AERO 213 Science of Materials

CHAPTER 7 Mechanical Properties

Key mechanical design properties: stiffness, strength, hardness, durability, and toughness.
Stress on a material consists of the nature of the applied load and its duration, as well as
environmental conditions. The load can be tensile, compressive, or shear, and its magnitude
may be constant with time or may fluctuate continuously.
To utilize the correct material, one must understand the relationships between the
microstructure (i.e. internal features) of materials and their mechanical properties.
7.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain
One of the most common mechanical stress-strain tests is performed in tension.
o A specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a gradually increasing tensile load that
is applied axially along the long axis of a specimen.
o Destructive the test specimen is permanently deformed and usually fractured.
o Recorded as load or force versus elongation.
F
o Engineering Stress
(7.1)
=
A0
where F is the instantaneous load applied perpendicular to the specimen cross section,
and A0 is the cross-sectional area.

Units of MPa.

o Engineering Strain

li l0 l
=
l0
l0

(7.2)

where l0 is the original length before a load is applied and li is the instantaneous length.
Strain is unitless, but meters per meters or inch per inch are often used.
Sometimes expressed as a percentage in which the strain is multiplied by 100.
o Compression tests are conducted if the in-service forces are of this type. The same
equations as tension tests are utilized, however the resulting values are negative.
Tension tests are usually performed because they are easier to conduct, and for most
structural applications, this information is not needed. Compressive tests are used
when a materials behavior under large and permanent (i.e. plastic) strains is desired,
or when the material is brittle in tension.
F
o Shear and Torsional Tests
(7.3)
=
A0
where F is the load or force imposed parallel to the upper and lower faces each of which
has an area A0
Shear Strain Defined as the tangent of the strain angle and represented by
Torsion is a variation of pure shear in which a structural member is twisted. Torsional
forces produce a rotational motion about the longitudinal axis of one end of the member
relative to the other end.
A shear stress is a function of the applied torque T , whereas shear strain is
related to the angle of twist .

7.3 Stress-Strain Behavior

The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on the magnitude of an imposed
stress. Stress and strain are proportional through this relationship for most metals that are
stressed in tension at relatively low levels.
o Hookes Law
(7.5)
= E
where E is the constant of proportionality (GPa or psi) and is known as the modulus of
elasticity or Youngs modulus.
o Moduli of elasticity of groups of materials: polymers < metals < ceramics
o Elastic Deformation Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional.
Results in a linear relationship.
o The modulus of elasticity, E , may be thought of as stiffness, or a materials resistance to
elastic deformation. The greater the modulus, the stiffer is the material, or the smaller is
the elastic strain that results from the application of a given stress.
o Elastic deformation is non-permanent.
o For a non-linear relationship the tangent or secant modulus is normally used.

Shear stress and shear strain are proportional to each other

(7.7)
= G

where G is the shear modulus the slope of the linear elastic region of the shear stressstrain curve.
7.5 Elastic Properties of Materials
When a tensile stress is imposed on a metal specimen, an elastic elongation and
accompanying strain z result in the direction of the applied stress (arbitrarily taken to be
the z direction), as indicated in Figure 7.9. As a result of this elongation, there will be
constrictions in the lateral (x and y) directions perpendicular to the applied stress; from these
contractions, the compressive strains x and y may be determined. If the applied stress is
uniaxial (only in the z direction) and the material is isotropic, then x =y . A parameter
termed Poissons ratio v is defined as the ratio of the lateral and axial strains and is

d
represented by the expression v =
(7.8)
x =
y and xyz =
d0
z
z

For isotropic materials, shear and elastic moduli are related to each other and to Poiossons
ratio according to

=
E 2G (1 + v )

(7.9)

o In most metals, G is about 0.4E . Thus, if one modulus is know, the other may be
approximated.
o Isotropic Identical in all areas; no variation.
Plastic Deformation Occurs at the point where the stress is no longer proportional to the
strain, and permanent, nonrecoverable changes occur.
o Occurs very gradual for metals and increases more rapidly with rising stress.
7.6 Tensile Properties
Yielding Occurs when the gradual elastic-plastic transition initially departs from linearity
of the stress-strain curve.
o Also known as the proportional limit.
Yield Strength The stress corresponding to the intersection of the elastic portion of the line
and the stress-strain curve as it bends over in a plastic region. Units of (MPa or psi)
o Yield-Point Phenomenon Occurs when the elastic-plastic transition is very well defined
and occurs abruptly.
Tensile Strength The stress at the maximum on the engineering stress-strain curve.
o All deformation up to this point is uniform throughout the region of the tensile specimen.
Necking When the fracture ultimately occurs at the neck.

Ductility A measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has occurred at a fracture.

o Brittle A metal that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture.
o Expressed quantitatively as either percent elongation or percent reduction in area.
l f l0
=
% EL
100
l0

(7.11)

where l f is the fracture length, and l0 is the original gauge length.

o Percent Reduction in Area

A0 Af
=
% RA
100
A0

(7.12)

where A0 is the original cross-sectional area and Af is the cross-sectional area at the point of

fracture.
o Ductility is important because it indicates to a designer the degree to which a structure
will deform plastically before fracture, and it specifies the degree of allowable deformation
during fabrication operations.
o Brittle materials are approximately considered to be those having a fracture strain of >5%.
o For metals, yield and tensile strengths decrease with increasing temperatures, while
ductility increases with increasing temperatures.
Resilience The capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and
then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered.
o Modulus of Resilience

Ur
=

(7.13a)

which is the strain energy per unit volume required to stress a material from an unloaded
state up to the point of yielding.
1
=
Ur
y y
Assuming a linear elastic region,
(7.13b)
2
where y is the strain at yielding.
2
1
1 y y
Incorporating Hookes Law, U
(7.14)
=
y=
y
y =

r
2
2 E 2E
Toughness
o A property that is indicative of a materials resistance to fracture when a crack (or other
stress-concentrating defect) is present.
o The ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform before fracturing.
o For the static (low strain rate) situation, a measure of toughness in metals (derived from
plastic deformation) may be ascertained from the results of a tensile stress-strain test. It
is the area under the curve up to the point of fracture.
o For a metal to be tough, it must display both strength and ductility.
7.7 True Stress and Strain
True Stress Defined as the load F divided by the instantaneous cross-sectional area At over
which the deformation is occurring (i.e. the neck, past the tensile point)
F
(7.15)
T =
Af

True Strain

T =ln

lt
l0

(7.16)

(1+ ) and
=
ln(1+ )
If no volume change occurs, then =
T
T

(7.18a-b)

o Valid only to the onset of necking; beyond this point true stress and strain should be
computed from actual load, cross-sectional area, and gauge length measurements.
True stress-true strain relationship in the plastic region of deformation (to the point of
necking),
(7.19)

T= K Tn

where K and n are constants that vary from alloy to alloy. The parameter n is often termed
the strain-hardening exponent and has a value less than unity.
7.8 Elastic Recovery After Plastic Deformation
Upon release of the load during the course of a stress-strain test, some fraction of the total
deformation is recovered as elastic strain. There will also be an elastic strain recovery
associated with the fracture.
7.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation
Metals may experience plastic deformation under the influence of applied compressive, shear,
and torsional loads. The resulting stress-strain behavior into the plastic region will be similar
to the tensile counterpart. However, for compression, there will be no maximum because
necking does not occur; furthermore, the mode of fracture will be difference from that for
tension.
CERAMICS
7.10 Flexural Strength
The stress-strain behavior of ceramics is not usually ascertained by a tensile test because
o It is difficult to prepare and test specimens having the required geometry.
o It is difficult to grip brittle materials without fracturing them.
o Ceramics fail after only about 0.1% strain, which necessitates that tensile specimens be
perfectly aligned to avoid the presence of bending stresses, which are not easily calculated.
Because of these difficulties, a bending test is more frequently employed.
o A rod with either a circular or rectangular cross-section is bent until fracture.
o At the point of loading, the top surface of the specimen is placed in a state of compression,
whereas the bottom surface is in tension.
o Stress is computed from the specimen thickness, the bending moment, and the moment of
inertia of the cross section.
The maximum tensile stress exists at the bottom specimen surface directly below the point of
load application.
o The stress at fracture using this flexure test is known as the flexural strength, modulus of
rupture, fracture strength, or bend strength.
o For a rectangular cross section, the flexural strength fs is given by

fs =

3F f L

2bd 2
where Ff is the load at fracture, L is the distance between support points.

(7.20a)

o For a circular cross section, the flexural strength fs is given by

fs =

Ff L

R3

(7.20b)

where R is the specimen radius.

Flexural strength values will vary depend on specimen size.
7.11 Elastic Behavior
The moduli of elasticity for ceramic materials are slightly higher than for metals.
POLYMERS
7.13 Stress-Strain Behavior
Three types of stress-strain behavior for polymers

Modulus of elasticity and ductility in percent elongation are determined for polymers in the
same manner as for metals.
Polymers are have much less tensile strength than metals but have much more plasticity.
Polymers are also much more sensitive to temperature.
7.16 Hardness
Hardness is a measure of a materials resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g. a small
dent or a scratch)
Hardness tests are performed more frequently than any other mechanical test because
o They are simple and inexpensive.
o The test is nondestructive.
o Other mechanical properties may be estimated from hardness data, like tensile strength.
The Rockwell tests constitute the most common method used to measure hardness because
they are so simple to perform and require no special skills.
o A hardness number is determined by the difference in depth of penetration resulting from
the application of an initial minor load followed by a larger major load. The use of a minor
load enhances test accuracy.
o Inaccuracies will result if the hardness goes outside a specified range, and will also occur
if the specimen is too thin, if an indentation is made too near a specimen edge, or if two
indentations are made too close to one another.

o The specimen thickness should be at least 10 times the indentation depth, whereas
allowance should be made for at least three indentation diameters between the center of
one indentation and the specimen edge, or to the center of a second indentation.
The Brinell tests consist of a hard, spherical indenter being forced into the surface of the
metal in question, similar to the Rockwell tests.
Hardness is not a well-defined material property, and therefore conversion between the
hardness scales of the various tests is difficult.
Tear strength is the energy required to tear apart a cut specimen of standard geometry.
Correlation Between Hardness and Tensile Strength
(7.25)
TS ( MPa
=
) 3.45 HB
(7.25)

TS ( psi
=
) 500 HB
n

Computation of Average Value

x=

x
i =1

(7.26)

n
1/2

Computation of Standard Deviation

7.20 Design/Safety Factors

Design Stress

n
2
( xi x )

s = i =1
n 1

(7.27)

(7.28)

d = N ' c

Safe Stress Also known as working stress, is based on the yield strength of the material and
is defined as the yield strength divided by a factor of safety, N.

(7.29)
N
o Usually preferred as it is based on the anticipated maximum applied stress instead of the
yield strength of the material.
o Values for N usually range from 1.2 to 4.0.

w =

CHAPTER 2 Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding

Force-Potential Energy Relationships for Two Atoms
E = F dr

(2.4)

Bonding Energy The energy that would be required to separate these two atoms to an
infinite separation.
Primary or Chemical Bonds
o Ionic
Ionic bonding is bonding that occurs in compounds that are composed of both metallic
and nonmetallic elements.
Atoms of a metallic element easily give up their valence electrons to the nonmetallic.
Coulombic The attractive force between positive and negative ions by virtue of their
net electrical charge.
Ionic materials have relatively large bonding energies, which results in high melting
temperatures.
Ionic materials are characteristically hard and brittle, and, furthermore, electrically
and thermally insulative.

(2.8)

An analogous equation for repulsive energy is

B
ER = n
(2.9)
r
Ionic bonding is termed nondirectional; that is, the magnitude of the bond is equal in
all directions around an ion.
o Covalent
Covalent bonding occurs when stable electron configurations are assumed by the
sharing of electrons between adjacent atoms. Each atom will share an electron for the
bond and it is considered to belong to both.
Covalent bonding is termed directional; that is, it is between specific atoms and may
exist only in the direction between one atom and another that participates in the
electron sharing.
Covalent bonds may either be very strong, or very weak.
o Metallic
Metallic bonding is found in metals and their alloys. Metallic materials have one, two,
or at most three valence electrons. These valence electrons are not bound to any
particular atom in the solid and are more or less free to drift throughout the entire
metal. Thus, these valence electrons form a sea of electrons or an electron cloud.
The remaining nonvalence electrons and atomic nuclei form ion cores. These ion cores
possess a net positive charge equal in magnitude to the total valence electron charge
per atom. The free roaming electrons act as the glue for the ion cores.
Metallic bonds may either be very strong, or very weak.
Metals are good conductors of both electricity and heat.
Most metals and their alloys fail in a ductile manner at room temperature.
Secondary, van der Waals, or Physical Bonds
o These bonds are weak in comparison to the primary or chemical ones.
o Secondary bonding exists between virtually all atoms or molecules, but its presence may
be obscured if a type of primary bonding is present.
o Secondary bonding forces arise from atomic or molecular dipoles. Exists whenever there is
some separation of positive and negative portions of an atom or molecule. The bonding
results from the coulombic attraction between the positive end of one dipole, and the
negative region of an adjacent one.
o Hydrogen bonding is found to exist between some molecules that have hydrogen as one of
the constituents.
o Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds
A dipole may be created or induced in an atom or molecule that is normally electrically
symmetric. All atoms experience constant vibrational motion that can cause
instantaneous and short-lived distortions of this electrical symmetry for some of the
atoms or molecules and the creation of small electric dipoles. One of these dipoles can
in turn produce a displacement of the electron distribution of an adjacent molecule or
atom, which induces the second one also to become a dipole that is then weakly
attracted or bonded to the first.
May occur between large groups of atoms or molecules, which forces are temporary and
fluctuate with time.

For two isolated ions, the attractive energy is

A
EA =
r

o Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds

Polar Molecules Molecules in which permanent dipole moments exist by virtue of an
asymmetrical arrangement of positively and negatively charged regions.
Polar molecules can also induce dipoles in adjacent nonpolar molecules, and a bond will
form as a result of attractive forces between the two molecules. Furthermore, the
magnitude of this bond will be greater than for fluctuating induced dipoles.
o Permanent Dipole Bonds
Van der Waals forces will also exist between adjacent polar molecules, and the
associated bonding energies are significantly greater than for bonds involving induced
dipoles. The strongest secondary bonding type, the hydrogen bond, is a special case of
polar molecular bonding.
Water experiences a 9% volume increase upon freezing.
o This occurs because in solid ice, each water molecule participates in four hydrogen bonds,
whereas liquid water only participates in two.

CHAPTER 3 Structure of Metals

A crystalline materials is one in which the atoms are situated in a repeating or periodic array
over large atomic distances; that is, long range order exists, such that upon solidification, the
atoms position themselves in a repetitive three-dimensional pattern in which each atom is
bonded to its nearest-neighbor atoms.
The crystal structure of the material is the manner in which atoms, ions, or molecules are
spatially arranged.
A lattice (which respect to crystal structures) is a three-dimensional array of points coinciding
with atom positions (or sphere centers).
Unit cells are small entities comprised of a repetitive form of atoms. Also described as the
basic structural unit or building block of the crystal structure that defines the crystal
structure by virtue of its geometry and the atom positions within.
Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
o The crystal structure found for many metals has a unit cell of cubic geometry with atoms
located at each of the corners and the centers of all the cube faces.

a = 2R 2
o The number of atoms per unit cell can be computed using the following
N
N
N =N i + f + c
2
8
where N i = the number of interior atoms

N f = the number of face atoms

N c = the number of corner atoms
o Coordination Number The number of nearest-neighbor or touching atoms.
o Atomic Packing Factor (APF) The sum of the sphere volumes of all atoms within a unit
cell (assuming the atomic hard-sphere model) divided by the unit cell volume.
volume of atoms in a unit cell V
=
APF = S
total unit cell volume
VC

Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure

o A metallic crystal structure having a cubic unit cell with atoms located at all eight corners
and a single atom at the cube center.
4R
a=
3
o The number of atoms per BCC unit cell is
N
N
N =N i + f + c
2
8
Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure
o The top and bottom faces of the unit cell consist of six atoms that form regular hexagons
and surround a single atom in the center.
o Number of atoms per HCP unit cell
N
N
N =N i + f + c
2
6
Density Computations Metals
o Calculation of theoretical density through knowledge of the crystal structure
nA
=
VC N A

where n = number of atoms associated with each unit cell

A = atomic weight
Vc = volume of the unit cell
N A = Avagadro's number (6.022 1023 atoms/mole)
Because ceramics are composed of at least two elements and often more, their crystal
structures are generally more complex than those of metals. The atomic bonding in these
materials ranges from purely ionic to totally covalent.
Cations Positively charged because they have given up their valence electrons to the
nonmetallic ions.
Anions Receive the negative charge from the cations
CARBON
Carbon is an element that exists in various polymorphic forms as well as in the amorphous
state.
o Diamond is a metastable carbon polymorph at room temperature and atmospheric
pressure. Its crystal structure is a variant of the zinc blende structure in which carbon
atoms occupy all positions. Each carbon bonds to four other carbons, and these bonds are
completely covalent.
o Graphite has a different crystal structure than diamond and is also more stable than
diamond at ambient temperature and pressure. The graphite structure is composed of
layers of hexagonally arranged carbon atoms; within the layers, each carbon atom is
bonded to three coplanar neighbor atoms by strong covalent bonds. The fourth bonding
electron participates in a weak van der Waals type of bond between the layers.

POLYMORPHISM AND ALLOTROPY

Polymorphism When a metal or nonmetal has more than one crystal structure.
Allotropy Occurs when polymorphism is found in elemental solids.
CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
Lattice Parameters The unit cell geometry is completely defined in terms of six parameters:
the three edge lengths a, b, and c and three interfacial angles , , and .
Each of these parameters represents a distinct crystal system, which is composed of the
following seven crystal systems: cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal, orthorhombic, rhombohedral
(trigonal), monoclinic, and triclinic.
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DIRECTIONS
A crystallographic direction is defined as a lone directed between two points, or a vector. The
following steps are used to determine the three directional indices:
o A vector of convenient length is positioned such that it passes through the origin of the
coordinate system. Any vector may be translated throughout the crystal lattice without
alteration if parallelism is maintained.
o The length of the vector projection on each of the three axes is determined; these are
measured in terms of the unit cell dimensions a,b,and c.
o These three numbers are multiplied or divided by a common factor to reduce them to the
smallest integer values
o The three indices, not separated by commas, are enclosed in square brackets, thus: [uvw].
The u, v, and w integers correspond to the reduced projections along the x, y, and z axes,
respectively.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PLANES
Miller indices are used to graphically represent crystallographic planes.

CLOSE-PACKED CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

SINGLE CRYSTALS
Single Crystal The result of a crystalline solid when the periodic and repeated arrangement
of atoms is perfect or extends throughout the entirety of the specimen without interruption.
POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS
Grains A collection of many small crystals.
Polycrystalline A crystalline structure composed of grains, or small collections of crystals.
Grain Boundary An atomic mismatch within the region where two grains meet.
ANISOTROPY
Anisotropy is the directionality of properties of a single crystal.
Isotropic Substances where measured properties are independent of direction
NONCRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
Noncrystalline solids lack a systemic and regular arrangement of atoms over relatively large
atomic distances.
Polymers may be completely noncrystalline or sometimes semicrystalline consisting of
varying degrees of crystallinity.
CHAPTER 5 Imperfection in Solids
Crystalline Defect A lattice irregularity having one or more of its dimensions on the order of
an atomic diameter.
Point Defect Defects associated with one or two atomic positions.
POINT DEFECTS IN METALS
Vacancy The simplest of the point defects, also known as a vacant lattice site where an
atom normally occupies but from which it is missing.
ALL crystalline solids contain vacancies, and it is not possible to create such a material that
is free of these defects. The presence of vacancies increases the entropy of the crystal.
The equilibrium number of vacancies N v for a given quantity of material depends on and
increases with temperature
Q
=
N v N exp v
kT
where N is the total number of atomic sites, Qv is the energy required for the formation of a
vacancy, T is the absolute temperature in kelvins, and k is the gas or Boltzmanns constant.

k =
1.38 1023 J/atom K or 8.62 105 eV/atom K
Thus, the number of vacancies increases exponentially with temperature.
Self-Interstitial An atom from the crystal that is crowded into an interstitial site a small
void space that under ordinary circumstances is not occupied.

POINT DEFECTS IN CERAMICS

Defect Structure Often used to designate the types and concentrations of atomic defects in
ceramic materials.
Electroneutrality The state the exists when there are equal numbers of positive and
negative charges from the ions.
Frenkel Defect A defect that involves a cation-vacancy and a cation-interstitial pair.
Schottky Defect A defect found in AX materials consisting of a cation/anion-vacancy pair.

Stoichiometry Defined as a state for ionic compounds wherein there is the exact ration of
cations to anions predicted by the chemical formula.
A ceramic compound is nonstoichiometric if there is any deviation from this exact ratio.
IMPURITIES IN SOLIDS
Alloys Metals in which impurity atoms have been added intentionally to impart specific
characteristics to the material.
o Alloying is used in metals to improve mechanical strength and corrosion resistance.
Solid Solution Formed as a result of the addition of impurity atoms to a metal.
Solvent The element or compound that is present in the greatest amount.
Solute Used to denote an element or compound present in a minor concentration.
Two types of impurity point defects are found in solid solutions
o Substitutional Solute or impurity atoms replace or substitute for the host atoms.
Several factors determine the degree to which the impurities dissolve to the host.
Atomic Size Factor
Crystal Structure
Electronegativity
Valences
o Interstitial Impurity atoms fill the voids or interstices among the host atoms.
For metallic materials that have relatively high atomic packing factors, these
interstitial positions are relatively small. Consequently, the atomic diameter of an
interstitial impurity must be substantially smaller than that of the host atoms.

SPECIFICATION OF COMPOSITION
The composition of an alloy is expressed in terms of its constituent elements. This is most
commonly done in the two following ways
o Weight Percent The weight of a particular element relative to the total allow weight.
m1
=
100
C1
m1 + m2
o Atom Percent The number of moles of an element in relation to the total moles of the
elements in the alloy.
nm1
=
C1'
100
nm1 + nm 2
nm1 =

m1'
A1

Composition Conversions

(1)(2) Conversion of weight percent to atom percent.

(3)(4) Conversion of atom percent to weight percent.
(5)(6) Conversion of weight percent to mass per unit volume.
(6)(7) Computation of density.
(8)(9) Computation of atomic weight.
DISLOCATIONS LINEAR DEFECTS
A dislocation is considered to be a linear or one-dimensional defect around which some of the
atoms are misaligned.
Edge Dislocation A linear defect that centers on the line that is defined along the end of the
extra half-plane of atoms.
Dislocation Line The line in the edge dislocation that is perpendicular to the plane.
Screw Dislocation Formed by a shear stress that is applied.
Mixed Dislocations Exhibit characteristics of all three dislocation types.
INTERFACIAL DEFECTS
Interfacial defects are boundaries that have two dimensions and normally separate regions of
the materials that have different crystal structures and/or crystallographic orientations.
o External surfaces are one of the most obvious boundaries along which the crystal
structure terminates. Surface atoms are not bonded to the maximum number of nearest
neighbors and are therefore in a higher-energy state than the atoms at interior positions.
The bonds of these surface atoms that are not satisfied give rise to a surface energy which
the materials tend to reduce by minimizing the surface area.

o Grain boundaries are the boundaries separating two small grains or crystals having
different crystallographic orientations in polycrystalline materials. Within the boundary
region, which is probably just several atom distances wide, there is some atomic mismatch
in a transition from the crystalline orientation of one grain to that of an adjacent one.
When this orientation mismatch is slight, on the order of a few degrees, the term small(or low-) angle grain boundary is used (edge dislocation). When the angle of misorientation
is parallel to the boundary, a twist boundary results (screw dislocation).
o Phase boundaries exist in multiphase materials in which a different phase exists on each
side of the boundary; furthermore, each of the constituent phases has its own distinctive
physical and/or chemical characteristics.
o Twin boundaries are special types of grain boundaries across which there is a specific
mirror lattice symmetry; that is, atoms on one side of the boundary are located in mirrorimage positions to those of the atoms on the other side.
ATOMIC VIBRATIONS
Atomic vibrations may be thought of as imperfections that are a result of inconsistencies in
the vibrations of atoms about their lattice positions within the crystal.
CHAPTER 8 Deformation and Strengthening Mechanisms
Edge and screw are the two fundamental dislocation types.
In an edge dislocation, localized lattice distortion exists along the end of an extra half-plane of
atoms, which also defines the dislocation line.
An edge dislocation moves in response to a shear stress applied in a direction perpendicular
to its line.
Slip is the process by which plastic deformation is produced by dislocation motion.
The crystallographic plane along which the dislocation line traverses is the slip plane.
When metals are plastically deformed, some fraction of the deformation energy,
approximately 5%, is retained internally; the remainder is dissipated as heat. The major
portion of this stored energy is as strain energy associated with dislocations.
During plastic deformation, the number of dislocations increases dramatically.
The slip system depends on the crystal structure of the metal and is such that the atomic
distortion that accompanies the motion of a dislocation is a minimum. The slip plane is the
plane that has the densest atomic packing.
Direction of the slip plane corresponds to the direction in this plane that has the highest
linear density of packed atoms.
Resolved Shear Stress Dependence on applied stress and orientation of stress direction
relative to slip plane normal and slip direction.
o One slip system is generally oriented most favorably, and is identified as the plane having
the largest resolved shear stress.
R = cos cos

Critical Resolved Shear Stress represents the minimum shear stress required to initiate slip
and is a property of the material that determines when yielding occurs.

y =

crss
( cos cos )max

The minimum stress necessary to induce yielding occurs when a single crystal is oriented
such that = = 45 ; at this point
y = 2 crss

Slip lines are the lines that appear on the surface of a specimen as a result of dislocations.

For polycrystalline metals, because of the random crystallographic orientations of the

numerous grains, the direction of slip varies from one grain to another.
The shape of newly formed grains coincides slightly with its neighboring grains.
Polycrystalline metals are stronger than their single-crystal equivalents, which means that
greater stresses are required to initiate slip and the attendant yielding. This is due in large
part to the geometrical constraints. If one crystal has the most favorable orientation, the
crystal next to it may not which then inhibits slip until a higher stress level is applied.
8.9 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
Typically, ductility is sacrificed when an alloy is strengthened.
The ability of a metal to deform plastically depends on the ability of dislocations to move.
Restricting or hindering dislocation motion renders a material harder and stronger.
The grain barrier acts as a barrier to dislocation motion for two reasons:
o Because the two grains are of different orientations, a dislocation passing into grain B will
have to change its direction of motion; this becomes more difficult as the crystallographic
misorientation increases.
o The atomic disorder within a grain boundary region will result in a discontinuity of slip
planes from one grain into the other.
A fine-grained material (one that has small grains) is harder and stronger than one that is
coarse grained because the former has a greater total grain boundary area to impede
dislocation motion.
Hall-Petch Equation

=
0 + k y d 1/2
y
where d is the average grain diameter, and sigma and k are constants for a particular material.
8.10 Solid-Solution Strengthening
Solid-Solution Strengthening Strengthening of metals achieved by alloying with impurity
atoms that go into either substitutional or interstitial solid solution.
Alloys are stronger than pure metals because impurity atoms that go into solid solution
typically impose lattice strains on the surrounding host atoms.
The resistance to slip is greater when impurity atoms are present because the overall lattice
strain must increase if a dislocation is torn away from them. Furthermore, the same lattice
strain interactions will exist between impurity atoms and dislocations that are in motion
during plastic deformation. This, a greater applied stress is necessary to first initiate and the
continue plastic deformation for solid-solution alloys, as opposed to pure metals; this is
evidenced by the enhancement of strength and hardness.
8.11 Strain Hardening
Strain hardening is the phenomenon by which a ductile metal becomes harder and stronger
as it is plastically deformed.
o Also called work hardening, or, because the temperature at which deformation takes place
is cold relative to the absolute melting temperature of the metal, cold working.

A Ad
=
%CW 0
A0

100

Through this method, as the hardness and strength increase, the ductility decreases.
Strain hardening is often utilized commercially to enhance the mechanical properties of
metals during fabrication procedures.
In the mathematical expression relation true stress and strain, the parameter n is called the
strain-hardening component.

8.12 Recovery
During recovery, some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by virtue of dislocation
motion (in the absence of an externally applied stress), as a result of enhanced atomic
diffusion at the elevated temperature.
8.13 Recrystallization
Recrystallization is the formation of a new set of strain-free and equiaxed grains (i.e., having
approximately equal dimensions in all directions) that have low dislocation densities and are
characteristic of the pre-cold-worked condition.
The new grains form as very small nuclei and grow until they completely consume the parent
material, processes that involve short-range diffusion.
Also, during recrystallization, the mechanical properties that were changed as a result of cold
working are restored to their pre-cold-worked values; that is, the metal becomes softer and
weaker, yet more ductile.
Recrystallization Temperature The temperature at which recrystallization just reaches
completion in 1 h.
Recrystallization proceeds more rapidly in pure metals than in alloys.
Hot working takes place at temperatures above the recrystallization temperature. This allows
the material to remain relatively soft and ductile during deformation because it does not
strain harden, and thus large deformations are possible.
8.14 Grain Growth
Grain growth occurs after recrystallization is complete. The strain-free grains will continue to
grow if the metal specimen is left at the elevated temperature.
As grains increase in size, the total boundary area decreases, yielding an attendant reduction
in the total energy; this is the driving force for grain growth.
d n d 0n =
Kt

For many polycrystalline materials, the grain diameter d varies with time t.
8.16 Noncrystalline Ceramics
For ceramics in which the bonding is highly covalent, slip is difficult, and they are brittle
because of the following reasons
o The covalent bonds are relatively strong.
o There are limited numbers of slip systems.
o Dislocation structures are complex.
Viscosity A measure of a noncrystalline materials resistance to deformation.
8.18 Semicrystalline Polymers
For many polymers, it has been observed that tensile strength increases with increasing
molecular weight.
A
=
TS TS
Mn

CHAPTER 4 Polymer Structures

4.2 Hydrocarbons
A hydrocarbon bond is composed of hydrogen and carbon.
o The bond is covalent.
o Each carbon atom has four electrons that may participate in covalent bonding, whereas
every hydrogen atom has only one bonding electron.
Molecules that have double and triple covalent bonds are termed unsaturated.
o This means that each carbon atom is not bonded to the maximum of four other atoms.
Therefore, it is possible for another atom or group of atoms to become attached to the
original molecule.
A saturated hydrocarbon is one such that all bonds are single, and therefore no new atoms
may be joined without the removal of others that are already bonded.
Parrafin family molecules have strong covalent bonds in each molecules, but only weak
hydrogen and can der Waals bonds exist between the molecules, and thus these hydrocarbons
have relatively low melting and boiling points.
4.3 Polymer Molecules
Polymer molecules are gigantic in size compared to hydrocarbons.
o Often referred to as macromolecules.
o Each molecule is bound together by covalent interatomic bonds.
Repeat units are molecular units that are successively repeated along the chain.
o Repeat units are generally enclosed in parentheses, and the subscript n indicates the
number of times it repeats.
o Monomer refers to the small molecules from which a polymer is synthesized.
o NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH EACHOTHER

4.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules

When all of the repeating units along a chain are of the same type, the resulting polymer is
called a homopolymer.
Chains may be composed of two or more different repeat units called copolymers.
A monomer that has an active bond that may react to form two covalent bonds with other
monomers forming a two-dimensional chainlike molecular structure is considered to be
bifunctional in nature.
Functionality refers to the number of bonds that a given monomer can form.
Trifunctional monomers have three active bonds from which a three-dimensional molecular
network structure results.

4.5 Molecular Weight

Extremely large molecular weights are observed in polymers with very long chains.
During polymerization, not all of the chains will grow to the same length. This results in a
distribution of chain lengths or molecular weights.
The number-average molecular weight M n is obtained by dividing the chains into a series of
size ranges and then determining the number fraction of chains within each size range.

M n = xi M i
Where M i represents the mean (middle) molecular weight of size range i and xi is the fraction of
the total number of chains within the corresponding size range.
A weight-average molecular weight M w is based on the weight fraction of molecules within
the various size ranges.

M w = wi M i
Where M i represents the mean molecular weight within a size range and wi denotes the weight
fraction of molecules within the same size interval.

The degree of polymerization is an alternative way of expressive average chain size of a

polymer. It represents the average number of repeat units in a chain.

Mn
m
Where m is the repeat unit molecular weight.
Many polymer properties are affected by the length of the polymer chains.
o For example, the melting or softening temperature increases with increasing molecular
weight.
o At room temperature, polymers with very short chains will generally exists as liquids, and
as the molecular weight increases, so does the solidity of the material.
4.6 Molecular Shape
Molecules can form random coils and molecular entanglements.
These random coils and molecular entanglements are responsible for a number of important
characteristics of polymers, including the large elastic extensions displayed by the rubbers.
Rotational flexibility is dependent on repeat unit structure and chemistry.
DP =

4.7 Molecular Structure

The physical characteristics of a polymer depend not only on its molecular weight and shape,
but also on differences in the structure of the molecular chains.
Linear polymers are those in which the repeat units are joined together end to end in single
chains.
o These long chains are flexible and may be thought of as a mass of spaghetti.
o For linear polymers, there may be extensive van der Waals and hydrogen bonding between
the chains.
Branched polymers are polymers that are synthesized in which side-bar chains are connected
to the main ones.
o May be a result of side reactions that occur during the synthesis of the polymer.
o The chain packing efficiency is reduced with the formation of side branches, which results
in a lowering of the polymer density.
Cross-linked polymers occur when adjacent linear chains are joined to one another at various
positions by covalent bonds.
o The process of crosslinking is achieved either during synthesis or by a nonreversible
chemical reaction.
o This crosslinking is often accomplished by additive atoms or molecules that are covalently
bonded to the chains.
o Many of the rubber elastic materials are cross-linked, in which this process is called
vulcanization.
Network polymers occur when multifunctional monomers forming three or more active
covalent bonds make three-dimensional networks.
o A polymer that is highly cross-linked may also be classified as a network polymer. These
materials have distinctive mechanical and thermal properties; the epoxies, polyurethanes,
and phenol-formaldehyde belong to this group.
Polymers are not usually of only one distinctive structural type. A predominantly linear
polymer hay have limited branching and crosslinking.
4.8 Molecular Configurations
Isomerism is found in polymer molecules wherein different atomic configurations are possible
for the same composition.
o Stereoisomerism denotes the situation in which atoms are linked together in the same
order (head to tail) but differ in their spatial arrangement.
Isostatic configuration occurs when all the R groups are situated on the same side of
the chain.

Solid wedges represent bonds that project out of the plane of the page, and dashed
ones represent bonds that project into the page.
Syndiotactic configuration the R groups alternate sides of the chain.

 Atactic configuration describes random positioning of the R groups.

o Geometrical isomerism are possible within repeat units having a double bond between
chain carbon atoms.
A cis structure is one in which the side group bonded to the carbon atom exists on
one side of the chain.

A trans structure occurs when the bonds are on opposite sides of the chain.

SUMMARIZATION:
o Polymer moleculaes may be characterized in terms of their size, shape, and structure.
o Molecular size is specified in terms of molecular weight or degree of polymerization.
o Molecular shape relates to the degree of chain twisting, coiling, and bending.
o Molecular structure depends on the manner in which structural units are joined together.
Linear, branched, cross-linked, and network structures are all possible, in addition
to several isomeric configurations (isotactic, syndiotactic, atactic, cis, and trans).

4.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers

Thermoplastic polymers soften when heated (and eventually liquefy) and harden when cooled.
o This process is totally reversible and may be repeated.
o On a molecular level, as the temperature is raised, secondary bonding forces are
diminished (by increased molecular motion) so that the relative movement of adjacent
chains is facilitated when a stress is applied.
o Most linear polymers and those having some branched structures with flexible chains will

generally be thermoplastic. These materials are normally fabricated by the simultaneous

application of heat and pressure.

Thermosetting polymers are network polymers.

o They become permanently hard during their formation and do not soften upon heating.
o Network polymers have covalent crosslinks between adjacent molecular chains that,
during heating, anchor the chains together to resist the vibrational and rotational chain
motions at high temperatures.

Thermoset polymers are generally harder and stronger than thermoplastics and have better
dimensional stability.

4.10 Copolymers
A block copolymer is one in which identical repeat units are clustered in blocks along the
chain and a graft polymer is one in which homopolymer side branches of one type may be
grafted to homopolymer main chains that are composed of a different repeat unit.
Degree of polymerization for a copolymer...

m = fi m j
Where fi and m j are, respectively, the mole fraction and molecular weight of repeat unit j in
the polymer chain.

4.11 Polymer Crystallinity

Polymer crystallinity can be thought of as the packing of molecular chains to produce an
ordered atomic array.
Molecular substances having small molecules (e.g., water and methane) are normally either
totally crystalline (as solids) or totally amorphous (as liquids).
As a consequence of their size and complexity, polymer molecules are often only partially
crystalline (or semicrystalline), having crystalline regions dispersed within the remaining
amorphous material.
Percent crystallinity depends on specimen density, and densities of totally crystalline and
totally amorphous materials.
% crystallinity =

c ( s a )
100
s ( c a )

o The degree of crystallinity of a polymer depends on the rate of cooling during solidification
as well as on the chain configuration.
o For linear polymers, crystallization is easily accomplished because there are few
restrictions to prevent chain alignment. Any side branches interfere with crystallization,
such that branched polymers never are highly crystalline; in fact, excessive branching may
percent any crystallization whatsoever.
o Most network and cross-linked polymers are almost totally amorphous due to the
crosslinking prevents alignment into a crystalline structure.
o For copolymers, as a general rule, the more irregular and random the repeat unit
arrangements, the greater is the tendency for the development of noncrystallinity.
o Crystalline polymers are usually stronger and more resistant to dissolution and softening
by heat.
4.12 Polymer Crystals

CHAPTER 5 Imperfections in Solids

5.1 Introduction
ALL crystalline materials contain large numbers of various defects or imperfections.
A crystalline defect refers to a lattice irregularity having one or more of its dimensions on the
order of an atomic diameter.
Point defects are those that are associated with one or two atomic positions.
5.2 Point Defects
A vacancy or vacant lattice site is the simplest of the point defects, and is a site that would
normally be occupied but from which an atom is missing.
o ALL crystalline solids contain vacancies, and, in fact, it is not possible to create such a
material that is free of these defects.
o The presence of the vacancies increases the entropy of the crystal.
The equilibrium number of vacancies for a given quantity of material depends on and
increases with temperature according to
Q
=
N v N exp v
kT

Where N is the total number of atomic sites, Qv is the energy required for the formation of a
vacancy, T is the absolute temperature in kelvins, and k is the gas or Boltzmanns constant.
o Boltzmanns constant has a value of k =
1.38 1023 J/atom K or 8.62 105 eV/atom K
o Thus, the number of vacancies increases exponentially with temperature.
A self-interstitial is an atom from the crystal that is crowded into an interstitial site a small
void space that under ordinary circumstances is not occupied.
o In metals, a self-interstitial introduces relatively large distortions in the surrounding
lattice because the atom is substantially larger than the interstitial position in which it is
situated. Therefore, the formation of this defect is not highly probable, and it exists in very
small concentrations, which are significantly lower than for vacancies.

5.3 Point Defects in Ceramics

Point defects involving host atoms may exist in ceramic compounds, however, because
ceramic materials contain ions of at least two kinds, defects for each ion type may occur.
The term defect structure is often used to designate the types and concentrations of atomic
defects in ceramics.
o Because the atoms exist as charged ions, when defect structures are considered, conditions
of electroneutrality must be maintained.
o Electroneutrality is the state that exists when there are equal numbers of positive and
negative chargers from the ions.
Consequently, defects in ceramics do not occur alone, but involve a cation-vacancy
and a cation-interstitial pair, known as a Frenkel defect.
This defect can be thought of as being formed by a cation leaving its normal position
and moving into an interstitial site.
A Schottky defect is found in AX materials and is a cation vacancy-anion vacancy.

Stoichiometry may be defined as a state for ionic compounds wherein there is the exact ratio
of cations to anions predicted by the chemical formula.

5.4 Impurities in Solids

A pure metal consisting of only one type of atom just isnt possible.
An alloy is a metal in which impurity atoms have been added intentionally to impart specific
characteristics to the material.
A solid solution or a new second phase will result depending on the kinds of impurities, their
concentrations, and the temperature of the alloy.
A solvent is the element or compound that is present in the greatest amount.
o Occasionally, solvent atoms are also called host atoms.
A solute is used to denote an element or compound present in a minor concentration.
A solid solution forms when, as the solute atoms are added to the host material, the crystal
structure is maintained and no new structures or formed. A solid solution is compositionally
homogeneous, meaning the impurity atoms are randomly and uniformly mixed in the solid.
Impurity point defects in solid solutions:
o Substitutional occurs when solute/impurity atoms replace or substitute for host atoms.
The degree to which the solute dissolves in the solvent depends on
Atomic size factor Appreciable quantities of a solute may be accommodated
in this type of solid solution only when the difference in atomic radii between
the two atom types is less than about 15% . Otherwise the solute atoms will
create substantial lattice distortions and a new phase will form.
Crystal structure For most appreciable solid solubility the crystal
structures for metals of both atom types must be the same.
Electronegativity The more electropositive one element and the more
electronegative the other, the greater is the likelihood that they will form an
intermetallic compound instead of a substitutional solid solution.
Valences Other factors being equal, a metal will have a stronger tendency
to dissolve another metal of higher valency than one of a lower valency.

5.5 Point Defects in Polymers

The point defect concept is different in polymers than in metals because of the chainlike
macromolecules and the nature of the crystalline state for polymers.

5.6 Specification of Composition

The two most common ways to express the composition of an alloy in terms of its constituent
elements is
o Weight percent is the weight of a particular element relative to the total alloy weight.
(wt%)
m1
=
100
C1
m1 + m2
Where m1 and m2 represent the weight (or mass) of elements 1 and 2.
o Atom percent is the number of moles of an element in relation to the total moles of the
elements in the alloy.
m'
nm1 = 1
A1
where m1' and A1 denote the mass (in grams) and atomic weight.
=
C1'

nm1
100
nm1 + nm 2

5.7 Dislocations Linear Defects

A dislocation is a linear or one-dimensional defect around which some of the atoms are
aligned in the incorrect manner, or misaligned.
An edge dislocation () is a dislocation in which an extra portion of a plane of atoms, or halfplane, whose edge terminates within the crystal. It is a linear defect that centers on the line
that is defined along the end of the extra half-plane of atoms.
o The dislocation line is considered to be where the edge dislocation is perpendicular to the
plane of the page.
o In the region around the dislocation lines, there is some localized lattice distortion.
o The atoms above the dislocation line are squeezed together, and those below are pulled
apart from each other.

A screw dislocation may be thought of as being formed by a shear stress that is applied to
produce a distortion which causes the upper front region of the crystal to be shifted one
atomic distance to the right relative to the bottom portion.
o The atomic distortion associated with a screw dislocation is also linear and along a
dislocation line.
o The screw dislocation derives its name from the spiral or helical path or ramp that is
traced around the dislocation line by the atomic planes of atoms.

Most common are mixed dislocations that are neither pure edge nor pure screw, but exhibit
components of both types.

The magnitude and direction of the lattice distortion associated with a dislocation are express
in terms of a Burgers vector.

The nature of a dislocation (i.e., edge, screw, or mixed) is defined by the relative orientations
of the dislocation line and Burgers vector.
o For an edge, they are perpendicular.
o For a screw, they are parallel.
o For a mixed dislocation, they are neither perpendicular nor parallel.

5.8 Interfacial Defects

Interfacial defects are boundaries that have two dimensions and normally separate regions of
the materials that have different crystal structures and/or crystallographic orientations and
are comprised of
o External Surfaces
One of the most obvious boundaries is the external surface, along which the crystal
structure terminates. Surface atoms are not bonded to the maximum number of
nearest neighbors and are therefore in a higher-energy state than the atoms at
interior positions. The bonds of these surface atoms that are not satisfied give rise
to a surface energy. Thus, to reduce this energy, materials tend to minimize the
total surface area if at all possible.
o Grain Boundaries
The grain boundary is the boundary separating two small grains or crystals having
different crystallographic orientations in polycrystalline materials.
Various degrees of crystallographic misalignment between adjacent grains are
possible and this misalignment is known as a tilt boundary.
The angle of misorientation, , is known as a twist boundary which can be described
by an array of screw dislocations.

o Phase Boundaries
Phase boundaries exist in multiphase materials, in which a different phase exists
on each side of the boundary; furthermore, each of the constituent phases has its
own distinctive physical and/or chemical characteristics.
o Twin Boundaries
A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which there is a specific
mirror lattice symmetry; that is, atoms on one side of the boundary are located in
mirror-image positions to those of the atoms on the other side.
The region of material between these boundaries is termed a twin.
Twins results from atomic displacements that are produced from applied
mechanical shear forces (mechanical twins: BCC, HCP) and also during annealing
heat treatments following deformation (annealing twins: FCC).

CHAPTER 6 Diffusion
Diffusion is the phenomenon of material transport by atomic motion.
Interdiffusion or inpurity diffusion is the process by which atoms of one metal diffuse into the
atoms of another material.
o Can be thought of as a net drift or transport or atoms from high- to low-concentration
regions of the material.
Diffusion also occurs for pure metals, but all atoms exchanging positions are of the same type.
This is known as self-diffusion.
6.2 Diffusion Mechanisms
From an atomic perspective, diffusion is just the stepwise migration of atoms from lattice site
to lattice site.
For an atom to make such a move, it must meet two conditions
o There must be an empty adjacent site.
o The atom must have sufficient energy to break bonds with its neighbor atoms and then
cause some lattice distortion during the displacement.
This energy is vibrational in nature, and at some specific temperature, a small
fraction of the total number of atoms are capable of diffusive motion by virtue of the
magnitudes of their vibrational energies. However, this fraction increases with an
increasing temperature.
Two dominate proposals for metallic diffusion
o Vacancy Diffusion
This mechanism involves the interchange of an atom from a normal lattice position
to an adjacent vacant lattice site or vacancy.
This process necessitates the presence of vacancies. And the extent to which
vacancy diffusion can occur is a function of the number of these defects that are
present; significant concentrations of vacancies may exist in metals when the
temperatures are elevated.
Diffusing atoms and vacancies exchange positions, thus the diffusion of atoms in
one direction corresponds to the motion of vacancies in the opposite direction.
Therefore, both self-diffusion and interdiffusion occur by this mechanism.
o Interstitial Diffusion
This mechanism involves atoms that migrate from an interstitial position to a
neighboring one that is empty.
This is found for interdiffusion of impurities such as hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,
and oxygen as they have atoms that are small enough to fit into the interstitial
positions necessary.

In most metal alloys, interstitial diffusion occurs much more rapidly than diffusion
by the vacancy mode because the interstitial atoms are smaller and therefore more
mobile. Furthermore, there are more empty interstitial positions than vacancies;
hence, the probability of interstitial atomic movement is greater than for diffusion
through vacancies.
6.3 Steady-State Diffusion
Diffusion is a time-dependent process meaning that in a macroscopic sense, the quantity of an
element that is transported within another is a function of time.
Diffusion flux ( J ) is the rate of mass transfer and is defined as the mass, (or equivalently, the

number of atoms) M diffusing through and perpendicular to a unit cross-sectional area of

solid per unit of time
M 1 dM
=
J =
At A dt
If the diffusion flux foes not change with time, a steady-state condition exists.
Steady-state diffusion is the diffusion of atoms of a gas through a plate of metal for which the
concentrations (or pressures) of the diffusing species on both surfaces of the plate are held
constant.
The concentration profile is when the concentration C is plotted versus position/distance
within the solid x .
The slope at a particular point on this curve is called the concentration gradient.
dC
concetration gradient =
dx
Steady-state diffusion in a single ( x ) direction is defined as the flux being proportional to the
concentration gradient. Sometimes called Ficks first law...
dC
J = D
dx

m
.
s2
o The negative sign in the expression above indicates that the direction of diffusion is down
the concentration gradient, from a high to a low concentration.
The driving force is used in the context of what compels a reaction to occur.
o In Ficks first law, the driving force is the concentration gradient.
6.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion
Nonsteady-state diffusion is that which takes place when the diffusion flux and the
concentration gradient at some particular point in a solid vary with time, with a net
accumulation or depletion of the diffusing species resulting.
Ficks second law

In the equation above, D is called the diffusion coefficient which is expressed in

C C
= D

t x x
Simplifies expression below if the diffusion coefficient is independent of composition.

C
2C
=D 2
t
x

6.8 Diffusion in Ionic and Polymeric Materials

CHAPTER 17 Thermal Properties
Thermal property refers to the response of a material to the application of heat. As a solid
absorbs energy in the form of heat, its temperature rises and its dimensions increase.
Heat Capacity Heat capacity indicates a materials ability to absorb heat from the external
surroundings; it represents the amount of energy required to produce a unit temperature rise.
dQ
C=
dT
In most solids, the principal mode of thermal energy assimilation is by the increase in
vibrational energy of the atoms.
o Atoms in solid materials are constantly vibrating at very high frequencies and with
relatively small amplitudes.
o The vibrations of adjacent atoms are coupled by virtue of atomic bonding.
The variation with temperature of the vibrational contribution to the heat capacity at
constant volume for many relatively simple crystalline solids at low temperatures can be
described by
Cv = AT 3

Other energy-absorbative mechanisms also exist that can add to the total heat capacity of a
solid, however, in most instances, these are minor relative to the magnitude of the vibrational
contribution.
Thermal Expansion Most solid materials expand upon heating and contract when cooled
The change in length with temperature for a solid material is described as
l f l0
= t (T f T0 )
l0
or
l
= t T
l0

Volume change can be described as

V
= v T
V0

From an atomic perspective, thermal expansion is reflected by an increase in the average

distance between atoms. Thermal expansion is due to the asymmetric curvature of this
potential energy trough rather than the increased atomic vibrational amplitudes with rising
temperature. For each class of materials (metals, ceramics, polymers), the greater the atomic
bonding energy, the deeper and more narrow is this potential energy trough. As a result, the
increase in interatomic separation with a given rise in temperature will be lower.

Thermal conduction is the phenomenon by which heat is transported from high- to lowtemperature regions of a substance. The property that characterizes the ability of a material
to transfer heat is the thermal conductivity
dT
q = k
dx
Heat is transported in solid materials by both lattice vibration waves (phonons) and free
electrons. A thermal conductivity is associated with each of these mechanisms, and the total
conductivity is the sum of the two contributions, or k= kl + ke .
Thermal stresses are the stresses included in a body as a result of changes in temperature.
Thermal stress is important because these stresses can lead to fracture or undesirable
plastic deformation.
= E t (T0 T f ) = E t T

CHAPTER 9 Failures in Materials

The usual causes of failure in a structure is improper material selection and processing and
inadequate design of the component or misuse.
9.2 Fundamentals of Fracture
Simple fracture is the separation of a body into two or more pieces in response to an imposed
stress that is static (i.e., constant or slowly changing with time) and at temperatures that are
low relative to the melting temperature of the material.
o Fatigue is another cause of failure and appears as a result of cyclically imposed stresses.
For metals, there are two possible types of fracture:
o Ductile fracture is characterized by extensive plastic deformation in the vicinity of an
advancing crack. Furthermore, the process proceeds relatively slowly as the crack length
is extended.
o Brittle fractures have cracks that may spread extremely rapidly, with very little
accompanying plastic deformation.
Any fracture process involves two steps crack formation and propagation in response to an
imposed stress.

Ductile fracture is preferred to brittle fracture because (1) brittle fracture occurs suddenly
and catastrophically without any warning, and (2) ductile fractures give the warning that
failure is imminent due to the presence of plastic deformation. Also, more strain energy is
require to induce ductile fracture since these materials are generally tougher.
9.3 Ductile Fracture
Highly ductile materials will neck down to a point fracture, showing virtually 100% reduction
in area.
The ductile fracture process occurs in several stages
o After necking begins, small cavities, or microvoids, form in the interior of the cross section.
o As deformation continues, these microvoids enlarge, come together, and coalesce to form
an elliptical crack, which has its long axis perpendicular to the stress direction.
o The crack continues to grow in a direction parallel to its major axis by this microvoid
coalescence process.
o Finally, fracture ensues by the rapid propagation of a crack around the outer perimeter pf
the neck by shear deformation at an angle of about 45 degrees with the tensile axis this
is the angle at which the shear stress is a maximum.

9.4 Brittle Fracture

Brittle fracture takes place without any appreciable deformation and by rapid crack
propagation. The direction of crack motion is very nearly perpendicular to the direction of the
applied tensile stress and yields a relatively flat fracture structure.
For brittle crystalline materials, crack propagation corresponds to the successive and
repeated breaking of atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes which is known as
cleavage.
o This fracture type is said to be transgranular because the fracture cracks pass through the
grains.
Some alloys have crack propagation along grain boundaries which is termed intergranular.

9.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics

Fracture mechanics allows the quantification of the relationships between material
properties, stress level, the presence of crack-producing flaws, and crack propagation
mechanisms.
Measured fracture strengths for most brittle materials are significantly lower than those
predicted by theoretical calculations based on atomic bonding energies because of the
presence of microscopic flaws or cracks that always exist under normal conditions at the
surface and within the interior of a body of material.
o These flaws are sometimes called stress raisers.
Assuming a crack is similar to an elliptical hole through a plate and is oriented perpendicular
to the applied stress, the maximum stress occurs at the crack tip and may be approximated
by
1/2

a
m = 2 0
t

Where 0 is the magnitude of the nominal applied tensile stress, t is the radius of curvature of
the crack tip, and a represents the length of a surface crack, or half the length of an internal
crack depending on the need.
The effects of a stress raiser is more significant in brittle than in ductile materials because in
a ductile metal, plastic deformation ensues when the maximum stress exceeds the yield
strength. This leads to a more uniform distribution of stress in the vicinity of the stress raiser
and to the development of a maximum stress concentration factor less than the theoretical
value determined.
The critical stress required for crack propagation in a brittle material is described by the
expression
2 E s
c =

a
Where c is the critical stress, E is the modulus of elasticity, s is the specific surface energy,
and a is one-half the length of an internal crack.
When the magnitude of a tensile stress at the tip of a flaw exceeds the value of this critical
stress, a crack forms and then propagates, which results in fracture.
Fracture toughness is a result of the relationship between the critical stress for crack
propagation and crack length
1/2

K c = Y c a

where K c is the fracture toughness, a property that is a measure of a materials resistance to

brittle fracture when a crack is present.
Plane strain occurs when a load operates on a crack where there is no strain component
perpendicular to the front and back faces.
Plane fracture toughness is approximated by
K Ic = Y a

where K Ic is the plane strain fracture toughness for mode I crack displacement.
Brittle materials, for which appreciable plastic deformation is not possible in front of an
advancing crack, have low K Ic values and are vulnerable to catastrophic failure. On the other
hand, K Ic values are relatively large for ductile materials.

The plane strain fracture toughness is a fundamental material property that depends
primarily on the temperature, strain rate, and microstructure.

The design critical stress is defined by

c =

K Ic

Y a
The maximum allowable flaw size is defined by
1K
ac = Ic
Y

9.6 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics

Both crystalline and noncrystalline ceramics almost always fracture before any plastic
deformation can occur in response to an applied tensile load.
Stress raisers in brittle ceramics may be minute surface or interior cracks (microcracks),
internal pores, and grain corners, which are virtually impossible to eliminate or control.
9.7 Fracture of Polymers
The fracture strengths of polymeric materials are low relative to those of metals and
ceramics. As a general rule, the mode of fracture in thermosetting polymers (heavily crosslinked networks) is brittle.
o For thermoplastic polymers, both ductile and brittle modes are possible, and many of these
materials are capable of experiencing a ductile-to-brittle transition.
9.9 Fatigue and Cyclic Stresses
Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic and fluctuating
stresses. The term fatigue is used because this type of failure normally occurs after a lengthy
period of repeated stress or strain cycling.
Fatigue failure is brittlelike in nature even in normally ductile metals, in that there is very
little, if any, gross plastic deformation associated with failure. The process occurs by the
initiation and propagation of cracks, and typically the fracture surface is perpendicular to the
direction of an applied tensile stress.
Applied stress may be axial (tension-compression), flexural (bending), or torsional (twisting)
in nature.
Three different fluctuating stress-time modes are possible
o One is represented schematically by a regular and sinusoidal time dependence where the
amplitude is symmetrical about a mean zero stress level, for example alternating from a
maximum tensile stress to a minimum compresses stress of equal magnitude. This is
referred to as a reversed stress cycle.
o Another type, termed repeated stress cycle, occurs when the maxima and minima are
asymmetrical relative to the zero stress level.
o Lastly, there can be a random variation in amplitude and frequency.

9.10 The S-N Curve

The figure above is a schematic of a rotating-bending test apparatus commonly used for
fatigue testing. The compression and tensile stresses are imposed on the specimen as it is
simultaneously bent and rotated.
Fatigue limit is the point below which fatigue failure will not occur. The fatigue limit
represents the largest value of fluctuating stress that will not cause failure for essentially an
infinite number of cycles.

MOST NONFERROUR ALLOYS (E.G., ALUMINUM, COPPER, MAGNESIUM) DO NOT

HAVE A FATIGUE LIMIT, IN THAT THE S-N CURVE CONTINUES ITS DOWNWARD
TREND AT INCREASINGLY GREATER N VALUES. THUS, FATIGUE WILL
ULTIMATELY OCCUR REGARDLESS OF THE MAGNITUDE OF THE STRESS.
For these materials, one fatigue response is specified as fatigue strength which is defined as
the stress level at which failure will occur for some specified number of cycles.
Another important parameter that characterizes a materials fatigue behavior is fatigue life.
It is the number of cycles to cause failure at a specified stress level, as taken from a S-N plot.
Fatigue data is often scattered, so it is usually graphed to a best fit curve.

9.11 Fatigue in Polymeric Materials

Polymers may experience fatigue under conditions of cyclic loading. As with metals, fatigue
occurs at stress levels that are relative to the low yield strength.
9.12 Crack Initiation and Propagation
The process of fatigue failure is characterized by three distinct steps:
o Crack initiation, in which a small crack forms at some point of high stress concentration.
o Crack propagation, during which this crack advances incrementally with each stress cycle.
o Final failure, which occurs very rapidly once the advancing crack has reached critical size.
Cracks associated with fatigue failure almost always initiate (or nucleate) on the surface of a
component at some point of stress concentration.
The region of a fracture surface that formed during the crack propagation step may be
characterized by two types of markings termed
o Benchmarks are of macroscopic dimensions and may be observed with the unaided eye.
These markings are found for components that experienced interruptions during the crack
propagation stage. Each benchmark band represents a period of time over which crack
growth occurred.
o Striations are microscopic in size and subject to observation with the electron microscope.
Each striation is thought to represent the advance distance of a crack front during a single
load cycle. Striation width depends on, and increases with, increasing stress range.
Benchmarks and striations are fatigue fracture surface features having similar appearances,
but are nevertheless different in both origin and size. There may be thousands of striations
within a single benchmark.
The presence of benchmarks and striations upon examination of the failure indicate that it
was fatigue induced, however, the absence of these features does not exclude fatigue from the
cause of the failure.
9.13 Factors That Affect Fatigue Life
The primary factors of fatigue life include mean stress level, geometrical design, surface
effects, and metallurgical variables, as well as the environment.
o Mean stress is related to S-N plots because it is taken from the stress amplitude that a
material is subject to. Increasing the mean stress level leads to a decrease in fatigue life.
o For many loading situations, the maximum stress within a component or structure occurs
at its surface. Consequently, most cracks leading to fatigue failure originate at surface
positions, specifically at stress amplification sites. Surface effects are dependent on
Design factors can have a significant influence on a components fatigue characteristics.
Any notch or geometrical discontinuity can act as a stress raiser and fatigue crack
initiation site. The sharper the discontinuity (i.e., the smaller the radius of curvature)
the more severe is the stress concentration. Avoid these as much as possible.
Surface treatments can be applied in a variety of ways. The most effective methods of
increase fatigue performance is by imposing residual compressive stresses within a
thin outer surface layer. Thus, a surface tensile stress of external origin will be
partially nullified and reduced in magnitude by the residual compressive stress.
9.14 Environmental Effects
Thermal fatigue is normally induced at elevated temperatures by fluctuating thermal
stresses; mechanical stresses from an external source need not be present.
The magnitude of thermal stress developed by a temperature change depends of the
coefficient of thermal expansion and the modulus of elasticity according to
=
l E T

Thermal stresses will not arise if mechanical restraint is absent.

Failure that occurs by the simultaneous action of a cyclic stress and chemical attack is termed
corrosion fatigue.
o Small pits may form as a result of chemical reactions between the environment of the
material, which may serve as points of stress concentration and therefore as crack
nucleation sites.

CHAPTER 15 Composites
A composite is considered to be any multiphase material that exhibits a significant proportion
of the properties of both constituent phases such that better combination of properties form.
According to this principle of combined action, better property combinations are fashioned by
the judicious combination of two or more distinct materials.
Many composite materials are composed of just two phases: one is termed the matrix, which
is continuous and surrounds the other phase, often called the dispersed phase.

15.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration

The arrangement or orientation of the fibers relative to one another, the fiber concentration,
and the distribution all have a significant influence on the strength and other properties of
fiber-reinforced composites.
With respect to orientation, two extremes are possible: (1) a parallel alignment of the
longitudinal axis of the fibers in a single direction, and (2) a totally random alignment.
Continuous fibers are normally aligned, whereas discontinuous fibers may be aligned,
randomly oriented, or partially oriented. Better overall composite properties are realized
when the fiber distribution is uniform.

