMPLE 48.

We

1(1 -

tlAI

t)BI

(1

t)IBI

<

tr +

- t)r =

(1

result.)
continue

the

of our ability

consequences

an algebraic
to write segmentsin vector languageby finding
condition that a point lie interior to, or on the boundary of,
triangle.

Let A, B, and
We assume, for the

Figure
where

89)

consists

may

be

r)

C be three distinct
purposes
of the

any point

points

of illustration,

points

not

of segment AB.

(see
segmentsCD,
Again,

c)

A)

B)

FIGURE

89)))

line.

on one

that a triangle

of all the

using)

vectors to

position

tA +

(1

x =

mC

= (1 that (1

Noting

the

ABC,

triangle

sB +

.
whIch

In

tC,

o<

<

m < 1.)

- t)B]
mC.

t)B

t)

m =

r, s, and t

1, we draw

or boundary

interior

of the

point

r + s+
0 < r <
0 < s <

(1

- m)(1 -

are scalars

there

0 <

- m)(1 -

(1

Conclusion. If X is ariy
of

(1

m)t

write)

may

where

m)[tA

m)tA

we

m)D,)

(1

< 1.)

the triangle, there is someD so that

mC + (1 -

x =

V\\Te

consideration,

0 < t

where

t)B,)

X is on the segmentCD, and

Then)

under

segment AB by the equation)

point of

is any

if

represent points

D of

point

any

represent

Thus,

169)

GEOMETRY)

MORE

X =

that

so

rA

1,

1,

1,
1.)

EXERCISES

1. Justify

2.

Graph

(a)
(b)

each step

y2

4. Representthe

5.

1)(x

points

to the

similar

What

y2

condition

on

2) = 0
2) = 0
those

the

of

coefficients
be

on

the

ABC?

and

prove

the

at the origin

centered

of a tetrahedron
and of a square in
one exhibited in Example 48.

guarantee that a point would

6. State

47.

(c) (x + 2y + 1)( -x + y +
3. Prove that all spheres-not only
-are convex.)
manner

in Example

of inequalities

series

the

loci

the

x 2 --- y2
2
(x

of

converse

of the

A,

B,

and

boundary

conclusion of

C would

of triangle
Example

48.

might expect that the relation betweenX, A, B, and C

of Example 48 would
somehow
on the location of the
depend
of
the
auxiliary
(the origin
position vectors). However,)))
point
7. One

the result
the

Can you explain

is independentof
Consider the meaning of r + 8 +

otherwise.
the four vectors

indicates

example

between

(Hint.

point?

auxiliary

the

of

relation

the

why

1.)

8. What
Example

That

is,

modification, if any, shouldbe made to the result of

A?
the position vectors all emanate from
48 when
when A = o.

9. Let triangle ABC

=

B =

(1, 0),

medians), and write

its

(b) Let r = j-, \"8

(1, 1),

point M
rA

and

=!,

the

follows:

(0, 1)

8B +
t = t.

tC.

Check the result

associatedwith

i\037tersection

is inside,

of the

in the form

these

of

values

of ABC,
the
outside, or on
boundary
of the

altitudes

triangle.

tetrahedron ABCD be defined

0), B = (1, 0,0), C =

10. Let
A

of intersection

(point

46 by locating the point

Example
of the coefficients.

(c) Find the point of

and determinewhether
it

and

vector

position

M =

vertices as

by its

defined

be

(a) Find the median

of

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

170)

(0, 0,

by

its vertices

(0,1,0)

as follows:

and

(0, 0,

1).

an
necessary conditions,
(a) Write
stipulating
expression,
for point X to be on the face ABC of the tetrahedron.
(b) Do likewise for X to be on the face BCD.
(c) How would you guarantee that X be inside (not on the
of

boundary)

39. LINEAR

the

meat

(beef

tetrahedron?)

PROGRAMMING

Considerthe
A hospital

given

following

problem.

its

is concerned with minimizing the costof

and
diet.
The average hospital diet
pork)

in
suggested by a Jack Spratt problem
Problems for First-Year Algebra\"
by
in The
Donovan
and Marilyn Zweng,
published
is recomfine
article
Mathematics Teacher, March 1960. This
in the details of a successful
mended to the readerwho is interested
experiencein the teaching of linear programming to high school
2

This

\"Linear

students.)))

problem

was

Programming
Lichtenberg

MORE

171)

GEOMET:ay)

and
of fat
1.5 pounds
requires 2 pounds of lean meat
which
meat per person per week.
costs
The
$1.00
beef,
The pork,which
is 0.2 fat and 0.8 lean.
costs
pe\037 pound
is 0.6 fat and 0.4 lean. If the hospital
$.75
per pound
has200 patients
on this
diet, and if it cannot purchase
more than 900 pounds
of meat
per week because of
refrigerator space,find out how many pounds of beef

and how many pounds of

that the cost is at a minimum.
This

programming.
involving

program

we

that

fact

will

programming

determine a

the

Here

operations.

optimum

hospital

of
seeks a program(for the purchasing
meats)
in
that
it
would
the
sense
the
satisfy
optimum
the hospital while minimizingthe cost.

Let's

the

extract

which
needs

the

from

data

pertinent

so

is used because
be linear rela-

The word
are trying to

see.

soon

we

linear

variables

the

purchased

elementary problemsof

word

The

the relations
shall
tions as
stems from the
for

of the

is typical

problem

linear

be

should

pork

is
of

hospital

problem. Let

B = poundsof

to

beef

purchase

each

week,

each

week.

P = pounds of pork to purchase

I t is clear that)
B

The restriction

>

of

O)

rest

of the

space

refrigerator

B + P
The

and)

<

and

> o.)

(a))

tells

us

that)

900.)

given data can

(b))

be

in

summarized

table)

Fat

,.,'
\"'.

Lean

CostjIb

$1.00

Beef

0.2

0.8

Pork

0.6

0.4

0.75)))

the

172)

200

a total.of

Since

required,

0.8B

is required,

0.2B

of

we

the

tions

meat

(d))

for the cost C(in dollars)

(a)

yields

(d)
is

then,

problem,
a

minimum

(a)-(d) hold. Thus

graphically, the set
the
restrictions.

(e))

turn

of

ordered

0, P >

0,

2B + P

(B, P) that satisfy

pairs

is)

set

This

given

to finding,

attention

our

we

{(B, p)IB >

+ :P .)

prediction, all the relaP are linear

relations. The
on Band P.
restrictions
place
to select the ordered pair (B, P)
for C(B, P), provided
value

Band

= B

P)

the earlier

with

involving

inequalities

R =

of fat

pounds

> 300.)

0.6P

an expression

write

accordance

that

300

(c))

purchase)

C(B,

Our

\302\267
1.5

In

> 400;)

have)

we

Finally,

meat is

of lean

pounds

+ JP

of 200

a total

since

and

400

that)

see

we

\302\267=

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

P <

900,

> 1000,
B

3P

> 1500}.)

in Figure 90.
The set R is the darkest
shown
We
region
have thus narrowedthe choiceof orderedpairs to those
number
of
of
the
triangle
R, but we still have an infinite
too many for a trial and error prochoices-certainly
cedure
unless
we were willing to settle for an approximate

answer.

however,

Fortunately,

assist us in narrowing
Theorem

12.

search

the

Let f

be

linear

of definition is a
polygon.
of f(x, y) is attained at a

to

considerably.
function
The

convex

vertex

a theorem

is

there

of

the

whose domain
value

minimum
polygon.

(The)))

173)

MORE GEOMETRY
P)

1000)

500)

B)

1000)

(0,0))

90)

FIGURE

word \"maximum\"
without

disturbing
to

Returning

vertices of

the
as:

U = (300,400).

may be substitutedfor \"minimum,\"

the validity of the theorem.)
we
problem,
T =
(100,800),

original
S =

Theorem

Applying

narrowed

1500)

our search to

determine the

(600,300), and

12,

the pointsS,

T,

has

which
and

U,

we

evaluate)

giving
pounds
'.gram

C(100,800)

= 1 \302\267
100

C(600,300)

= 1 \302\267
600

C(300,400)

= 1 \302\267
300

\302\267

800

$700

\302\267

$825

\302\267

$600,)

4
300

\037

3
+

400

400
the conclusion that 300 pounds of beef and
of pork make up the optimum purchasing profor

the

hospital.)))

174)

P 2 (X2,

show

We

Y2).

the end-points

the

of

is con-

when

y)

= (Xl, YI)

where
and
PI
under this restriction, the
values
of f(x, y) are attained at
2

segment.

leari1ed that

38 we

Section

c.)

that,

minimum

and

maximum

In

P 1P

to the segment

.fined

by

of f(x,

values

the

consider

first

linear

the

of

by)

given

= ax +

f(x, y)
We

Let the value

of Theorem 12.
at P = (x, y) be

Proof
function

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

the segmentP IP

if

belongs to

(x, y)

2 , then)

X =

(1

lYl +

(1

0 <

l <

y
in

which

= aX2 +
= (ax2 +
= f(X2,
Hence

values
the

l)X2

l)Y2

X2 +

l(XI

Y2 +

l(Yl

1. Then the value

j(x, y) = a[x2+

o < l

lXI

l(XI

bY2

l(axi.
+

bY2

Y2)

X2)] +

b[Y2

aX2

l[(axi +

c) +

YI)

l[f(XI

of

Y2),

f at

l(Yl
bYl
bYI

P is

f(X2,

bY2)

Y2)]

c)

- (ax2 +

bY2

c)]

Y2)].

and
f(x, y) ranges between f(Xl, YI)
f(X2, Y2) as
< 1. The extreme
and
(maximum
minimum)
of the function are attainedat the endpointsof

segment.

What

Query.
amine
the

an exercise

for

tionsof

the

polygon

and

Since the term \"linear\"

of the form

expressions

to

exhibit

of

\"linear.\)

proof

of

your

proof

reader,
convexity

with

answer

f(X2,

12 is
Theorem
the hint that the
are essential.
for

Ex-

Y2)?

is substantianted.

left as

defini-

function is linear.if and only if c = o.

to include
is often
used in a loose manner
ax + by + c, when
c F- 0, we have chosen
12 for such a loose interpretation
Theorem

this

speaking,

Strictly

if f(Xl, YI)

happens

proof to see if
The remainder of the

X2),

175)

GEOMETRY)

MORE

ADDITIONAL EXERCISE
the

Make

in the

replacements

following

statement

Theorem

of

12:)

for

\"polyhedron\"
\"f(x,

y, z)\"

and

\"polygon,\"

for\" f(x,

y).\

Prove the resultingstatement.)

van company charges25 cents per
from N ew York to San Francisco
and
15
for
pound
moving crates on the same crossIf at least one quarter of each
load is furniture
country
trip.
and at least one quarter of each load consists of crates, find
and maximum cost per pound for a load.
the
minimum
of a load that is furniture,
Let F = that fraction
of a load that consists of crates.)
C = that fraction
49.

EXAMPLE

for

moving
cents
per

pound

A moving
furniture

-<F<-,

Then)

-4

4-

1
3
-<C<-.
4- -4)

and)

since

Furthermore,

we have

crates,

a load

consists entirely

furniture

of

and

the additionalrelation)
F

+ C

= 1.)

a segment,
These three relations define
as shown in Figure 91.
of cost on a one-dimenOur problemreducesto a consideration
are (-1-, : ) and (i, \037
sional set, a segment whose
).
endpoints
the
relation
The cost K(F, C) is given
by
K(F, C) = .25F +

.15C.

K 1' 4
3

(
Hence,

pound,

= 0.25
)

3' 1
4

= 0.25

1
+
4
( )

3
0.15
4
( )
1

+ 0.15 4
( 4)
( )

the minimum cost

while the maximum

for a load would

would

be

22!

0.70= 0.175

0.90

\037

4
be

17

cents per

0.225.)

\037 cents
pound.)))

per

ELEMENTARY

176)

VECTOR

GEOMETRY)

c)
1)

(i,t))

3
4\

1
'2)

1
4\"

(f,t)

(0,0)

'2

91)

FIGURE

bats

A sporting

50.

EXAMPLE

that cuts the wood

paints,

goods company makes baseball

processed first by a lathe
that
machine
by a finishing

which are
bats,
to size and then

softball

and

4)

and labels the bats. The lathe

produce a baseball bat and 3 minutes
bat. The finishing
machine
operates

dries, polishes,

6 minutes to
a softball
produce
ates

operto

for
because

on a bat, no matter which kind.

However,
and maintenance problems,the lathe can operate
can operate
4 hours
machine
only
per day and the finishing
bat is $1.00
a
baseball
on
If the
only 3 hours per day.
profit
if the
the
on a softball bat 75 cents, and
and
company
profit
can sell all the bats it makes, find how many of each kind it
should producedaily in order to realize maximum profit.
to be a mass of detail,
the problem
can
there
seems
Although
be summarized easilyin the following
Let
manner.

3 minutes
of loading

The

b =

the number

of baseballbats produceddaily,

8 =

the number

of softball

restriction

(4

\302\267 minutes

60

glves)
6b

+ 38

bats produceddaily.

per day)

< 240 or

2b +

on the lathe
8

<

80.)

operation
(a))))

177)

GEOMETRY)

MORE

(3. 60 minutes per

The restriction
machine gives)

3b +

180

60.)

(b))

data are
the relation

the

all

and

o.

(c)

8 >

o.

(d))

8)

PCb,

Thus

finishing

b >

day would

8) per

PCb,

profit

(a)-(d)

8 <

b +

or)

the

also that)

We know

The

<

38

on

day)

be
b +

:8 .)

(e))

summarized in terms of
(e). We seek to maximize

the convex polygon det\037rmined

the
by
The polygon is exhibitedin Figure92.

inequalities

restrictions

PCb, 8) on
(a)-(d).
of

vertices

The

the

polygon are

o = (0,0),

Evaluating
would

maximum

bats

(40, 0),

the

profit

at

B =
these

achieved

be

(20,40),
four

by the

and

points

(0, 60).

shows that a

production

softball

of

only.)
s)

80)

40

B)

20)

b)

0(0,0)

20)

60)

FIGURE

92)))

80)

EXAMPLE 51. A chocolate

manufacturing
milk chocolate, semisweet chocolate,and
but
demand
It can produce 500 poundsper day,

types is such that the maximum

GEOMETRY

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

178

amounts

makes

concern

chocolate.

bitter

that

for the
can be

various
sold are

as follows)

milk-400

per day

pounds

semisweet-300
bitter-200

If the
for

is 80

profit

semi-sweet,

the

per day.

pounds

cents per pound for bitter, 75cents per pound

milk
and 60 cents per pound for
chocolate,

for production that

the program

determine

pounds per day

maximize

would

profit.

Although this problem couldbe handled by only

problem
ables, we shall treat it as a three-dimensional
Let
poses of illustration.

two
for

8 =

pounds

chocolate produced per day

of semisweet chocolate producedper day

b =

pounds

of bitter

pounds

varipur-

of milk

chocolate producedper day.

Then)

< 500

m+8+b

0<

The
m
\037

profit
:8 +

function
b
\037 (in

The graph
An algebraic
A

P is

400

o < 8

< 300

o<

<

(b)

(c)

200.)

(d))

defined by the relationP(m,8,

b)

dollars).

in
93.
of restrictions (a)-(d) is shown
Figure
solution for the vertices of the polyhedron shows

B =

(400,0,100),

D = (200,300,0), E
and

(400,0,0),

(0,

(300,

We may concludethat the

profit by

<

(a)

producing

only

is
The latter alternative
500 pounds would
always
concludethat two kinds
So the searchis confined

300,

C = (400,100,0),
F =

(0, 0, 200),

achieve

a maximum

200),

0, 200).

concernwould

or one type of
types
because
excluded
producing
two

in a loss.
of chocolate
should
result
to

an

investigation

chocolate.

less than
We may therefore
be manufactured.
of the profit at)))

179)

GEOMETRY)

MORE

b)

E)

400

:> 8)

500)

m)

FIGURE

points
m

A, C, D, E, and G-the
b = 500.

