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Q.DiscussthesourcesofHinduLaw.
HinduLaw
FromthousandsofyearspeoplelivingintheIndiansubcontinenthavebeenleadingtheirlivesbyfollowingtheguidelines
andconceptsgivenintheVedas.Theseguidelineshaveevolvedintorulesfollowedbythepeopleandenforcedbytherulers
andhavethusbecomedefactolaw.Inthismoderntimes,thesamelawshavebeenretrofittedtosuitpresentconditionsand
havebeencodifiedintheformofseveralactsofwhichtheimportantonesareHinduMarriageAct1955,HinduAdoption
andMaintenanceAct1956,HinduMinorityandGuardianshipAct1956,andHinduSuccessionAct1956.

ApplicationofHinduLaw
AprecisedefinitionofHinduismdoesnotexist.Hence,itisimpossibletodefineafixedcriteriafordeterminingwhoisa
Hindu.Soanegativedefinitionof'whoisnotaHindu'isused.Further,inthisland,severalreligionshavebeenbornandthey
theyfollowthesamecustomsandpractices.SoitcannotbesaidthatHinduLawcanbeappliedonlytopeoplewhoare
Hindusbyreligion.Duetothesereasons,ingeneral,thefollowingpeopleareconsideredtobeHinduwithrespectto
applicationofHinduLaw.
1. HindubyReligionApersonwhoisHindu,Jain,Bauddha,orSikhbyreligion.InShastrivMuldasSCAIR1961,SC
hasheldthatvarioussubsectsofHindussuchasSwaminarayan,Satsangis,AryaSamajisarealsoHindusby
religionbecausetheyfollowthesamebasicconceptofHinduPhilosophy.ConvertsandReconvertsarealsoHindus.
SC,inthecaseofPeerumalvPoonuswamiAIR1971,hasheldthatapersoncanbeaHinduifafterexpressingthe
intentionofbecomingaHindu,followsthecustomsofthecaste,tribe,orcommunity,andthecommunityacceptshim.
InMohandasvsDewaswanboardAIR1975,KeralaHChasheldthatameredeclarationandactionsareenoughfor
becomingaHindu.
2. HindubyBirthApersonwhoisbornofHinduparents.IfonlyoneparentisaHindu,thepersoncanbeaHinduif
he/shehasbeenraisedasaHindu.InSapnavsStateofkerala,KeralaHC,thesonofHindufatherandChristian
motherwasheldtobeaChristian.
3. PersonswhoarenotMuslim,Christian,Jew,orParseebyreligion.
4. PersonswhoarenotgovernedbyanyotherreligiouslawwillbegovernedbyHinduLaw.

OriginsofHinduLaw
ItisbelievedthatHindulawisadivinelaw.ItwasrevealedtothepeoplebyGodthroughVedas.Varioussagesandascetics
haveelaboratedandrefinedtheabstractconceptsoflifeexplainedintheVedas.

SourcesofHinduLaw
SourcesofHinduLawcanbedividedintotwopartsAncientandModern.

1.AncientSources
BeforethecodificationofHinduLaw,theancientliteraturewastheonlysourceofthelaw.Thesesourcescanbedividedinto
fourcategories:
A.Shruti
Shrutimeans"whatisheard".Itisbelievedthattherishisandmunishadreachedtheheightofspiritualitywheretheywere
revealedtheknowledgeofVedas.Thus,shrutisincludethefourvedasrig,yajur,sam,andathravaalongwiththeir
brahmanas.ThebrahmanasareliketheapendicestotheVedas.Vedasprimarilycontaintheoriesaboutsacrifices,rituals,
andcustoms.SomepeoplebelievethatVedascontainnospecificlaws,whilesomebelievethatthelawshavetobeinferred
fromthecompletetextoftheVedas.Vedasdorefertocertainrightsandduties,formsofmarriage,requirementofason,
exclusionofwomenfrominheritance,andpartitionbutthesearenotveryclearcutlaws.
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Duringthevedicperiod,thesocietywasdividedintovarnsandlifewasdividedintoashramas.Theconceptofkarmacame
intoexistenceduringthistime.Apersonwillgetrewardedasperhiskarma.Hecanattainsalvationthrough"knowledge".
Duringthisperiodthevarnasystembecamequitestrong.Sincevedashadadivineorigin,thesocietywasgovernedasper
thetheoriesgiveninvedasandtheyareconsideredtobethefundamentalsourceofHindulaw.Shrutisbasicallydescribe
thelifeoftheVedicpeople.
Thevedicperiodisassumedtobebetween4000to1000BC.Duringthistime,severalpresmritisutrasandgathaswere
composed.However,notmuchisknownaboutthemtoday.Itisbelievedthatvariousrishisandmunisincorporatedlocal
customsintoDharmaandthusmultiple"shakhas"cameintoexistence.
B.Smruti
Smritmeans"whatisremembered".Withsmrutis,asystematicstudyandteachingofVedasstarted.Manysages,fromtimeto
time,havewrittendowntheconceptsgiveninVedas.SoitcanbesaidthatSmrutisareawrittenmemoiroftheknowledgeof
thesages.ImmediatelyaftertheVedicperiod,aneedfortheregulationofthesocietyarose.Thus,thestudyofvedasandthe
incorporationoflocalcultureandcustomsbecameimportant.Itisbelievedthatmanysmrutiswerecomposedinthisperiod
andsomewerereducedintowriting,however,notallareknown.ThesmrutiscanbedividedintotwoEarlysmritis
(Dharmasutras)andLatersmritis(Dharmashastras).
Dharmasutras
TheDharmansutraswerewrittenduring800to200BC.Theyweremostlywritteninproseformbutalsocontainverses.Itis
clearthattheyweremeanttobetrainingmanualsofsagesforteachingstudents.TheyincorporatetheteachingsofVedas
withlocalcustoms.Theygenerallybearthenamesoftheirauthorsandsometimealsoindicatetheshakhastowhichthey
belong.
Someoftheimportantsageswhosedharmasutrasareknownare:Gautama,Baudhayan,Apastamba,Harita,Vashistha,
andVishnu.
Theyexplainthedutiesofmeninvariousrelationship.Theydonotpretendtobeanythingotherthantheworkofmortals
basedontheteachingsofVedas,andthelegaldecisionsgivenbythosewhowereacquaintedwithVedasandlocal
customs.
GautamaHebelongedtoSamvedaschoolanddealsexclusivelywithlegalandreligiousmatter.Hetalksabout
inheritance,partition,andstridhan.
BaudhayanHebelongedtotheKrishnaYajurvedschoolandwasprobablyfromAndhraPradesh.Hetalksaboutmarriage,
sonship,andinheritance.Healsoreferstovariouscustomsofhisregionsuchasmarriagetomaternaluncle'sdaughter.
ApastambaHissutraismostpreserved.HealsobelongedtoKrishnaYajurvedaschoolfromAndhraPradesh.Hislanguage
isveryclearandforceful.Herejectedprajapatyamarriage.
VashisthaHewasfromNorthIndiaandfollowedtheRigvedaschool.Herecognizedremarriageofvirginwidows.
Dharmashastras
DharmashastrasweremostlyinmetricalversesandwerebasedofDharmasutras.However,theywerealotmoresystematic
andclear.Theydealtwiththesubjectmatterinthreeparts
Aachara:Thisincludesthetheoriesofreligiousobservances,
Vyavahar:Thisincludesthecivillaw.
Prayaschitta:Thisdealswithpenanceandexpiation.
WhileearlysmrutisdealmainlywithAacharaandPrayaschitta,latersmrutismainlydealtwithVyavahar.Outofmay
dharmashastras,threearemostimportant.
