Neme

LITERATURA
-

A. Stulajterova : An introduction to the study of the English language

P. tekauer : Essentials of English Linguistics 100-130p
O jazykovych smeroch, skolach a historii jazykovedy ^^

Skuska : 1 test v zaverecnom obdobi, 3 rozne terminy v 3 roznych tyzdnoch

Katedrov kninica K04 p. Vlkov
1 prednka
The old English period 800-1100
First inhabitants - Celts, then came romans, Britain profited from roman
achievements and inventions, word strata = street comes from the romans, they
built roads, left in 5th century when the Roman Empire disintegrated.
CELTIC WORDS
Toponyms : London, York, Thames, Avon, Dover
Lexical remnants: bannock, brock, binn, ass

Latin was the language of higher civilization, Celts had a lot to learn from it. Latin
words were denoting practical things
1. Terms of agriculture:
Lat. vinum > Mod.E wine
Lat.prunus > ModE. Plum
2. Loan words connected with trade: buy, cheap, pound
3. Loans denoting domestic life: table, carpet, kitchen, cup dish
4. toponyms : - Chester, - caster ( endings )

Christianity 597 A.D. = greatest event that caused Latin to have a lot
of influence
Church, devil, angel, pope, bishop, nun, mass, altar, candle, monk,
priest, school, balsam, master, verse

Romans did not interfere with Celtic traditions and they were faithful to romans
when they were leaving. After Romans, Britain was attacked by Germanic tribes -

Anglo-Saxons. They were Angles, Saxons and Jutes who came from Germany and
Denmark. They pushed the Celts north. Their words are very short and most
common.

ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD
1.

Relations: Mother, father, Brother, man, woman, child...

2.

Seasons: Spring, summer, morning

3.

Animals: Goose, mouse, ox, duck...

4.

Colors: Red, green, white, blue

5.

Parts of human body: Heart, foot, eye, ear, tooth

6.

Meteorological: Star, sun, moon, water

7.

Common verbs: Come, sit, keep, make, and see

OLD ENGLISH SYNTHETIC TYPE OF LANGUAGE

MODERN ENGLISH - ANALYTICAL

Scandinavian period

They came from Norway and Denmark and attacked Britain. They occupied the
coastal territory and Britain was divided into 2 parts - Wessex under Alfred the
Great and Scandinavian territory.

SCANDINAVIAN INFLUENCE
Phonological changes
1.

Latin > Scandinavian. SK-words

School. Scheme X skill, skull, and sky

Words with SCH are Latin in origin, words with SK are Scandinavian origin
2.

Initial [g] un-palatalized before [e],[i]

Lat. giant. Genius X sc. Get give

In Scandinavian origins words that start with g and are followed be E, I...
UNPALATALIZED

In Latin origin words... PALATALIZED

Personal pronouns like THEM, THEY are taken from Scandinavian.
LEXICAL REMNANTS
1.
Toponyms by Derby, Rugby, Whitby (by used to mean town in old
Scandinavian)
-thorp Althorp, Astonthorp
-ness Lochness
2. Surnames
Sc. Johnson (the son of John) x A-S Jones (Johns)
3. Gap, leg knife, window, husband, fellow, sister
4. Die, take, give, get, cut, and call
5. Happy, sick, wrong, ugly, angry, low
6. Steak, cake
7. Law, loan,

GRAMMATICAL CHANGES
AS=Anglo Saxon, SC = Scandinavian
Indicators of simplification of English grammar:
1. Personal pronouns
AS hie > Sc. They, AS him > Sc. Them
2. Nouns word final -n disappeared
(Weak declensional paradigm)
3. Verbs infinite word final -an disappeared
AS jvan > Sc. Give nman > Take
AS jtan > Sc. Get
To BE : AS sindon > Sc. are
Next week: Norman and central French influences
The Norman and central French influence on the development of English
MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD (1100-1500)
Norman influence affected English much more extensively. It didnt
penetrate into the core of English language just as Scandinavian
influence. Norman influence enriched the vocabulary of English.
Normans came from the north of France. Settled on the coast of Normandy.
Skillful organizers, had strong military power. As the Normans occupied

all important posts of the administration of state, church,

government etc... Words from these spheres come from the Norman
language.
THE NORMAN AND CENTRAL FRENCH INFLUENCE
1. The state administration terms : government, minister, state, nation
2. Military terminology : war, peace, enemy, officer, army
3. Legal terms : justice, crime, penalty, prison
4. Religious terminology: service, religion, pray, virgin, saint...
5. Words denoting past time activities & art : architecture, palace, poet,
paint, volume, chapter, beauty, sport, costume, dress
6. Cookery terms : roast, toast, sausage, sauce, boil, dinner, supper
7. Terms denoting kinds of meat : veal ,beef, pork, mutton, venison X
names of domestic animals remained A-S : calf, cow, pig, lamb, ram,
deer
Norman by origin are those vocabulary items which give evidence of a higher
standard of living of the Norman population. These are words which
relate to art, fashion, music, theatre, literature...
Meals were prepared by the French thats why they became Norman and
The process of penetrating Norman words into English was gradual and slow
and the consequence of the coexistence of the two nationalities in England
(AS and Normans) caused that towards the end of the 13th century we can talk
about Anglo-Norman language which was different from French spoken in
France, this French was called Parisian(central) French. Central French
excelled over the Anglo Norman language as it was the language of the powerful
royal court and enriched literature.

Central French influence

Norman captain, catch, ward
Central French chieftain, chase, guard
Some words penetrated into English twice thats why they are similar.

Had it not be for the French influence, modern English would have been much
more different. From grammatical point of view in the Middle English period the
shaping of the grammatical system from the original synthetic to the present
day analytical pattern was completed. The victory of the analytical principal
in morphology is connected with far reaching simplification and the decay of
inflections. The inflectional endings disappeared
Norman French brought many suffixes to Middle English:
-

Ful (forgetful)

Ship (cleanship)
With (withdraw)
Un (uncover)

STYLISTIC CONSEQUENCES
SYNONYMOUS WORD PAIRS
Anglo-Saxon hearty, child, freedom, might wish
Norman cordy, infant, liberty, power, desire
AS words were more dynamic, straight-forward and shorter while the Norman
ones are more artificial.
AS words were used more in spoken language and Norman words were used
more in literature.
The Norman and central influence was far reaching and it enriched its lexical and
stylistic possibilities enormously...
GREECO-LATIN INFLUENCE IN THE AGE OF NEW LEARNING 13.10.14
The influence of Latin and lesser asd of Greek which affected England towards
the end of the 15th century has left lasting traces in modern English. The
difference between this influence and earlier influences that we discussed in
previous weeks that it was not enforced upon English as a consequence of some
military action or political conquest but in a peaceful and bloodless way. This
influence is a result of a powerful cultural movement known as NEW LEARNING or
THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING (humanizmus a renesancia) originated in Italy in
the 13th century it spread to other countries in the 14th century. The goal of this
was to enrich the European culture with deep study of ancient literature. We can
observe the remnants mainly on the lexical level as we can find a lot of Latin or
GrekoLatin words in terminology of all humanities (literature, historiology,
sociology,)
1. Humanities : allegory, history, include, individual, nervous, Picture,
rational, summary, temporal
2. Natural sciences : tract, ulcer, acid, hydrogene, atom ,nucleus, proton,
radium, vertebrates, mammals, fungi, bacteria
All these words carry bookishness. Words like temporal, summary are usually
found in academic writings. They are easily recognized in writing rather than
in speaking

ARTIFICIAL ADAPTATION
Majority of the Latin words were taken as whole words but some words were
taken by adaptation.

LATIN VIA FRENCH (midE = Middle English; modE = modern English)

1. Perfection
MidE parfit> Lat. perfectus > ModE perfect
2. Adventure
MidE aventure > Lat. Adventura > ModE adventure
STYLISTIC CONSEQUENCES
-

Bookishness
Higher degree of abstractness and depersonalization

A-S

NORMAN

Rise

mount

Time

age

Holy

sacred

End

finish

LATIN
ascend
epoch
consecrated
complete

We also have synonymous word pairs for example:

A-S lips
LATIN labial
A-S walk LATIN to perambulate
A-S put off LATIN postpone

THE DUTCH LOANS

-

Dutch influence is the result of lively political and commercial contacts

LEXICAL LOANS
1. Maritime terminology deck, dock, gin ,yacht
2. Drawing and painting landscape, easel

THE ITALIAN LOANS

-

Italian influence is the result of business and cultural contacts

LEXICAL LOANS
1.
2.
3.
4.

Music violin ,soprano, alto, piano

Architecture fresco, balcony, loggia
Business risk, bankrupt, lottery
Food pasta, salami, macaroni, spaghetti

SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE LOANS

1.
2.
3.
4.

Military terms embargo, barricade, tank

Agriculture tobacco, banana, cocoa
Meteorological phenomena hurricane, tornado
Other lexical loans: guitar, sombrero, sherry, cargo

LOANS FROM OTHER LANGUAGES

-

Arabic : algebra, zero, alcohol

Turkish : coffee, kiosk, yoghurt
Russian: vodka, sputnik
German: kindergarten, sauerkraut, blitz
Czech : robot

Koniec prvej casti semestra, prejdeme na synchronny pohlad na anglicky jazyk.

PREFOTIT ZOZADU CVICENIA Z KNIHY na teste budu teorteticke cvicenia s
praktickymi.

SAMOSTUDIUM
1. origins of English (chapter 5)
2. properties of language (chapter 6)
3. phonology (chapter 7)
30.10.14 = minula hodina odpadla
LINGUISTICS
-

study of human language

The primary function of language is the transactional function to impart

factual information and to convey messages.
Language can be used to communicate feelings and emotions as well, so the
secondary function of human language is its interactional function.
Displacement we can talk about things that are present or even absent
Productivity we can create new sentences or words whenever we want to
Arbitrariness the fact that there is no connection between linguistic form and
meaning
Cultural transmission we inherit many things from our parents but not
language
Discreteness when each sound is treated as discrete

Duality human language is organized in two levels

Patterning how phonemes can be arranged (pat, tap, etc.)
PHONETICS
1. articulatory studies how speech sounds are made
2. acoustic 3. auditory from hearers point
Phonetics is a study of speech sounds.
PHONOLOGY
Phonology studies the relation between sound and meaning.
Studies sound patterns of human language and the relationships
between sounds and meanings as well as the relation between sound
and meaning
Phoneme
-

Phoneme is a meaning distinguishing sound which functions contrastively

Units of sound which distinguish one word from another
e.g. pin X bin
pXB

- Phonemes P/B are the only basis of the contrast in meaning between the form of
PIN and BIN

PHONOLOGY
1. Segmental phonology
Ways of creating meanings through the sound system by changing the
individual sounds within words, e.g. hit heat /i/ - // = segmental
features
Minimal pairs = ship sheep, pin pen, which differ only in a single
phoneme; = CHANGE OF ONE SOUND WITHIN THE WORD
Minimal sets = words differentiated each one from the others by
changing one phoneme in the same position: fit fat foot, big pig dig
2. Suprasegmental phonology
Studies ways in which languages create meanings through changing the
way that we sing the words; through the stress, the rhythm and the
intonation = suprasegmental features;

PHONEMES AND ALLOPHONES

-

Phoneme distinguish meaning :

Ship X sheep
Allophones are phonetic variants which do not distinguish meaning of
the word :
Peter X P(h)eter

SOUND PATTERNING
The phonemes cannot be string together in a random order to form words:
E.g. three consonant type phonemes = three strict rules
1st phoneme must be /s/;
2nd phoneme /p/ or /t/ or /k/;
3rd phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/ or /j/
(Spring, string, splendid, scream, squeal, stew)

Assimilation
-

Assimilation = process where one sound becomes more like another

sound, or two sounds become more like each other :
Voiced: towns [z] vs voiceless have to [f]

Compare: Hes too lazy.

Hes my friend.

[s] Before [t] =voiceless

[z] before [m] = voiced

Elision
-

The deletion of a sound or sounds in speech, particularly in a rapid

informal speech;
Frequently elided consonants : /t/ and /d/
West Cliff = [wesklif], windmill [winmil]

MORPHOLOGY (3.11.14)
The study of word structure
Is at the intersection of the study of words (lexicology) and the study of grammar
We can divide words into meaningful segments, they have either semantic or
grammatical function

Re-open-ed = open-word stand (slovotvorny zaklad + affixes (prefix and suffix) =

3 MORPHEMES
(2 BOUND 1 FREE)
Morpheme = smallest unit of meaning and grammatical function = re meaning,
open meaning, ed grammatical function

Bound morphemes
They cannot stand by themselves must be attached to a word.
1. Derivational morphemes used to make new words of different
grammatical category : teach (v.) teach-er (n.), slow (adj.) slow-ly
(adv.); meaningful (+) meaningless (+)
2. Inflectional morphemes indicate grammatical function : teacher
teachers (plural) teachers (possessive case), nice nicer the
nicest, wait waited waiting ;
Have to be attached to the word stand and if they have meaning they are
called derivation morphemes
Free morphemes
They can stand by themselves as single words.
1. Lexical morphemes = content words like newspaper, lovely, sit etc.
2. Functional morphemes = grammatical or function words like they,
above, one, the, etc.

Allomorphs
-

Sometimes a morpheme has a number of variants known as

allomorphs;
For instance /s/, /z/ and /iz/ are allomorphs of plural morpheme s;
Allomorphs : phonologically conditioned
Lexically conditioned (their form is linked to a particular
vocabulary item: geese, criteria, oxen, theses

Word classes (parts of speech)

1. Major word classes = content words which include : nouns, adjectives,
verbs and adverbs (open system)
2. Minor word classes = grammatical or function words : determiners,
pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, praticles, interjections (closed
system)
Grammatical categories
1. Nominal grammatical categories : gender, number, case

2. Verbal grammatical categories : person, tense, mood (indicative,

interrogative, imperative), and voice (active vs passive)
Gender
English has natural gender:
1. Animate personal female nouns have feminine gender
2. Animate personal male nouns have masculine gender
3. Inanimate non-personal objects, things, phenomena are neuter in gender
Number
-

Based on binary opposition singular vs plural;

Indicated by the absence or presence of the plural morpheme s (dog
dogs), and its allomorphs en (ox oxen), -es (analysis analyses), -a
(datum data)
Nouns are divided into : countable & uncountable

Concord (agreement) [najdolezitejsie podla nej]

-

Grammatical categories and their role in describing language structure

become clearer when we consider them in terms of CONCORD od
AGREEMENT.

E.g.
-

He writes his written assignments.

Concord in number (he (sg.) writes)
Concord in gender (he his)
Concord in person (he his writes)

Find bound morphemes in following fords

-

Misleads = 2 bound morphemes

Shortened = 1 bound
Fearlessly
Gentlemanliness = li a ness su bound
Decompression = press zaklad, de, com, ion bound
Antidisestablishmentarianism

Which of the following examples is a treated as a bound morpheme

Apple no
A boy no
Aids no
Apolitical yes a

Find inflectional morphemes in the following phrases

The teachers book = s books plural

Its snowing = ing
The newest model = est
The boy jumped over the fence = ed
Later arrivals = r, s

Do the morphological description of the following sentences:

Najst morphemy
He(free
morpheme=functional)/is(lexical)/one(numeral)/of/the(functional)/most(functional
)/power(lexical)/ful(derivational)/member(lexical)/s(inflectional)/of(functional)/our
(functional)/parliament(lexical)

She/move/ed/to/london/where/she/work/ed(inflactional)/for/the/dai/ly/mirror/as/a/j
ournal/ist(derrivational)

Nabuduce syntax!

SYNTAX 10.11.14
= Part of grammar that concerns the structure of phrases or sentences

Word order
-

An important aspect of grammatical correctness and meaning

E.g. = Mike saw the teacher in the pub
The teacher saw Mike in the pub.
Pub the saw mike in teacher the no ling. Meaning

Traditional word order patterns

1. S V O (subject verb object)
She called him.
2. S V O O (subject-verb-2objects)
She called him steward.
3. S V O C (subject verb object complement)
She called him Steward. = this sentence is ambiguous, has 2 possible
meanings if you hear it spoken
4. S V O A (subject - verb object adverb)
She called him yesterday.
Sentence = unity of form and meaning
Ambiguity = double meaning of a sentence

Phrase
-

Phrase = basic building block of the sentence in English

E.g. = The teacher saw mike in the pub
The teacher = noun phrase
Saw mike = verb phrase
In the pub = prepositional phrase

A simple sentence
-

Must contain :
Noun phrase (NP) acting as a SUBJECT
Verb phrase (VP) = PREDICATE indicating some action or state of affairs

Noun phrase
-

NP
NP
NP
NP
NP

=
=
=
=
=

noun (boy)
article + noun (the boy / a boy)
article + adjective + noun (a little boy)
pronoun (he)
proper noun (Peter)

Verb phrase
-

VP = verb (find/found)
VP = verb + NP (found the ball)
VP = verb + NP + PP (found the ball in the street)
[PP = prepositional phrase]
S
NP

Art

VP
N

V NP PP
Prep NP
AR

The

teacher

saw Mike in the bar

(pospajat si to ciarami ako strom

(the bar patri k NP=art+)

(pp sa deli na prep a NP)

Phrase structure rules
-

State possible combinations of constituents of the L. e.g. S = NP + VP

Transformation rules specify which constituents can be moved from
where and to where
E.g. Peter visited his parents yesterday. Yesterday Peter visited his parents

An[article] old[adjective] man[noun] (NP) hit[verb] the[article] boy[noun] (NP)

with[preposition] the[article] stick[noun] (PP) (NP)
Nakreslit constituent structure tree tejto vety^^
Na teste moze byt zadanie draw constituent structure trees = znamena to ze
veta je dvojzmyselna a ak to prehliadneme tak mozeme prist o 10 bodov lebo to
v nejakom teste je za 10 bodov. Pretoze sa ta veta da inak rozobrat ak ma 2
vyznamy tak to dostudovat

Ambiguity
-

The sentence is structurally ambiguous when it has two underlying

interpretations
Examples:
Parents of the bride and groom were waiting.
They can fish

In what ways are the following clauses and sentences ambiguous?

-

An American history teacher

Flying planes can be dangerous
Old men and women are hard to live with
Terry loves his wife and so do I.

Which of the following expressions are noun phrases

-

A bird
The red flag
Have a nice evening
John sleep

Which of the following expressions are verb phrases

Saw an elephant
Slept
Is smart
Smart
Found the chocolate

LEXICOLOGY 24.11.14

Deals with the vocabulary of language and the properties of words

8.12 by mal byt predtermin!! O tej istej dobe
WORD
-

Word = basic minimum free unit of a given language resulting from the
association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds
capable of a particular grammatical employment
Except for the meaning of a word we can find other linguistic nvm co

WORDS are studied from the following aspects

-

Phonological every word consists of sounds

Morphological every w consists of morphemes
Syntactical every w and its position & function within a sentence
Semantic is W monsem. Or polysem., are its meanings related or not?
Stylistic W and its stylistic coloring

WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES
1. DERIVATION = sticking an affix to an existing word (root) in order to create
a new word
E.g.: qualify disqualify
2. CONVERSION
-

Zero derivation, coverted words can be created:

N > V (water > to water)
Adj.>V(dirty > to dirty)
V>N (walk > a walk)

