Motion - change in relative position among bodies versus time
Material point : mass with negligible sizes (volume)
Trajectoryall points corresponding to the position of the point P Frequency f numer of revolution per unit time Ideal gas model assumptions: Volume of a gas molecule is much smaller than the gas volume gas molecules are material points Range of forces between two interacting molecules is much smaller than an average distance between molecules intermolecular interactions are negligible and molecules move in straight lines between collisions Pressure p is a physical value equal to the force acting on a surface of the body along the normal direction to that surface: p=dFn/dS where: Fn is the normal force acting on dS Unit of p: 1 pascal; 1 Pa = 1N / 1m2 Absolute temperature - defined as a value proportional to the average kinetic energy of particles: T=2E/3k Equation of state of an ideal gas pV = NkT or: pV = nRT 1 mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12. Avogadro Avogadro`s law `s In the same volume of different gasses under the same pressure, at the same temperature there is the same number of particles. Principle of thermal equilibrium thermodynamic law If the bodies 1 and 2 are in thermal equilibrium and bodies 2 and 3 are in thermal equilibrium thus bodies 1 and 3 are in the same thermal equilibrium degree of freedom - an independent coordinate necessary for determination of the position of a body in space Principle of equipartition of energy - Mean kinetic energy per one degree of freedom is the same for all molecules and equals to kT/2. First law of thermodynamic - Principle of energy conservation - with energy division into: macroscopic mechanic energy of a mass centre motion Ek=Mv2-/2 microscopic - internal energy of particles U=NE=Nm v2/2 When two bodies with different temperatures are in contact then heat Q flows from the warmer body to colder one. Heat associated with a change of the energy content of the body; does not refer to a property or condition of a body Heat absorbed by the system is equal to the increase of internal energy of the system and the work performed by the system on the surroundings. dQ = dU + dW HEAT Q energy exchanged between the system and surroundings due to temperature difference Energy transfer as a heat Q or work W (by means of the force acting on the system) Q and W not a property of the system (contrary to T, p and V) Difference QW=U is the same for all processes ! Internal energy of the system U - increases when it takes energy in a form of heat Q - decreases when it performs work W Heat capacity of a system C the quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of a body through one degree 1K (1C): Specific heat capacity c heat capacity per unit mass: Molar heat capacity Cm heat capacity of unit amount of substance Kinetic theory of gases Let`s consider a spherical particle with a diameter d. Condition for a collision distance between centres of particles is lower than d particle is a target with an effective area = d2 - total cross section of a particle for a collision (m2) Mean free path - average distance that a molecule moves between two successive collisions with other molecules Maxwell velocity distribution In an ideal gas characteristic distribution of molecule velocities dependence on temperature. ENTROPY & the second law of thermodynamics Reversible and irreversible processes (1) Fast motion of the piston p and T are not well determined (not equal in the whole volume) irreversible process (2) Slow motion of the piston without friction p and T are well determined (gas obtained quickly new equilibrium state).For smaller and smaller changes of gas in the limit ideal process all intermediate states (between initial and final states) are equilibrium ones reversible process A process is reversible when the process can be made in the reverse direction at any stage by making an infinitesimal change in the environment of the system, e.g. an infinitesimal change in pressure. Carnot cycle determines the limit of possibility of transformation of heat to work (1) Gas state is p1, V1, T1 (point A). Cylinder is placed on the heat pump thermal expansion of gas to state p2, V2, T1 (point B). Gas absorbs heat Q1. (2) Cylinder is placed on the insulation adiabatic expansion of gasto state p3, V3, T2 (point C). Gas performs the work during moving the piston and temperature decreases to T2.
(3) Cylinder is placed on the refrigerator (T2) isothermal
compression of gas to state p4, V4, T2 (point D). Gas gives heat Q2 to the refrigerator. (4) Cylinder is placed on the insulator adiabatic compression of gas to state p1, V1, T1 (point A). External forces perform work and temperature of gas increases to T . Total change of internal energy is equal to zero, because final state is the same as initial one. From the first law of thermodynamics is then: W = Q1 Q2 Efficiency of Carnot engine: N=W/Q1=Q1-Q2/Q1=T1-T2/T1 Second econd law of thermodynamics 1) Perpetum mobile of second type (self-acting machine) can not be constructed 2) When two bodies with different temperatures are in contact, then the heat flows from the body with higher temperature to that with lower temperature directional process 3) Efficiency of every cyclic machine working between temperatures T1 and T2 is not higher than (T1 - T2) / T1. Entropy is a measure of the system disorder Macrostate a given configuration of particles in boxes Microstate distribution of particles corresponding to a macrostate Definition of entropy S of the system: S = k lnw 2nd nd law of thermodynamics law of thermodynamics : :4) In the isolated system, the entropy does not decrease. Entropy S depends only on the state of the system and not on the path by which that state was reached. Adiabatic process: dQ = 0 For reversible process: dS = 0 Entropy of the adiabatically isolated system in which the reversible process takes place, is constant. In irreversible adiabatic process entropy increases. 1st thermodynamic law: Q = U +pV TS = V + pV ENTALPHY For a process with p=const definition of enthalpy H=U+pV FREE ENERGY (Helmholtz Helmholtz function) F=U-TS FREE ENTALPHY (Gibbs function) G=H-TS Importance of G in chemical reactions and two phase cases (e.g. solid and liquid) Thermodynamic function p, V, T , A function of V and p: f=f(V,p) A small change in f resulting from small changes in p and V: Thermodynamics deals with the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another. Driving force - difference of temperature Heat transfer deals with the rate of heat transfer as well as the temperature distribution within the system at a specified time. Energy balance for closed stationary system (fixed mass) EinEout=U=mcvT Energy balance for steady - flow systems (mass flow) engineering devices (e.g. water heaters, car radiators Steady flow - no change in time at a specified location Uniform flow - no change with position thorough the surface or region at a specified time (1D case) The change in the total energy of the control volume during a process Ecv=0 Assumption: changes in kinetic and potential energy are negligible The rate of net heat transfer into or out of the control volume : Q=E The mechanisms of HEAT TRANSFER Conduction energy transfer from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones a result of interactions between the particles. In gases and liquids -collisions of the molecules during their random motion. In solids: - vibrations of the molecules in a lattice - energy transport by free electrons SURFACE ENERGY BALANCE A surface contains no volume or mass, thus no energy a fictitious system with E = const during the process (steady-state system)Surface energy balance both for steady and transient conditions: Ein=Eout Energy balance for the outer surface of the wall: Q=Q1+Q2 The rating problems deal with the determination of the heat transfer rate for an existing system at a specified temperature difference. The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a system in order to transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature difference. The parameters that effect the rate of heat conduction through a windowless wall: - geometry (surface area and thickness) of the wall - material of the wall - temperature difference across the wall. HEAT FLUX - the rate of heat transfer per unit surface area The flux of heat flow through a solid is directly proportional to its thermal conductivity Convection - energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas which is in motion it involves combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.
In forced convection the fluid is forced to move by xternal
means such as a fan, pump, or the wind. The fluid motion in natural convection is due to buoyancy effects only Radiation - energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules. Stefan-Boltzmann law for a black body Qrad=As(Ts4Tsurr4) Emissivity is the ratio of the radiation (energy flux) emitted by a surface to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. Black-body radiation represents the maximum amount of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at a specified temperature Real bodies emit and absorb less radiation than a blackbody at the same temperature The Kirchhoff's law of radiation: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface are equal at the same temperature and wavelength. Heat transfer has direction and magnitude vector character Rate of heat conduction in a specified direction: - proportional to the temperature gradient - three-dimensional (3D) Heat conduction in a medium: - steady (T = const with time at any point within the medium) or unsteady (transient) (T const) - one-dimensional (when conduction is significant only in 1D) or 2D / 3D Heat transfer has direction and magnitude vector character HEAT TRANSFER HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATIONHeat transfer has vector features direction and magnitude at a point. HEAT GENERATION - Conversion of electrical, chemical, or nuclear energy into heat (or thermal) energy in solid Fuel elements of nuclear reactors nuclear fission heat source for the nuclear power plants Sun nuclear reactor (fusion of hydrogen to helium) Technology of insulation Ordinary insulations - by mixing fibers, powders, or flakes of insulating materials with air. Heat transfer through such insulations is by conduction through the solid material, and conduction or convection through the air space as well as radiation. Such systems are characterized by apparent thermal conductivity instead of the ordinary thermal conductivity in order to incorporate these convection and radiation effects. Superinsulations - by using layers of highly reflective sheets separated by glass fibers in an evacuated space. Radiation heat transfer between two surfaces is inversely proportional to the number of sheets used and thus heat loss by radiation will be very low by using this highly reflective sheets. At the same time, evacuating the space between the layers forms a vacuum under 0.000001 atm pressure which minimize conduction or convection through the air space between the layers. The rate of heat conduction through a plane wall is proportional to the average thermal conductivity, the wall area, and the temperature difference, but inversely proportional to the wall thickness. thermal resistance of a medium -represents the resistance against heat transfer Convection heat transfer -from a solid surface of area AS and temperature TS to afluid sufficiently far from the surface of temperature T and a convection heat transfer coefficient h Radiation heat transfer -between a surface of emissivity e and area AS at temperature TS and the surrounding surfaces at some average temperature Tsurr Convection and radiation total heat transfer Thermal resistance network 1D heat flow through a plane wall of thickness L, area A, and thermal conductivity L , exposed to convection on both sides to fluids at temperatures T 1 and T 2with heat transfer coefficients h1 and h2, respectively CONVECTION Heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of bulk fluid motion Convection: - natural (free) - forced (by external means, as a pump or a fan) - external (fluid flow over a surface) - internal (flow in a channel) In forced convection the fluid is forced to move by external means such as a fan, pump, or the wind. The fluid motion in natural convection is due to buoyancy effects only Convection - heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of bulk fluid motion In fluid convection and conduction (in the absence of bulk motion) Nusselt number Nu L = C hL Nu - dimensionless convection heat transfer coefficient where: L - the thermal conductivity, LC the characteristic length The Nusselt number represents the enhancement of heat
transfer through a fluid layer as a result of convection relative
to conduction across the same fluid layer. The larger Nu value, the more effective convection Nu = 1 means heat transfer across the layer by pure conduction CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS Convection heat transfer related to fluid mechanics - behaviour of fluids at rest or in motion - action of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries Viscous versus inviscid flow Viscosity internal resistance due to motion of fluid layers relative to each other (internal stickiness of the fluid) caused by cohesive forces between the molecules in liquids, and by molecular collisions in gases. Inviscid (frictionless) flow idealised flows of zero-viscosity fluids. Internal flow of water in a pipe and the external flow of air over the pipe. Internal versus external flow Internal flow completely bounded by solid surface. External flow of unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe. Compressible versus incompressible flow Important factor changes of fluid density during flow Gases highly compressible; e.g. atmospheric air: pressure change of just 0.01 atm causes a change of 1 % in the density Assumption: gas flow incompressible if the density changes are under ~ 5 % (typical in cases when the flow velocity is less than 30 % of the sound velocity = 346 m/s) Liquids incompressible; e.g. water: a pressure of 210 atm causes the density at 1 atm to change by just 1 %. Laminar versus turbulent flow Laminar flow highly ordered smooth streamlines; typical cases high-viscosity fluids (i.e. oils) at low velocities. Turbulent flow highly disordered fluctuations; typical cases low-viscosity fluids at high velocities. Steady versus unsteady (transient) flow Steady flow no changes with time (at any fixed point; changes possible for different points). Devices operating under steady-flow turbines, compressors, boilers, condensers, heat exchangers. Uniform flow no change with location Radiation heat transfer in solids, liquids and vacuum does not require the presence of a material medium (energy transfer at c) Thermal radiation energy transitions of molecules, atoms and electrons of a substance Temperature a measure of the strength of the energy transitions at the microscopic level Thermal radiation continuously emitted by all matter whose temperature is above absolute zero. A blackbody maximum amount of radiation per unit surface area idealised body to serve a standard for comparison of real surfaces perfect emitter and adsorber of radiation. A blackbody adsorbs all incident radiation and emits radiation energy uniformly in all directions per unit area normal to direction of emission diffuse emitter (independent of direction) The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per unit time and per surface area: Eb (T) =T 4 (W / m2) where Eb is the blackbody total emissive power = 5.67 10-8 W/m2K4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant Spectral blackbody emissive power Eb the amount of radiation energy emitted by a blackbody at an absolute T per unit time,per unit surface area, and per unit wavelength about the wavelength . Kirchhoff`s law Gustaw Kirchhoff (1860) Assumption: A small body of surface area AS, emissivity e, and absorptivity a at temperature T contained in a large isothermal enclosure. (T) =(T) The total emissivity of a surface at temperature T is equal to its total absorptivity for radiation coming from a blackbody at the same temperature. Boiling and evaporation - the liquid-to-vapour phase change processes that occur at a solid-liquid interface when the surface is heated above the saturation temperature Tsat of the liquid convection heat transfer. Evaporation occurs when the vapour pressure is less than the saturation pressure of the liquid at a given temperature, and it involves no bubble formation or bubble motion. Boiling occurs when a liquid is brought into contact with a surface maintained at a temperature TS sufficiently above the saturation temperature Tsat of the liquid. Boiling convection heat transfer the boiling heat flux from a solid surface to the fluid Newton`s law of cooling: Surface tension bubbles thermodynamic nonequilibrium conditions different temperature in the bubble than in liquid. The pressure difference between the liquid and the vapour is balanced by the surface tension at the interface the driving force for heat transfer between two phases.
When the liquid is at a higher T than the bubble, heat will be
transferred from the liquid to the bubble the bubbles grow and rise to the top under influence of buoyancy. Surface tension in liquids in an elastic membrane (2D effect) analogy to tension in an elastic spring (1D effect) Any line element of the surface of the membrane is in equilibrium due to equal and opposite forces exerted perpendicular to l by the parts of the membrane on either side. Natural convection boiling regime- the fluid motion is governed by natural convection currents, and heat transfer from the heating surface to the fluid is by natural convection. Nucleate boiling regime - bubbles form at various preferential sites on the heating surface, and rise to the top. Transition boiling regime - part of the surface is covered by a vapor film. Film boiling regime - the heater surface is completely covered by a continuous stable vapor film, and heat transfer is by combined convection and radiation. Condensation on a plate Influence of gravity. Ts must be below Tsat of the vapour for condensation to occur. Temperature of the condensate is Tsat at the interface and decreases gradually to Ts at the wall. The velocity of the condensate at the wall is zero because of the no- slip condition. Velocity maximum at the liquid vapour interface. Dropwise condensation of steam on a vertical surface One of the most effective mechanisms of heat transfer extremely large heat transfer coefficients (more than 10 times larger than in case of film condensation) preferred mode of condensation (efficient condensers) adding a promoting chemical into the vapour, treating the surface with a promoter chemical or coating the surface with a polymer (teflon) or a noble metal (gold, platinum, silver) Mass transfer requires the presence of two regions at different chemical compositions movement of chemical species from a high concentration region toward a lower concentration (nonhomogeneous medium). An impermeable surface is a surface that does not allow any mass to pass through. Moisture influence on the performance and durability of building materials importance of moisture transmission Moisture affects the effective thermal conductivity of porous building materials linear increase of heat transfer Negative effects due to excess moisture changes in the appearance and physical properties of materials: - corrosion and rusting in metals - rotting in woods - peeling of paint on the interior and exterior wall surfaces - molds grow on wood surfaces at relative humidities above 85% - damage of the porous material structure due to freezing The effects of moisture in buildings migration of water vapour through the walls and condensation on the inner side, releasing the heat of vaporisation. The vapour barriers (thick metal and plastic layers) and retarders (thin metal, paper and plastic layers) control of moisture migration in the walls, floors and ceilings. Mechanical waves - disturbance in an elastic medium (i.e. acoustic waves) result of a displacement of an element of the medium from equilibrium transport of the oscillations to the succeeding elements (medium does not move but only its elements oscillate in limited regions of space). Waves transfer energy (kinetic and potential energy of medium particles). Energy transfer through matter due to displacement of disturbance not involving translational motion of matter. Travelling of waves in a medium from the wave source. addition of the disturbances produces a resultant wave of the same frequency as the two component waves but with twice theamplitude -> constructive interference the two waves are out of phase by . The waves cancel, producing no net disturbance-> destructive interference Christian Doppler (1842 r) found that when the source and receiver of waves are in relative motion, the wave frequency, as measured by the receiver, is different from the source frequency. Zero law of ther. If two thermodynamic systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other First law of ther.- The increase in the internal energy of a system is equal to the amount of energy added by heating the system, minus the amount lost as a result of the work done by the system on its surroundings. Second law of ther-entropy of an isolated system which is not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium.