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Josh Branch

English IV

Matthews

11 March 2008

An Analysis and Overview of Intelligence Testing

In order to properly conduct an experiment in regards to indentifying and quantifying

intelligence, it is first necessary to define what intelligence means. In addition to a working

definition for intelligence, it is also necessary to understand the processes by which a single

intelligence, or multiple intelligences in the case of Howard Gardner, is identified and quantified.

It is necessary to have a full understanding of Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

in addition to the ability to combine the theory with other theories in order to comprehend its

intent. Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences defines eight criteria by which an

intelligence is defined, and nominates eight different fields that fit the criteria well enough to be

defined as an intelligence.

Gardner starts his list of criteria with the most empirical criterion, a corresponding part of

the brain. Gardner describes the first criterion as being “potential isolation by brain damage,” by

which he means that a specific part of the brain corresponds with the faculty in question (63). For

instance, psychologists have identified two specific areas, Wernicke’s and Broca’s, which

correspond with the formation and interpretation of language (University of Washington).

Accordingly, linguistic abilities fulfill the first criteria of an intelligence. This first criterion is

essential to an empirical definition of an intelligence, and is crucial to the emphasis on an

isolated sphere that performs the relevant computations.

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Gardner’s second criterion requires one or several individuals who show a mental

distinction within the realm of the nominated intelligence. Gardner words this as “the existence

of idiot-savants, prodigies, or other exceptional individuals.” Gardner states that the existence of

such unique individuals allows for a pure observation of the singular intelligence, without

coloring from any other (63). One must know the definitions for the terms “idiot savant” and

“prodigy” to facilitate the comprehension of the second criterion. An idiot savant is an individual

with profound autism who still exhibits unusual proficiency in an isolated area, specifically, the

area of an intelligence (Edelson). Prodigies are unusually gifted early in life and excel in an

intelligence (Princeton University). Idiot savants and prodigies, though perhaps not fully

understood, provide ample evidence that an intelligence is able to be isolated in a profound

deficiency, a profound excellence, or both. The singularity with which an exceptional individual

works in regards to his enhanced intelligence reflects a significant plausibility to the existence of

multiple personalities.

The third criterion for the identification of an intelligence is the ability for the nominated

intelligence to be developed from a start point to a peak performance. Gardner describes this

criterion as “a distinctive developmental history along with a definable set of expert ‘end-state’

performances.” In simple terms, in third criterion, an individual must demonstrate a process of

learning with a start-point, and develops continuously until either stopping or reaching a point of

expertise “which may be visible only in individuals with unusual talent and/or special forms of

training” (Gardner 64). Professional musicians who are able to teach rudimentary exercises for

the improvement of musical ability illustrate development of musical intelligence. The

possibility of advancing in proficiency makes an intelligence distinct from a simple talent or

skill. The ability to whistle in and of itself is not an intelligence; however, the use of musical
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intelligence will allow an individual to control pitch, rhythm, and to some extent timbre in order

to create a melody.

The fourth criterion is a set of fundamentals that may be developed into a more complex

structure. In Gardner’s words “an identifiable core operation or set of operations.” Core

operations are the basic functions that are required to perform in a realm of intelligence. In

regards to music, a core operation is the recognition of pitch, rhythm, and timbre (64). Core

operations develop into fuller, more enriched abilities and culminate in a musician’s ability to

write, or pick apart, full symphonies. The existence of core operations is essential to the ability

for an intelligence to be developed, and even, for an intelligence to exist. Part of the definition of

an intelligence is creativity, and a developed intelligence works from the core operations to

create a more complex final product.

The fifth criterion is linked to the first in the biological realm. The fifth criterion is “an

evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility.” What Gardner means by evolutionary history

and plausibility is that the intelligence once served a purpose required for survival (65).

Exaptation is the occurrence of a part of the brain, once necessary for a specific survival purpose

to be adapted to a new and possibly irrelevant function (University of Illinois at Urbana-

Champaign). Exaptation explains how intelligences that seem superfluous to survival have

developed in humans. The creation of an intelligence through an evolutionary process aligns with

Gardner’s statement that cultural utility is an important facet in the acceptance of an intelligence

(61). Evolutionary development also emphasizes permanence, rather than a fleeting ability or a

mere anomaly.

The sixth criterion is the first of the applied criteria, meaning that in order to fulfill this

criterion, the nominated intelligence must be able to be tested. Gardner says that an intelligences

requires “support from experimental psychological tasks.” The intelligence should be tested in a
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controlled experimental environment in order to ascertain specific details about it (65). The sixth

criterion is important due to the empirical data it provides. Since all scientific theories must be

confirmed with empirical evidence, it is crucial that each existing, and any new, intelligence be

testable in laboratory conditions.

