The differences of types multiple intelligent own by Form Five Students

in one of the secondary school in Kota Tinggi

with their races, gender and stream
By: Mazlina Mazlan, Zaleha Ngarip and Nor Anisa Musa

Abstrak

Kajian dijalankan di daerah Kota Tinggi. Sebuah sekolah menengah telah dipilih secara rawak.

Seramai 65 orang pelajar dipilih untuk kajian ini. Pelajar-pelajar ini terdiri daripada para pelajar

tingkatan lima yang akan menamatkan pengajian mereka pada tahun 2009. Responden terdiri

daripada aliran Sains dan juga Sains Kemanusian. Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji

perbezaan antara kecerdasan pelbagai yang dimiliki oleh setiap responden dengan aliran, jantina

dan ras. Pengkaji juga menggunakan soalan-soalan penentuan kecerdasan pelbagai daripada

Thomas Armstrong ( Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom, 1994) publication of the

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria dan Pusat Perkembangan

Kurikulum (2003). Dapatan kajian yang lepas menunjukkan kebolehpercayaan (Cronbach

Alpha) item-item adalah antara .68 - .84. Pengkaji menggunakan independent t-test dan juga

ANNOVA untuk mendapatkan hasil kajian. Hasil dapat kajian mendapati tiada hubungan yang

signifikan di antara jenis-jenis kecerdasan pelbagai dengan aliran, jantina dan ras.

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 Abstract

The research carried out at Kota Tinggi. One of the secondary school stated at Kota Tinggi had

been chosen. There were 65 form five students were chosen to be the respondents. They were

from Science stream and Social Science stream. The purposes of the research are to know the

differences between the types of multiple intelligences own by the students and their stream,

gender and races. The researcher used the questioner from Thomas Armstrong ( Multiple

Intelligences in the Classroom, 1994) publication of the Association for Supervision and

Curriculum Development, Alexandria dan Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (2003). The validity

and reliability of these questionnaire is (Cronbach Alpha) from .68 - .84. The researcher used

independent t-test and ANNOVA to analyze the data. The researcher found that there are no

significant differences between the types of multiple intelligences and their stream, gender and

race as a whole.

The differences of types multiple intelligent own by Form Five Students

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 in one of the secondary school in Kota Tinggi
with their races, gender and stream
By: Mazlina Mazlan, Zaleha Ngarip and Nor Anisa Musa
UTM, Skudai

Introduction

The nature of Man is closely related to human potential. The nature of Man is defined as a gift or

bestowal that is given by God to human beings either in physical or mental form. Human

potential can be defined as the inert ability and capability of man that is deeply buried inside

him. Human potential must be drawn out to know of its existence and must be fully utilized to

achieve success in life (Sternberg, 1988).

Based on our National Philosophy of Education (NEP), the teachers have their own role to

achieve the aims in stated in NEP. They should expand the potential of individuals in a holistic

and integrated manner, believe and be obedient to God, knowledgeable, noble character,

responsible towards themselves, society and country and last but not least instill integration

amongst citizen who consist of different races. Here, we can see that teachers have their

important role to expand the potential of human. The followings aims can be achieved by

teachers taking into account the following steps. The teachers should prepare the educational

opportunities to all students without taking into consideration on the aspect of race or religion.

They also have to equip individuals with knowledge and skills to enable them to differentiate

between the truth and false, facts and opinions as well as between critical and prejudiced

thinking. Moreover, the teachers should develop students in healthy way in physical and mental

as well as build an attitude in appreciating others. The teachers also have the responsibility to

prepare the students with long life learning so that they can adjust themselves with the science

and technological changes (Kornhaber, 2004).

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Dr Howard Gardner (1983) stated that intelligence is the capacity to do something useful in the

society in which we live. Intelligence is the ability to respond successfully to new situations and

the capacity to learn from one’s past experiences. Howard Gardner claims that all human beings

have multiple intelligences. These multiple intelligences can be nurtured and strengthened, or

ignored and weakened. He believes each individual has eight intelligences. The eight

intelligences are verbal linguistic intelligences, mathematical logical intelligence, musical

intelligence, visual spatial intelligence, bodily kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence,

intrapersonal intelligence and naturalist intelligence (Eysenck, 1994).

Problem Statement
Many of these students in school are being labeled "learning disabled," "ADD (attention deficit
disorder," or simply underachievers, when their unique ways of thinking and learning aren’t
addressed by a heavily linguistic or logical-mathematical classroom. The theory of multiple
intelligences proposes a major transformation in the way our schools are run. It suggests that
teachers be trained to present their lessons in a wide variety of ways using music, cooperative
learning, art activities, role play, multimedia, field trips, inner reflection, and much more. The
good news is that the theory of multiple intelligences has grabbed the attention of many
educators around the country, and hundreds of schools are currently using its philosophy to
redesign the way it educates children. The bad news is that there are thousands of schools still
out there that teach in the same old dull way, through dry lectures, and boring worksheets and
textbooks. The challenge is to get this information out to many more teachers, school
administrators, and others who work with children, so that each child has the opportunity to learn
in ways harmonious with their unique minds.

The theory of multiple intelligences also has strong implications for adult learning and
development. Many adults find themselves in jobs that do not make optimal use of their most
highly developed intelligences for example, the highly bodily-kinesthetic individual who is stuck
in a linguistic or logical desk-job when he or she would be much happier in a job where they
could move around, such as a recreational leader, a forest ranger, or physical therapist. The
theory of multiple intelligences gives adults a whole new way to look at their lives, examining
potentials that they left behind in their childhood such as a love for art or drama but now have
the opportunity to develop through courses, hobbies, or other programs of self-development.
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Objectives
The objectives are to be achieved in this mini research. The objectives are follows:
1. To identify the differences between the types of multiple intelligent own by form Five
students in one of the secondary school in Kota Tinggi with their stream.
2. To identify the differences between the types of multiple intelligent own by form Five
students in one of the secondary school in Kota Tinggi with their gender.
3. To identify the differences between the types of multiple intelligent own by form Five
students in one of the secondary school in Kota Tinggi with their races.

Research Questions
The research questions for this mini research are follows:
1. Is there any significant differences between the types of multiple intelligent own by Form
Five students in one of the secondary school in Kota Tinggi and their stream?
2. Is there any significant differences between the types of multiple intelligent own by the
Form Five students in one of the secondary school in Kota Tinggi with their gender?
3. Is there any significant differences between the types of multiple intelligent own by the
Form Five students in one of the secondary school in Kota Tinggi with their races?

Hypothesis
Hypothesis Null 1 There is no significant differences between the type of multiple intelligent and
the stream.
Hypothesis Null 2 There is no significant differences between the type of multiple intelligent and
the gender.
Hypothesis Null 3 There is no significant differences between the type of multiple intelligent and
the races.

Methodology
The questioners about the multiple intelligences distribute to the form five students in secondary
at Kota Tinggi. There are 65 students participate to answer the questions. The researchers use the
questioners from McGrath, H & Noble, T (1999), Seven Ways at Once Book 1, Wesley,
Australia. The researcher wants to find the differences between each type of multiple
intelligences with the students stream, gender and races. Further on, the study data is analyzed
using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 14.0. The inferences analysis

5
that is being used is Independent T-Test and one way ANNOVA to see the differences that exists
based on the study hypothesis.

Data Analysis

The differences between the stream and the types of multiple intelligences are shown in Table 8
until Table 14. There were two streams involved in this research. The streams are Science
Stream and Science Social Stream. Here the researcher used the significant level 0.05.

Table 1: Difference between stream and kinesthetic

Stream N Mean Standard Df T Significant
Deviation
Kinesthetic Science 34 2.65 .10 63 -1.33 .187
Science 31 2.68 .08
Social

Table 2: Difference between stream and music

Stream N Mean Standard Df T Significant
Deviation
Music Science 34 2.56 .10 63 -.86 .39
Science 31 2.58 .11
Social

Table 3: Difference between stream and intrapersonal

Stream N Mean Standard Df T Significant
Deviation
Intrapersonal Science 34 2.67 .08 63 .566 .57
Science 31 2.66 .08
Social

Table 4: Difference between stream and interpersonal

Stream N Mean Standard Df T Significant
Deviation
Interpersonal Science 34 2.55 .07 63 -1.10 .27
Science 31 2.57 .10
Social

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Table 5: Difference between stream and linguistic
Stream N Mean Standard Df T Significant
Deviation
Linguistic Science 34 2.56 .09 63 -.86 .39
Science 31 2.59 .11
Social

Table 6: Difference between stream and visual

Stream N Mean Standard Df T Significant
Deviation
Visual Science 34 2.74 .11 63 -1.26 .21
Science 31 2.77 .08
Social

Table 7: Difference between stream and logic mathematic

Stream N Mean Standard Df T Significant
Deviation
Logic Science 34 2.57 .06 63 -.24 .81
Mathematic
Science 31 2.57 .06
Social

The p value of differences between the stream and kinesthetic is .187, p value for music is .39, p
value for intrapersonal is .57, p value for interpersonal is .27, p value for linguistic is .39, p value
for visual .21 and p value for logic mathematic is .81. Based on these finding, there is no
significant differences between the stream and the types of multiple intelligences. Therefore the
first null hypothesis is accepted.

The differences between the gender and the types of multiple intelligences are shown in Table 8
until Table 14. There were two genders involved in this research. The genders are male and
female. Here the researcher used the significant level 0.05.

Table 8 : Difference between gender and kinesthetic

Gender N Mean Standard Df T Significant
Deviation
Kinesthetic Male 19 2.66 .09 63 -.43 .67
Female 46 2.67 .09

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Table 9 : Difference between gender and music
Gender N Mean Standard Df T Significant
Deviation
Music Male 19 2.55 .08 63 -1.01 .32
Female 46 2.58 .11

Table 10 : Difference between gender and intrapersonal

Gender N Mean Standard Df T Significant
Deviation
Intrapersonal Male 19 2.66 .09 63 -.51 .62
Female 46 2.67 .07

Table 11 : Difference between gender and interpersonal

Gender N Mean Standard Df T Significant
Deviation
Interpersonal Male 19 2.57 .10 63 -.54 .59
Female 46 2.56 .08

Table 12: Difference between gender and linguistic

Gender N Mean Standard Df T Significant
Deviation
linguistic Male 19 2.55 .08 63 -1.01 .32
Female 46 2.58 .11

Table 13 : Difference between gender and visual

Gender N Mean Standard Df T Significant
Deviation
Visual Male 19 2.78 .07 63 -.46 .15
Female 46 2.74 .11

Table 14: Difference between gender and logic mathematic

Gender N Mean Standard Df T Significant
Deviation
Logic Male 19 2.58 .06 63 -.49 .63
mathematic
Female 46 2.58 .06

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The p value of differences between the gender and kinesthetic is .67, p value for music is .32, p
value for intrapersonal is .62, p value for interpersonal is .59, p value for linguistic is .32, p value
for visual .15 and p value for logic mathematic is .63. Based on these finding, there is no
significant differences between the gender and the types of multiple intelligences. Therefore the
second null hypothesis is accepted.

The differences between the races and the types of multiple intelligences are shown in Table 15
until Table 21. There were three races involved in this research. The races are Malay, Chinese
and Indian. Here the researcher used the significant level 0.05.

Table 15 : Difference between races and kinesthetic

Df Mean F Significant
Between group 2 .002 .259 .772
Within group 62 .009

Table 16 : Difference between races and music

Df Mean F Significant
Between group 2 .016 1.492 .233
Within group 62 .010

Table 17 : Difference between races and intrapersonal

Df Mean F Significant
Between group 2 .001 .081 .922
Within group 62 .007

Table 18: Difference between races and interpersonal

Df Mean F Significant
Between group 2 .017 2.227 .116
Within group 62 .007

Table 19: Difference between races and linguistic

Df Mean F Significant
Between group 2 .016 1.492 .233
Within group 62 .010

Table 20 : Difference between races and visual

Df Mean F Significant
Between group 2 .002 .186 .831
Within group 62 .010

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Table 21 : Difference between races and logic mathematic
Df Mean F Significant
Between group 2 .004 1.106 .337
Within group 62 .003

The p value of differences between the races and kinesthetic is .772, p value for music is .233, p
value for intrapersonal is .922, p value for interpersonal is .116, p value for linguistic is .233, p
value for visual .831 and p value for logic mathematic is .337. Based on these finding, there is no
significant differences between the races and the types of multiple intelligences. Therefore the
third null hypothesis is accepted.

Suggestions

Bodily-kinesthetic
This area has to do with bodily movement and physiology. In theory, people who have bodily-
kinesthetic intelligence should learn better by involving muscular movement, i.e. getting up and
moving around into the learning experience, and are generally good at physical activities such as
sports or dance. They may enjoy acting or performing, and in general they are good at building
and making things. They often learn best by doing something physically, rather than reading or
hearing about it. Those with strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence seem to use what might be
termed muscle memory - they remember things through their body such as verbal memory or
images (Gardner Howard, 1993).
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include athletes, dancers, actors, surgeons, doctors,
builders, and soldiers. Although these careers can be duplicated through virtual simulation they
will not produce the actual physical learning that is needed in this intelligence.

Interpersonal
This area has to do with interaction with others. In theory, people who have a high interpersonal
intelligence tend to be extroverts, characterized by their sensitivity to others' moods, feelings,
temperaments and motivations, and their ability to cooperate in order to work as part of a group.
They communicate effectively and empathize easily with others, and may be either leaders or

10
followers. They typically learn best by working with others and often enjoy discussion and
debate.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include sales, politicians, managers, teachers, and
social workers.

Verbal-linguistic
This area has to do with words, spoken or written. People with high verbal-linguistic intelligence
display a facility with words and languages. They are typically good at reading, writing, telling
stories and memorizing words along with dates. They tend to learn best by reading, taking notes,
listening to lectures, and discussion and debate. They are also frequently skilled at explaining,
teaching and oration or persuasive speaking. Those with verbal-linguistic intelligence learn
foreign languages very easily as they have high verbal memory and recall, and an ability to
understand and manipulate syntax and structure.
This intelligence is highest in writers, lawyers, philosophers, journalists, politicians, poets, and
teachers.

Logical-mathematical
This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning, and numbers. While it is often assumed
that those with this intelligence naturally excel in mathematics, chess, computer programming
and other logical or numerical activities, a more accurate definition places emphasis on
traditional mathematical ability and more reasoning capabilities, abstract patterns of recognition,
scientific thinking and investigation, and the ability to perform complex calculations. It
correlates strongly with traditional concepts of "intelligence" or IQ.
Career's which suit those with this intelligence include scientists, mathematicians, engineers,
doctors and economists.

Naturalistic
This area has to do with nature, nurturing and relating information to one's natural surroundings.
This type of intelligence was not part of Gardner's original theory of Multiple Intelligences, but
was added to the theory in 1997. Those with it are said to have greater sensitivity to nature and
their place within it, the ability to nurture and grow things, and greater ease in caring for, taming
and interacting with animals. They may also be able to discern changes in weather or similar
11
fluctuations in their natural surroundings. They are also good at recognizing and classifying
different species. They must connect a new experience with prior knowledge to truly learn
something new.
"Naturalists" learn best when the subject involves collecting and analyzing, or is closely related
to something prominent in nature; they also don't enjoy learning unfamiliar or seemingly useless
subjects with little or no connections to nature. It is advised that naturalistic learners would learn
more through being outside or in a kinesthetic way.
The theory behind this intelligence is often criticized, much like the spiritual or existential
intelligence, as it is seen by many as not indicative of an intelligence but rather an interest.
However, it remains an indispensable intelligence for humans who live almost entirely from
nature such as some native populations.
Careers which suit those with this intelligence include scientists, naturalists, conservationists,
gardeners and farmers.

Intrapersonal
This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities. Those who are strongest in
this intelligence are typically introverts and prefer to work alone. They are usually highly self-
aware and capable of understanding their own emotions, goals and motivations. They often have
an affinity for thought-based pursuits such as philosophy. They learn best when allowed to
concentrate on the subject by themselves. There is often a high level of perfectionism associated
with this intelligence.
Careers which suit those with this intelligence include philosophers, psychologists, theologians,
writers and scientists.

Visual-spatial
This area has to do with vision and spatial judgment. People with strong visual-spatial
intelligence are typically very good at visualizing and mentally manipulating objects. Those with
strong spatial intelligence are often proficient at solving puzzles. They have a strong visual
memory and are often artistically inclined. Those with visual-spatial intelligence also generally
have a very good sense of direction and may also have very good hand-eye coordination,
although this is normally seen as a characteristic of the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.

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There appears to be a high correlation between spatial and mathematical abilities, which seems
to indicate that these two intelligences are not independent. Since solving a mathematical
problem involves manipulating symbols and numbers, spatial intelligence is involved.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include artists, engineers, and architects.

Musical
This area has to do with rhythm, music, and hearing. Those who have a high level of musical-
rhythmic intelligence display greater sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and music. They
normally have good pitch and may even have absolute pitch, and are able to sing, play musical
instruments, and compose music. Since there is a strong auditory component to this intelligence,
those who are strongest in it may learn best via lecture. In addition, they will often use songs or
rhythms to learn and memorize information, and may work best with music playing in the
background.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include instrumentalists, singers, conductors, disc-
jockeys, orators, writers (to a certain extent) and composers.

Use in education
At first, it may seem impossible to teach to all learning styles. However, as we move into using a
mix of media or multimedia, it becomes easier. As we understand learning styles, it becomes
apparent why multimedia appeals to learners and why a mix of media is more effective. It
satisfies the many types of learning preferences that one person may embody or that a class
embodies. A review of the literature shows that a variety of decisions must be made when
choosing media that is appropriate to learning style (Kornhaber et, al., 2003).

Visuals: Visual media help students acquire concrete concepts, such as object identification,
spatial relationship, or motor skills where words alone are inefficient.

Printed words: There is disagreement about audio's superiority to print for affective objectives;
several models do not recommend verbal sound if it is not part of the task to be learned.

Sound: A distinction is drawn between verbal sound and non-verbal sound such as music. Sound
media are necessary to present a stimulus for recall or sound recognition. Audio narration is
recommended for poor readers.

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Motion: Models force decisions among still, limited movement, and full movement visuals.
Motion is used to depict human performance so that learners can copy the movement. Several
models assert that motion may be unnecessary and provides decision aid questions based upon
objectives. Visual media which portray motion are best to show psychomotor or cognitive
domain expectations by showing the skill as a model against which students can measure their
performance.

Color: Decisions on color display are required if an object's color is relevant to what is being
learned.
Realia: Realia are tangible, real objects which are not models and are useful to teach motor and
cognitive skills involving unfamiliar objects. Realia are appropriate for use with individuals or
groups and may be situation based. Realia may be used to present information realistically but it
may be equally important that the presentation corresponds with the way learner's represent
information internally.

Instructional Setting: Design should cover whether the materials are to be used in a home or
instructional setting and consider the size what is to be learned. Print instruction should be
delivered in an individualized mode which allows the learner to set the learning pace. The ability
to provide corrective feedback for individual learners is important but any medium can provide
corrective feedback by stating the correct answer to allow comparison of the two answers.

Learner Characteristics: Most models consider learner characteristics as media may be

differentially effective for different learners. Although research has had limited success in
identifying the media most suitable for types of learners several models are based on this
method.

Reading ability: Pictures facilitate learning for poor readers who benefit more from speaking
than from writing because they understand spoken words; self-directed good readers can control
the pace; and print allows easier review.

Categories of Learning Outcomes: Categories ranged from three to eleven and most include
some or all of Gagne's (1977) learning categories; intellectual skills, verbal information, motor
skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies. Several models suggest a procedure which categorizes

14
learning outcomes, plans instructional events to teach objectives, identifies the type of stimuli to
present events, and media capable of presenting the stimuli.

Events of Instruction: The external events which support internal learning processes are called
events of instruction. The events of instruction are planned before selecting the media to present
it.

Performance: Many models discuss eliciting performance where the student practices the task
which sets the stage for reinforcement. Several models indicate that the elicited performance
should be categorized by type; overt, covert, motor, verbal, constructed, and select. Media should
be selected which is best able to elicit these responses and the response frequency. One model
advocates a behavioral approach so that media is chosen to elicit responses for practice. To
provide feedback about the student's response, an interactive medium might be chosen, but any
medium can provide feedback. Learner characteristics such as error proneness and anxiety
should influence media selection.
Testing which traditionally is accomplished through print, may be handled by electronic media.
Media are better able to assess learners' visual skills than are print media and can be used to
assess learner performance in realistic situations.
from "The Distance Learning Technology Resource Guide," by Carla Lane

Use in education
Traditionally, schools have emphasized the development of logical intelligence and linguistic
intelligence (mainly reading and writing). While many students function well in this
environment, there are those who do not. Gardner's theory argues that students will be better
served by a broader vision of education, wherein teachers use different methodologies, exercises
and activities to reach all students, not just those who excel at linguistic and logical intelligence.

Teachers
The application of the theory of multiple intelligences varies widely. It runs the gamut from a
teacher who, when confronted with a student having difficulties, uses a different approach to
teach the material, to an entire school using MI as a framework. In general, those who subscribe
to the theory strive to provide opportunities for their students to use and develop all the different
intelligences, not just the few at which they naturally excel.

15
A Harvard-led study of 41 schools using the theory came to the conclusion that in these schools
there was "a culture of hard work, respect, and caring; a faculty that collaborated and learned
from each other; classrooms that engaged students through constrained but meaningful choices,
and a sharp focus on enabling students to produce high-quality work." (Lohman, 2001).

In Classroom
It is important to teach subject matter through a variety of activities and projects. To this end, fill
the classroom with rich and engaging activities that evoke a range of intelligences. Also,
encourage students to work collaboratively as well as individually to support both their
"interpersonal" and "intrapersonal" intelligences.
Assessments should be integrated into learning. And students need to play an active role in their
assessment. When a student helps determine and clarify the goals of classroom activities, his or
her academic success and confidence increases (Tupper, 2002).

Offer students a number of choices for "showing what they know" about a topic. In addition to
traditional paper tests, students need opportunities to create meaningful projects and authentic
presentations.
It is counterproductive to label students with a particular intelligence. While an artistic genius
may begin to reveal herself in grade 2, it limits her potential for understanding to fail to expose
her to opportunities to access her other intelligences. All students have all intelligences. By
nurturing the whole spectrum, teachers motivate students, foster their learning, and strengthen
their intelligences (Sternberg, 1991).

Parents
Traditionally, parents were left to figure out if they wanted to be involved with their schools and
their children's education -- and then figure out ways to become involved. The burden of
engagement was placed squarely on the shoulders of parents and family members. A relatively
new and powerful idea is that schools must take on this responsibility. Schools are now
becoming actively involved in designing strategies to engage the community and include
families in the education of their children.
The role of parent volunteers has also seen an expansion. It has shifted from an emphasis on
classroom assistant and helpers to include families taking part in fundraising, working as school
advocates, and acting as agents of educational change.

16
Schools
Schools are also now opening their doors for more community resources to serve students and
families. The existence of "full-service schools" or "school-linked services" shows that schools
are paying attention not only to the academic needs of students but their holistic development.
These full-service schools offer a broad range of health, counseling, social services, and after-
school programs that enrich student learning and growth. They also support family involvement
through parenting sessions, adult education, and training for leadership positions in school
committees.
Some schools are also undergoing transformation through community-initiated activities. These
communities are taking responsibility to use information about schools to offer fresh
perspectives on school improvement. They are negotiating with schools on new solutions to
recurring problems. Schools are beginning to change in ways that bring more voices to the
decision-making table (Scarr, 1985).

Conclusion

Students begin to understand how they are intelligent. In Gardner's view, learning is both a social
and psychological process. When students understand the balance of their own multiple
intelligences they begin (Traub, 1998).

 To manage their own learning

 To value their individual strengths

Teachers understand how students are intelligent as well as how intelligent they are. Knowing
which students have the potential for strong interpersonal intelligence, for example, will help you
create opportunities where the strength can be fostered in others. However, multiple intelligence
theory is not intended to provide teachers with new IQ-like labels for their students. Thus,
students approach understanding from different angles. Students that exhibit comprehension
through rubrics, portfolios, or demonstrations come to have an authentic understanding of
achievement. The accomplishment of the lawyer is in winning her case through research and
persuasive. Thus, students become balanced individuals who can function as members of their
culture. Classroom activities that teach to the intelligences foster deep understanding about the
essential questions of life.

Reference:

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