10

Protection and Control Schemes

Protective relays interpret physical quantities provided by instrument
transformers. However, protective relays are only part of the protection
and control scheme needed to properly detect and isolate abnormal system conditions. The complete package includes auxiliary relays, timers,
interposing relays, interlocks, programmable logic, control power, circuitbreaker trip and close circuits, internal cabinet wiring, and cabinet-tocabinet cabling.
Protection and control logic can be illustrated on control elementary
diagrams, logic diagrams, ladder logic diagrams, or schematic diagrams.
These diagrams are supplemented by one-line diagrams, current elementary drawings, voltage elementary drawings, relay instruction manuals,
component wiring diagrams, and other wiring drawings.
Traditionally, protective relay schemes have been designed with the
underlying assumption that failure to trip is the worst possible outcome.
This has led to the development of fully redundant schemes in which
either scheme can, by itself, initiate circuit-breaker tripping. Other industries, most notably the nuclear power industry, have developed protective
schemes that are both redundant and secure from undesired tripping when
single failures are considered. Both types of schemes will be addressed.
Simplified current and voltage elementary diagrams are illustrated in
the following figures. For simplicity, these figures show only single-phase
connections. Figure10.1 illustrates connections between current transformers and current actuated relays that require only a single current input.
Figure 10.2 illustrates connections between current transformers and
current actuated relays that require two current inputs. When more than
one input is supplied to a relay, CT polarities and relay polarities must be
noted on all elementary diagrams.
Figure 10.3 illustrates connections between voltage transformers and
voltage actuated relays that require only a single voltage input.
Figure 10.4 illustrates connections between voltage transformers and
voltage actuated relays that require two voltage inputs. When more than
one input is supplied to a relay, VT polarities and relay polarities must be
noted on all elementary diagrams.
Figure10.5 illustrates connections between current transformers, voltage transformers, and impedance relays that require both current and
voltage inputs. When more than one input is supplied to a relay, CT polarities, VT polarities, and relay polarities must be noted on all elementary
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Protective Relay Principles

Power Conductor

Current
Transformer

Current Relay

Termination
Polarity Mark
Internal Panel Wiring
Panel to Panel Cable
Figure10.1
Simplified current elementary diagramone relay, one CT.

Power
Conductor 1

Power
Conductor 2

CT 1

Current Relay

CT 2

CT 1
CT 2
Termination
Polarity Mark
Internal Panel Wiring
Panel to Panel Cable

Figure10.2
Simplified current elementary diagramone relay, two CTs.

diagrams. Note also that the power conductor between the CT and the VT
must be continuous; otherwise the relationship between current and voltage cannot be maintained.
Figure10.6 illustrates redundant current transformers installed on both
sides of a transmission-class circuit breaker. One set of CTs would be provided on the bus side for each of two sets of transmission-line relays and
one set of CTs would be provided on the line side for each of two sets of
bus differential relays. The CTs are connected so that the circuit breaker is
included in overlapping zones of protection.
Figure 10.7 illustrates how redundancy is achieved for voltage transformers installed for transmission system protection. A voltage transformer with one primary winding and multiple secondary windings is
connected to each phase. One secondary winding would be connected
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Power Conductor

Voltage
Transformer

Voltage Relay

Termination
Polarity Mark
Internal Panel Wiring
Panel to Panel Cable

Figure10.3
Simplified voltage elementary diagramone relay, one VT.
Power Conductor 2

Power Conductor 1

VT 1

Voltage Relay

VT 2

Termination
Polarity Mark
Internal Panel Wiring
Panel to Panel Cable
Figure10.4
Simplified voltage elementary diagramone relay, two VTs.

to the Scheme I protective relays and one secondary winding would be

connected to the Scheme II protective relays.
Figure10.8 illustrates a simplified trip circuit for a circuit breaker that
can be tripped by a local control switch, protective relay(s), and a remotely
controlled device (supervisory control). The trip coil is energized via a DC
power supply. The trip coil is a small solenoid that releases energy stored
in a spring, pneumatic, or hydraulic actuator. Actuators, rather than very
large solenoids, are preferred to open and close circuit breakers. The circuit breaker position switch interrupts current through the trip coil when
the circuit breaker opens. The circuit-breaker closed indicator is usually a
low wattage light with a red lens cap.
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Protective Relay Principles

Power
Conductor

VT

Impedance Relay

CT

Termination
Polarity Mark
Internal Panel Wiring
Panel to Panel Cable
Figure10.5
Simplified current and voltage elementary diagram for an impedance relay.
Substation Bus
Scheme I
Line Prot
CTs

Scheme II
Line Prot
CTs

Power
Circuit
Breaker

Scheme I
Bus Di CTs

Scheme II
Bus Di CTs
Transmission
Line Conductor

Protective
Relays

Relay Operation Trips Circuit Breaker

Figure10.6
Simplified current elementary diagram showing redundant CTs.