The seventh criterion stems from the sixth. The seventh criterion requires an experiment

to produce quantifiable results. The quantifiable results can also be called “psychometric

findings” (Gardner 66). These findings validate the information collected through the sixth

criterion. Psychometrics is the “assessment of psychological variables by the application of

mathematical procedures” (Centre for Cancer Education). Various sources have written tests in

an attempt to quantify each of Gardner’s intelligences, and though these tests are mostly self-

report, they have still proven effective at ascertaining levels of each of the intelligences that a

person possesses. Psychometrics has proven to be the most difficult of the eight criteria due to

the nature of the theory itself. Standard tests use a question-and-answer method done either on a

computer, or with pencil and paper. The testing method is in conflict with intelligences such as

interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences; however, this does not mean that it is not possible

to quantify each intelligence; only that the existing methods must be examined carefully, and any

results interpreted with an acceptable amount of precaution.

The final criterion is a set of representative characters that can indicate meaning for an

intelligence. Gardner calls the last criterion “susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system.”

Examples of symbol systems are numbers, sheet music, pictures, and any other representative

object. Some of the intelligences do not have clearly defined symbol systems, but Gardner makes

a point that the eighth criterion is only a likelihood, not an absolute (66). A symbol system is

likely, or even necessary, due to the complexity with which a strongly developed intelligence
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functions. These complex functions require a means of simplification so that information it is

possible to either easily communicate, or quickly recall in a simple manner.

Gardner’s intelligences can be placed into three groups: those that are unchallenged,

those that have been recently accepted, and those still under debate. The first group includes

linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences. The early Parisian I.Q. tests measured an

individual’s ability in linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences (Development 49).

Linguistic intelligence involves a mastery of language, and logical-mathematical intelligence

concerns proficiency with numbers (Smith). Many people accept aptitude in linguistics and

mathematics as measures for overall intelligence because they are good indicators of scholastic

potential, as exemplified through the SAT test. Gardner does not negate that idea; but rather,

states that there are more intelligences beyond the two (Development 49). Gardner is one of the

first psychologists to challenge the classic idea of intelligence in a significant manner, and his

theory argues that former “talents” are in fact, fully developable mental spheres.

The two intelligences that have become more widely accepted are musical and spatial

intelligences. Spatial intelligence especially, the ability to create a three-dimensional objects and

rotate them in the mind (Smith), has become so widely accepted, that many classic I.Q. tests

have incorporated questions regarding spatial ability. Musical intelligence, once considered a

“talent” has been steadily growing as an accepted intelligence. The technical precision with

which a musician can work and generally does has emphasized the intellectual efforts required

by musicians, especially composers. The overall acceptance of these two intelligences

demonstrates a certain validity of Gardner’s theory. The ease with which these two intelligences

were accepted is likely due to the similarities between them and the classic types of intelligence.

The last group of intelligences is the group that is under debate as to whether these areas

are intelligences rather than talents or skills. The last intelligences include bodily kinesthetic,
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interpersonal, intrapersonal, and the recently added naturalistic (Development 58). Bodily

kinesthetic intelligence is important for all types of actors, and is most evident in the

performances of mimes. The ability to mimic, to exaggerate, and to emphasize realistic body

motion to convey a specific action relies on a strong bodily kinesthetic intelligence (Gardner

206). The two personal intelligences encounter the most debate because of the subjective nature

each one has. Interpersonal is the ability of an individual to communicate and act in harmony

with others (Smith). Opponents to the theory might state that solely because an individual

chooses to avoid social situations does not make that person a low intellect in interpersonal

interactions. Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to understand and control the thoughts and

feelings of the self (Smith). Intrapersonal is the most difficult to measure due to the necessary

self-report on ability. The recently added naturalistic intelligence is not as difficult to identify, it

is simply the ability of an individual to recognize and classify various flora and fauna, but it does

become more difficult to quantify, a bit like using just vocabulary to determine linguistic

intelligence. The last group of intelligences is difficult to accept due to the problems inherent in

each intelligence as pertaining to the development of an empirical judgment. Perhaps with

further development in testing with Gardner’s theory, confirmation or refutation of these

intelligences will become easier.

After obtaining a fuller understanding of Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple

intelligences, it becomes possible to apply said knowledge to experimental testing to determine

the validity and utility of the theory. Gardner’s work can be applied to guide a student, or to help

him identify his weaknesses and develop a study plan to address those weaknesses (Martin).

Gardner’s work may not completely revolutionize education, but it does provide a new

perspective from which to assess the classroom environment. By using Gardner as a augmenter

to existing educational practices, it is possible to improve the educational system for all ages.
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Works Cited

Centre for Cancer Education. Definition: psychometrics from the Online Medical Dictionary. 12

December 1998. 13 March 2008 <http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?

psychometrics>.

Edelson, Stephen M.. “Autistic Savant.” (1995): 17 March 2008

<http://www.autism.org/savant.html>.

Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind. New York: BasicBooks, 1983.

—. The Development and Education of the Mind. New York: Routledge, 2006.

Martin, Elizabeth. Personal Interview. 4 March 2008.

Princeton University. WordNet. 2006. 17 March 2008

<http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=prodigy>.

Smith, M.K. "Howard Gardner and Multiple Intelligences." 28 Dec 2007. The Encyclopedia of

Informal Education. 18 Feb 2008 <http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm>.

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. “Without Miracles.” (1994): 17 March 2008

<http://faculty.ed.uiuc.edu/g-cziko/wm/05.html>.

University of Washington. “Neuroscience for Kids.” (2007): 13 March 2008

<http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/lang.html>.