3. COMPOUNDING
- joining two or more separate lexerries to produce a new single form (e.g.
basketball, mother-in-law, flower pot)
- Semantic integrity = meaning of the whole is not a sum of its elements, e.g.
chatterbox is not a box its a person
4. BORROWING
- When a word is taken over from another language, modified in phonemic shape
and according to the standards of the borrowing language
- 70 percent of the English vocabulary consists of loan words
5. COINAGE
- Invention of totally new terms (Xerox, nylon, selfie)
- Least productive word-formation processes in English

WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES BASED ON SUBTRACTION

1. Blending two lexemes produce a new single form in a way that the initial
part of the one lexeme is joined to the final part of the other lexeme:
Bookaholic, enjoyneering
Fruice = fruit + juice
Jorts = jeans + shorts
Smog = smoke + fog
2. Clipping
- Reduction of a longer words into a shorter form
a) Initial the beginning is dropped (phone)
b) Final the end is dropped (advert,exam)
c) Initial and final the middle part is kept (flu, fridge)
d) Mixed frisco(san francisco), Japs, fries(French friend potatoes)
3. Back formation
- When a longer of one type(usually a noun) is reduced to form another word
of different type (usually a verb)
e.g.: television > televise
Baby-sitter>baby-sit
Editor>edit
4. Acronymy
- Formation of new words from the initial letters of a set of ther words
- Capital letters are used without periods and the words are pronounced as
single forms :
NATO, UEFA, UNESCO also radar, laser, scuba
5. Initial abbreviation
- Based on the use of individual letters for the consistent words
- They are spelled and usually use periods to separate the letters
C.I.A.,V.I.P.,V.A.T.

SEMANTICS (nova tema, ten isty den)

= the study of linguistic meaning of words, sentences, phrases.
SEMANTIC RELATIONS
-

Occur when we feel that lexemes are somehow related in meaning

SYNONYMS
-

AS

Two or more words of the same L. belongings to the same part of speech,
possessing one or more identical or nearly identical meanings, but
different in phonemic shape, morphemic composition, shades of meaning,
stylistic coloring and idiomatic use, e.g.: freedom liberty, heaven skye,
willowy skiny

NORMAN

Freedom Liberty

Heaven Sky
Lips Labial

Thin Willowy = positive connotation

Thin Skinny = negative connotation

NEUTRAL vs FORMAL
Begin Commence
Child Infant
Hearty Cordial

Dialect difference Underground vs. Tube

Formal and Informal Insane vs. Potty
Colloquial difference Rancid vs. Rotten
Emotional difference Youth vs. Youngster

ANTONYMS
-

Words opposite in meaning, e.g. beautiful ugly

ANTONYMS
1. Absolute created by root words (old-new)
2. Derivational negat. Aff. (moral-immoral)
Dalsie delenie cic o
a) Gradable use comparative forms(deep-deeper vs shallow
shallower)
b) Non-gradable cannot be used in comp. Forms ( dead alive, single
married)
HOMONYMY
-

When one form has two or more unrelated meanings, bank(river)

bank(institution)
Homonyms words identical in spelling and pronunciation but different in
meaning
E.g.: bear(N)bear(V)

POLYSEMY
-

Head(humans head) head(of organization)

HOMOPHONES
-

Words different in meaning & spelling that are pronounced the same
Night knight
Where were
Hear here

HOMOGRAPHS
-

Words identical in meaning and pronunciation but identical in spelling

E.g.: tear(N) tear(V)
Wind(N) wind (V)
Lead(N) lead(V)

HYPONYMY VS HYPERONYMY
-

When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of

another form : pizza dish, pepper spice;
Hierarchical semantic relation in which the subordinate item is called
hyponym and the superodinate item is hyperonym
Used in defining lexemes : gorgonzola is a kind of cheese

STYLISTICS
-

Branch of linguistics that studies situationalally-distinctive uses of

language
Main object of stylistic study is TEXT

Cohesion formal and semantic links between sentences across sentence

boundaries
Coherence the way in which the components of text are relevant
Intentionality text have certain intention
Acceptability the text has some use or relevance for us
Informativity the text provides us with some kind of useful information
Situationality text is decoded in particular situations
Intertextuality utilization of the text based on previous text
Ked slova napodobunuju zvuky = onomatopoeia