Manusmriti
Thisistheearliestandmostimportantofall.ItisnotonlydefinedthewayoflifeinIndiabutisalsowellknowinJava,Bali,
andSumatra.ThenameoftherealauthorisnotknownbecausetheauthorhaswrittenitunderthemythicalnameofManu,
whoisconsideredtothethefirsthuman.Thiswasprobablydonetoincreaseitsimportanceduetodivineorigin.Manusmriti
compilesallthelawsthatwerescatteredinpresmritisutrasandgathas.
Hewasabrahmanprotagonistandwasparticularlyharshonwomenandsudras.Heholdslocalcustomstobemost
important.Hedirectsthekingtoobeythecustomsbuttriestocloakthekingwithdivinity.Hegivesimportancetotheprinciple
of'danda'whichforceseverybodytofollowthelaw.
Manusmritiwascomposedin200BC.
Therehavebeenseveralcommentariesonthissmruti.Themainonesare:Kalluka'sManavarthmuktavali,Meghthithi's
Manubhashya,andGovindraja'sManutika.

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YajnavalkyaSmriti
ThoughwrittenafterManusmruti,thisisaveryimportantsmruti.Itslanguageisverydirectandclear.Itisalsoalotmore
logical.Healsogivesalotofimportancetocustomsbutholdthekingtobebelowthelaw.Heconsiderslawtobethekingof
kingsandthekingtobeonlyanenforcerofthelaw.Hedidnotdealmuchwithreligionandmoralitybutmostlywithcivillaw.It
includesmostofthepointsgiveninManusmritibutalsodiffersonmanypointssuchaspositionofwomenandsudras.He
wasmoreliberalthanManu.
Thiswascomposedinaround0BC.
Vijnaneshwar'scommentary'Mitakshara'onthissmruti,isthemostimportantlegaltreatisefollowedalmosteverywherein
IndiaexceptinWestBengalandOrissa.
NaradaSmriti
NaradawasfromNepalandthissmritiiswellpreservedanditscompletetextisavailable.Thisistheonlysmritithatdoesnot
dealwithreligionandmoralityatallbutconcentratesonlyoncivillaw.Thisisverylogicalandprecise.Ingeneral,itisbased
onManusmritiandYajnavalkyasmritibutdifferonmanypointsduetochangesinsocialstructure.Healsogivesalotof
importancetocustoms.
Thiswascomposedin200AD.
C.CommentariesandDigest:
After200AD,mosttheofworkwasdoneonlyontheexistingmaterialgiveninSmrutis.Theworkdonetoexplainaparticular
smritiiscalledacommentary.Commentarieswerecomposedintheperiodimmediatelyafter200AD.Digestsweremainly
writtenafterthatandincorporatedandexplainedmaterialfromallthesmruitis.Asnotedealier,someofthecommentaries
were,manubhashya,manutika,andmitakshara.WhilethemostimportantdigestisJimutvahan'sDayabhagthatisapplicable
intheBengalandOrissaarea.
Mitaksharaliterallymeans'NewWord'andisparamountsourceoflawinallofIndia.ItisalsoconsideredimportantinBengal
andorissawhereitrelentsonlywhereitdiffersfromdayabhaga.Itisaveryexhaustivetreatiesoflawandincorporatesand
ironsoutcontradictsexistinginsmritis.
Thebasicobjectiveofthesetextswastogatherthescatteredmaterialavailableinpreceedingtextsandpresentaunified
viewforthebenefitofthesociety.Thus,digestswereverylogicalandtothepointintheirapproach.Variousdigestshave
beencomposedfrom700to1700AD.
D.Customs
MostoftheHindulawisbasedoncustomsandpracticesfollowedbythepeopleallacrossthecountry.Evensmrutishave
givenimportancetocustoms.TheyhaveheldcustomsastranscendentlawandhaveadvisedtheKingstogivedecisions
basedoncustomsafterduereligiousconsideration.Customsareoffourtypes:
1. LocalCustomsThesearethecustomsthatarefollowedinagivengeographicalarea.InthecaseofSubbanevs
Nawab,PrivyCouncilobservedthatacustomgetsitforceduetothefactthatduetoitsobservationforalongtimeina
locality,ithasobtainedtheforceoflaw.
2. FamilyCustomsThesearethecustomsthatarefollowedbyafamilyfromalongtime.Theseareapplicableto
familieswhereevertheylive.Theycanbemoreeasilyabandonedthatothercustoms.InthecaseofSoorendranath
vsHeeramonieandBikalvsManjura,PrivyCouncilobservedthatcustomsfollowedbyafamilyhavelongbeen
recognizedasHindulaw.
3. CasteandCommunityCustomsThesearethecustomsthatarefollowedbyaparticularcastorcommunity.Itis
bindingonthemembersofthatcommunityorcaste.Byfar,thisisoneofthemostimportantsourceoflaws.For
example,mostofthelawinPunjabbelongstothistype.Customtomarrybrother'swidowamongtheJatsisalsoof
thistype.
4. GuildCustomsThesearethecustomsthatarefollowedbytraders.
Requirementsforavalidcustom
1. Ancient:Ideally,acustomisvalidifithasbeenfollowedfromhundredsofyears.Thereisnodefinitionofancientness,
however,40yrshasbeendeterminedtobeaancientenough.Acustomcannotcomeintoexistencebyagreement.It
hastobeexistingfromlongbefore.Thus,anewcustomcannotberecognized.Therefore,anewformofHindu
marriagewasnotrecognizedinTamilNadu.
InthecaseofRajothivsSelliah,aSelfRespectersCultstartedamovementunderwhichtraditionalceremonieswere
substitutedwithsimpleceremoniesformarriagethatdidnotinvolveShastricrites.HCheldthatinmoderntimes,no
oneisfreetocreatealaworcustom,sincethatisafunctionoflegislature.
2. Continuous:Itisimportantthatthecustomisbeingfollowedcontinuouslyandhasnotbeenabandoned.Thus,a
custommaybe400yrsoldbutonceabandoned,itcannotberevived.
3. Certain:Thecustomshouldbeveryclearintermsofwhatitentails.Anyamountofvaguenesswillcauseconfusion
andthusthecustomwillbeinvalid.Theoneallegingacustommustproveexactlywhatitis.
4. Reasonable:Theremustbesomereasonablenessandfairnessinthecustom.Thoughwhatisreasonabledepends
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onthecurrenttimeandsocialvalues.
5. Notagainstmorality:Itshouldnotbemorallywrongorrepugnant.Forexample,acustomtomarryone's
granddaughterhasbeenheldinvalid.
InthecaseofChittyvs.Chitty1894,acustomthatpermitsdivorcebymutualconsentandbypaymentofexpensesof
marriagebyonepartytoanotherwasheldtobenotimmoral.InthecaseofGopikrishnavs.MstJagoo1936a
customthatdissolvesthemarriageandpermitsawifetoremarryuponabandonmentanddesertionofhusbandwas
heldtobenotimmoral.
6. Notagainstpublicpolicy:Ifacustomisagainstthegeneralgoodofthesociety,itisheldinvalid.Forexample,
adoptionofgirlchildbynautchgirlshasbeenheldinvalid.InthecaseofMathurvsEsa,acustomamongdancing
womenpermittingthemtoadoptoneormoregirlswasheldtobevoidbecauseitwasagainstpublicpolicy.
7. Notagainstanylaw:Ifacustomisagainstanystatutorylaw,itisinvalid.CodificationofHindulawhasabrogatedmost
ofthecustomsexcepttheonesthatareexpresslysaved.InthecaseofPrakashvsParmeshwari,itwasheldthatlaw
meanstatutorylaw.
ProofofCustom
Theburdenofprovingacustomisonthepersonwhoallegesit.Usually,customsareprovedbyinstances.Inthecaseof
PrakashvsParmeshwari,itwasheldthatoneinstancedoesnotproveacustom.However,inthecaseofUjagarvsJeo,it
washeldthatifacustomhasbeenbroughttonoticeofthecourtrepeated,nofurtherproofisrequired.
existenceofacustomcanalsobeprovedthroughdocumentaryevidencesuchasinRiwaziam.Severaltreatiesexistthat
detailcustomarylawsofPunjab.