The onset of composite failure begins as the fibers start to fracture. Composite failure is not
catastrophic because not all fibers fracture at the same time because there will always be
considerable variations in the fracture strength of brittle fiber materials. Also, even after
fiber failure, the matrix is still intact. Thus, the fractured fibers, which are shorter than the
original ones, are still embedded within the matrix and consequently are capable of
sustaining a diminished load as the matrix continues to plastically deform.
The modulus of elasticity of a continuous and aligned fibrous composite in the direction of
alignment (or longitudinal direction) is
=
Ecl EmVm + E f V f
Ecl = Em (1 V f ) + E f V f

For longitudinal loading, the ratio of the load carried by the fibers to that carried by the
matrix is
Ff E f V f
=
Fm EmVm

A continuous and oriented giber composite may be loaded in the transverse direction, where
the load is applied perpendicular to the direction of fiber alignment
V
V
1
= m + f
Ect Em E f
=
Ect

Em E f
Em E f
=
Vm E f + V f Em (1 V f ) E f + V f Em

Longitudinal tensile strength is defined as

cl* = m' (1 V f ) + *f V f
where m' is the stress in the matrix at fiber failure, and *f is the fiber tensile strength.

For a discontinuous and aligned fiber composite having a uniform distribution of fibers and in
which l < lc the longitudinal strength is given by

*
=
*f V f 1
cd

lc
'
+ m (1 V f )
2l

where *f and m' represent the fracture strength of the fiber and the stress in the matrix when

the composite fails.

However, if the fiber length is less than critical, l < lc , the longitudinal strength is given by

l c
V f + m' (1 V f )
d
For discontinuous and randomly oriented fiber composites, the rule of mixtures expression
for the elastic modulus is
Ecd + KE f V f + EmVm

cd* =
'

where K is a fiber efficiency parameter that depends on V f and the E f / Em ratio.

o The modulus increases with increasing volume fraction of fiber.

Aligned fibrous composites are inherently anisotropic in that the maximum strength and
reinforcement are achieved along the alignment (longitudinal) direction.
In the transverse direction, fiber reinforcement is virtually nonexistent, which means that
fracture usually occurs at relatively low tensile stresses.

15.6 The Fiber Phase

An important characteristic of most materials, especially brittle ones, is that a small diameter
fiber is much stronger than the bulk material. This is a result of the probability of the
presence of a critical surface flaw that can lead to fracture decreases with decreasing
specimen volume, and this feature is used to advantage in fiber-reinforced composites.
Fibers are either polycrystalline or amorphous with small diameters; fibrous materials are
generally either polymers or ceramics.
Whiskers are very thin single crystals that have extremely large length-to-diameter ratios. As
a consequence of their small size, they have a high degree of crystalline perfection and are
virtually flaw-free, which accounts for their exceptionally high strengths. They are among the
strongest known materials.
15.7 The Matrix Phase
The matrix phase of fibrous composites may be a metal, polymer, or ceramic.
Generally, metals and polymers are used as matrix materials because some ductility is
desirable.
The matrix phase serves several different functions
o It binds the fibers together and acts as the medium by which an externally applied stress
is transmitted and distributed to the fibers; only a small proportion of an applied load is
sustained by the matrix phase.
The matrix material should be ductile and the elastic modulus of the fiber should be
much higher than that of the matrix.
o It protects the individual fibers from surface damage as a result of mechanical abrasion or
chemical reactions with the environment. Such interactions may introduce surface flaws
capable of forming cracks, which may lead to failure at low tensile stress levels.
o It separates the fibers and, by virtue of its relative softness and plasticity, it prevents the
propagation of brittle cracks from fiber to fiber. Essentially, the matrix phase serves as a
barrier to crack propagation.
Adhesive bonding forces between fiber and matrix must be high to prevent fiber pullout. The
ultimate strength of the composite depends largely on the magnitude of this bond; adequate
bonding is essential to maximize the stress transmittance from the weak matrix to the strong
fibers of the composite.

15.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites

Polymeric-matrix composites (PMCs) consists of a polymer resin as the matrix and the fibers
as the reinforcement medium.
Fiberglass is a composite consisting of glass fibers, either continuous or discontinuous,
contained within a polymer matrix. Referred to sometimes as E-glass, the fiber diameters
normally range between 3 and 20 micrometers.
Glass is a popular reinforcement material because
o It is easily drawn into high-strength fibers from the molten state.
o It is readily available and may be fabricated into a glass-reinforced plastic economically
using a wide variety of composite-manufacturing techniques.
o As a fiber it is relatively strong, and when embedded in a plastic matrix, it produces a
composite having a very high specific strength.
o When coupled with various plastics, it possesses a chemical inertness that renders the
composite useful in a variety of corrosive environments.
Because the surface characteristics are so important, newly drawn fibers are normally coated
during drawing with a size, a thin layer of substance that protects the fiber surface from
damage and undesirable environmental interactions.
Despite having a high strength, fiberglass is not very stiff and are limited to service
temperatures below 200 degrees Celsius.
Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Composites are more high performance.
o Carbon fiber is the most commonly used reinforcement in advanced polymer-matrix
composites because
Carbon fibers have high specific moduli and specific strengths.
They retain their high tensile modulus and high strength at elevated temperatures,
but are susceptible to high-temperature oxidation.
Carbon fibers are not affected by moisture or a wide variety of solvents, acids, and
bases at room temperature.
These fibers exhibit a diversity of physical and mechanical characteristics, allow
composites incorporating these fibers to have specific engineering properties.
Fiber and composite-manufacturing processes have been developed that are relatively
inexpensive and cost effective.
Hugh-temperature thermoplastic resins offer the potential to be used in future aerospace
applications; such materials include polyetheretherketone (PEEK), poly(phenylene sulfide)
(PPS), and polyetherimide (PEI).
15.11 Carbon-Carbon Composites
One of the most advanced and promising of engineering materials is the carbon-fiber
reinforced carbon-matrix composite, often term a carbon-carbon composite.
Their desirable properties include high tensile moduli and tensile strengths, which are
retained to temperatures in excess of 2000 degrees Celsius, resistance to creep, and relatively
large fracture toughness values. They also have low coefficients of thermal expansion, and
relatively high thermal conductivities which allows them to have a low susceptibility to
thermal shock.
However, their drawback is a propensity to high-temperature oxidation.
15.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Prepreg is the composite industrys term for continuous-fiber reinforcement preimpregnated
with a polymer resin that is only partially cured. This material is delivered in tape form to
the manufacturer, which then directly molds and fully cures the product without having to
add any resin.
The most widely used form of composite material for structural applications.

At room temperature, the thermoset matrix undergoes curing reaction; therefore, the prepreg
is stored at or below freezing.
Actual fabrication begins with the lay-up laying of the prepreg tape onto a tooled surface.
Final curing is accomplished by the simulataneous application of heat and pressure.
Filament winding is a process by which continuous reinforcing fibers are accurately
positioned in a predetermined pattern to form a hollow (usually cylindrical) shape.
o The fibers, either as individual strands or as tows, are first fed through a resin bath and
then are continuously wound onto a mandrel, usually using automated winding
equipment. After the appropriate number of layers have been applied, curing is carried out
either in an oven or at room temperature after which the mandrel is removed.
15.4 Laminar Composites
A structural composite is normally composed of both homogeneous and composite materials,
the properties of which depend not only on the properties of the constituent materials, but
also on the geometrical design of the various structural elements.
A laminar composite is composed of tw-dimensional sheets or panels that have preferred
high-strength direction, such as is found in word and continusous and aligned fiber-reinforced
plastics.
o The layers are stacked and subsequently cemented together such that the orientation of
the high-strength direction varies with each successive layer.
o Laminations may also be constructed using a fibric material such as cotton, paper, or
woven glass gibers embedded in a plastic matrix. Therefore, a laminar composite has a
relatively high strength in a number of directions in the two-dimensional plane; however,
the strength in any given direction is lower than it would be if all the fibers were oriented
in that direction.

15.15 Sandwich Panels

Sandwich panels, considered to be a class of structural composites, are designed to be
lightweight beams or panels having relatively high stiffnesses and strengths.
o A panel consists of two outer sheets, or faces, that are separated by and adhesively bonded
to a thicker core.

Construction:
o The outer sheets ar emade of a relatively stiff and strong material, typically aluminum
alloys, fiber-reinforced plastics, titanium, steel, etc.
o These outer sheets impart high stiffness and strength to the structure and must be thick
enough to withstand tensile and compressive stresses that result from loading.
o The core materials typically consist of either rigid polymeric foams, wood, and honeycomes
that are lightweight and normally have a low modulus of elasticity.
o The core provides continuous support for the faces. Additionally, it must have sufficient
shear strength to withstand transverse shear stresses and also be thick enough to provide
high shear stiffness (to resist buckling of the panel).
Another popular core consists of a honeycomb structure thin foils that have been formed
into interlocking hexagonal cells with aces oriented perpendicular to the face planes.

o The honeycomb material is normally either an aluminum alloy or an aramid polymer.

o Strength and stuffness of honeycomb structures depend on cell size, cell wall thickness,
and the material from which the honeycomb was made.