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7.1 INTRODUCTION
Most of the industrial loads such as induction motors are operating at moderately
low power factor. Around 60% of the utility load consists of motors and hence
the overall power factor of the power system is low. The system power factor is
given by (see Figure 7.1):
(7.1)
KVA
Figure 7.1 Relationship Between Real, Reactive and Apparent Power (KVA)
The relation between the power factor and the Q/P ratio is shown in Table 7.1.
Power
Factor, %
100
95
90
85
80
70.7
60
50
From Table 7.1, it can be seen that even at 90% power factor the reactive power
requirement is 48% of the real power. At low power factors, the reactive power
demand is much higher. Therefore, some form of power factor correction is
required in all the industrial facilities. The power factor of any operating system
can be lagging or leading. The direction of active and reactive power can be used to
determine the nature of the power factor. If both the real and reactive power flow in
the same direction, then the power factor is lagging. If the reactive power flows in
the opposite direction to that of the real power, then the power factor is leading. A
typical lagging power factor load is an induction motor. A typical leading power
factor load is a capacitor. Some typical plant power factors of industrial plants are
presented in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2 Typical Power Factor of Some Industrial Plants
Industry % of Power
Chemical
Coal mine
Electroplating
Hospital
Office building
Factor
80 -85
65 -80
65 -70
75 -80
80 -90
Industry
% of Power
Arc welding
Machine shop
Arc furnace
Spraying
Weaving
factor
35 -60
45 -60
75 -90
60 -65
60 -75
Example 7.1 - The power factor of a 100 kVA load is 0.8. It is necessary to
improve the power factor to 0.95. What is the rating of the shunt capacitor bank?
Solution.
P
61
Ql
KVA
=(100x0.8)
= Cos-'(0.8)
- 100 x sin 36.8
= 100
=80kW
=36.8 degree
=60kVAR
kVA
= 100
02
= Cos "'(0.95)
= 18.2 degree
= 31kVAR
Q2
= 100 x sin 18.2
Required shunt capacitors - (60 -31) = 29 kVAR
ne- c
Loads
Motor
Figure 7.2 Group Capacitor Bank
Loads
Loads
Motor
Loads
22
Rectifier A
MVAR
MVAR
harmonic filter was converted into a C-type filter using a 9 Ohm/phase resistance.
The power system shown in Figure 7.4 is modeled in Electro Magnetic
Transients Program (EMTP) [4]. The equivalent sources at Grand Coulee,
Midway, Sand Dunes and Larson are represented using the positive and zero
sequence impedances. The transformers at Larson, Midway and Sieler are
represented as two winding transformers. The transmission are represented by
positive and zero sequence impedances. The circuit breaker at the 230 kV
substation is represented as a time-dependent switch. The following capacitor
combinations are possible:
Case 1: No capacitors
Case4:45MVAR
Case 7: 90 MVAR
Case 2: 15 MVAR
Case 5: 60 MVAR
Case 8: 105 MVAR
Case 3: 30 MVAR
Case 6: 75 MVAR
(7.2)
Where MVARsc is the short circuit rating of the source at the 230 kV bus and
MVARc is the rating of the capacitor bank. The frequency scan analysis was
performed by injecting a 1.0 A current at the 230 kV bus. The frequency domain
results are monitored at the 230 kV bus and 13.8 kV bus. The summary of the
results are presented in Table 7.3, along with the expected resonant frequency
calculated using equation (7.2).
Table 7.3 Summary of Frequency Scan Analysis
Case
No.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
MVAR
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
9.2, 14.5
7.8, 12.5
8.1, 12.5
7.5, 12.1
6.3, 11.8
.2,5.8
3.2,5.8
3.8,8.2
3.8,8.2
3.8, 7.5
3.8,7.5
3.8,7.5
3.8,6.1,7.5
3.8,5.2
In the absence of shunt capacitor banks at the 230 kV bus, the frequency scan
plot is shown in Figure 7.6. The dominant harmonic frequency numbers are 16.2
and 23.3. The corresponding frequency scan plot at the 13.8 kV bus is shown in
Figure 7.7, the dominant harmonic frequency numbers at 13.8 kV bus are 4.9,
6.9 and 10.9 (tuned filter frequencies).
Example 7.2 - The short circuit current at a 230 kV bus is 40 kA. The power factor
at this location has to be improved by installing 60 MVAR shunt capacitors. What
is the new resonant frequency at this bus location?
Solution.
The short circuit rating of the source = (1.732) (230 kV) (40 kA) = 15,934 MVA
MVAc
= 60
I
I
6000
oOOO
uu 4000
O
< 3000
tu
Q- 2000-
I
I
I
I
j!