93)

a plane

of

points

8 +

The computation

cise

for

the

of

these

at

profit

vertices is

represented

by

left as an exer-

reader.)

EXERCISES

Carry out Example51as a two

out Example 51 with
Carry
maximum amount of bitter
chocolate
1. (a)
(b)

problem.
that
restriction

that

can be

the

sold is 100

day.

pounds

per

2. Find
- 1

the minimum
on the set defined

4y

variable
the

and

values

maximum
by

the

- 2x +

inequalities

3y

< 2

x+y

x+

<

2y

>

3.)))

of I(x, y)

= 2x +

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

180)

3. The delivery

trucks

capacityof 1000
least 400 gallons

On each trip a
gallons.
of regular
gasoline, at

owned

by

GEOMETRY)

company have a
truck must carry at
least 200 gallons of

oil

an

and, at most, 300 gallonsof white

gasoline,
gasoline.
4 cents for high
profit per gallon is 3 cents for regular,
test, and 5 cents for white gas, find the program for loading
the trucks
that
would
yield a maximum profit. (This can be
test

high

If the

done with

4. Assume
What kind

5.

two

only

variables.)

the trucks in Exercise3 areall loaded

of loadingwould
the least profit?
yield

mountain

climbing

and B-rations for

an

per

unit

expedition.

of carbohydrate

Units of

protein

Units of

fat

units,

of the

ARISING IN

40. THEOREMS
The

the

study
same

is not a closed polygon

you have

measurements,

the

minimum?))

MORE

GEOMETRIES

geometry deals with someof

of projective

Euclidean

in

discussed

entities

namely points, li11es,and planes.

geometry

climbers.

mountain

that
the convex region
(Observe
in this
case.
How do you know that

GENERAL

1
$1)

carbohydrate units, 18
the minimum
cost
diet

and

the requirements

satisfying

3
4

are 10
requirements
6 fat units.
Find

minimum

The

1
3

$2

Cost

protein

A-rations
and costs

wishes to purchase
The food values

party

Units

capacity.

as follows:)

classified

are

to

discards
and

the
focuses

notions

However,

geometry,
projective

of distance and

attention

on incidence

angle
prop-

erties: points lying on \037ines, lines passing through points,

For
eleintersections of various sorts, and so forth.
is
the
reader
mentary discussions of projectivegeometry,
referred
to Chapter IV of What
is
Mathematics?
by)))

181)

GEOMETRY)

MORE

and
Courant
H.
S.
M.
by

Robbins, and to

Coxeter.

We

the

Real

principal results of this field of study: the

Desargues

Plane

Proiective

into

look

shall

of the

two
theorems

of

and Pappus.

Desargues' theorem.

If

two

have

triangles

corresponding

vertic\037s
by concurrent
lines, then the intersections of
joined
are collinear
sides
(see Figure 94).
correspond\037ng
that
the theorem
The readershouldobserve
is devoid

with
of metric concepts. It is concerned
neither
lengths
of
of sides nor with the sizeof the angles
the
triangle.
One of the axioms of projective geometrystatesthat
that is, parallelism is ruled out.
two
lines
every
intersect,
Consequently,

the

intersections

to in Desargues'
exist in pro-

referred

theorem, namely points P, Q, and R, must

the
jective geometry. But, if we consider
in
Euclideangeometry,
Desargues' theorem
interfere

may

with

the existence

therefore precede the

P,
projective

generalized

s)

FIGURE

of

94)))

hypothesis

of

parallelism

Q, and

R.

version

We
of)

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY.

182)

o)

/)

//

./

/
//

A')
B')

96)

FIGURE

theorem with a

Desargues'
Euclidean

geometry.

Let ABC and A'B'C'

to A' B' and BC parallel

D.

Theorem

AB parallel

AA', BB',
A' C' .

and CC' meetin O.

In terms of

have

the

to

triangles

AC

A' B'

to

parallel
=

is

vectors
position
collinearities:
following
of

These imply
0, B, and B'.
=
=
B
sB' and C. tC'. And AB
implies B - A = l(B' - A'). But

and

- rA'.

sB'
C

B =

with

lines
to
parallel

while

B'G'

A';

A = rA',

respectively:

we

two

be

Then

use

standard

our

emanating from 0,
0, C, and G'; 0, A,

B-

specialcase that arIses111

Hence, r = s =

m(C' -

l.

B') = tC' -

Similarly,

sB',)))

GEOMETRY)

MORE

implies 8 =
= m = r =

which
l

have

183)

C -

in

(Note that
same plane.

to prove.
be in the

out

set

not

may

both

we

result
the given trianglesmayor
The vector proofis
to A'G', the

is parallel

AG

that

states

which

t = m. Combinillg
these
results,
s = t.) Now,)
= tC' - rA' =
r(C' - A'),

we

valid

cases.)

that every two lines meet, we

of general form of Desargues'

the assumption

Under

vector

present

proof

theorem.

94, let, the

in Figure

As

two

with the correspondingverticesjoinedby

at S. Call P, Q, and R the
meeting
of corresponding
sides, as follows:

A'B'G'

lines

current

sections

of

intersection

the

use

we

Again

point 0

not

(which

rA +

This triple

Noting

members

(1

appear

that

r)A'

sB +

(1

the

implies

equality

sB =

(1 -

s)B' -

sB

tC =

(1 -

t)C' -

tC

the

sum

in each of

(1

- r)A'

of the

three

(1(1

tC

following

of cor-

pair

every

- s)B'

rA

rA

A'.)

in the

The fact that S is collinear

with
allowsus
to
write)
vertices
responding
=

C'

emanating from some

figure).

vectors

position
does

con-

inter-

and

B'G',

intersection of CA and

R the

and

A' B'

and

AB

Q the intersectionof BC and

ABC

be

triangles

- (1 -

coefficients of

(1

- t)C'.)

relations:)

r)A'

s)B'

t)C'.
left

and

right

these three equationsis equal,we)))

opportunity to use Theorem

have the

having the sum

B =

r-s

r-s

8 B_

s-t

t
C

s-t
r

C-

t-r

t-r)

to 1.

equal

1 - 8

1B' _

1C' _

- t

- r

1A' _
t-r)

t-r

Each memberof (109)representsa

0, with its .endpoint on A'B'
This vector is P. That
taneously.

from

vector

(109)

B'.

(110)

C'.

(111))

emanating
on

and

A'.

s-t)

s-t
1

r-s)

r-s

and

dividing

by

4,

coefficients

the

of

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

184)

AB,

simul-

is,)

r)

p=)

r -

s)

s)P =

(r -

or

A-

rA

B
s)

sB.

(112)

Similar reasoning with (110)and (111)yields

t)Q = sB - tC
(s

(113))

and)

(t

(r

the

(114)
= - (s -

- s)P

the

establishes
coefficients

r-s

Q +

collinearity

us

r r-s)

sir - sand

(114))

rA.

give

t)Q

p =

or)

tC

(112), (113), and

Finally,

which

- r)R =

(t

- r)R,

R,

of P,

Q, and R, for

r - tlr - s

sum

to

unity.

EXERCISE
tIle
divisions
What justification is there in performing
by
r - 8, 8 - t, and
t - r to obtain (109), (110),and
(Ill)?
of these
denominators
What would be implied by any
being
zero?)))

MORE

185)

GEOMET.RY)

theorem.
Pappus'
was
the last
A.D.)
of antiquity.
ticians

that

theorem

devoid
categ9ry

metric

of

of

Pappus

Alexandria

(3rd

century

theorems.

projective

If alternate

of

of the remarkableGreek
mathemaAmong his original contributionsis
can be stated as a pure incidence
theorem,
and
therefore
into
the
concepts,
falling

vertices of a plane hexagon

on

lie

two

lines,

the three pairs of oppositesidesmeet in three collinear points.

We may restate the theorem in specific
terms
as
follows:
and
points
of line \302\2431
If A, B, G are distinct
A',
B', C'
are distinct points of another line \302\2432,the three points of
AB' and A' B, and BC'
intersection of the pairs
of lines

and B'G,GA',

and

G' A

are

collinear.

Before proceeding with the proof,we

again that every two lines are assumed

out

point
to

intersect

once
in

If one considersPappus' theorem

geometry.
in the
strict
realm of Euclidean geometry, one must conarise and intersiderspecialcaseswhere parallelism
may

projective

fere with the existenceof

Exercise 4, page 191).

Proof Pappus'
we call U a

Theorem.

of

unit

vector

along

certain

intersections

Referring
and
\302\2431

FIGURE 96)))

(see

to Figure 96,
a unit vector)

GEOMETRY

ELEMENTARY'VECTOR

186

along

a'V

is

collinear

4 to

write)

Since

Theorem

,)

0', we

with Band

lbU

invoke

may

- l)e'V.)

(1

B' and C, we

collinear with

is also

since

eU

b'V,) C' = e'V.

B' =

bU,)

(1 - l)C'

L = lB +
And

B =

aU,

A'

and)

write)

we may

Thus

\302\2432.

may

also

write)

(1 -

L = XC +
two

These

X)B'

XeU +

(1

X)b'V.)

imply)

representations

lb=Xe

l)e' = (1 -

(1 which

bb'

Thus)
L =

and)

To
seek

it

can

r,

X,

- ee'

b'e

l=

Similarly,

l and

for

solving

yields)

and)

ee')

bb' -

be'

ee')

X=

bb'

be(b' - e') U
+
bb' - ce ,
ae(e' - a') U
ee' - aa'
- b')

aa ,

bb'

determine

whether

8, and

t, such that)

rL +

(b

bb'-

e)
ee)

V.

U +

a'e'(eee' -

a)

V,

aa')

L, M,

8M

b'e'

\302\267

that

be shown

ab(a'

X)b',)

tN

a'b'(a - b) V.
, -) bb'
aa
and N are collinear,we
=

O.)))

187)

GEOMETRY)

MORE

relation must r, 8, and

other algebraic

(What

satisfy

conclude collinearity?)

we may

before

Perseverance

with

the

yields

algebra

elementary

solution)

r = aa'(bb' -

ee'), s

bb'(ec'

aa'),
=

from

linear.
zero

we

which

do

know

we

do

(Now,

that
that

conclude

ee'(aa'

L, M, and
r, 8, and t

- bb'),

N are colare not all

?)

just proved possessesmathematical

far' beyond
significance
any dreams that Pappus
had
in the third century.
could have
back
Approxia
one
hundred
method
of
mately
years
ago
building up
number systemsfrom geometry
was
first discovered
by a
we have

theorem

The

Since
German mathematician, Karl G. C.von Staudt.
time much creative work has been done on the

that

of

foundations

and

geometry

the algebraic structureof number

with

its interrelationship
that

systems

can

built up from geometry. One of the great achievements

of this study is a remarkabletheorem,
first
proved
of
around
turn
David
the
Hilbert
(1862-1943)
which states:)
century,
A

law
valid

number

a.
in

related

system

b = b
the

\302\267

and

if

geometry.

be
by
the

to a

geometry satisfies the

only if Pappus' theorem is
(The

here

\"dot\"

stands

for

multiplication.))

The geometry

we have beenworking

with

is Euclidean,

number system for our analytic geometryisthe

in which multiplication
real
number
is commutasystem,
\302\267=
\302\267
tive, that is, a b b a. Thus we were able to prove
and the

Pappus' theorem;and,

conversely,

if

we

had

number system with the aid of Pappus'

would necessarily be commutative.)))
multiplication

developed
theorem,

a
its

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

188)

Since it is hardly possibleto enter

cussion of the foundationsof geometry

we shall have to content ourselves

remark that it is a rich subject,

GEOMETRY)

in this

short

closing

by

work,
the

with

hfts resulted

which

dis-

a detailed

into

in the

as
as
well
discovery of many strange numbersystems
There are geometries for which the coorgeometries.

dinate

number

has

system

1 + 1 = O. There are
theorem nor
Pappus'
And

stranger

their

accompanying

variety

of

in

other

and

\037

2;

in

geometries

number

applicat\037ons

agricultural

in

fact,
which

where
neither

Desargues' theorem holdstrue.

the fact that such geometriesand

is

yet

1 +

fou11d a wide
as the designof
military logistics,

have

systems

as diverse

fields

experiments,

of mathematical
machines.
psychology, and the study
The theorem
of Menelaus. Menelaus of Alexandria,
a treatise on spheres and actuallymade
who
wrote
some
in spherical
in the 1st century
discoveries
trigonometry
is also
noted
for having discovered an interesting
A.D.,

theorem

transversals.)

concerning

ABC

triangle

AB, BC, and CA

points L, M, and N, respectively,)

cuts the sides

a transversal

If

in the
AL

LB

BM

MC

CN

of

(115))

-1,

NA

where all segmentsreferredto are directed

segments.
Conversely, if points L, M, and N are on the respective sides AB, BC, and CA or triangle
and)
ABC,
AL BM CN _e_e_
LB

then

We

shall

L,

]f,
prove

ing the converse

and N
only

MC

-1

NA)

,)

are collinear.)
the first

part

as an exercisefor

of

the

the

theorem,

reader.)))

leav-

189)

GEOMETRY)

MORE

A)

B)

M)

FIGURE

all

Consider

point

A,

emanating from

of points

vectors

position

and

These

97)

ratio l: 1 -

AB in the

divides

- m
1 - n.)

M dividesBC

in

the

ratio

m: 1

N divides AC

in

the

ratio

n:

state)

conditio11s

CN

AL BM
_e_e_

LB

N A)

]lifC

1-

l-ll-m)

n)

n)

Then)
\037

lB,

N =

nC,

\037

and BM = mBC=

m(C

B).

(116))
l < 1, n < 1, and
(Figure 97 illlistrates the casewhere
- B = mC - 11\037B a11d)
M
m > 1.) Tllerefore
M = (1 - m)B + mC.)
( 117))

Now,

since L,

exists

a real

we
It.1,alld N are collinear,

know

that

there

number r such that)

M

rL +

(1

- r)N.)

(118))))

(117), and (118),we

From (116),
(1
Hence)

wh

IC

deduce)

- m)B + mC = rlB + (1 - r)nC.

- r)n and rl = 1 - m,)
=
m
(1

\302\267

h Imp

l =

Iy

- m

in a

now

Weare

r)

position to examine the productof

of rand n alone:)

terms

in

ratios

three

1l

1-

I-n

l 1-

(1r

- r)n
.)

(1

r)

the

GEOMETRY)

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

190)

I -

I-

r)n

(1 -

r)n

- r)n

(1

- (1

- 1+

1 - (1 -

r)n

which

result

is the

(1

(r - 1)(1-

we wished

n)

I-n

r)n

1 - (1 -

r)n

r)n

(1 -

(1

- r)(l

I-n

r)n

-1

,)

n)

to prove.)

EXERCISES

1.

a + b

aL

= 1, by

(You might

of the Menelaus theorem.

bN
for some scalarsa and b.
+

converse

the

Prove

Hint: M

using

try

solving for it in

to

the

relation

eliminate

terms of

one of
and

1 _ l.

n.))))

\037

Prove that

I-n

the scalars, say

-1.

by

first

n
l,

GEOMETRY

MORE

191)

A'

A)
\"

\"

\"
\"

\"

\"
\"

\"
\"

\"C)

B)

C')

B')

FIGURE

98)

2. Prove the special Euclideancaseof Desargues'

which reads: Let ABC and A'B'C' be two
triangles
parallel to A'B', and BC parallel to
and CC' are parallel. Then AC
BB',

B'C'

lines

while

be

must

theorem,
with
AB

parallel

AA',

to

A'C' (see Figure 98).

3.

case of Pappus' theorem. If

and
A', B', C' on two coplanar
A, B, C
lines \302\243
and
are so related that the lines AA',
\302\243',
respectively,
of the pairs
CC' meet in a point, the points of intersection
BB',
of lines AB' and BA', BC' and CB', CA', and AC' are collinear
with
the point of intersection of \302\243
and
\302\243'.
4. Prove
Euclidean
by vector methods the following
special
case of Pappus' theorem: If A, B, C are distinct points of line
AB' is
that
\302\243
and
such
A', B', C' are distinct points of \302\243'
parallel to BC' and A'B is parallel to B'C, then AA' must be
two

Prove

sets

the
following
of three points

parallel to CC'.
Why

41.

is

this

a special

APPLICATIONS

special

case of Pappus' theorem?)

OF

PARAMETRIC

EQUATIONS TO LOCUSPROBLEMS

The cycloid. Considera

mitted to roll
slippage.
without

wheel

set

An

on

a line

interesti11g

and perproblem,)))

192)

FIGURE

and
ing

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

point

Figure

P on

is the

the rim

99)

are applicable to certain engineerWhat is the locusof a fixed

results

whose

one
problems,

GEOMETRY)

following:

as the wheelrollsalong

the

line?

(See

99.)

To simplify matters
allow
the
line to be the x-axis
and let P beginat the
of
the
coordinate
system.
r the
We call C the center
radius
of the wheel. The
which
the
the
parameter 8 isusedto denote
through
the)
radius
CP has rotated. Referring to
100,
we

origin

and

angle

Figure

y)

x)

F)

M(x,O))

FIGURE

100)))

193)

GEOMET.RY)

MORE

......-...)

OF

distance

horizontal

assumption

that

the

trigonometry

we

know

in

......-...

fact in determining
x =
from

r8.

PQ

= r
x

sin 8,
=

to

referring

Again,

Hence)

PQ
-.

PC

r)

r(8 - sin8).

100, we

= CF -

CP

cos 8

- r cos8 =

note
=

QC

that)

- QCj

= r cos 8.

r(l -

cos

8),)

we have)
=

{Y
as

PQ

- r sin 8 =
Figure

PQ.)

of P is
and the x-coordinate

= FQ

= MP

but)

and

r8

P.)

see that)

PCQ we
.

important
of

- MF = r8 -

SIn 8

Thus,

this

use

shall

We

the x- alld y-coordinates

OF

triangle

r8, where8 is measured

FP =

that

OF =

Thus

radians.

But

the arc FP, by the

not slip; and from

is equal to
wheel does

the

parametric
is

which

called

r(8
r(l

- Sill 8)
- cos 8))

representation

of the

desired locus,

a cycloid.

We shall confineour attention to involutes

the
for these curves are easily treated without
circles,
of calculus.
The more general theory is part of the
alld requires-as
the name
of differential
geometry

Involutes.
of

use
field

suggests-differential calculllSas its

analysis.

Consider
zero

thickness)

of

instrument

idealsort,

a string (of a mathematicalor

to be tightly wound about a

with

circular

post,)))

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

194)

GEOMETRY

Y)

x)

(b))

(a))

FIGURE

101)

P the endpointof the string. The involute

of a
P
as
the
curve described by point
string is
unwound while beingheldtaut (seeFigure
101).
We
shall
now derive parametric equations for the
the
fact
that
the portion of the string
involute, using
to the circle (because it is
is tangential
alreadyunwound
and call

circle

is the

being heldtaut).

Letthecircleof

radius

r be

origin, and
(r, 0) on
to take
unwinding
at the

centered

suppose the initial positionof P to

be

at

the x-axis. We arbitrarily

choose
the
in
a
counter-clockwise
the
place
direction,calling
unwound
of
isa
the
where
OT
radius
portion
string PT,
an angle
8 with the horizontal radius OA.
making
TGP in Figure 101b, we observe
to triangle
Referring
that angle GTP is equal to 8, which allowsus to write)
GP

Since the

TP

sin

unwound

string

......-...

arc

AT,

we

have

GT

and)

8)

TP =

TP

= .TP

is equal

cos 8.

in length

(119))
to the

......-...

AT = r8, which

permits

us

to)))

(119) in

rewrite

are

the

GP

We-

195)

GEOMETRY)

MORE

now

form)

r8 sin

GT = r8 cos8.)

and

expressions for the

to determine

ready

coordinatesof P in

terms

of

the

OF + GP = r cos8 + r8 sin
and y = FT - GT = r sin8 x =

8 =

a parametric

Thus

X =
=

{ y

Vector

8 + 8 sin

resin

the

- 8 cos 8).)

involute

of

8)

the

(120))

- 8 cos 8).)

of assistance in determining
therefore

We

considered.

just

type

r(cos

are often

methods

lociof the

resin 8

of

representation
.)

8),

cos

r.8

8 + 8 sin

r(cos

circle is

8.)

parameter

a derivation of (120)fromthe vector

to
hope that it may be instructive
\037
OP = xi +
The
vector
position

attempt
in the

of view

point

reader.

the
yj

\037

\037

OT

r cos

TP)

\037

8i +

r sin 8j +

TP.)

\037

We

call

= ai

TP

+ bj and determinea and

\037

= Va 2

ITPI
\037

TP

and

Since

r!= 0,

\037
\302\267
OT

we may

ar cos

8 + br

divide by r,

a cos
or)

+ b2

8 + b

a = -b

r8,)

sin 8 ::cO.)

getting)

sin 8 = 0
tan

(J.)))

b.)

(121))

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

196)

this va lue for a

Substituting

in

(1 21)

2
2
V b tan 8
b

or
which

+ b2 =
sec 8 = r8,

b =

implies

r8 cos

GEOMETRY)

yields
r8)

a = -r8 sin

and

8.)

\037

now

are

We

an

\037

getting

for OPe)

\037

OP

to the problemof

to return

equipped

formulation

explicit

sin 8i + r8 cos8j.

= -r8

TP

Thus

r cos

8i +

r(cos

r sin 8j -

- 8 sin 8)i

r8sin8i+ r cos

8j)

resin

8 +

8 cos 8)j.

Therefore)

X =
{ y
differs

which

from

See Exercise 1 below.)

the

- 8 sin 8)

r(cos

resin

8 +

parametric

(122))

8 cos 8),
form

(120)!

Why?

EXERCISES

1. The
careless

error
of

representation (122) is in error, for some

was put forth in the argument. Find the
derivation of the involute
valid vector-type

parametric
algebra

and

give

a circle.

r rolls along a line without

of radius
slipping.
described by a point P on a spokeof the wheel,
of the wheel. This
the
center
where P is at a distancea from
curve
is known
as a trochoid or prolate
(see Figure
l02a).
cycloid
P is on
locus if a > r, as is the \037ase when
is the
(b) What
the rim or flange of a locomotive wheel (see figure
l02b).
that a descripThis
curve is called a curate
(Observe
cycloid.
tion of this locus shows that some part of a locomotive
is movis moving
forward!))))
ing backward, no matter how fast the train

2. (a)
Find

wheel

the locus

MORE

197)

GEOMETRY)

(a))

(b))

102)

FIGURE

42. RIGID

MOTIONS

Euclid's theory of congruence is predicatedon the

to
a figure from one position to another
move
without
its metric
properties
(e.g. length of
disturbing
ability

motions
are
generally
edges, size of angles). Such
or comtermed
rigid motions and consist of two types
called
binations of these two types. The first,
transB=
a
a
to
fixed
refers
figure by allo,ving
displacing
lation,
B=.
vector T to act on each point of the given
figure
P is translated
That
point
is, if P is a point of B=, the
to Q, where)
\037

\037

OQ

OP

1'hesecond

of

type

figure

is

104

an

shows

ellipse

is the rotation, in which a

motion
a fixed point in the plane. Figure
and a triangle rotated simultaneously

rigid

about

rotated

(See Figure 103.))

