Mix design hints for

fly-ash concrete
A waste product is now salvaged and is used as an
admixture for concrete.
iscarded as a waste product for many years, fly ash
is today considered a good
admixture for concrete.
Fly ash is a finely divided residue
that is usually the result of the combustion of powdered coal in boilers
at about 2,500 degrees Fahrenheit
collected by precipitators. There
was a time when power plants, steel
mills and other large producers of
this form of pozzolan paid to have
the byproduct hauled away. That
was until fly ash was discovered to
be a useful product.
The characteristics of fly ash that
make it valuable for use in concrete
are its (1) high fineness, (2) low carbon content, (3) uniformity, (4) high
percentage of fused silica and (5)
mostly spherical shape, which contributes toward great plasticity.
The balance of these attributes,
working together with the other materials in fly ash, determines its ultimate value in concrete.
The three reasons for which fly
ash is most commonly employed in
concrete mixtures are: (1) to increase cementitious compounds
developed; (2) to correct deficiency
in the extreme fines in some sands;
and (3) to counteract or reduce cement-aggregate reactions or damage due to sulphate attack.

General considerations
Before dealing specifically with
the development of a mix design using fly ash in these three applications, let us explore the general nature of fly ash and its actions in
concrete.
The silica found in fly ash combines with the lime liberated as cement hydrates in forming cementi-

tious compounds, adding appreciably to the development of strength,

durability and other performance
qualities important in concrete. Of
course, this action continues only as
long as the cement hydrates and liberates lime. Many believe this characteristic renders fly ash useful as a
cementitious substance only when
the concrete undergoes an extended period of wet curing.
Test reports showing this vulnerability were made with concrete
where cement was replaced with fly
ash on a volume-per-volume basis
up to 30 percent as in mass concrete. Later studies where the mix
was reproportioned to give equal
28-day strengths of the fly ash mix
to the control mix showed no such
evidence. (See NRMCA Report No.
53 Effect of Curing Conditions on
Compressive Strength of Concrete
Test Specimens by Delmar L.
Bloem.)
For many years fly ash was used
chiefly in mass concrete where its
slower strength-gaining curve, its
fineness (which helps compensate
for the lack of cement fines in lean
mass-concrete mixtures), and reduction in heat of hydration peaks
all helped to achieve the performance qualities desired. Fly ash, or
some other pozzolan, is still used in
virtually all mass concrete for dams.
Recent tests and field uses have
shown that fly ash in a concrete
mixture can prove valuable in many
other types of applications. No
longer is it uncommon to hear of
using fly ash concrete for industrial
floors, high-rise building construction, residential construction, precast products, tunnels, and other
common applications.

Increase strength, economy

Because it is much lower in cost
than portland cement and can develop cementitious products, fly ash
can be used as an economical cement replacement material to increase strengths.
Fly ashes can vary greatly from
generating station to generating station in their ability to contribute to
strength development. Howe ve r,
once this ability is proved by tests as
given in ASTM C-618, it remains
uniform. Ability will hinge on such
matters as the chemical and physical properties of the fly ash itself, the
characteristics of the other mix ingredients (especially the cement),
and such jobsite conditions as temperature and curing.
Reputable sellers of fly ash for
concrete will provide information
on its physical and chemical characteristics, and such data is valuable
in forming an initial evaluation of its
applicability to a job.
There are no established physical
and chemical criteria for determining the value of a given fly ash as a
concrete admixture. Therefore, it is
advisable to test a fly ash with the
materials with which it will be used.
Less easy to ascertain, but highly
important in deciding whether to
use a fly ash, will be its uniformity.
As previously noted, if the fly ash is
received from a station that is on
uniform load, and if its quality has
been checked out against ASTM
Standards, it is probable that it will
actually contribute to the uniformity of the concrete. On the other
hand, a fly ash that varies during the
progress of a project will necessitate
frequent adjustments of the mix
proportions and an undesirably
high coefficient of variation. Ask for
the names of other firms that have
used fly ash for long periods of time
to ascertain their experience.
In addition to the quality of the fly
ash and job concreting practices,
the percentage of cement replaced
will also determine the effect on
strength (and other concrete properties). Ordinarily reduction of cement will range from 10 to 30 percent to give equal early strength.*

If fly ash is being employed to increase strength, it will most likely be

used as an admixture. That is, it will
be in addition to the regular amount
of cement and not a partial substitute for it. This holds true in the majority of projects. In jobs for which
the specifications are aimed at a given strength at 3 months or more,
some fly ashes may be of value even
as a partial cement replacement.
Howe ve r, the replacement of as
little as 10 percent of the cement
with a like amount of fly ash will reduce all strengths up to and including 28 days. Proper proportioning
technique gives desired strength at
any age.
When the weight of fly ash is
greater than the weight of the cement it replaces, the strength loss, if
any, is often reduced. On the other
hand, used as an admixture, it will
usually cause an increase in
strength at all ages, although its effect here will be more noticeable at
3 or more months.
When fly ash is employed as an
economy measure, it is best to test
the fly ash thoroughly with the mix
designs in which it will be used and
compute the real cost of obtaining
and storing the fly ash and batching
the concrete. Although one of the
main advantages of fly ash in concrete is its fineness, this characteristic can be bothersome when handling the material in much the
manner as handling cement. It must
be transported and stored, separate
batching equipment is needed, and
precautions must be taken against
dust collecting to prevent a neighborhood nuisance. The additional
cost of handling this extra cement
must be included if a true comparison of material costs is to be made.
Relatively little fly ash is used in
concrete in an effort to economize
in materials, with mass concrete being the exception. In this case its
other attributes of providing fines in
lean mixes and lowering heat of hydration peaks account for a great
deal of the acceptance it enjoys.

Corrects fines deficiency

Fly ash can be used effectively to

John Hancock Center,

Chicagos new towering
landmark, stands on fly
ash concrete.

Fly ash aggregate went

into lightweight
concrete for the West
Virginia University
Coliseum.

correct a deficiency in fines (especially material passing the No. 200

sieve) in concrete sands. Proper use
of fly ash under these circumstances
reduces the amount and rate of
bleeding, increases workability, and
improves finishability, especially of
lean mixtures.
Generally speaking, the higher
the specific surface (fineness) of the
fly ash, the greater its effect on increasing workability. Unlike some
other fine pozzolanic materials, fly
ash does not usually increase the
water demand and likewise will not
affect shrinkage.
If adding a finely divided material
would be beneficial to your concrete, fly ash can prove to be most

valuable. The main factors to consider are its availability and cost,
and its effect on concrete performance. The former can be checked
easily through a local fly ash supplier, but the latter can be determined
accurately only by conducting your
own tests.

Combats undesirable reactions

Alkali-aggregate reaction is a destructive phenomenon encountered in concrete in some areas. The
alkalies in certain cements (the
sodium and potassium) react with
siliceous constituents of certain aggregates to form products of greater
volume than the combined volumes
of the reactive materials.

Table IChemical Requirements for Fly Ash

Bureau of
Reclamation
Silicon dioxide (SiO2)+aluminum
oxide (Al2O3)+ferric oxide (Fe2O3)
not less than
Magnesium oxide (MgO), not more than
Sulfur trioxide (SO3), not more than
Loss on ignition, not more than
Moisture content, not more than
Exchangeable alkalies as Na2O, not
more than

Corps of
Engineers

ASTM

75.0
5.0
4.0
5.0
3.0

70.0
5.0
4.0
6.0
3.0

70.0
...
5.0
12.0
3.0

2.0

1.5

1.5

Table IIPhysical Requirements for Fly Ash

Bureau of

Corps of

ASTM

Reclamation Engineers
Fineness
Mean particle diameter, microns,
not more than

.....

.....

9.0

7000

6500

......

12

......

......

Specific surface, Blaine air permeability apparatus, cm2/cc, not

less than
Material retained on No. 325 mesh
sieve, percent, not more than
Compressive strength
With portland cement, percent of
control, 28 days, not less than
with lime, 7 days, min. psi

80

75

85

800

900

800

0.04

......

0.03

103

0*

105

60

75

......

.....

.....

0.020

Increase in drying shrinkage of mortar bar, percent shrinkage of

pozzolan bar minus percent shrinkage of control bar, not more than
Water requirement, percent, not more
than
Reduction of reactive expansion at
14 days, percent, not less than
Mortar expansion at 14 days, percent,
not more than

General mix design

Soundness, autoclave expansion,

percent, not more than

This creates a destructive expansive force within the concrete mass,

which manifests itself in cracking
and spalling. Under field conditions
it has been found that the avoidance
of cements with a high alkali content (more than 0.60 percent Na2O)
or the use of non-reactive aggregates is an effective safeguard
against this reaction.
However, it is not always practicable to use cement and aggregates
that conform to these requirements.
Then it may be possible to eliminate
or lessen the chances for an alkaliaggregate reaction by using fly ash.
Fly ashes are usually not as effective in reducing this phenomenon
as are materials that are high in opal
content. However, if fly ash is readily available locally, it is worth trying
in concretes where a borderline reaction is occurring. Typically, from
20 to 35 percent fly ash is used by
weight of the cement. Never use fly
ash in concentrations of 10 percent
or less in concrete that is susceptible to alkali-aggregate reaction,
because it may actually increase
the rate and amount of the phenomenon.
Fly ash has proved to be of great
value in combating deterioration of
concrete subjected to sulfate attack.
It has also been used in concrete exposed to sea water, and sulfate- or
acid-bearing soil waters. It is especially helpful in cases where a lowcement-content concrete has been
specified. It is generally used at a
rate of 1 part fly ash to form 2 to 5
parts portland cement, either by
weight or absolute volume. According to Report No. C-1224 by the Division of Research, U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation, all fly ashes tested
greatly improved the resistance of
concrete to sulfate attack regardless
of the type of cement used.