1000
-i
/ \
10
15
FREQUENCY NUMBER
20
25
Figure 7.6 Frequency Domain Results at the 230 kV Bus (no Capacitors)
(Courtesy of EMTP Users Support and Maintenance Center)
60
50
2 40
I
O
UJ 30
on
O
10
10
15
FREQUENCY NUMBER
25
20
Figure 7.7 Frequency Domain Results at the 13.8 kV Bus (no Capacitors)
(Courtesy of EMTP Users Support and Maintenance Center)
With shunt capacitor banks at the 230 kV bus, the frequency scan plot is shown
in Figure 7.8, the dominant harmonic frequency numbers are 3.2 and 5.8. The
corresponding frequency plot is shown in Figure 7.9 at the 13.8 kV bus with
dominant frequencies at 3.8 and 5.2. It can be seen from Table 7.3, that in all the
cases fi and f? are close to each other, but are not equal to each other. Therefore,
there is no danger of any harmonic resonance at the 13.8 kV bus.
I
1000i
i
/
2 BOO'
0
UJ
0 600
<
/'
CL
2
1
i
/
|
1
1
400
200
j\
i \
v.v
_..,/^//
s~~-
10
15
FREQUENCY NUMBER
20
25
Figure 7.8 Frequency Domain Analysis at the 230 kV Bus with 105 MVAR
(Courtesy of EMTP Users Support and Maintenance Center)
Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.
40
I
O
30
< 20
Q
LU
10
10
15
FREQUENCY NUMBER
20
25
Figure 7.9 Frequency Domain Result at 13.8kV Bus; 105 MVAR at 230 kV Bus
7.5 VOLTAGE MAGNIFICATION ANALYSIS
Consider the presence of capacitor banks at the high voltage and low voltage
power systems as shown in Figure 7.10.
u
L2
C1
C2
f -
2;iJL2C2
Figure 7.10 Circuit for the Analysis of Voltage Magnification
Voltage magnification will occur at the low voltage capacitor banks when the
natural frequencies fi and f 2 are equal, the switched capacitive MVAR is
significantly higher than the MVAR of the remote capacitor and the equivalent
source of the remote source is weak. In order to evaluate the voltage
magnification phenomena a 10 Volt source was applied at the 230 kV bus. The
frequency response at the 13.8 kV bus was recorded with various capacitor bank
values at the 230 kV bus. The voltage magnification plot at the 13.8 kV bus with
105 MVAR shunt capacitors at the 230 kV bus is presented in Figure 7.11.
>
ul
CD
1
0
10
15
FREQUENCY NUMBER
20
25
Figure 7.11 Frequency Domain Results at the 13.8 kV Bus; Damping R = 9 Ohm
There is very small voltage amplification. This behavior is attributed to the
damping resistor in the 5th harmonic filter. Therefore, a frequency response study
was conducted without the 5th harmonic damping resistor and is shown in Figure
7.12. Without damping resistors, the voltage magnification at the fifth harmonic
frequency is significant.
LU
CD
10
15
FREQUENCY NUMBER
20
25
Figure 7.12 Frequency Domain Results at the 13.8 Bus with no Damping R
Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.
Xs
(7.3)
Xc-XsJ
where Xs is the reactance of the source, Xc is the reactance of the capacitor bank
and Vp is the bus voltage before energization of the capacitors. Using the source
impedance and capacitive reactance values at the 230 kV bus, the sustained
overvoltage magnitudes are evaluated. This disregards any adjustment in
generator excitation.
The three-phase short circuit rating at the 230 kV substation without shunt
capacitors is 4,092 MVA. The corresponding source reactance is 12.92 Ohm. For
all available combination of shunt capacitor ratings at the 230 kV substation, the
steady state voltages are calculated and presented in Table 7.4, column 2. Also,
the calculated voltages at Wheeler, Sieler, Larson and at the 13.8 kV bus using
the EMTP are presented in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4 Sustained Overvoltages at Various Buses
MVAR
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
Sieler
1.0148
1.0212
1.0250
1.0289
1.0328
1.0367
1.0407
Larson
1.0176
1.0250
1.0260
1.0264
1.0294
1.0294
1.0324
13.8 kV Bus
1.0719
1.0755
1.0799
1.0835
1.0879
1.0915
1.0959
The calculated steady state voltages using equation (7.3) are lower than the
EMTP results. This is because the EMTP model takes the distributed capacitance
in the system into account. If the bus voltage exceeds 1.10 P.U. the transformers
at Sieler, Larson, McDonald, Upper Coulee and Wheeler 13.8 kV may saturate.
The expected no-load voltages with 105 MVAR shunt capacitors at Wheeler is
less than 1.05 P.U. The voltage at the 13.8 kV bus increases significantly with the
introduction of capacitor banks at the 230 kV substation. For example, with 105
MVAR capacitor banks at Wheeler, the bus voltage at the 13.8 kV bus is 1.0959
P.U. Such increased voltages may exceed the voltage rating of the capacitors and
fuses in the filter bank. However, the distribution voltage at the 13.8 kV bus can
be adjusted at the Sieler substation, by using the transformer tap changers.
The surge arrester rating at the 230 kV is 180 kV. The MCOV rating of the
arrester is 144 kV. This rating is very close to the steady state voltage of the
system with switched capacitors at no-load. Suitable overvoltage relaying is
recommended to avoid this operating condition.
7.7 SWITCHING SURGE ANALYSIS
A three-phase model is used to analyze the energization, de-energization and
fault clearing cases. The voltage and branch currents at appropriate locations are
monitored. The maximum overvoltages observed during various switching
operations are presented in Table 7.5.
Table 7.5 Summary of Switching Surge Results
Description
Energize
De-energize
Fault clear
Equipment
Transformer
Capacitor
Circuit Br.
BIL, kV Level, kV
745
900
750
1050
675
900
CBTRV
Switching
Surge
Limit, P.U.
3.9
3.9
3.6
2.5
Related
IEEE or
ANSI Std
C57.12
IEEE 824
C37.06
C37.09
The surge arrester transient overvoltage capability and protective levels A 180 kV surge arrester is marginal with regard to its maximum continuous
operating voltage (MCOV) capability. The arrester protective margins are well
within those recommended in ANSI/IEEE standard C62.2. The maximum
switching surge protective level of the 180 kV surge arrester is 351 kV (1.87 P.U.
on 230 kV base).
Transient recovery voltage (TRV) - The TRVs are the voltages measured
across the circuit breaker poles after opening. The severity of the TRV depends
on both the magnitude and the rate of rise of the voltage across the opening
circuit breaker poles. Based on the ANSI standard C37.09, the circuit breaker
switching capability is tested at the maximum TRV of 2.5 P.U. The TRV
voltages experienced in the fault clearing is less than 2.5 P.U.
7.8 BACK-TO-BACK SWITCHING
Without series reactor in the capacitor bank circuit Energizing a capacitor
bank with an adjacent capacitor bank already in service is known as back-to-back
switching. High magnitude and frequency currents can be associated with backto-back switching. The current must be limited to acceptable levels for switching
devices and current transformer burdens. Usually, series reactors are used with
individual capacitor banks to limit the current magnitude and frequency. Figure
7.13 illustrates the simplified circuit that can be used to analyze the inrush
currents during back-to-back switching without current limiting series reactors.
Example 7.4 - Show the concept of back-to-back switching with two 60 MVAR
capacitor banks without series reactor and with series reactor in the switching
circuit. Assume the necessary parameters and explain.
Reactor
Circuit Switcher
Circuit
Breaker
C1 = 60 MVAR
C2 = 60 MVAR
where
Vpk
Leq
Ceq
Zsurge
Solution - The inrush current magnitude and frequency at the 230 kV bus backto-back configuration is calculated as shown below.
MVAR
60
2" =
2~ = 3.0 //F
/
2;r(60)230 Z
(
C l
xC
(3x3)
(10 + 10 + 25.6+85) fM
\
f\
/~\1
where,
Lreactor
= 0.0
Uus
=25.6 JU H
Lbank
Lbank to Bank
230kVx
7
^
f = -,
2 ^131.6 //Hx 1.
/=20.lkA
=11.4 kHz
This frequency is high for the capacitor switching applications, the acceptable
value being 4,250 Hz.
With series reactor in the capacitor bank circuit: In order to control the
inrush current during the energization of the second bank, when the first bank is
already in service, a current limiting reactor is required. A circuit switcher can
be used for this application with 20 mH in the series circuit during the
energization. The inductor is short circuited immediately after the energization.
The circuit diagram for such an arrangement is shown in Figure 7.14. Then the
total series inductor for the back-to-back switching circuit is given by:
L = 130.6 + 20,000 = 20,131 / / H
The peak current and the frequency of oscillation are given by:
20131 //H
surge
Ipk
= 1 15. 8 Ohm
1.5//F
Vpk
zsurge
230kV x
= 1.63kA
115
= 0.916 kHz
Circuit
Breaker
C1 = 60 MVAR
C2 = 60 MVAR
Harmonic resonance.
Voltage magnification.
Sustained overvoltages.
Switching surge and insulation co-ordination.
Back-to-back switching.
A systematic study of the above aspects will be helpful in avoiding any unexpected
problems after installation of the capacitor banks.
PROBLEMS
1.
2.
Explain what happens if capacitor banks are added to improve the power
factor above unity.
3.
In a 230 kV, three-phase power system, the short circuit current is 30 kA.
120 MVAR shunt capacitors are added to improve the power factor. In the
distribution system very close to this high voltage system, there is a filter
bank at 4.16 kV tuned to 4.9th harmonic. Is there any technical problems due
to the installation of the high voltage capacitor bank?
4.
The short circuit current at a 115 kV bus is 25 kA. There is a shunt capacitor
bank of 50 MVAR for power factor correction. Due to a field testing operation
25 MVAR additional capacitor banks are available at the 115 kV bus. What are
the harmonic frequencies under both operating conditions? Is there any danger
to operate the system with the 25 MVAR configuration?
REFERENCES
1.
2.
K. J. Phillips, Jr., "Conducting a Power Factor Study," Consulting Specifying Engineer, July 1994, pp. 54-58.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Electrical