+ T.

about the centerofthe ellipse.

We

shall

obtain

for these

expressions

analytic

rigid

motions.

Supposeit isdesiredthat

the

of the
translation to the origin
To keep matters straight we
Ilates of a point with
primes.

translation

(h, k)

point

(x,
designate

nl0ved by
y)-coordillate
system.
(h,

k) be

the.

Thus)

) (h',

k') = (0,0),)))

new

coordi-

GEOMETRY

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

198)

Y)

x)

Q)

103)

FIGURE

in terms

which,

lation

vector

Hence)

of the definition,states that

has

the trans-

the effect)

hi + kj +

T = O.

- kj.)

In general, the point(x,

-hi

moves

y)

to

point

(x', y'),

and)

y)

y)

x)

FIGURE

x)

104)))

MORE

GEOMETRY)

their

relationship

199)

follows from the

xi

or)

(x

h)i + (y

x'i + y'j,

- k)j =

x'i +

yj.

X'=X-h

Thus)

y'=y-k)

{
are

T =

yj +

equation)

the

equations

of translation.

a rotation
In order to discoverthe equationsdescribing
the origin of the coordinatesystem,let P = (x, y)
clockwise through the angle 8 to its new
rotate
position
=
p'
For purposes of our analysis,let a be the
(x', y').
that
vector P makes with the positive
the position
angle

about

x-axis

x =

(see

\302\267
i =

Then)

105).

Figure

Ipl cos

a =

Ip/l cos a
(since

y = P

\302\267
=

Ipl sin a

Ipl

(123)

'p/l)

= Ip/l sin a,)

y)

P(x,y))

P'(x',y'))
x)

FIGURE

105)))

GEOMETRY)

ELEMENTARY.VECTOR

200)

and)
=

X'

\302\267
i =

P'

cos(a

Ip/t

(J)

\\p/\\ COS

y' =

P'

\302\267
=

sill(a

Ip/l

(J)

a COS(J

\\p/l sin

a cos
-

Ip/l cos

a sin 8.)
(124),

at)

arrive

X' =
{ y' =
which

(J

right members of

in the

(123)

equations

Imposing

we

(124)

(J

a sin

sin

\\p/l

x cos (J

y sin (J

- x sin

(J,)

rotation

the

describes

analytically

y cos

(J

(125))

stipulated

above.)
EXERCISE

are

Rotations

usually

from (125) by

follow

by a

described

solving

x and

for

pair
y.

of

that

equations

(a) Carry out this

algebraicprocedure. (b) Derive these equations directly by

vector methodsanalogousto thoseusedto determine(125).)
Take

52.

EXAMPLE

We discuss the

circle

the

is at the origin.
The

the origin

under the

Thus,

the

x-I

y' =

circle is

translated

unal

all,

the

circle's

- 1)2+
so that

-2).

2)2 =

(y

4.

its new center

The

(1,

point

-2)

translation)

X' =

the algebraictransformation
after

at (1,

is centered

circle

given

becomes

(x
circle

the

of

translation

did

metric

+
X'2

not

2.)

y'2 = 4. Observe that

affect the radius, which is,

property

that was to

remain

tered.)

EXAMPLE
30\302\260)clock\\vise,

(1, -2)'?)))

53. If

the points of

what

will

the

be the

plane

are rotated

new location

of

7r/6 (or
the

point

MORE
The

201)

GEOMETRY

rotation through ?r/6 are:)

of the

equations

x'

-x-

1
2

y'

-v
- 3+

2
\037

13
\037

2)

Therefore)

X' =

- 1 = approximately

V3

-0.13

2)

y' =

which states

- v/\037

.3

-2.24,)

approximately

that)

rotation

) (-0.13,

-2)

(1,

-2.24).

?r 16)

thru

EXERCISES

1. Find the coordinatesof the point

moves the origin
to
(a) (4, 5); (b) (-3, 3); (c) (-5,

2.

the

Find

coordinates

(2,

-3) if the translation

4).

of

(a) (2, 4); (b) (-3, 6); (c) (-2,

0)
when the axes are rotated counterclockwise
arcsm

through

\302\267
4

the

angle

'5.

the sameas Exercise

2 when
clockwisethrough
the
?r 1 4.
angle
3. Do

4. Show that the equation x 2

of

rotation

the

the

y2 =

axes

are rotated

counter-

r 2 is unchanged by any

axes.

surface is generatedby a line moving in such

parallel to its original
position.
If, as
the generating line moves, it remains perpendic\037lar
to a fixed
is
the cylinder
plane and traces out a circlein the fixed
plane,

5. A cylindrical

way

termed
(a)
circular

as

to

right

be always

circular.

Provide
cylinder.)))

a reasonable

definition for

the

radius

of a

right

ELEMENTARY VECTOR GEOMETRY)

202)
(b)

the cone, define

loose-with

analogy-perhaps

By

(Seethe first

right circular cylinder.

Exercises that follow.)
for a

the

of

axis

Miscellaneous

the equation
of the right
methods,
(c) Find, by vector
in the eircle (x - 1)2+
circular cylinderthat cutsthe xz-plane
(z +
1)2 = 1 and whoseaxisis parallelto the y-axis.
6. Let
Po = (xo, Yo, zo) be the center of a sphere that has
=
PI (Xl, YI, Zl) as one of its points. Using vector techniques,

that

prove

(x

- ZO)(ZI.-ZO)
equation of the planetangent to the sphereat Pl.)
-

XO)(XI

is the

XO)

(y

a line
line

fixed

is

said

at

Yo) + (z

vector

is represented

=0

EXERCISES

always intersectsa
angle j-a( < 1r/2), then X
cone with axis cC,vertex V,

a way that it

a fixed

angle
the

in such

varies

to generate

Prove by
vertex

cC in

vertex

and

YO)(YI

GEOMETRIC

MISCELLANEOUS'

1. If

point V
a right circular
a (see Figure 106).
at

methods

origin,

that

axis the

by the equation

an

the right circular

z-axis, and
X2

y2

3z

vertex
2 =

cone, with
angle

21r/3,

o.)

.\302\243)

FIGURE

106)))

MORE

203)

GEOMETRY)

(Hint. Let P bethe position

Then p. k = (pI cos ?r/3

= (x, y,

of P

vector

vector equation

is the

the cone.

z) on

the

of

cone.)

2. Find the equation

the x-axis, vertex is at

that represents the cone whose

axis
the origin, and vertex angle is ?r 12.

3. Find
the equation
the z-axis, vertex is at

that represents the cone,whose

(0,0, 2),

vertex

and

4. Given points A, B, and R in space,

distance d from R to line AB.
\037

\037

and AB make an angle 8, then d

If AR

(Hint.

\037

sin

but

be determined from
that (i) the equation

8 may

Observe

and (ii) interchanging

5.

Prove,

by

vector

of

trapezoidto the endpoints

the

of

one
of

the

sin

IARl

AB.)
is never

AB

and B

that the

methods,

by joining the midpoint

line

of A

the'roles

\037

8;

\037

AR
of

for the

formula

is

is 2?r/3.

angle
find

axis

is

needed;

yields a check.

area of

formed

a triangle

sides of a
the nonparallel
half
that of
side is
opposite

trapezoid.

6. Prove
inclined

to

by vector methods: If a straight line is equally

three coplanar lines, it is perpendicularto their

plane.

7.

Prove:

sum

The

hedron
is equal
of the midpoints

8.

Find

regular

the

to

of the
four

times

squares of the
the

sum

edges of

of the

tetra-

any

squares

of

joins

of opposite edges.

angle

tetrahedron.)))

between

two nonintersecting

edges

of

appendix-

expansion

of

determinants)

the

For

we

determinants,

method

is unfamiliar
a brief
provide

\\vho

reader

of determinant

not attempt to

expansion.

with the theory of

description of the
This discussion does

mathematical

communicate

insight

device
theory but merely provides a mnemollic
of
a
compact
ing with cross products by means

The

two by two determinant,

for

notation.

written
:\037

sents

The

a quantity

three

according to the following

al

a2

b1

b 2)

by three

into
deal-

::

repre-

expansion:)

= a 1b2

determinant
204)))

a2b 1.

is expanded as fo110v,\"s:

OF

APPENDIX-EXPANSION

al

a2 ag

b l

b2

bg

Cl

C2

Cg

+ ag

al

b2

b g

C2

Cg

b 1 b2

- a2

a 1b 2C3

C2

Cl

b1

bg

Cl

Cg

- a 1b 3 C 2 - a 2 b 1c3

+ a2bgCl
that

(Observe

205)

DETERMINANTS)

expression

-B X A.)

There are

various

to

\037pproaches

and there are

minants,

of

equivalent

algebraic

B =

2 Cl.)

aab

the second and third rows

of the one we
negative

interchanging

leadstoal1
which
is the
have computed. This is the
A X

aab 1C2

several

deter-

expanding

devices

by

one

which

is not
the expansion. However, the readerwho
familiar
with determinants
would be wise to stickto the
in this volume.
of cross products
particular
expansion
In accordance
we view the
with
the
expansion,
given

recalls

cross

product)

(ali

as equal
i

a2

aa

b2

a2j +

aak ) X (bli +

2j

bak))

to)

al
b1

i
\\

b a)
-

a2

a3

b2

(a2 b 3

- a3b 2)i

al

a3

b l

bg

(agb l

al
+ k b
\\

- a1ba)j

(a

1b 2

a2
b2

- a2b l)k.)))

answers)

4.

6.

l =

(a)

SECTION

3)

SECTION

6. 1000.)

.y 89 .

'3
5.

\"5'

(b) l =

SECTION
6.

7.

\"7'

(c) l =

5-3
2'

2.)

6)

are equal.)

They

SECTION 8

- 10k,
C
4i
10j + 4k.
(c) 4i + 12j- 6k.
\037
= 6i + 6j + 14k.
BD
(d) A
(f)
(-18,
4, -30).
(g) (-18, 4, -30).
2. (a) 4i - 8j. (b) 3i + 6j. (c) -7i + 2j. (e) Yes. (f) Yes.

1.

(b)

(2,

+ 4j

+ 10k,B

-6i

- 10k,D =
B = 12i + 20k,

- 6j

(g)

= 6i

3).

-3,

(a) No.

3. No.4.

4
/-

\037
\037

\302\267

(31 + 2J) or
13

- 4

/-

\037
\037

(b)

158
A +

B + C.

14

SECTION

3 \302\267

+ 4j

(31 +

.
2J.)

13
206)))

.y2i
4\302\267
7

0 (a-II.
)

\302\267
1.

207)

ANSWERS)

(b)

-11 V6

(c)

16

(c) 5x +

2y

33.

5-

(b) x =

+j).

+t(3i

+4j)

t)(5i

_ .
2

= 1.

2t,

33 33

-5

2. (a)

\037

5t.

4 +

SECTION

? = (1 -

1. (a)

V29

29

11.

4 units.

(d)

(2i + j - k).
29
;;\037
Because the dot product is distributive.)
-11

and

-.

-,

(b)

5 2
3. (a) 9x + 5y + 25 = o. (b) y = 2x + 6. (c) 2x - y = 1.
4. (6, 0). 6. (a) (2, -1) (b) x + 3y + 1 = o.
(c) x = -2 + (7 V 34 + 5v'58)t, y = 1 - 3(V 34 + V 58)t.
(a) 3y = V3
9. (c) x = o.)

7.

- (6 + V3).

(b)

bj. 2. (a)
. .
(21 - J ).)

ai +

VS

2y =

x +

o. 3. x

. 2.

6.

4. o.

O.

3.

O.

9. -7

14.

5x

ml

\302\267
8.

(a)

mlm2

\037\037
+V
50.

m(x

(a)

m2

1 +

13. (a)

4y

6.

11
5\"\

19

SECTION

6. tan 8

-2.

18

SECTION

1.

17

SECTION

1. N =

(c)

10.

1) + n(y

+ 4y

- 2=

5V3

9 1r
25
-,
arc tan -,-.
9
25 2

arc tan

+9V2

x.

12. x

8y

O.

- 2) = o.
O.

(b)

SECTION

7x

(b)

- 32y

= V3

x + b.

- 3 = O.

20

- 1)2= 4. (b) x 2 + (y + 1)2 = 4.

(c) (x + 2)2 + (y - 3)2 = 9. 2. (a) (x - 2)2 + (y
18 =
2
o.
x - :y 5x
+ 5y2 - \037
(b)
5
(c) x2 + y2 - 8x + 12y = o. 3. (a) (8, -6).)))

1. (a) x 2 + (y

1)2 =

5.

208

10.

4 2
3' 3')

(d)

7. (a) 9z + 2y
9. (a) x = -1
x

= 1

10.

(1,

(b)

(a)

V65
3

40.

_/-

\302\267
4.

(c)

141 9,

\037V

(0, 1).

0) and

(a)

5V2

/_'

0) and

(1,

/_

5V2

and

2. (a) 6x +

4y

+ 7z

(e) 4z -

12z

1)2 +

26

case. The line is

is nonAgain, two-point form

(c)

- z+2
2+2

x+4

LIne

3+4

2+5

-5

and
9

4.

1 +

-5
(a)

t.

6_

-4 _ 0

- 0

z =

1.

x-O = y-O = z-O

(g)

2t,

+ t.

-2

- 6t. (f) x = -4

6, 2,
7.

:1. 6.

(b)

in this

non-existent

is

x-3 = y-2 =
3 - 2 2 - 10

(e)

2.

-1).

an d

x-3
3

- 2

(b)

(c) x = 3

3t,

- 34 +

8.

y-2

-4

20t,

/_

/_

14

2t,

-2

/-

181'V

+ 12t.

+ 18t,

V 181' V

==
39

z+5

+ 9t,
Z

10 -5 + 1

= 2

+ 4t,

-12
_

1i

3t,

= 1
y

1.

2-

7\"

(-12,4,

4.

SECTION 24
(c) 2x - y - z = O.
19
88
= 76. 3.
. (a) -.13 (c)-.
5)

... IS gIven

eXIStent.

Z2

= 17.

Two-point form
by x = -4, y

1)2 +

(y

(m ;:C0).)

-m

m,

3m,

(x

SECTION

given

1. (d) 0, 1, O.

0, 0,

(c)

\"'\" j_.

5V2

4. (a) 3, 1, -1

1. (a)

(0, 1).)

SECTION 21

2. (a) (0, 1,0), 1. 3. (a)

2
(c) x + y2 + z2 = 144.

3y

(b)

431

1.

-x

= 2

+ 2 V2.
5
+ COB 8.
31.../+ V 1418.
2
6

COB 8, Y

= 24.

3x + 4y

(a)

GEOMETRY

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

181.)))

209)

ANSWERS)

28)

SECTION
1.

In order

3.

(9,

10

Use vectors

first

be

(3

- 33'

6.

12).

-5,

6. (a)

1r

to have

69'

20

to the

normal

angle.

quadrant

- 39 SIn.
'

20

8.

(3

21

(c) cos 9

planes.

13

_ .

V45)

8. (a) cos9

'

(c)

.
8m

fJ

V3

1.

(a) k - j.

V3)

32

SECTION
O.

(c)

- 4k.

(e) -8j

2. Usetriple
\037

6. (b) x

+ z

7. d =

= 1.

AB

(c)

11.

3.

blC2

b2 C l,

cross

their

is the

product

product.

(a) o.

9.

Acl

a2bl-)

33

SECTION
X

\037

- alC2, alb2 +

a2Cl

- 7j + 5k. 6. A

2. -13i

X AC

\037

lAB
2

scalar

\037

Band

C X D

zero vector.)

are parallel.