...

0.50

0.50

* This specification requires that a mortar with a natural pozzolan and 115 percent of the water content of the control mortar or with a fly-ash pozzolan and
103 percent of the water content of the control shall have a flow equal to or
greater than that of the control.

The foregoing states a number of

facts that will bear on the proportions of a mix design incorporating
fly ash. These include such matters
as checking on the effect of using a
very fine material with the cement
content and gradation of the fine

aggregates to be used; determining

the optimum fly ash content for the
purpose intended; and obtaining a
chemical and physical analysis of
the fly ash to help ascertain its effectiveness in combating an undesirable reaction or to predict its effect
for the application in question.

Air entrainment
There are some additional matters that should be kept in mind
when designing a fly ash mix. While
a low-carbon fly ash uniformly passing specifications in all respects has
about the same air-entraining agent
demand as an equivalent volume of
portland cement, a fly ash of highcarbon content and non-uniformity
can produce difficulty in maintaining uniformity of air content. With
some fly ashes in certain concrete
mixtures, it is necessary to increase
the amount of the air-entraining
agent as much as four times or more
than needed with a mix not incorporating fly ash.
Since air-entraining admixtures
are organic, this sometimes leads to
problems in maintaining strength
and durability. In addition, because
the amount of the air-entraining
agent needed hinges on fineness
and carbon content of the fly ash,
factors that can vary considerably in
some fly ashes, it may be a problem
keeping the air content within acceptable tolerances.
Although many fly ashes do not
increase the water demand of a mix
and do increase the impermeability
of the concrete, care should be taken to avoid one that is course or has
a high-carbon content when watertightness and volume stability are
needed properties.
Avoid using fly ash in a high-cement-content mix, except in the
case of sands considerably deficient

in extreme fines, because water demand can go up. If a water-reducing agent is used in the mix (standard practice for fly ash mixes), the
quantity of the agent used should be
computed based on the total
amount of both cement and fly ash
used.
When designing a concrete mixture employing fly ash (either for additional strength or as an economy
measure), first clearly define the
concrete performance features
wanted. Then design a regular mix
to act as a guideline. Often a standard mix design will already have
been prepared for the type of concrete needed. Afterward, design and
mix a batch of the fly-ash-concrete
alternative.
Compare the strength developed
and the water demand. Compare
the workability and finishability. By
such comparisons the designer
should either be able to adjust the
proportions and come up with a
workable mix design or come to the
conclusion that the plain mixture is
preferable.
Fly ash is definately taking an increasingly important place in concrete construction, both in amount
used and in the diversity of applications. Recently a new association,
the National Ash Association, was
formed in Washington, D.C., to promote the sale of fly ash. In Canada, a
firm is building a prototype $1.5
million plant near Toronto, which
will be devoted exclusively to processing fly ash for use as a concrete
admixture. The plant will have a capacity of 200,000 tons annually and
is just the first in a number of such
plants planned for Canada.

Summary
Quality concrete is produced by
giving careful attention to the quali-

ty of its ingredients and exercising

close control of mixing and placing
procedures. ASTM Standards are
available to cover all ingredients
normally used in concrete, including cements, aggregates and admixtures. ACI provides recommended
practices that can be followed in
putting the ingredients together to
obtain desired results. Specifically,
we have attempted in this article to
cover the contribution of fly ash in
achieving quality concrete.
Simple tests are: (1) check fly ash
for passing ASTM C-618, (2) determine, by a series of tests, whether
the fly ash uniformly passes this test
requirement, (3) prepare laboratory
test mixes of concrete to achieve desired results, (4) make sure quality
control measures are employed that
will assure field concrete of a quality
consistent with laboratory concrete.
We can expect to see increasingly
large amounts of the 30 million tons
of fly ash produced annually in the
United States and Canada find its
way into concrete. If used knowledgeably, it can pave another way to
increasing the versatility and quality
of our already uniquely versatile
material.

* See Lovewell, C. E., and Washa,

George W., Proportioning Concrete
Mixtures Using Fly Ash, ACI Journal,
Proceedings, V. 54, No. 12, June 1958,
pp. 1093-1102.
This is the fifth in a series of articles on
mix design. Others appeared in September 1968 and January, March and
May 1969.

PUBLICATION#C690263
Copyright 1969, The Aberdeen Group
All rights reserved