The fuse can be placed in the positive leg, the negative leg, or both the
positive and negative legs of the DC power supply. (All DC circuits at a
substation must be fused the same.)
Figure 10.9 illustrates a simplified close circuit for a circuit breaker
that can be closed by local control switch, reclosing relay, and a remotely
controlled device (supervisory control). The close coil can be energized
via AC or DC power. Like a trip coil, a close coil is a small solenoid that
releases energy stored in a spring, pneumatic, or hydraulic actuator. The
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Protection and Control Schemes

Power Conductor

Sec. Winding 1

Scheme I Relay

Sec. Winding 2

Scheme II Relay

Voltage
Transformer

Termination
Polarity Mark
Internal Panel Wiring
Panel to Panel Cable
Figure10.7
Simplified voltage elementary diagram showing redundant VTs.

Fuse

Control
Switch

Protective
Relay(s)

DC Power

Trip
Coil

Remote
Control
Device

Trip
Signals

CB
Closed
Indicator

52 a (Circuit Breaker Position Switch)

Solid Link
Termination
Figure10.8
Simplified circuit-breaker trip circuit.

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Protective Relay Principles

Fuse

Control
Switch

AC PowerDistr CBs
DC PowerTrans CBs

Remote
Control
Device

Reclosing
Relay

Initiate
Closing

CB Open
Indicator

Protective
Relay
Block
Closing
Interlocks

Local
Remote
CB
Close
Circuitry

Anti-pumping
Logic and other
Permissives

52 b
(Circuit Breaker Position Switch)
Solid Link

Termination

Figure10.9
Simplified circuit-breaker close circuit.

circuit-breaker position switch interrupts current through the close coil

when the circuit breaker closes. The circuit-breaker open indicator is usually a low wattage light with a green lens cap.
Of special concern is that circuit breakers close only once, that is, do not
close, trip, and close repeatedly. Therefore, circuit breakers are equipped
with antipumping schemes, supplied by the circuit-breaker manufacturer,
to prevent repeated closing actuations. Block closing contacts are connected in series with close coil circuitry in order to prevent closing when
a circuit breaker is tripped via control switch or supervisory. Closing may
be blocked when some protective relays actuate but allowed when other
protective relays actuate.
DC power is used for circuit-breaker closing when it may be necessary
to close a circuit breaker to establish AC power feeds. AC power is used

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169

for circuit-breaker closing when AC power must be available before specific circuit breakers can be closed.
Usually, for simple control schemes, such as those for a 12-KV circuit
breaker that feeds a distribution line, the current elementary diagram,
voltage elementary diagram, circuit-breaker trip circuit, and circuitbreaker close circuit are shown on one drawing. More complex schemes,
such as those for transmission lines with redundant relaying, are shown
on several drawingsone for current elementary diagrams, one for voltage elementary diagrams, one for the Scheme I relaying, and one for the
Scheme II relaying. Wiring is usually shown on separate drawings.
When working with electromechanical and solid-state equipment, auxiliary relays, timers, interposing relays, and interlocks are used to set
up desired control scheme action. When working with microprocessorbased equipment, program instructions are used to set up desired control scheme action. In either case, drawings are used to illustrate control
scheme logic. An important consideration when developing elementary
diagrams is the inclusion of legends in the database. Otherwise, elementary diagrams may be misinterpreted. Interlocks can be manual or automatic, electromechanical or program instructions.
An example of an automatic interlock would be the interlock used with
low-set instantaneous overcurrent relays on overhead distribution lines
shown in Figure10.10.
Low-set instantaneous overcurrent relays are set at a relatively low
value, such as two or three times maximum circuit load. The theory is
that most overhead distribution line faults are transient and that if a fault
is detected and isolated quickly, the distribution line can be returned to
service without a significant outage to customers served by that line. An
interlock in the control scheme blocks the low-set instantaneous overcurrent relays from tripping the associated circuit breaker unless the circuit
breaker has remained closed for some predetermined time. The reset of
this type of interlock is hardwired, whether the protective relays are electromechanical, solid-state, or microprocessor-based, since reset is based
on circuit breaker status and the duration that a circuit breaker is closed.
An example of a manual interlock would be a blocking switch that prevents underfrequency relays from tripping selected feeder breakers at distribution substations as shown in Figure10.11.
One underfrequency relay cabinet is used for all feeders in a substation.
Blocking switches, which are manually opened or closed in individual
feeder circuit-breaker trip and close schemes, determine whether or not
the underfrequency relaying scheme is permitted to trip specific feeder
circuit breakers at the substation.
Auxiliary relays do not receive the attention given to protective relays
because their operation is predetermined (individual settings are not

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Protective Relay Principles

Fuse

50 (Inst.)