Hence

SECTION36

2.

the bounding
Annular
centered at origin
(including
(a)
region
circles. (b) Spherical shell including
the
spheres.
bounding
3. A torus
whose circular cross-section has a radius of
(doughnut)
4. (a) 4 < x 2 + y2 < 9.
one.
(b) 0 < x < 1 and 1 - x < y < x + 1.)

4. If

T4D,

TaC +

6. At

is

ABCD

with

SECTION 38
a tetrahedron
or a square then
0 < Ti < 1 and Tl + T2 + Ta

least one coefficient

equals

zero.

T4

9. (a)
(\037,

j-A +

10. (a)

and Tl +

=
T2

iB +

-lC.

TlA +
+

Ta

(b)

(1,

= TlA
= 1.

\037).

1).

T2B + TaC,with 0 < Ti < 1

1.
(c) Insist that 0 < Ti <

1.)))

T2

VECTOR

ELEMENTARY

210)

GEOMETRY)

SECTION 39

1. (a) Note

500 for maximum profit.

100 bitter.
(b) 100milk, 300 semi-sweet,
2. max = 7, min = 5. 3. 400 gal regular, 300 gal high
200 gal high test.
300 gal white. 4. 800 gal regular,
6. i A-ration,
4 B-ration.)
m + 8

that

= r8

sin

- a sin

8,

8,
y

- a cos8.
- a cos 8.)

y = r
= r

42

SECTION

1. (a)

6.

(c)

(c) (:-3, 1).

(6, 2).
-

(x

1)2 + (z +

2.

(c)

(a)

e51

1)2= 1.)

y2

z2.

\037

\037

4.

d =

\\AR

3.

3(z -

ARI .

\037.
8 \302\267
2)))

IABI

,\037}

EXERCISES

MISCELLANEOUS

2. x 2 =

test,

41

SECTION

2. (a) x = r8 (b)

2)2

y2.

6.

( 5

58}

index)

Absolute

value,

Addition

of

14, 57-9
9, 11-13

vectors,

Altitudes, 75
technique

')

30

Axioms, 1

196

Cylinder,

Bound vector,

201)

9,

Commutativity,

Dimension,

187

63,

Direction

73

68-70,

Distance,60-1

Coxeter,

76

methods,

vectors, 27,
R.,

Courant,

34

181

H. S.

product,

147-50)

M., 181
135

108-10,

cosines,

Direction numbers,

Convexity, 167-9
Coordinate-free

appendix

141,

49

Direction angles, 108

Cone, 202

Coplanar

21 fi.

191

54-9

Complex plane,

science,

Determinants,

Circle, 100 fi.

Components,

Deductive

Dependence,

Desargues'theorem,181fI.,188,

19)

lemma,

Bypass

66-7

perpendicular,

Bisectors,

triple,

196

Prolate,

46-9

Basis,

Cross

191-3

Cycloid,

Curate,

point

Auxiliary

Curate cycloid, 196

Distributivity,

Division

125

110-1,123-5
139

65,

of segments,

Dodecahedron,54
Dot product, 62 fi.')

27-9, 34

ff.

Equilibrium,

10,

20)

211)))

212)

INDEX)

7-8, 10,

Force,

Freevector,

20, 73

Parallel

6-7,

Parametric

11

Galileo,

(= spans), 48
Great circle, 157)

Pencil of

146, 191
100

lines,

63, 89

Perpendicularity,

Planes, 111ff.

19

D. W.,

87

Hero's formula, 156

Point-slope

Hilbert, David, 187)

Positive triple, 43

\"If

Projective geometry, 180fi.

Prolate

16

146)

Radial vectors,

Law of

Left-handed

Linear

triple, 43 fi.
Rigid motions, 197-201

Right-handed

43 fi.

Donovan,

170
170 fi.

programming,

Scalar, 4-5
20-21,

combination,

Linear dependence,
7-8,

Mechanics,

Menelaustheorem,
Model,

Negative
Newman,

21 fi.)

10, 68-9,

73

43

40
theorem,

Parallelism,86)

12 fI.)

fI.

Segment division, 27-9, 34

Set theory,

21,

Slope,

165, 167

35, 85,
19

81

Slope-intercept

form, 83

Space,49
Span,

Sphere,
unit,

Statics,

ff.

48

106 fi.
108-10

10

Staudt, K.
185,

63

137-43

Shortcut lemma,

43 ff.
triple,
J. R., 53)

Orientation,

Scalar,product,
triple,

188-90

by scalar,

Ordered set,
Pappus'

35

Multiplication

197, 199-201)

Rotation,

Length, 57-9
Linear

181

H.,

Robbins,

7-8

action,

156-7

Rhombus,

150-1, 158-9

triple,

Lichtenberg,

Resultant, 10, 20

158

150,

Law of sines,

Line of

of, 150

identity
cosines,

56

52-4,

43

Radians,
Lagrange,

196

cycloid,

Pyramid,

S., 148)

Murray

170 fi.

64-6

Projection,

Involute, 193-6)
Klamkin,

linear,

Programming,

81

87

additive,

fi.

parallel,

Postulates, 1

Inclination, angle of,

60 fi.
Inner
product,
Inverse,

46, 49

vector,

Postulate,

only if\", 6
Incidence,
180, 185

Intercept form,

form\037

Position

and

78-

representation,

80, 122,

Generates

Hall,

postulate,

Parameter, 78

9)

188, 191

Stevin,

G. C. von,

Simon,

Straight line, 77

187

10, 11
fi.,

121

fi.)))

213)

INDEX)

16-17

Subtraction,\"

Terminus (= endpoint), 5, 9

Traces,114-15

147-50

Triple scalar product, 137-43

196

Trochoid,

80, 126)

form,

Two-point

Uniqueness of
34
Unit

representation,

magnitude

dependence
of,
of, 4, 6

origin

of, 6

108

Unit vector,

radial, 52-3

subtraction of,

Vector(s),

of,

9, 11-13

zero,

definition

of,

5, 12,

of, 4,

6,..13)

14, 22
136 fi.

product,

Vector

product, triple,

Weyl,

Hermann,

Work,

73)

Zero vector,

16

Vector

bound, 9
direction

7,

unit,

5)

addition

21 \302\243f.

multiplication by scalar, 12ff.

ff.

sphere,

20 ff.,

35

sum of,

Union, 167

of, 7-8

action

linear combinations of,

linear

197-9

cross product,

Triple

10

free, 6-7, 9

line of

Translation,

of, 6,

equality

Vec.tor(s),

53)

Symmetry,

Zweng,

147-50)

53

5, 12,14,22

Marilyn,

170)))

schLlster)

seymour
primarily

matical

tool

trigonometry, both plane and

school students and

theorems

by employing

spherical,

and

vector and

features

text

it offers

greater

to

for high
into

insights

than synthetic

rather

proofs,

analytic

mathe-

applications

Appropriate

algebra.

undergraduates,

college

algebra as a

of vector

with the development

in geometry, this
elementary

Dealing

proofs.)
with
an overview of
Starting
tors, explores their fundamental

discusses

Subsequentchaptersexamine

vectors

vec-

defines

and

linear combinations,

and

properties

technique

point

auxiliary

elementary operations, the text

and uniqueness of representations.

In coordinate
systems, properties

and elements of analytic

geometry-the
methods of proof, and circles, spheres, and planes.
The text concludes with surveys
of cross products, plane and spherical

and

of inner

formulas

products,

line, analytic

straight

and
additional
geometric
convexity and linear programming.
book, with solutions at the end.)

trigonometry,

and

Dover

Inc.,

VECTOR

SPACE APPROACH

TO

the

& Sons,

Wiley

81f2. Paperbound)

available

also
A

segments

including

edition published-byJohn

of the
republication
1962.
York,
224pp. 53/8 x

(2008)
New

concepts,

ExercIsesappearthroughout

GEOMETRY,

Hausner.

Melvin

416pp.

53/8

x 81f2.

0-486-40452-8
VECTOR

For

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THEORY,

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