UsageandCustom
Thetermcustomandusageiscommonlyusedincommerciallaw,but"custom"and"usage"canbedistinguished.Ausageis
arepetitionofactswhereascustomisthelaworgeneralrulethatarisesfromsuchrepetition.Ausagemayexistwithouta
custom,butacustomcannotarisewithoutausageaccompanyingitorprecedingit.Usagederivesitsauthorityfromthe
assentofthepartiestoatransactionandisapplicableonlytoconsensualarrangements.Customderivesitsauthorityfromits
adoptionintothelawandisbindingregardlessofanyactsofassentbytheparties.Inmodernlaw,however,thetwo
principlesareoftenmergedintoonebythecourts.

ModernSources
HindulawhasbeengreatlyinfluencedbytheBritishrule.WhileitmightseemthattheBritishbroughtwiththemthemodern
conceptsofequityandjustice,theseconceptsexistedevenindharamashastrasalbeitinadifferentform.Naradaand
Katyayanahavementionedtheimportanceofdharma(righteousness)indeliveringjustice.However,wedidnothavea
practiceofrecordingthecasesandjudgmentsdelivered.Soitwasnotpossibletoapplystaredecisis.Thisprocessstarted
fromtheBritishrule.
ThefollowingarethemodernsourcesofHindulaw:
1.Equity,Justice,andGoodconscience
Equitymeansfairnessindealing.Modernjudicialsystemsgreatlyrelyonbeingimpartial.Truejusticecanonlybedelivered
throughequityandgoodconscience.Inasituationwherenoruleisgiven,asenseof'reasonableness'mustprevail.
AccordingtoGautama,insuchsituation,thedecisionshouldbegiventhatisacceptabletoatleasttenpeoplewhoare
knowledgeableinshastras.Yagyavalkyahassaidthatwhereeverthereareconflictingrules,thedecisionmustbebasedon
'Nyaya'.
Thisprinciplehasbeenfollowedbytheprivycouncilwhiledecidingcases.
2.Precedent
ThedoctrineofstaredecisisstartedinIndiafromtheBritishrule.Allcasesarenowrecordedandnewcasesaredecided
basedonexistingcaselaws.Today,thejudgmentofSCisbindingonallcourtsacrossIndiaandthejudgmentofHCis
bindingonallcourtsinthatstate.
3.Legislation
Inmodernsociety,thisistheonlywaytobringinnewlaws.Theparliament,inaccordancewiththeneedssociety,constitutes
newlaws.Forexample,anewwayofperformingHindumarriagesinTamilNaduthatgotridofritualsandpriestswas
rejectedbytheSConthebasisthatnewcustomscannotbeinvented.However,TNlaterpassedanactthatrecognizedthese
marriages.
Also,mostoftheHindulawshavenowbeencodifiedasmentionedinthebeginning.

CriticalComments
Inthepast,duetothevastsizeofthecountry,variouskindsofcustomsprevailed.Further,duetolackofeffective
communication,therewereseveralcontradictionsamongthepracticesandthejudgmentdelivered.Thus,thecountrywent
onthewaytobeingdivided.Insteadofbecomingthelawoftheland(lexloci),HinduLawbecamethelawofaperson.
However,thiscanonlybeanexcuseforthepast.Today,becauseofmediaandcommunication,judgementdeliveredinone
placeisfeltinanother.Apracticeorcustomfollowedinavillagecanberepugnanttopeopleincities.Wemusttake
advantageofthissituationandputthecountryonthecourseofaunifiedlaw.Insteadofbeingacountryofpersonallaws,we
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shouldtruehaveasinglelawoftheland.Timeisripeforimplementingarticle44.Thiswillensurethefutureunityand
integrityofourcountry.

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