Control
Switch

51
CBX
CBX
CB
Closed
Timer

DC Power
Trip
Coil

52 a
(Circuit Breaker Position Switch)
Solid Link

Termination

Figure10.10
Instantaneous overcurrent relay, block tripping circuitry.

developed for each application). Nevertheless, auxiliary relay characteristics and auxiliary relay response need to be properly addressed in order to
ensure that protection and control schemes meet design intent.
Usual practice is to minimize the use of low-voltage fuses in power
circuit-breaker trip circuits. This minimizes the possibility that a lowvoltage DC fuse opens inadvertently and removes control power from a
circuit-breaker trip coil.
Low-voltage fuses, when used in trip circuits, are sized as large as possible in order to further minimize the possibility of inadvertent fuse opening. Fuses are sized to protect wire from damage in the event that a trip
coil fails.
The use of timers can be illustrated by discussing the application of
phase distance relays. The phase distance relay that is used to provide
instantaneous detection and isolation of phase faults on the first 90% of a
transmission line (Zone 1) is identical to the phase distance relay that is
used to provide detection and isolation of phase faults on the last 10% of
a transmission line (Zone 2). Both relays are bipolar devices; that is, their
output contacts are either open or closed.

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Protection and Control Schemes

Fuse

Control
Switch

81
MT

51

81
BLK

(Manual)

DC Power
Trip Coil

52 a
(Circuit Breaker
Position Switch)
Solid Link
Figure10.11
Underfrequency relay, block tripping circuitry.

The Zone-1 relay is allowed to trip its associated circuit breaker directly
because it is known that any time the Zone-1 relay actuates, there must be
a fault on the protected line.
The Zone-2 relay, on the other hand, will overreach the protected line.
This is necessary so that when inaccuracies are taken into account, there
is an assurance that line-end faults can be detected and isolated. Since the
Zone-1 and Zone-2 relays are identical devices, the difference in circuitbreaker opening time is due to control scheme interlocks. Specifically, the
Zone-2 relay actuates a timer, usually set for about 0.4 seconds, and the
timerwhen it times outtrips the circuit breaker.
Zone-1 and Zone-2 circuit-breaker trip circuits are shown in
Figure10.12.

10.1Alternative Protective Relay Trip Logic

Traditional protective relaying schemes use simple logic (one protective
relay per function and one circuit-breaker trip circuit). Some protective
relaying schemes use redundant logic (two protective relays per function and two circuit-breaker trip circuits). Redundant schemes increase

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Protective Relay Principles

Fuse

Control
Switch

Z2T

21
Z1

DC Power

21
Z2

Z2T
Timer

Trip Coil

52 a
(Circuit Breaker Position Switch)
Solid Link
Figure10.12
Zone-1 and Zone-2 relays and circuit-breaker trip circuit.

reliability by minimizing the possibility that a circuit breaker will fail to

trip because of a single relay or a single control scheme failure.
Alternative relaying schemes use voting logic to increase security
(decrease the possibility of incorrect trips) when redundant logic is used
to reduce the possibility of failure to trip. Alternative schemes include:
Two-of-three voting logicThree protective relaying schemes
(Scheme 1, Scheme 2, and Scheme 3) are installed. Two relays must
operate to initiate circuit-breaker tripping, as illustrated in simplified fashion in Figure10.13. Two-of-three voting logic schemes
may use two batteries and two trip coils rather than three, as the
major concern is an erroneous trip signal issued by a single relay.
Two-of-three logic is used when the consequences of an incorrect
trip far exceed the cost of a third scheme.
One-of-two, taken twice logicFour protective relaying schemes
(Division I, Scheme I; Division I, Scheme II; Division II, Scheme
I; Division II, Scheme II) are installed. One Division I and one
Division II relay must operate to initiate circuit-breaker tripping,
as illustrated in simplified fashion in Figure 10.14. One-of-two,
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Protection and Control Schemes

DC Power 1

DC Power 2

DC Power3

Relay 1

Relay 2

Relay 3

Relay 2

Relay 3

Relay 1

Trip Coil 1

Trip Coil 2

Trip Coil 3

Scheme 1

Scheme 3

Scheme 2

Figure10.13
Two-of-three voting logic.

DC Power 1

DC Power 2

DI-SI

DI-SII

DI-SI

DI-SII

DII-SI

DII-SII

DII-SI

DII-SII

Trip Coil 1

Trip Logic 1

Trip Coil 2
Trip Logic 2

Figure10.14
One-of-two, taken twice logic.

taken twice logic is used when the consequences of an incorrect trip far exceed the cost of the additional protective relay
schemes.

10.2Supervised Protective Relay Logic

Traditional protective relaying schemes that use simple logic or redundant
logic can be modified to include supervisory logic. This would include
voltage-controlled overcurrent relays where the overcurrent element is
allowed to operate only if the voltage is less than a predetermined threshold, current supervised underfrequency relays where the underfrequency
element is allowed to actuate only if current exceeds a predetermined
value, etc.
Alternative protective relay trip logic and supervised protective relay
logic are usually referred to as special protection schemes as they are
not routinely installed.
2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC