Practical Strategies

Practical
Strategies

Strategies and Ideas for Teaching

Writing in the Middle Years

Literacy Learning:
the Middle Years
Volume 14

Number 2

June 2006

Kathy Brashears and Virginia White

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Introduction
According to Hillocks (2002) and Foster (1999), middle and high school teachers often
consider that the teaching of writing is outside their job descriptions. Overwhelmed with
the mandates of current curriculum, writing is regarded as an added responsibility rather
than seen as an integral, integrated part of a content area (Foster 1999). However, it is a
misconception that all teachers are not teachers of writing. The excuses often cited are to do
with a lack of training and/or knowledge about the teaching of writing. Block (2003)
points out that teachers must find ways to be effective.
When teaching writing there are a number of well-researched strategies to consider:

Modelling
Modelling occurs when teachers demonstrate the writing process in front of their students
(Atwell 1998). Research indicates that teachers who actually show students how to write
have higher expectations of their students as writers and a better understanding of the
writing process than teachers who do not write alongside their students (Rid 1990). Based
on this premise, teachers are more effective when they explicitly and intentionally model the
stages of the writing process (Kern et al. 2003).
Hughey and Slack (2002) contend that modelling allows 'students [to] see that we, too,
struggle at times to find the right word, that we cross and start over, and that we get
feedback when we get stuck' (p. 5). More to the point, they advocate that students more
readily learn what is modelled for them (Hughey and Slack 2002, p. 41). In fact, no matter
their ability level, both teacher-modelling and peer-modelling benefit student writers (Stall
2001, Routman 2000).
Students benefit from teachers modelling the various writing stages, including prewriting, drafting, revising, editing and publishing (Pappas et al. 1995). Writers often view
modelling the writing stages, revising and editing, as particularly laborious (Culham, 2003).
This results from teachers focusing too much attention on editing at the expense of other
writing features. According to MacArthur (1999) students who concentrate on writing
mechanics, more so than the content of what they are writing, may find the writing process
exceptionally difficult. For example, Calkins (1994) insists that teachers who over-emphasise
the need for conventional spellings from their students may contribute to students' dislike
for writing.
The publication stage of writing is often seen as a motivating factor for students (Calkins
1994, Graves 2003). Routman (2000) confirms this when she claims that students 'may not
like to write, but, as a general rule, they like to be published' (p. 1).

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Practical
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Literacy Learning:

the Middle Years

Volume 14
Number 2
June 2006

Ideas to consider
Writing Workshop
Use these 'tried and true' questions identified by Atwell (1987) to guide the modelling of
writing with students. They are think-aloud questions to demonstrate the thoughts a writer
draws on when constructing a text.
Writers rehearse, plan and predict
What will I write?
What will it be like?
How will it be shaped by my prior experiences as a writer?

Writers draft and discover meaning

Where will these words I am writing take me?
What surprises, disappointments, problems, questions and insights will I encounter along the way?

Writers revise, rethink and seek meaning

Is this what I expected, what I hoped for?
What do I think of the words on the page?
What new thoughts do I think because of the words on the page?
What makes sense? What needs to be changed so sense can be made?

(Adapted (rom Atwe1l1987, p. 155)

Writing in different genres

James Paul Gee (cited in Neuman & Dickinson 2002) claims that 'genres are more or less
fixed patterns of language associated with more or less fixed patterns of actions and
interactions' (p. 34). Stndents who read and write in a variety of genres are more likely to
become familiar with the structure embedded within these genres (Pappas et a1. 1995,
Stamboltzis & Pumfrey 2000, Ramona 2000, Buss & Karnowski 2002).
Stndents may have difficulty writing in various genres for the following reasons:
1. They have not been exposed to or have not received direct instruction in the gcnre

(Buss & Karnowski 2002, Stambolzis & Pumfrey 2000).

2. There is an over-emphasis on the importance on the format of a specific genre while
ignoring the purpose for writing in the given genre (Buss & Karnowski 2002)
3. Stndents rely on given templates when writing for specific genres, causing their creativity to be stifled. Consequently, they feel less than satisfied with their writing.
(Buss & Karnowski 2002).
Questions/ideas to consider:
Allow students to select the genre that best represents their piece of writing. Instead of
directing students to write a story, a report, etc., allow students to make choiccs that match

the text they have created. They then present what they have learned about the genre to
their peers. Brainstorm new and unusual ways to present writing.

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SMS message

Greetings/farewells

Interview

Invitation

Email

Questionnaire

Letter

Novel

Biography

Diary entry

Jokes - riddles, knock knock Tongue twister

Dialogue journal

Nursery rhyme

Cartoon strip

Mystery

Investigation report

Scientific experiment

Reviews

Dictionary

Thesaurus

Minutes of meetings

Graphs/tables/timetables

Alphabet book

A one minute speech

Diorama

Puppet show

Video

Multi media presentation Media articles

Survey/ qu estion nai re

Press Release

Plays

Power point presentation

Songs

Series of books

Bibliography

Wordless book

Poem for two voices

Program/schedule

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Literacy Learning:

the Middle Year.s

Y charts

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Completing a Y chart allows students to relate to the sensory details of an event or

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experience. In threes, students reflect on an experience or event. Using the three Y sectors,

June 2006

they list what they will hear, what they will feel and what they will see in relation to the topic
investigated.
Ask students to identity different ways they could represent the information collected on
the Y graph. For example, the things that are heard could be used as lyrics for a song, what
they feel could be used in a haiku, what is seen could be used in a visual representation or
labeled diagram.

Conferencing
The power of 'conferencing' with students about various aspects of their writing cannot be

underestimated (Atwell, 2002; Graves, 2000). The strategy includes teaching students to
ask questions of themselves regarding their own writing, and asking similar questions of

others (Wood, 1998). It is well documented that when students interact with others about
their writing, their writing experiences become more meaningful (Kern, et aI., 2003 and
Cullinan, 1993).
Questions/ideas to consider:

The purpose of the conference could vary.

Get-to-know-you conferences In groups of three or four, students discuss their favourite

pieces of writing, what they like/dislike about writing, their aspirations for writing, or their
favourite writers. Questions to guide the small gtoUp conference could include:
What do you know now about yourse/fas a writer that you did not know before?
What are the similarities/differences between the writing ofpublished authors and you?
What do you know about writing that could help thisgroup?
Name three things you know about yourself as a writer and one thing you would like to
know more about writing.

Prior to conducting the conference, students complete the following poem and share all or
part of it in the small group.

lAm Poem
1st stanza
I am ...
I wonder. ..
I hear. ..
I want ...
I am ...

(Two special characteristics you have)

(something you are curious about)
(a sound you can imagine hearing)
(an actual desire you have)
(repeat the first line)

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Literacy Learning:
the Middle Years
Volume 14

2nd stanza
I pretend ...
I feeL..
I touch .. .
I worry .. .
I cry ...
I am ...

(something you pretend to do or believe)

(a feeling you have about something real or imaginary)
(something you can imagine touching)
(something you worry about)
(something that makes you sad)
(repeat the first line)

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3rd stanza

I understand.

(something you know is true)

I say ...
I (Iteam ...

(something you believe in)

(something you dream about)
(something you make an effort to do)
(something you hope for)
(repeat first line)
Unpublished, JeffNewton (2000).

I try ...
I hope ...
I am ...

Discovery conference. Work collaboratively with a student or small group to discover a

good idea for writing. Together explore different ways to approach the idea.
Questions/ideas to consider:
Where do you get your ideas for writing?
Where do you think famous writers get their ideas?
What do you like to write about?
What kinds of writing are the most difJicult for you?
What would you like to improve upon in your writing?

Brainstorm 20 things that you do in your spare time. Circle the three you know most
about. Describe these topics in two minutes. The group decides on a common theme that

links the expertise and ideas of the group.

Distribute three randomly selected items that are 'unconnected') for example, a flower" a

spoon and a piece of string. Students create a story linking the items. The group decides
how to present the story and together explore a range of options including narrative, poem,

report, and diagram.

Do a quick - think-pair-share: students take time to reflect individually and then share
with a partner and then the entire group ideas for writing,

Work-in-progress conferences. These conferences vary depending on what stage the piece
of writing is at, the writer's needs, the teacher's agenda. The questions revolve around the
ideas presented, the writer's feelings about the piece, ideas for future development, the

overall structure of the piece. The focus should be on the meaning being conveyed and the
audience for whom it is written.

Questious/ideas to consider:
What would you like to discuss about your writing?
How can I help you?
What is the message J10U are trying to communicate? Have you communicated that

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effectively?

What do you like best about this piece of writing? Why?

Which part requires more work?
What else do you know about this topic?

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What do you plan to do next?

Are there any resources that you need to complete your writing?

Literacy Learning:

the Middle Years

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Formal conferences occur regularly and address specific details such as editing for

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grammatical, spelling and punctuation errors. Prior to this conference, students read aloud

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their piece of writing. Use the following questions to guide the conference:

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What kinds of revisions have you already made?

How do you plan to continue to revise your writing?
How is this piece of writing better than others that you have written?
What can I do to help you proofread (or edit) your writing?

Encourage! Encourage! Encourage! Offer genuine and specific praise as often as you cau.
All writers need it'

Provide authentic reasons for writing

Writing should be relevant and serve real purposes (Calkins 1994, GlassweU, Parr &
McNaughton 2003, ROlltman 2000, Pappas et al. 1995, Atwell 1998). Writers need to
know for whom they are writing (audience) and what purpose it serves. In Radical
Reflections (1993), Fox states that 'we're currently wasting a lot of time by giving unreal

writing tasks in our classrooms ... You and I don't engage in meaningless writing exercises
in real life - we're far too busy doing the real thing' (4). How often would we put pen to
paper if it was not relevant, challenging, and served a real life purpose?
Think of the writing tasks assigned in your classrooms. Consider these questions:
Do the student know why you assign these writing tasks?
Do they understand why you prescribe particular genres?
Are students exposed to a broad range of writing activities across a range ofgenres?
What changes could you make today? In the next month? That would give students access
to a wider audience and authentic purposes for writing?
Questions/ideas to consider:

I!

]j

Select a short text and ask students in small groups to rewrite the text using a different
genre. Ask the following questions:
How did changing the genre, change the original presentation - discuss how the tone,
language, opinion, purpose varied.
Create individual or small group text sets.
Students take a common theme and construct writing using different genres around the
theme. Explore how different genres change the purpose, intention and audience response.

Writing across the curriculum

A growing concern for learning transfer - transference of knowledge from one subject to
another - is the recognition of how one subject connects to another. Writing, for example,
while a relevant subject in language arts, can also be integral to learning or demonstrating
concepts in science (Montgomery, 1992). In fact, teachers, who specifically assist their
students in connecting their knowledge in one subject to another subject, tend to stream-

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line their instructional efforts (Hansen, 2001; Yell, 2002). In other words, time is utilised in
a constructive way to highlight both writing and content. Another result is that students
and teachers tend to view writing an essential part of the curriculum: While teachers
consciously integrate writing into content areas, students come to expect that writing plays

Literacy Learning:

an integral part of any assignment (Hansen, 2001).

the Middle Years

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Ideas to consider:

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June 2006

Graphic organisers

Graphic organisers pre teach vocabulary, help show smdents conceptual relationships that
exist with content vocabulary, and help teachers define the goals of instruction. With
Graphic Organisers, a diagram is created showing the relationship between important words
and concepts in a unit of study. The diagram serves as an advance organiser for students to

understand the materiaL

Dialogue journals
Dialogue journals allow students the opportunity to share their questions, concerns, and
reactions to classroom experiences. They could write about particular topics or texts
studied. Students write a reflection and this is then passed on to a peer or teacher who
responds in writing and concludes with questions for clarification or by seeking more
information. The journals provide opportunities for open responses to assignments, teacher

feedback and response, and provide one-on-one attention for each student.

Providing for student ownership

Writing portfolios provide opportunities for students to take ownership of their work,
document their use of writing, self-assess and, over time, witness their own growth as

writers (Pm'cell-Gates 2002, Rief 1990). By using writing portfolios, teachers scaffold the
writing process by helping students to set personal writing goals and make choices about
their own writing. Portfolios create opportunities for students to evaluate their qwn success

(Rief 1990).
Research indicates that when smdents are given regular opportunities to make choices
about their writing, they tend to make good choices and develop ownership of their work
(Cambourne 2002, Alien 2000, Routman 2000). Students are more apt to take
responsibility for their own learning, develop their own writing voice, take ownership of
their writing, develop healthier attitudes about writing, and become more motivated writers

when given opportuniries to make choices. (Furr 2003, Au 1997, Daniels & Bizar 1998,
Cambourne 2000, Harvey 1998, Routman 2000). In addition, when teachers encourage
their students to write about topics that interest them, students are not only more likely to
write, but to appreciate the bond between their writing and their everyday lives (Au et aL
1997).
Ideas to consider:

Portfolios
Portfolios allow smdents to formalise their own learning goals and to self assess. Portfolios
can be as unique as the students who create them. The pieces that are contained in a
portfolio can be selected using different criteria - best piece, work in progress, different
genres.
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Internet opportunities
There are many interesting websites that allow students to personalise their learning and be
creative in their writing. A few examples include:
www.anagramgenius.com/server.htrnl

Students type in their names and the letters are reorganised to reveal an anagram. (Some

Practical
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Literacy Learning:
the Middle Years

examples: William Shakespeare becomes 'I am a weakfish speller'; Clint Eastwood becomes

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'Old West action'.)

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June 2006

Computer-generated haiku
http://www.familygames.eom/features/humor/haiku.html

A site with more than 12 million possible haikus. Students type in a topic and haikus are
generated around that theme.
Phone spell
www.phonespell.orgiphoneSpell.html

Students type in their phone numbers and find out what their phone number spells in words
and phrases.

Conclusion - We are all responsible for teaching writing

The teaching of writing requires that teachers acknowledge themselves as writers. Teachers
must feel confident to model writing as an imperfect process, not simply a perfect product.
Exposing students to a variety of genres allows them to explore different reasons for
writing. Conferencing about writing reaffirms that writing is a social process. Writing for
authentic pnrposes and real audiences puts the zest back into learning. Writing is key to
content learning and all students deserve quality writing experiences and it is our
responsibility to provide them irrespective of the grade or subject we teach.

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Practical
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Literacy Learning:

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Stcnhouse Publishers.
Atwell, N. (1998) In the Middle: New Understan4ings About Writing, Reading, and Learning.
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Au, K, Carroll, J. and Scheu,

Gordon Publishers, Tne.

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Calkins, L. (1994) The Art of Teaching Writing. Portsmouth, New Hampshire.

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Cambournc, B. (2002) 'From conditions of learning to conditions of teaching'. The Reading Teacher,
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