Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

1.0 Solving problems

Application of the Bernoulli theorem should be rational and
systematic.
Suggested procedure is as follows:
(i) Draw a sketch of the system and label all cross sections of
the stream under consideration.
(ii) Apply the Bernoulli equation in the direction of flow. Select a
datum plan for each equation written.
(iii) Evaluate the energy upstream at section 1. The energy can
be given in terms of heads (in m). Evaluate the total head at
section 2. Use average velocities and gauge pressures where
possible.

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

(iv)Add any energy contributed by mechanical device, such as
pumps, and subtract any energy loss during the flow or
energy extracted by mechanical devices, such as turbines.
(v) Use the above information in the Bernoullis equation.
(vi)
If the velocities at the two sections are unknown, use the
equation of continuity to relate them and, hence, solve the
problem.

1.1 The Pitot tube

The Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of a stream and
consists of a simple L-shaped tube facing in the oncoming flow.
Referring to fig. 1, if the velocity of the stream at A is u, a
particle moving from A to the mouth of the tube B will be
brought to rest so that u0 at B is zero.

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

h
z
u
p

u0
p0

Fig 1(a)
Pipe wall

Static pressure

Flush finish
Flow

Impact hole

Fig. 1(b)
Applying Bernoullis theorem,
Total energy per = Total energy per unit

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

unit weight at A weight at B
u2/2g + p/g = u02/2g + p0 /g
p0 /g = u2/2g + p/g
Thus p0 will be greater than p.

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

Now,
p/g = z and p0 /g = h + z
Therefore,
u2/2g = (p0 p) /g = h
Velocity at A = u = (2gh)
When the pitot tube is used in a channel, the value of h can be
determined directly, but if it to be used in a pipe, the difference
between the static pressure and the pressure at the impact hole
must be measured with a differential pressure gauge, as shown in
fig. 1 (b).

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

Theoretically, the measured velocity u = (2gh), but Pitot tubes
may require calibration. The true velocity is given by u =
C(2gh), where C is the coefficient of the instrument.

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

1.2 Changes of pressure in a tapering pipe

Changes of velocity in a tapering pipe were determined using the
continuity of flow equation. Change of velocity will be
accompanied by a change in the kinetic energy per unit weight and
consequently, by a change in pressure, modified by any change of
elevation or energy loss, which can be determined by the use of
Bernoullis equation.

Example
A pipe is inclined at 450 to the horizontal converges over a length l
of 2 m from the diameter d1 of 200 mm diameter to a diameter d2
of 100 mm at the upper end. Oil of relative density 0.9 flows
through the pipe at a mean velocity v at the lower end at 2 ms-1.
_

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

Find the pressure difference across the 2 m length ignoring any
loss of energy, and the difference in level that would be shown on
the mercury manometer, specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 and the
leads to the manometer are filled with the oil.
v2
l=2m

p2
p1
d1 = 200 mm

45 0

d2 = 100 mm

z2

z1
h

v1

x
Mercury

Let A1, v , p1, d1, z1 and A2, v , p2, d2, z2 be the area, mean velocity,
pressure, diameter and elevation at the lower and upper sections,
_

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

respectively. For continuity of flow, assuming the density of the oil
to be constant,
A1

v1

= A2

v2

So that
_

v2

= (A1/A2) v

_
1

A1 = (/4) d12 and A2 = (/4) d22

Thus,

v2

= (A1/A2) = (0.2/0.1)22 = 8 ms-1

_

v1

Applying Bernoullis equation to the lower and upper sections

assuming no energy losses,
Total energy per = Total energy per unit weight at

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

v1

unit weight at
section 2
section 1
2
/2g + p1/oilg +
= v 2/2g + p2 /oilg + z2
z1
p1 - p2 = oil( v 2 - v 2) + oilg ( z2- z1)
_

Now,
z2- z1 = l sin 450 = 20.707 = 1.414 m
And, since the relative density of the oil is 0.9, then oil = 0.91000
= 900 kg/m3. Substituting in equation (1),
p1 - p2 = 900 (82-22) + 9009.811.414
= 39484 Nm-2

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

For the manometer, the pressure in each limb will be the same at
the level XX;
Therefore,
p1 + oilg z1 = p2 + oilg(z2 - h) + mangh

p p

h = g z z
oil = 0.91000 = 900 kg/m3 and man = 13.61000 = 13600 kg/m3
h = [0.9/(13.6-0.9)][39484/(9009.81)-1.414] m
= 0.217 m
oil

man

oil

oil

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

1.3 Principle of the venturimeter

Diverging cone

Throat

Converging cone

(2)
Entry

(1)

h
z1

z2

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

Pressure difference can be used to determine the volume flow rate
of flow for
any particular configuration.
The venturimeter uses this effect for measurement of flow in
pipelines.
It consists of a short converging conical tube leading to a
cylindrical portion, called the throat, of smaller diameter than that
of the pipeline, which is followed by a diverging section in which
the diameter increases again to that of the main pipeline.
The pressure difference from which the volume flow rate can be
determined is measured between the entry section1 and the throat
section 2, often by means of a U-tube manometer.

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

The axis of the meter may be inclined at any angle.

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

Assuming that there is no loss of energy, and applying Bernoullis
equation to section 1and 2,
p
v
p
v

z
z
g 2g
g 2g
2

v22 v12 = 2g[(p1 - p2)/g +( z1 -z2 )]

(2)
For continuous flow,
A1

v1

= A2

v2

So that
_

v2

Substituting in equation (2),

= (A1/A2) v

_
1

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

v12[(A1/A2)-1] = 2g[(p1 - p2)/g +( z1 -z2 )]
v
1

A
A A
2

1/ 2

p p

z z
g

2g

Volume flow rate,

Q = A1 v = [A1A2/(A12 A22)1/2](2gH)
_

Where H = [(p1 - p2)/g +( z1 -z2 )] if m = A1/A2

Q = [A1/(m2-1)1/2](2gH)

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

In practice some losses will occur between section 1 and 2. The
value of Q given by the above equations is a theoretical value
which will be slightly greater than the actual value. The coefficient
of discharge Cd is therefore, introduced:
Actual discharge, Qactual = Cd Qtheoretical
The value of H can be found from the reading of the U-tube gauge.
Assuming that the connections to the gauge are filled with the fluid
flowing in the pipeline, which has density , and that the density of
the manometric liquid in the bottom of the U-tube is man, then,
since pressures at level XX must be the same in both limbs,
px = p1 + (g z1-z) = p2 + g(z2 - z- h) + mangh
Rearranging,

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

H = [(p1 - p2)/g +( z1 -z2 )] = h (
Therefore,

Q = [A1/(m2-1)1/2] 2 gh 1
man

man
1

)
(3)

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

Problem
Kerosene (SG = 0.85) flows through the Venturimeter
shown below a with flowrates between 0.005 and 0.050 m3/s.

Determine the range in pressure difference, p1 - p2, needed to

measure these flowrates.

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

Answer:
Use Bernoullis equation.
p
v
p
v

z
z
g 2g
g 2g
2

Required: p1 - p2
z1 =z2
v1 and v2 can be determined from flowrates.
The pressure difference for the smallest flowrate is 1.16 kPa
Likewise, the pressure difference for the largest flowrate is 116 kPa

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

1.4 Pipe orifices
The venturimeter operates by changing the cross section of the
flow. A similar effect can be achieved by inserting an orifice plate
which has an opening in it smaller than the internal diameter of the
pipeline. The orifice plate produces a constriction of the flow.

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

The arrangement is cheap compared to a venturimeter, but there
are substantial energy losses. The theoretical discharge can be
calculated, but the actual discharge may be as little as two-thirds of
this value. A coefficient must therefore be introduced. A typical
value for a sharp-edged orifice is 0.65.
Theory of small orifices discharging to the atmosphere:
An orifice in the side or base of a tank is an opening, usually
circular through which fluid is discharged in the form of a jet,
usually into the atmosphere. The volume of fluid discharged will
depend upon the head of the fluid above the level of the orifice and
it can, therefore, be use as a means of flow measurement. The term
small orifice is applied to an orifice which has a diameter, or

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

vertical dimension, which is small compared with the head
producing the flow from point to point across the orifice.

(1)
v1
h

v2
(2)

Application of the Bernoullis equation between points (1) and (2)

gives:
2

z1

v2
2g

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

The reservoir is open to the atmosphere, therefore, p1= 0 (gauge
pressure) and p2 is also equal to 0 (because it leaves as a free jet).
The reservoir is large, therefore v1 is taken as 0 compared to v2. z2 =
0 and z1 = h.
2

v
h 2
2g

v2 = (2gh)
This is a statement of Toricellis Theorem, that is the velocity of
the issuing jet is proportional to the square root of the head
producing the flow.
Discharge, Q = Area velocity
= A(2gh)

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

In practice actual discharge is less than the theoretical discharge
given above, which must therefore be modified by introducing a
coefficient of discharge Cd, so that
Actual discharge, Qactual = Cd Qtheoretical
= Cd A(2gh)

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

There are two reasons for the difference between the theoretical
and actual discharges. First, the velocity of the jet is less than that
given by (2gh) because there is loss of energy between section 1
and section 2.
Actual velocity at section 2 = Cv v = Cv(2gh)
Where Cv is the coefficient of velocity which has to b determined
experimentally and is of the order of 0.97.
Because of the vena contracta at section 2, the actual area of the jet
at section 2 is equal to CcA, where Cc is the coefficient of
contraction. For a sharp-edged orifice of t form shown, it is of the
order of 0.64.
Actual discharge = Actual area at B Actual velocity at B

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

Therefore

= CcA Cv(2gh)
= CcCv A (2gh)
Cd = Cc Cv

The values of the coefficient of discharge, the coefficient of

velocity and the coefficient of contraction are determined
experimentally and values are available for standard configurations
in BS specifications.
Generally coefficients can be obtained as follows:
Coefficient of discharge = Actual discharge / Theoretical discharge
Coefficient of contraction = Area of jet at the vena contracta/Area
of the orifice
Coefficient of velocity = Velocity at th vena contracta/ Theoretical
velocity

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

Example
A jet of water discharges horizontally into the atmosphere from an
orifce in the vertical side of a large open-topped tank. Drive an
expression for the actual velocity v of a jet at the vena contracta if
the it falls a distance y vertially in a horizontal distance x,
measured from the vena contracta. If the head of water above the
orifice is H, calculate the coefficient of velocity.

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

v
A

If the orifice has an area of 650 mm2 and the jet falls a distance y of
0.5 m in a horizontal distance x of 1.5 m from the vena contracta,
calculate the values of the coefficients of velocity, discharge and
contraction, given that the volume rate of flow is 0.117 m 3 and the
head H above the orifice is 1.2 m.

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

Let t be the time taken for a particle of fluid to travel from the vena
contracta A to point B. Then,
x = vt and y = gt2 then v = x/t and t = (2y/g)
Eliminating t,
Velocity at the vena contracta, v = (gx2/2y)
This is the actual velocity of the jet at the vena contracta.
Theoretical velocity = (2gH)
Coefficient of velocity = Actual velocity/ Theoretical velocity
= v/(2gH)
= v/(x2/4yH)
Putting x = 1.5 m, y = 0.5 m, H= 1.2 m area A= 65010-6 m2,

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem

Coefficient of velocity,
Cv = 0.968.
Coefficient of discharge, Cd = Qactual/[A (2gh)]
= (0.117/60)[65010-6(29.811.2)
= 0.618
Coefficient of contraction, Cc = Cd /Cv = 0.618/0.968 = 0.639