Student: Sebastian Moore

POLS315: 3000 Word Essay

Word Count: 2729

Research Question:

Assess the present state of Polish nationalism. Discuss and analyse the reasons for its
current state:

Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the
west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine and Belarus to the east; and the Baltic
Sea, Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast) and Lithuania to the north. 1 Since the states beginnings in 966, 2 a
series of periods of foreign occupation, partitions, uprisings, long period of statelessness and
shifting boarders have contributed to the turbulent picture of Polish history. 3 Therefore, in order to
understand the importance of nation, nationhood and national identification in the Polish context,
one needs first to understand the historical and political context in which these issues occur. 4 This
essay will attempt to assess the current state of Polish nationalism by first providing a historical
backdrop to its patriotic traditions. This allows for a better understanding of the following analysis
regarding the present day components that constitute contemporary Polish nationalism.

Polish historian, Andrzej Walicki asserts that when examining the historical and political backdrops
to Polish nationalism, three distinct yet coexisting patriotic traditions, which throughout Polands
history have influenced the understanding of its national identity, provide the grounds for the
analysis of contemporary Polish nationalism. 5 These three patriotic traditions offer three distinct
analyses in their legitimisation patriotic action, through the notion that loyalty to the nation [Poland]

Central Intelligence Agency. (2014). CIA World Factbook 2014, Country overview on Poland,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pl.html (accessed 20 September
2014).
2
Lukowski, J., & Zawadzki, H. (2006). A Concise History of Poland., p. 3.
3
Kania-Lundholm, M Re-Branding A Nation Online: Discourses on Polish Nationalism and Patriotism (PhD diss.,
Uppsala University, 2012), p. 82.
4
ibid.
5
Walicki, A. (1991). Trzy patriotyzmy: trzy tradycje polskiego patriotyzmu i ich znaczenie wspczesne., p. 7.

Student: Sebastian Moore

POLS315: 3000 Word Essay

Word Count: 2729

can be defined in three distinct ways, that is, loyalty to the national will, the national idea and the
national interest. 6 Walicki asserts that each of these patriotisms correspond with a different
definition of nation, respectively, political, ethno-cultural and ethno-religious, 7 and thus in turn, the
story of Polish patriotism provides a genealogy of Polish nationalism. 8

Patriotism in the form of loyalty to the national will refers to the period of Polish history (15691795) when the nation was conceived primarily as a political bond between citizens-noblemen. 9
During this period of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Nobles' Democracy defined the
nation in civic terms, as a subject of collective sovereign will, with the nobility being guaranteed a set
of equal rights and liberties and bound by the idea of having a patriotic duty to the state. 10 Because
of the prevalence of a civic understanding of national identity during this period, scholars such as
Genevive Zubrzycki see the origins of a civic protonation and civic nationalism in Poland, in the
nation-model of the Nobles Democracy. 11

After the third partition of Poland in 1795, 12 with the political vision of the nation no longer
sustainable, Polishness became a matter of ideals residing in the hearts and souls of the Polish
people. As Walicki asserts, during this stateless period of Polish history, patriotism became
associated with loyalty to the national idea, defined in terms of a shared heritage, culture and
language, 13 thus resulting in an emergence of a national identity defined along ethno-linguistic and

Kania-Lundholm, op. cit., p. 85.

Walicki, A, op. cit., p. 8.
8
Kania-Lundholm, op. cit.
9
ibid.
10
Walicki, A, op. cit., p. 31.
11
Kania-Lundholm, op. cit., p. 86.
12
Davies, N. (1981). God's playground : a history of Poland in two volumes., p. 7.
13
Kania-Lundholm, op. cit.
7

Student: Sebastian Moore

POLS315: 3000 Word Essay

Word Count: 2729

cultural lines. 14 In addition to this, in a situation of limited access to public education and
restrictions on the freedom of assembly and association, Catholic practices such as Mass provided an
opportunity for Poles to express their sense of community, thus linking Polish nationalism to
Catholicism 15, a link that still defines Polish nationalism today. 16

During the interwar period of Polands second republic (1918-1939), 17 Polish patriotism was
redefined as the idea of serving the objective national interest of the Polish state. 18 As Polish
politician Roman Dmowski, the purported father of Polish nationalism 19 asserted in his renowned
work Myli nowoczesnego Polaka (Thoughts of a Modern Pole), being Polish did not only require
that one spoke the Polish language, but also required one to share the same goals and interests of
other compatriots in the form of allegiance to the same fatherland. Thus, civic freedom, as subject to
national interest, came before individual freedom 20. The state of Polish nationalism during this
period is reminiscent of the period of the Nobles Democracy, however the notion Polish nationalism
during these respective periods was different. Instead of a civic vision of nationhood as defined in
the period of the Nobles Democracy in Dmowskis era, Polishness was characterized in strictly
ethno-religious exclusionary terms. 21

Walickis concept of the Polish patriotic traditions illustrate that a particular understanding of the
Polish nation as well as the loyalty to the national community is heavily dependent on the geo-

14

ibid.
ibid., p. 87.
16
Grosby, S. E., & Leoussi, A. S. (2007). Nationalism and ethnosymbolism: history, culture and ethnicity in the
formation of nations., p. 169.
17
nd
Sanford, G. (2003). Historical dictionary of Poland 2 Ed., p. xxiii.
18
Kania-Lundholm, op. cit., p. 89.
19
rnason, J. P., & Doyle, N. (2010). Domains and Divisions of European History., p. 93.
20
Kania-Lundholm, op. cit.
21
ibid.
15

Student: Sebastian Moore

POLS315: 3000 Word Essay

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political situation of the country. 22 These three historically contingent patriotic traditions of Polish
Nationalism corresponding with civic, cultural and ethnic forms of nationalism, provide the
foundation in order to comprehensively analyse the critical features constituting and transforming
contemporary Polish nationalism such as the Catholic narrative of the Polish nation, its resulting
effects on Polish nationalism in terms of social policy, the purported eurosceptic and xenophobic
characteristics of contemporary Polish nationalism, and the proposed Polish identity crisis.

In Polish mentality as well as in the opinion of the church, Catholicism is entirely connected with
Polishness. Religious and national identities are characterized by a feeling of belonging to Polishness
and Catholicism. 23 This implies not only that the Church and Catholic religion are deeply rooted in
Poland, but also that when discussing and researching Polish nationalism, one must include
Catholicism and its entwinement with Polish history as a crucial element. 24 As academic Anthony D.
Smith asserts, every nation possesses its own particular myth of foundation, functioning as the
legitimising force for the very existence of the nation. 25 In Polands case the myth legitimising the
existence of Poland, is its intrinsic Catholicism, presenting the country as a fortification of
Christendom, defending Europe against the infidel. 26 This is illustrated in the works of Polish poets
during the Polish Romanticism period, depicting Poland as the Christ of the Nations, martyred for
the sins of the world and resurrected for the worlds salvation. 27 The process which led to the
defining of the Polish nation along ethnic lines in which religion was a central part, occurred during
the periods of Polish statelessness, and during the communist period in Poland, 28 during which the

22

ibid.
Borowik, I. (2002). The Roman Catholic Church in the process of democratic transformation: The case of Poland
Social Compass 49:2, pp. 239-252.
24
Kania-Lundholm, op. cit., p. 91.
25
Smith, A. D. (1988). The ethnic origins of nations., p. 207.
26
Kania-Lundholm, op. cit.
27
Zubrzycki, G. (2009). The Crosses of Auschwitz: Nationalism and Religion in Post-Communist Poland., p. 45.
28
Kania-Lundholm, op. cit., p. 92.
23

Student: Sebastian Moore

POLS315: 3000 Word Essay

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national consciousness became strongly tied to the Church as it was the only institution with a Polish
character that could allow the definite enactment of ethnicity. 29

During the Polish communist period, it is indisputable that the Catholic Church was the root source
for moral and political resistance against the communist regime. 30 As a result, the Church had the
monopoly over the specific Catholic narrative of history and could maintain the role of the
traditional defender of the nation as it was under the period of partition. 31 Consequently religious
symbols such as the cross and the Virgin Mary became symbols of the nation 32, with the Virgin Mary
still reigning in her symbolic capacity today as the queen of Poland. 33 The Catholic Churchs
narrative of the nation, founded on Polands suffering and martyrdom found fertile ground in the
circles of political opposition against the Communist party-state. 34 Consequently, Polish society
realised the strong ethnic and cultural bonds between themselves and the ideological foundation
provided by the Church, to form the national liberation movement, Solidarno (Solidarity), which
was the decisive prompting in Polands transition to democracy. 35 It is also appropriate to mention
here that the Catholic Church during the communist period acquired additional trust from Polish
society, 36 when Cardinal Karol Wojtya of Poland was elected as Pope. 37 The Pope and his
charismatic presence served as a reminder of the historical ties between the nation and the

29

ibid.
Zubrzycki, G, op. cit., p. 63.
31
Kania-Lundholm, op. cit., p. 93.
32
ibid.
33
Graff, A. (2009) Gender, Sexuality, and Nation-Here and Now: Reflections on the Gendered and Sexualized
Aspects of Contemporary Polish Nationalism Oleksy, E. H. Intimate citizenships: gender, sexualities,
politics p. 135.
34
Kania-Lundholm, op. cit., p. 94.
35
Dawisha, K., & Parrott, B. (1997). The Consolidation of democracy in East-Central Europe., pp. 73-75.
36
Kania-Lundholm, op. cit., p. 95.
37
Davies, N, op. cit., p. xxvii.
30

Student: Sebastian Moore

POLS315: 3000 Word Essay

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Church, 38 this idea being reiterated in his Holinesss proclamation that without Christ it is
impossible to understand the history of Poland. 39

With the Roman Catholic Church having seemingly always been associated with Polish statehood
and nationalism, 40 it has inevitably influenced contemporary Polish nationalism with regards to
social policy. This resultant effects of the Churchs influence can be seen as a fundamental base to
the Polish state, with the preamble of the Polish Constitution asserting that Christianity as the first
two sources of the national culture, our culture, the second being universal human values. 41 At
the same time it equates universal values with Christian values. 42 This influence on Polish social
policy has formed a distinct sub-facet of Polish nationalism that academic Agnieszka Graff defines as
a gendered nationalist rhetoric. 43 Graff asserts that the Polish social discourse is obsessed with
motherhood and fatherland, flags and foetuses; it is also marked by a profound anxiety about twin
evils threatening to invade Poland from the West (with Holland and Germany the most likely
sources), namely homosexuality and abortion. 44 An example of this contemporary discourse was
portrayed in Warsaws 2005 Normality Parade, in which slogans such as Boy + Girl = normal
family, and Pedophiles and Pederasts are Euro-enthusiasts 45 were paraded down the street. This
effect on Polish national identity through a social policy based on for example, a gendered
nationalist rhetoric can be seen to have had a resulting impact and effect on Polish nationalism
creating a eurosceptic/xenophobic national identity.

38

Kania-Lundholm, op. cit.

Porter, B. (2001). The Catholic nation: Religion, identity, and the narratives of Polish history Slavic and East
European Journal 45:2, p. 290.
40
Bideleux, R., & Jeffries, I. (1998). A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change., p. 117.
41
Grosby, S. E., & Leoussi, A. S, op. cit.
42
ibid.
43
Graff, A, op. cit.
44
ibid.
45
ibid.
39

Student: Sebastian Moore

POLS315: 3000 Word Essay

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Danish academic Sren Riishj asserts that to a significant extent Polish Euroscepticism seems to be
identity based, with regards to the dilemma of European integration. 46 This argument was
exemplified during the end of the 1990s, with the Catholic Churchs move to openly support
European Union (EU) membership, thereby aiming to eradicate the impression held by many
believers that ethical values and Polish patriotism . . . cannot be upheld in the event of EU
membership. 47 However, during this appeal, the Church was faced with strong opposition from
anti-Semitic and anti-German feelings 48 that had been engrained into the Polish psyche since the
second half of the 19th century under the foreign partitions. 49 Another example of Polish
Euroscepticism was observed during the 2003 drafting of the European constitution, with Polands
petition for the inclusion of a reference to Europes Christian heritage. 50

Poland is one of the most ethnically homogenous countries in the world with 98% of the population
considered to be ethnically Polish. 51 Therefore, if xenophobia is to play a part in Polish nationalism,
it must be assumed that this xenophobia is directed at foreign countries and not at the insignificant
minorities living in the country. 52 This xenophobia towards foreign countries was exemplified just
after Polands accession to the EU, with Polands willingness to support the Bush administration in its
invasion of Iraq and resulting in a heightening in tensions within the EU, with Polands relations
between Germany and Russia, two historic protagonists of Poland, becoming frayed. 53

46

Sren, R. (2008) Europeanization and Euroscepticism: Experiences from Poland and the Czech Republic Kanet,
R. E. Identities, nations and politics after communism p. 109.
47
ibid. p. 112.
48
ibid.
49
Davies, N, op. cit., p. xxv.
50
Taras, R. (2010) Xenophobic parties and the making of exclusionary etatized nationalism: Cases from Western
and Eastern Europe Lecours, A., & Moreno Jerez, L. Nationalism and democracy : dichotomies,
complementarities, oppositions p. 144.
51
ibid., p. 146.
52
ibid.
53
ibid.

Student: Sebastian Moore

POLS315: 3000 Word Essay

Word Count: 2729

Since Polands accession to the European Union in 2004, debates in the Polish media regarding
national identity and Polish patriotism have become increasingly popular, with the general theme of
these debates being centred on whether patriotism is, or is not a significant feature of Polish
national character and a critical collective value. 54 Academic Kania-Lundholm defines this as Polands
collective identity crisis. 55 According to a CBOS opinion and market research survey conducted in
January 2011, the majority of Polish society continues to see itself as a nation that differs
significantly from other European nations, with particular emphasis on collectivistic values, such as
faith, patriotism and family. 56 This opinion of Polish society is also held by other countries, with
Poland sometimes being represented as a country with strong nationalist sentiments, which can be
problematic in the process of European integration. 57However, this picture of a socity in agreement
is not entirely accurate. Kania-Lundholm asserts that the cause for this identity crisis is due to heated
debates regarding the understanding of the so-called modern post-communism patriotism, with the
focus being on the values and ideals that should become foundation stones for this new
patriotism. 58

Academics such as Graff, argue that the Polish media and the public sphere in this debate are being
manipulated by the discourse coming from the national conservative right, having support from the
Catholic Church. 59 Consequently on oneside of the debate, the notions of patriotism and national
identity have been employed to describe Poland as a mono-ethnic Catholic national community. 60

54

Kania-Lundholm, op. cit., p. 108.

Kania-Lundholm, op. cit., pp. 108-112.
56
CBOS. (2011) Stereotyp Polaka i Europejczyka, http://www.cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2011/K_033_11.PDF,
(accessed 27 September 2014).
57
Dagens Nyheter. (2007). Sista chansen fr EU, http://www.dn.se/ledare/sista-chansen-for-eu, (accessed 27
September 2014).
58
Kania-Lundholm, op. cit., p. 109.
59
Graff. A. (2007). Polsko nie jest wasnoci endekw,
http://www.krytykapolityczna.pl/TekstypozaKP/GraffPolskoscniejestwlasnosciaendekow/menuid-76.html,
(accessed 27 September 2014).
60
Kania-Lundholm, op. cit.
55

Student: Sebastian Moore

POLS315: 3000 Word Essay

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However, as Kania-Lundholm asserts, the media debate surrounding the new post-communism
patriotism has developed a competing dimension, with national belonging, and collective history
becoming themes in popular culture through the music of young Polish music artists. During 2005, in
light of this contentious public debate, an increased production of music with previously neglected
themes relating to Polish history and national identity became manifest. 61 This development as
Kania-Lundholm explains, may indicate that young Poles are starting to redefine the meaning of
national identity and patriotism, providing new lessons in patriotism for the younger generation. 62

Scholars who have identified the national identity crisis that Poland is facing, such as TrnqvistPlewa, rationalise the situation by claiming that Polish society suffers from the complex of the
unwanted child. 63 Among the symptoms of this condition has been an inferiority complex and
backwardness in relation to the West, combined with a lack of collective self-confidence, and
negative self-stereotyping. 64 These symptoms are what have inevitable caused this debate
surrounding a new post-communist Polish idea of patriotism.

Through a historical and political contextual backdrop of Polands three patriotic traditions, the
resulting present day state of Polish nationalism can be defined by three critical features: the
Catholic narrative of the Polish nation, resulting in gendered national rhetoric, the subsequently
triggered development of features such as Euroscepticism and xenophobia in the idea of Polish
nationalism, and the present day crisis of collective identity.

61

Janion, M. (2012). Farewell to Poland? The uprising of a nation, http://balticworlds.com/the-uprising-of-anation, (accessed 28 September 2014).
62
Kania-Lundholm, op. cit., p. 110.
63
Trnquist-Plewa, B. (2002). The Complex of the Unwanted Child: Meanings of Europe in Polish National
Discourse Strth, af Malmborg, M. The meaning of Europe: variety and contention within and among
nations pp. 215-242.
64
Kania-Lundholm, op. cit., p. 111.

Student: Sebastian Moore

POLS315: 3000 Word Essay

Word Count: 2729

Bibliography:

rnason, J.P., & Doyle, N. (2010). Domains and Divisions of European History. Liverpool: Liverpool
University Press.

Bideleux, R., & Jeffries, I. (1998). A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. New York:
Routledge.

Borowik, I. (2002). The Roman Catholic Church in the process of democratic transformation: The
case of Poland Social Compass 49:2, pp. 239-252.

CBOS. (2011) Stereotyp Polaka i Europejczyka,

http://www.cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2011/K_033_11.PDF, (accessed 27 September 2014).

Central Intelligence Agency. (2014). CIA World Factbook 2014, Country overview on Poland,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pl.html (accessed 20
September 2014).

Dagens Nyheter. (2007). Sista chansen fr EU, http://www.dn.se/ledare/sista-chansen-for-eu,

(accessed 27 September 2014).

Davies, N. (1981). God's playground: a history of Poland in two volumes. Oxford: Clarendon.

Dawisha, K., & Parrott, B. (1997). The Consolidation of democracy in East-Central Europe. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Student: Sebastian Moore

POLS315: 3000 Word Essay

Word Count: 2729

Graff, A. (2007). Polsko nie jest wasnoci endekw,

http://www.krytykapolityczna.pl/TekstypozaKP/GraffPolskoscniejestwlasnosciaendekow/me
nuid-76.html, (accessed 27 September 2014).

Graff, A. (2009) Gender, Sexuality, and Nation-Here and Now: Reflections on the Gendered and
Sexualized Aspects of Contemporary Polish Nationalism Oleksy, E. H. Intimate citizenships:
gender, sexualities, politics., New York: Routledge.

Grosby, S. E., & Leoussi, A. S. (2007). Nationalism and ethnosymbolism: history, culture and ethnicity
in the formation of nations. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Janion, M. (2012). Farewell to Poland? The uprising of a nation, http://balticworlds.com/theuprising-of-a-nation, (accessed 28 September 2014).

Kania-Lundholm, Re-Branding A Nation Online: Discourses on Polish Nationalism and Patriotism.

Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.

Lukowski, J., & Zawadzki, H. (2006). A Concise History of Poland. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

Porter, B. (2001). The Catholic nation: Religion, identity, and the narratives of Polish history Slavic
and East European Journal 45:2, p. 290.
Sanford, G. (2003). Historical dictionary of Poland 2nd Ed. Lanham: Scarecrow Press.

Smith, A. D. (1988). The ethnic origins of nations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Student: Sebastian Moore

POLS315: 3000 Word Essay

Word Count: 2729

Sren, R. (2008) Europeanization and Euroscepticism: Experiences from Poland and the Czech
Republic Kanet, R. E. Identities, Nations and Politics after Communism., New York:
Routledge.

Taras, R. (2010) Xenophobic parties and the making of exclusionary etatized nationalism: Cases
from Western and Eastern Europe Lecours, A., & Moreno Jerez, L. Nationalism and
democracy: dichotomies, complementarities, oppositions., New York: Routledge.

Trnquist-Plewa, B. (2002). The Complex of the Unwanted Child: Meanings of Europe in Polish
National Discourse Strth, af Malmborg, M. The meaning of Europe: variety and contention
within and among nations., New York: Berg.

Walicki, A. (1991). Trzy patriotyzmy: trzy tradycje polskiego patriotyzmu i ich znaczenie wspczesne.
Warszawa: Res Publica.

Zubrzycki, G. (2009). The Crosses of Auschwitz: Nationalism and Religion in Post-Communist Poland.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.