Kitplanes October 2015

Going Glass: Making the Switch
KITPLANES OCTOBER 2015 Carbon Cub EX-2 Flight Time Glass Panel Upgrade Engine Layouts Other Peoples Planes Error ChainDecisions Recapped Tires Electrical Contactors
CubCrafters
Carbon CubEX-2
A Better Cub
BELVOIR PUBLICATIONS
Borrowed Wings
Flying Other Peoples Planes
Engine Basics
In the Shop:
Shaped for Flight
Retreads
Joining Small Wires
Error Chain
Beefing it Up
Decision Making
Taming the Lancair IV
OCTOBER 2015
www.kitplanes.com
October 2015 | Volume 32, Number 10
Flight Review
4 Carbon Cub EX-2: A good backcountry airplane gets even
better. By Dave Prizio.
Builder Spotlight
10 Navigate the Glass Transition: Learning to use an
EFIS. By Katie Bosman Krotje.
14 Taming the Lancair IV: Vortecx winglets make a glass

speedster faster, slower, and safer. By Lewis Bjork.
22 Flying Other Peoples Planes: Yes, its funbut
30
beware of unexpected problems. By Paul Dye.
30 Glass Panel Upgrade: Adding a Garmin G3X Touch to a

Wheeler Express. By Reinhard Metz.
36 Whos Got the Time? Are you logging pilot flight time and
aircraft time in service correctly? By Owen C. Baker.
40 ENGINE THEORY: Engine basics and layoutswhy our engines

are shaped the way they are. By Tom Wilson.
47 Error Chain: Aeronautical decision makingit seemed like a

good idea at the time. By Michael Robinson.
75 ask the DAR: Lost logbooks and airworthiness certificate,

confusion about Light Sport Aircraft. By Mel Asberry.
Shop Talk
52 Aircraft Wiring: Electrical system contactors for
Experimental aircraft. By Marc Ausman.
54
Maintenance Matters: Recapped tiressave money
without sacrificing quality. By Dave Prizio.
61
Home Shop Machinist: Boring on the vertical.
By Bob Hadley.
64
The New Guy: Getting the spark back. By David Boeshaar.
78
Aero Lectrics: Beachball bingo. By Jim Weir.
Shop Tip
29
Joining Two Small Wires: By David Boeshaar.
Designers Notebook
76
Wind Tunnel: Beefing it up. By Barnaby Wainfan.
Exploring
3
Editors Log: Have you asked why? By Paul Dye.
58 Risky Business: Mission planningstick to the plan.

By Sid Mayeux.
66 Checkpoints: Living the dream. By Vic Syracuse.
Kit Bits
2 Letters
69 List of Advertisers
70 Builders Marketplace
80 Kit StufF: Drawing on experience. By cartoonist Robrucha.
14
For subscription information, contact KITPLANES
at 800/622-1065 or visit www.kitplanes.com/cs.
On the cover: CubCrafters Carbon Cub EX-2 ready to leap skyward. Photographed by
Richard VanderMeulen near Lakeland, Florida.

KITPLANES October 2015
EDITORIAL

Editor in Chief Paul Dye
editorial@kitplanes.com

Managing Editor Mark Schrimmer

Art Direction Dan Maher

Editorial Director Paul Bertorelli
Contributing Editors Larry Anglisano, Marc Ausman,
Roy Beisswenger, Chuck Berthe,
David Boeshaar, LeRoy Cook,
Robert Hadley, Dan Horton,
Louise Hose, Amy Laboda, Dave
Martin, Sid Mayeux, David Paule,
Dave Prizio, Dean Sigler, Dick
Starks, Eric Stewart, Vic Syracuse,
Barnaby Wainfan, Jim Weir,
Tom Wilson.

Web Editor Omar Filipovic

Cartoonist Robrucha
ADVERTISING
Sr. Advertising Manager Chuck Preston
805/382-3363
chuck@kitplanes.com
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Magic Hole Finder
I would like to offer one more simple

method for finding hidden holes [Finding Hidden Holes, August 2015]: Buy
a pair of 3/8 x 3/8-inch ring magnets that
have a 3/16-inch hole in the middle. Place
one magnet on the back side of any nonmagnetic bulkhead and the other magnet will align concentrally on the blind
side. Mark with a non-magnetic (i.e.,
stainless steel drill rod) transfer punch,
and youre done. Purchase from K&J
Magnetics, part #R636, $1.28 each.
Dave Barker
Heli-Coil Alternative
I recently read the article on the HeliCoil [Home Shop Machinist, July
2015] as a thread reinforcer or replacer.
I have had good results with Time-Serts
(www.timesert.com). I use them exclusively in my Porsche for areas that strip
out. I have found them to be, in my
applications, far superior to Heli-Coils
for repairs of threads. Just wanted to
pass along another alternative.
Jeff Spahn
Builders are always looking for alternatives, and we encourage everyone to

research what works best for their particular application.Ed.
Hints and Kinks
Thank you for an excellent magazine.

I read it cover to cover every month.
In the July issue, Jim Weir asked if we
prefer multiple short tips in his Aero
lectrics column, or the entire column
dedicated to one subject. I do enjoy the
hints and kinks columns he does,
rather than dedicated columns to one
subject, but they are all good. Please
encourage him to write more of those

hints and kinks columns. Thanks!
David Mulholland
Weve passed your thoughts on to Jim.

Were never sure what is going to come out
of his workshop or computer next, but like
you, we almost always find the results to be
interesting! Ed.
SubSonex and Blriot
August was another great issue! I was

particularily impressed with the article
on the SubSonex practical jet positioned right next door to the article on
the 1909 Blriot XI. Wonderful. The
tech articles were also really good and
helpful. Thanks for a great magazine
with very fine articles and information.
steve neal
We hoped readers would enjoy the juxtaposition of the old and the newthe entire
spectrum of Experimental aviation!Ed.
More Beachballs
I read the letter in the July issue asking

about Beachball. My guess is that the
term for frequency 123.45 MHz (or 1,
2, 3, 4, 5) is how a beachball is counted
as it is being bounced around a group on
the beach or in the pool. Just my guess!
Dan Giebel
Thanks for all the letters we received on

this. Several readers also mentioned the
term fingers. When counting on your
fingers, you would say one, two, three,
four, five, hence 123.45 MHz. If you hear
fingers, you go to the frequency to talk
or maybe not. For Jim Weirs thoughts on
the use of the frequency, see this months
Aero lectrics column on page 78.Ed. J
Web site Information:

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Editors log
Have you asked why?

A few issues back, we presented a
nicely illustrated article on oil coolers.
Many of the pictures came from a visit
to a large and popular oil cooler specialty shop on the West Coastfolks
who work with coolers every single day
for both the certified and Experimental
market. In one of those pictures, a technician was installing an oil fitting into a
coolerand wrapping the threads with
Teflon tape to seal the joint.
Of course, we received letters on
thisbecause one thing that seems to
be taught everywhere in the aviation
world is that you shouldnt use Teflon
tape on oil or fuel fittings! This is one of
those pieces of wisdom passed down
from one mechanic to another, from
instructor to student, and documented
in a number of books. But here was a
respected shopbreaking the rule.
The obvious question is, Why?
That question (Why?) is, in fact, the
most important question in aviation
and maybe in life. It is the difference
between training a person to do something and educating them in a field. We
often teach people to do things by rote
(You do it this way soldier because it has
always been done that way!), showing
them a technique that we were shown
years before. Yet so very often, we forget
to stop and ask why. Knowing the why
of a thing is the first and most important
part of understanding the thingand
understanding is true learning, something that allows us to grow beyond
where we are.
Paul Dye
Photo: Bigstock
If all you know is

how to do a thing, but
dont understand the
why, you can never
expand on the knowledge, never develop a way
to go further, get better performance, fly faster, fly farther.
Without the why, we are stuck
in our current placeforever.
In fact, weas a society, as a
groupare often stuck in one
place simply because we dont
understand how to step ahead.
And that is usually because we have not
walked ourselves through the why.
At KITPLANES, I expect that no one
should take what we write as gospel without understanding. I expect our readers
to ask Why? on everything we do
and therefore, I expect our authors to
present the answer within their articles.
I am not satisfied with training people
to build and fly Experimental aircraftI
want them to learn how to build and fly
Experimental aircraft. Experimenting is
what we do, and you cant do that without understanding the big picture.
Aviation, because it grew up so much
during the big wars, has always been a
place where there was a lot of training
and not as much educating. Young men
by the thousands had to be trained to
build and maintain aircraft in wartime
in a few short monthsand creativity
was not important. This attitude has
carried on quite naturally for decades
as techniques were handed down from
generation to generation.
Hangar flying sessions
are full of statements
about how something is
donebut not why it is
done that way.
Sowhy no Teflon tape?
Its not because it doesnt
work as a sealantin fact, it
works quite well. The reason we
advise against it is that if you apply
it incorrectly (over the end of the
fitting), you can cut off a sliver that
can plug a small port in a carburetor or fuel servo on a gas line. In an oil
system, it can clog a tiny passage and
starve a single piston for lubrication. So
instead of teaching people how to apply
it correctly and carefully, we simply tell
people, Dont use it! and dont give
them the whole picture so that they
can understand the risks and make their
own decisions. If you apply it properly, it
is perfectly acceptablebut you have to
know how to do it right.
People need to be taught how to
make good decisions in Experimental aviation. The books arent all writtenthere are many things that need
to be figured out. People want to make
changes to a designbut do they know
why the design was built the way it was?
If not, they might not understand the
ramifications of their change. Experimental aviation is a thinking persons
game, and here at KITPLANES, we will
always strive to tell you the why. If we
dont, please write us a note. J
Paul Dye retired as a Lead Flight Director for NASAs Human Space Flight program, with 40 years
of aerospace experience on everything from Cubs to the space shuttle. An avid homebuilder,
he began flying and working on airplanes as a teen, and has experience with a wide range of
construction techniques and materials. He flies an RV-8 that he built in 2005, and an RV-3 that
he built with his pilot wife. Currently, they are building a Xenos motorglider. A commercially
licensed pilot, he has logged over 4800 hours in many different types of aircraft. He consults
and collaborates in aerospace operations and flight-testing projects across the country.

Carbon Cub
EX-2
A good backcountry airplane gets even better.

By Dave Prizio
For the last several years, the Carbon Cub EX has maintained a foothold at the top of the list of Super Cub-like backcountry airplane kits,
but everyone knows that you dont stay on top by resting on your laurels.
Determined to keep delivering its customers the best building and flying
experiences it can, CubCrafters introduced the new Carbon Cub EX-2
at this years Sun n Fun. At a casual glance the differences between old
and new are easy to miss, but once the throttle moves forward and the
EX-2 takes flight, it becomes obvious very quickly that this is a new and
improved airplane.
For this article we were treated to a head-to-head comparison of the
EX and the EX-2 flown back-to-back from a pretty grass strip called
South Lakeland (X49). As the Cub flies it is only four miles southeast of
Lakeland Linder Airport (Sun n Fun), but in another way it is a world
apartno tower, no pavement, no crowds. This was the perfect spot to
fly two planes that were born to land off pavement.
The Carbon Cub EX
For those of you who are not familiar with the Carbon Cub EX and its
brother, the SLSA-certified Carbon Cub SS, they have set the standard
for performance and quality in their category for the past several years.
As a kit airplane the Carbon Cub EX has earned high praise for its completeness and ease of construction from many satisfied builders. The kit
does not include two required batteries or an ELT, but otherwise, this is
a plane that can be built from beginning to end without ever once cracking open the Aircraft Spruce catalog and ordering so much as a bolt that
isnt included in the original kit.
CubCrafters introduced the first kit for the predecessor of the Carbon
Cub EX in May 2008, but their trademark CC340 engine was not available until the following year. In January 2010 the name Carbon Cub EX
became official with the SLSA version becoming the Carbon Cub SS.
These planes, or rather a kit and a plane, were aimed at builders and pilots
who wanted to comply with the Light Sport rules and still have a plane
that could deliver superior backcountry performance. The fact that both
versions have sold well is proof that customers have found good performance and good value in the Carbon Cub name.
Experimental builders, our readers, can assemble a Carbon Cub EX
with various options including big tires and various pre-wired instrument
panels (and soon amphibious floats). Empty weights start at about 930
pounds, which still allows for a 390-pound useful load for those builders
limited to the Light Sport gross weight of 1320 pounds. For those not
so constrained, a higher gross weight of 1865 pounds gives them a more
Super Cub-like useful load of 900+ pounds. Either way, takeoff and landing performance is truly impressive, as proved by consistent high placings
at various STOL competitions including Valdez.
Photos: Richard VanderMeulen and Dave Prizio
Optional Airstreak tires and Alpha Omega suspension. Smooth

landings were fairly easy with this gear and tire combination,
especially on grass.
The Fly-Off
Paul Dye, KITPLANES editor-inchief, and I began the day with flights
in the Carbon Cub EX to regain some
familiarity with the feel of that plane.
CubCrafters president Randy Lervold
would ride with each of us to make sure
we didnt have so much fun flying that
we forgot to come back with his plane.
It had been some time since either of
us had flown a Cub, so I for one didnt
mind the company. With one notch of
flaps and full power, it only took a few
seconds to be airborne. The 180-hp
engine and Catto prop pulled us skyward at about 2000 fpm, but the morning clouds limited us to less than 1000
feet agl. That was plenty of room for
some Cub flying, so Randy and I pointed
the nose southward and put the EX
through its paces. No surprises here, the
EX has good manners for a Cub-type
The new EX-2 features redesigned ailerons with curved top

surfaces. These make the ailerons much lighter and more
responsive.
plane. It is relatively stable with aileron

forces that were firm, but not excessive.
There was a bit of adverse yaw in turns,
but not too much. Stalls were uneventful power-on and power-off. The deck
angle in a departure stallfull power
with one notch of flapswas unnervingly high, but recovery was uneventful
with no tendency to spin if recovery was
initiated promptly.
Landings went well in both threepoint and wheel versions. The 26-inch
Airstreaks on grass made smooth touchdowns fairly easy. There was plenty
of elevator for a three-point landing,
although it should be noted that this EX
had elevator gap seals installed. We did
not try any hang-it-on-the-prop supershort landings because it seemed so
unnecessary. Normal landing rolls were
only a few hundred feet. In short, the EX
flew like a Super Cub, only better. It was
hard to find much to complain about

after flying the EX.
The New EX-2
Randy walked us around the EX-2 to

point out the improvements they had
made. To the untrained eye the changes
were all but invisible at first. The shape
of the ailerons had been changed with
the top surface curved up a bit to lighten
their feel. The slots between the wings
and the ailerons were slightly larger now.
Flaps were also different with the hinge
points lowered to produce larger slots
between the flaps and the wing trailing
edges. The cove skins are also slightly different, again to change the slots between
aileron and wings. At first we thought
that it might be fairly easy to retrofit
these changes to the older EX, but then
we saw that the flap pivots at the fuselage
would have to be relocated. This could be
Carbon Cub EX-2

Kit Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $135,430
Estimated completed price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $145,500
Estimated build time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8001000 hours
Number flying (at press time) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 EX-2, 65 EX
Powerplant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CC340, 180 hp @ 2700 rpm
Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Catto 2-blade, fixed pitch
Powerplant options . . . . . . . . . Continental O-200, 100 hp
AIRFRAME
CubCrafters changed the flap cove skins as part of their effort to reshape the flap-to-wing
slot. This is one of those subtle, but effective, tweaks that makes the EX-2 fly even better
than the original EX.
done, but it would be a challenge to get

it precisely located and may well require
some welding to make it all work. Thus
a retrofit is likely possible, but not easy.
In addition to the aileron and flap
changes, the tail feathers have been
enlarged for greater authority at slow
speeds. Flying would later prove that
the old EX elevator with gap seals was
actually more effective than the new
EX-2 elevator without seals, but no
doubt the EX-2 elevator with gap seals
would be better still. However, we were
unable to verify that.
As they say, the proof is in the pudding, so we were anxious to get in the
air with the EX-2. I was not disappointed. With two notches of flaps and
a bit of back pressure we were off the
ground in two seconds with no wind.
I am not sure what that translated to

in feet, but it wasnt much. Easing off
the flaps had us once again climbing at
2000 fpm. Leveling off quickly showed
us the difference in the aileronsthey
were noticeably lighter and crisper. The
difference was not subtle.
Stalls were similar to the EX, but we
were unable to get the power-off stall to
break when gently pulling the stick back
to the stop. I could feel that it was almost
there, but it would have taken some extra
effort to actually get the nose to drop in
this configuration. Aileron effectiveness
remained good in slow flight, even as
indicated airspeed dropped to 40 mph
and below. Gentle turns could be made
without trepidation at amazingly slow
speeds. The EX-2s handling instilled
confidence at every turn.
No bending down to find a flap handle with the EX-2. Its overhead
flap handle (also found in the EX) works well and allows the pilot
to keep his or her head up when deploying the flaps.
Wingspan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 ft 3 in
Wing loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 lb/sq ft at 1320 lb,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 lb/sq ft @ 1865 lb
Fuel capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 gal (44 gal optional)
Maximum gross weight . . . . . . . . . 1,320 LSA (1865 E/A-B)
Typical empty weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936 lb
Typical useful load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 lb LSA (929 E/A-B)
Full-fuel payload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 lb LSA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (689 E/A-B with 44 gal fuel)
Seating capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Cabin width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 in
Baggage capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 lb
PERFORMANCE
Cruise speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 kt

Maximum rate of climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2100 fpm
Stall speed (landing configuration) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 kt
Stall speed (clean) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 kt
Takeoff distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 ft
Landing distance . . . . . . . . . . 245 ft (53 ft in competition)
Specifications are manufacturers estimates and are based on the
configuration of the demonstrator aircraft.
Landings were every bit as gratifying

at they had been in the EX. Without
pushing the plane harder than we did
and taking some actual measurements, it
is hard to say whether the EX-2 actually
landed shorter than the EX. But it was
every bit as easy to land with very short
CubCrafters optional Executive Glass Touch instrument panel with

2-axis autopilot is very nice, but hardcore Super Cub pilots may
give you a rough time for indulging in such luxury.

Under the EX-2s cowling is the CC340, a 340-cubic-inch 180-hp

engine driving a fixed-pitch Catto composite propeller. Notice the
carbon fiber spinner, intake scoops and cowl flaps.
ground rolls. The large and effective

flaps also made steep approaches with
slips easy work. An impressive plane has
now become even more impressive.
Even though the Carbon Cub is not
designed for speed, there are times that
it is nice to be able to make reasonable
progress between backcountry strips. At
sea level and 2500 rpm the EX-2 indicated 122 mph. At 7500 feet it is reasonable to expect a true airspeed of about 10
mph faster. This is not exactly fast, but
CubCrafters changed the tail feathers on the EX-2 to increase the size
and effectiveness of these controls. Gap seals for the elevator seem to
make quite a difference. These seals are a $200 option on the EX-2.
it is pretty good in the world of Super

Cubs and other similar planes. These
speeds were achieved with 26-inch Airstreak tires and a climb prop, so smaller
tires and a more cruise-pitched prop
would surely yield better speeds, but at
the expense of some backcountry utility.
Light Sport Eligibility
For builders who want no-compromise

Super Cub performance with Super
Cub load carrying ability, the EX-2 can
Whats in the Box?

Normally this is a question with a fairly long answer. In the case of the Carbon Cub EX-2 the
answer is rather short: pretty much everything including pre-stitched covering materials. Here
is whats not in the box, assuming you buy the items listed above. You will need to get an ELT.
You will also need to buy two batteriesone main and one backup for the electronic ignition.
Lastly you will need to buy your own finish paint materials or have someone paint it for you.
Everything else is there. Of course, if you want to, you can provide your own engine and propeller and your own instrument panel. CubCrafters even has an option of a blank panel that
you can customize if you like. In addition there are a lot of options shown on their web site.
D.P.
The Carbon Cub EX-2 kit. Everything you need to build your airplane is in one big
box. (Photo: Courtesy of CubCrafters)
8
be built with a gross weight of 1865

pounds. Depending on how your plane
is equipped, you will have a useful load
of 850 to 929 pounds. A minimally
equipped Carbon Cub EX-2 will weigh
about 936 pounds empty, but our demo
plane with Garmin G3X Touch, twoaxis autopilot, and 40 gallons of fuel
capacity came in at 1012 pounds empty,
negating any possibility of it being a
practical plane under Light Sport rules.
On the other hand, it is possible using
a 24-gallon fuel capacity, a VFR panel,
and 8.00x6 tires, to build a Carbon Cub
EX-2 at the minimum weight. A 384pound useful load is not generous, but
it does make Light Sport flying possible
unless you are particularly large. The
nice thing is that you do not have to
settle for Light Sport performance when
you have 180 hp on tap.
The CC340 Engine
CubCrafters is most unusual in that

they actually manufacture their own
engine. This allows them to specify
operating parameters that permit the
use of a 180-hp engine in an SLSA airplane. They allow full power for takeoff
and then scale back to 80 hp for continuous use. This artful application of the
SLSA rules allows them to retain their
relatively heavy empty weight and high
power output that would otherwise
not be possible. In truth the engine is
assembled by Aero Sport Power in
Canada at the direction of CubCrafters using mostly ECi parts, including
their stroker crankshaft. This makes
an engine that would ordinarily be a
320-cubic-inch 160-hp engine into a
340-cubic-inch 180-hp engine. Special
lightweight parts developed by CubCrafters and ECi complete this unique

engine package and allow them to be
considered the engines manufacturer.
Since this engine is designed from the
beginning as a part of the Carbon Cub,
it fits seamlessly into the airplane.
Building a Carbon Cub EX-2
With options, the Carbon Cub EX-2

kit is just about as complete as a kit can
be. The table shows how the various kit
components break down.
You also need to add the cost of a
paint job, which would range from
$1500 or so for material only, to around
$9,000 for a not-too-elaborate professional paint job. You will also want to
add in the cost of two batteries and an
ELT, which will run about $1000 or so.
Detailed assembly instructions and
an extremely complete kit make the
Carbon Cub EX-2 fairly easy to assemble, even for a first-time builder. A build
time of less than 1000 hours is realistic.
Experienced builders could expect to
do significantly better than that. What
is harder to quantify, but nonetheless
important, is the reduction of nonbuilding time that is saved with this kit.
There is no shopping for parts that are
not included. Clear instructions and
parts readily at hand really cut down
on what you might call head-scratching
time for inexperienced builders. It is

amazing how much time can be spent
just trying to figure out what to do or
what part to buy with many other kits.
It is worth noting that the Carbon
Cub kit has been approved by the FAA
National Kit Evaluation Team for amateur-built status as it comes from the
factory. It did not pass by a wide margin,
so there is little room for the use of commercial assistance if you want to remain
within the legal guidelines, which of
course you do. On the other hand, there
is nothing wrong with getting some professional instruction to show you how
to do fabric work, for example. You just
cant hire them to do it for you.
The Cost
No conversation about the Carbon

Cub ever ends without the issue of cost
coming up at some point. There are a
number of somewhat similar kits that
are much less expensive. For instance,
the Light Sport-compliant Kitfox,
RANS S-7S, and Just Highlander can
all be built for around $80,000, or
even less by a frugal builder. The Super
Legend can be completed for just over
$100,000. As we move away from the
Light Sport kits to full-sized Super Cub
kits, the completed airplane price gap
closes quite a bit, but the Carbon Cub
never becomes the low-cost alternative
Carbon Cub EX-2 Kit Pricing

Item
Price
Fuselage Kit
$25,000
Wing Kit
$25,000
Finishing Kit
$25,000
CC340 Engine
$29,500
Firewall Forward Kit
$8,990
Catto 80 x 50 Prop
$2,950
Basic VFR Instrument Panel

Total
$18,990
$135,430
Selected Options
(Other items also available)
Instrument Panel with Garmin G3X
$9,000 add
Airstreak 26-inch tires and wheels
$2,000 add
40 gallon Long Range Fuel
$3,500 add
to any of its competition. So why does

CubCrafters continue to outsell so
many of the others?
The bottom line is that it is more
money because it is more airplane. That
combination of seamless integration of
the design, comfort, quality, handling,
and performance are just not matched
by anyone else. It costs more because it
is worth it. If you dont believe me, go fly
one for yourself. Just be forewarned. Once
you do, you wont want anything else. J
For more information visit www.cubcrafters
.com/carboncubex or call 509-248-9491 for
the number of a sales center near you.
Navigate the
Glass Transition
Learning to use an EFIS.
By Katie Bosman Krotje
Youve spent five years building your

airplane, and now youre climbing away
from the runway on your first flight.
Woohoo! Youre trying to remember what
climb airspeed to use from your transition training three months ago. You
think it was 75 knots, but in your adrenalin-crazed visual scan, you cant find the
airspeed indicator on the crowded glass
panel display. You think its the left vertical tape, but your brain isnt seeing an airspeed needle, so its not processing what
the rolling digits really mean. A yellow
light keeps blinking on the screen. Maybe
you should have taken the extra time to
calibrate your fuel probes before the first
flight. Is that it? The warning light turns
red. Waitis it terrain? Theres a growing vibration under the floorboards and
youre having trouble holding the wings
level because the airplane seems out of
rig. Is it the engine? Wheres the tach,
anyway? What should you do? You dont
even know your altitude!
Obviously, the time to learn how to
use a glass cockpit EFIS (Electronic
Flight Instrument System) is before
10
your first flight. This is not something

to blow off lightly. Airline pilots train
for weeks when they transition to glass.
But how can you make the switch, and
where do you start? Aside from the obvious answers of finding a good transition
CFI and downloading manufacturers
manuals and training materials, here are
some ideas for making the move from
steam gauges to glass.
Study Now, Buy Later
Ideally, your training should start before

you ever whip out the plastic to buy your
new system. One of the best things you
can do for yourself is to travel to one of
the big shows like AirVenture or Sun n
Fun, and spend time at every Experimental EFIS manufacturers booth. Dont
just ask the sales people about features,
pricing, and shipping dates. Find out
how to do common tasks in the airplane,
from setting the altimeter to tuning
remote radios. If your airplane is to be
IFR capable, ask how to load and activate
an instrument approach. You might even
be able to talk to a product development
engineer for in-depth tech questions.

With enough button pushing, one system will just make more sense to your
brain, while others might seem nonintuitive or require too many button
presses. For a quick comparison of whats
available, you can see multiple manufacturers screens at once by visiting the
booths of professional panel builders
such as Aerotronics and SteinAir.
One thing you will learn in the vendors booths is that as long as you stay
out of the setup menu pages, you dont
have to be afraid of breaking the box by
pushing the wrong button. Screen swiping and button pushing is the best way to
learn how it works. If you do get stuck,
the sales people will be there to show you
how to get back to a familiar screen.
Buy Your Flying Buddy

Breakfast Somewhere
Flying buddies are more than just hangar-flying tale spinners. They can be your
best ally in the mission of designing your
new panel. Of course, everyone wants to
think the EFIS they bought is the stuff.
Feeling overwhelmed? Take a breath. In under two minutes, the G3X Touch display can be boiled down from feature-rich brain chaos
(left) to the pure essentials for safe local flight (right). Now, isnt that relaxing?
But if you have a friend that has one, see

if you can get into the air with them to
try it out. Have them show you how it
works, how they like to use it, and what
they dont like about it. You might just
fall in love with itand maybe your
friend will help you wire it, too.
Get an iPad
You can learn the basics of moving maps,

charts, ADS-B weather, and even a primary flight display by using an iPad or
Android tablet with a good flight planning app such as WingX, ForeFlight, or
the free Avare for Android. Use some
caution, thoughwhile it may help you
feel more comfortable with electronics,
dont get too set in your screen swipes.
While some skills will transfer to your
EFIS user experience, others will interfere with it. Your EFIS will have different controls, so be prepared to unlearn
some habits.
in the background. Close your eyes and

point to the different data boxes, including the engine instruments and active
GPS waypoint, until you know exactly
where they are. This way, you can actually accomplish something when you sit
in your unfinished fuselage and make
airplane noises. (Tell your spouse not to
worry; its perfectly normalReally.)
After Installation, Simplify
If you can, turn off extra features that

are not necessary for local flying. Sometimes the manufacturers get so caught
up in including every possible feature,
they end up with a crowd of data on
the screen that will make your eyes
cross. Whether youre upgrading your
existing airplane or building a new airplane, you will likely stay local for the
first few flights. Pick one screen layout
as your primary home screen and boil it
down for simple VFR local flying: airspeed, altitude, heading, slip/skid ball,
distance from the airport, and critical
engine gauges. Know how to acknowledge any warnings and how to get back
to your home screen if you do press any
buttons. Once youre comfortable flying the airplane with the basics, you can
start turning on extra features one or
two at a time.
Quiet Time on Trickle Charge
If you have a trickle charger, it will be

your best friend during this time of
intense learning. Why burn a tank of
avgas when you can park the plane near
the open hangar door (for GPS reception), plug in the trickle charger, and sit
in front of your EFIS punching buttons
or swiping the touchscreen? Grab your
EFIS user guide and checklist and go
to work. Enter and manipulate flight
Chair Flying
You may feel like a dweeb doing this,

but Im telling you, it works. Its a
proven technique used by rookie airline pilots in late-night study sessions
during initial company trainingyou
know, those intense, drink-from-a-fire
hose, pass-or-go-flip-burgers kind of
classes. Most EFIS manufacturers offer
full-size color PFD (Primary Flight
Display) pictures or panel planners.
Tape one on your computer screen at
workor better yetyour instrument
panel and visualize yourself flying the
airplane by the tapes. Train your eyes
to follow the new instrument scan: airspeed, altitude, heading, with attitude
Photos: Courtesy of Katie Bosman Krotje
Placing a full-size photo of your EFIS over your computer screen can be a really effective
training tooland a surefire way to annoy your boss.

11
Allow Your Brain Time to Cope
Even with an EFIS, its nice to have backup. In addition to round gauges, the hula girl
in this RV-6A serves as a slip/skid indicator, vibration gauge, and turbulence monitor.
When her skirt hides her ukulele, the plane is pulling some serious negative Gs!
plans, turn features on and off, and get

to know your system without the stress
and expense of trying to fly the plane
at the same time. Ideally, do this before
you even fly it.
Know Your Systems
Know the limitations of your system

inside and out. If you install it yourself,
you will already know how its wired,
but you might not know how each component relates to the others. This information is critical if you fly IFR, and it
should all be found in the installation
or user manuals. What instruments are
affected by the loss of GPS or the magnetometer? Will the attitude indication
go bad if the pitot tube is blocked? Do
you have an emergency backup battery?
If so, how is it activated, and how long
will it last? If one screen fails, what avionics will you have left? Will the autopilot keep working if either screen fails?
All of these are important questions
to ask as you design your panel. The
answers will help you prioritize your
electrical power or navigate home if the
stinky stuff ever hits the fan. Personal
weather minimums, risk management,
and smart aeronautical decision making
are beyond the scope of this article, but
they will also tie into these questions as
you begin flying cross-country.
first few hours, and your engine monitor is the first and best source of potentially life-saving information. Its critical
that all electronic functions work on
the ground before first flight, especially
engine and flight instruments. If its lit
up with false warnings all the time, you
wont be able to tell when you have a real
warning. Connect all the probes to the
engine monitor, program them if necessary, and test them out on the first taxi
runs. Fuel quantity senders should be
calibrated before flight to avoid unnecessary warning messages. GPS is usually important for attitude data and
other EFIS calculations, so even though
youre going to stay local, make sure the
antenna is properly installed.
If youve spent a lot of time flying on

round dials, your brain will need some
time to adjust to the digital readout of
the airspeed and altitude tapes. I only
had about 250 hours total time when I
switched from round dials to Garmin
G1000 glass, but I found myself glancing up at the analog backup airspeed
indicator on final approach just to be
sure. I realized that my instrument scan
on final approach had relied upon a needle position, not the actual number on
the dial, so it took my brain a few hours
to get used to interpreting the digital
readout. Because the digital airspeed is
sensitive and can fluctuate, you may find
yourself chasing one particular number.
Stop thatjust trim the airplane and
relax! Your old analog needle was about
3 knots wide on the dial anyway, so
shoot for a block of airspeed instead of
a single number. If your approach speed
is 57 knots, then keep it as steady as you
can between 55 and 60. You will be less
likely to overcontrol your pitch on the
way down the approach path, and therefore more stable and less stressed-out.
Some EFIS manufacturers offer a
round-dial primary flight display view
as an alternative to the digital tapes. If
you are really frustrated with the tapes,
switch over to the round-dial screen for
a while and see if it helps you to relax.
Be sure to try the tapes, though. They
were designed to have a smaller scan area
No Shortcuts Before the First Flight
If you have an engine problem in your

new airplane, it will likely happen in the
12
The round dial screen might make you feel more at home, but give the tapes a chance. After a
few hours, youll probably like them better.
Park your plane near the open hangar door

(for GPS reception), and get to know your
system without the stress and expense of
trying to fly the plane at the same time.
that allows your brain to quickly interpret trends of motion. Round dials are
more compartmentalized and actually
require more work to scan.
Old Dogs Can Get It Done
I dont have to tell you all the advantages

of a glass cockpit. The EFIS manufacturers have been preaching that stuff
for years. The thing you should realize is
that no matter how old you are or how
long youve been flying round dials, you
can learn a glass panel. You might never
use all the featuresand thats perfectly
OK. Once you get comfortable using the
new tools made possible by this amazing
technology, flying will be more fun
and saferfor you in the long run. Just
break it into manageable chunks, and like
everything else youve learned in aviation,
practice it one flight at a time. J
Katie Bosman Krotje
Katie Bosman Krotje is a

commercial pilot, CFI, and
technical writer for a Light
Sport Aircraft company
in Tennessee. She holds a
masters degree in aerospace
education and is well into
the throes of rebuilding a
tornadotossed Vans
RV-3B.
13
Taming the
Lancair IV
Its almost unheard of to make a plane

faster, slower, and safer with the same mod,
but thats what Vortecx winglets can do.
By Lewis Bjork
Spinning a Lancair IV is not recommended. Few pilots have lived through

the experience. Not one of them would
care to repeat it. Having spent 42 months
of hard labor on a Lancair IV project in
Salt Lake City, my brother and I were in
no mood to commute that into a death
sentence. We approached each stall gingerly, from level flight, one knot at a time.
Despite being one of the lightest of the
type to fly, we grumbled at a seemingly
high stall speed72 knots. The stall
always broke sharply to the right, with a
subtle warning a few knots before. We
14
tufted the wing and observed a powerful inward flow, from wingtip to fuselage, along the trailing edge, just prior
to the stall. This span-wise flow would
become turbulent near the wingroot,
then abruptly spread across the entire
wing like a big tablecloth, all the yarn
tufts swirling and twisting like fur on a
cat rubbed the wrong way.
The presence of the yarn tufts added
visual drama to the very complex airflow
over the wing near the stall. In level flight,
the yarn pointed steadfastly aft, barely
wiggling at all, uniformly painting the
picture weve all seen from the beginningairflow passing over an airfoil,
the airplane feeling solid and fast. As the
stall approached, however, individual
tufts of yarn began to twist and point
in surprising directionsmost inward,
some straight up or even forward! The
majority of turbulence began at the
wingroot and burbled away to strike the
tail, felt as a mild buffet. Shortly after,
and a few knots slower, the right wing
would fall away as though it were sliced
off. With a quick response and a typical stall recovery technique, the wing
drop could be controlled to less than 60

degrees. Caught unawares, a pilot could
easily find himself inverted.
We guessed the span-wise flow seeded
the turbulence that led to the full stall.
Prevent the span-wise flow, and maybe
the stall could be delayed? This resulted
in some nifty looking fences on top of
the wing, positioned between the aileron and flap. Flight testing proved the
stall came four knots slower, but without any warning at all. Aileron control
authority seemed to improve leading
up to the stall, then wham! Over she
goes. We debated the merits of slower
speed against lack of warning, eventually keeping the fences in place, with
the understanding that under any circumstances, the plane could bite hard if
allowed to stall.
landing short of the runway. The owner

survived, but the plane was a total loss.
The FAA expressed alarm at the
disproportionate number of stall/spin
loss-of-control accidents in the type
and issued a letter suggesting installation of angle of attack measuring/
warning equipment. This is not a bad
idea, considering the types atrocious
stall behavior. A combination of good
stall warning equipment and careful
pilot technique may easily prevent the
stall/spin accident. Similar tools have
worked for decades in most airliners.
Very few of them have decent stall characteristics, and are thus prohibited from
On this older glider, clever winglets

improved performance enough to match
the most competitive sailplanes.
slowing down by a slew of stall computers, stick shakers, and control pushers.
These work collectively to bring a speed
issue to the pilots attentionsort of a
big red light and blaring horn to affirm
the old adage, Thou shalt maintain
thine airspeed, lest the earth rise up and
smite thee.
Help From Sailplane Enthusiasts
Vortecx Industries, LLC has developed a better solution. John Neel and
Different Plane, Same Results
A short time later, another Lancair IV

owner asked me to perform a stall series
on his airplane. We found the same
results: little warning, and a sudden
break with a pronounced right wing
drop. Literature from Lancair suggests
that asymmetric stall behavior might
be corrected with careful application of
stall strips, at the expense of a slightly
higher stall speed.
Twenty years later, that first Lancair
IV has flown about 1500 hours, taking its owner to and from his several
properties in pressurized comfort. It is
surprisingly economical, reliable, and
as the advertising suggests, very fast.
The second Lancair had an unfortunate
accident a few years after construction
when an engine failure led to a forced
Photos: Lewis Bjork
These winglets, offered by the Lancair factory, enhance fuel tank ventilation, but slow
the plane four knots.

15
The interface between wing and winglet varies from one

design to the next.
York Zentner, two gentleman pilots

with a soaring background, and David
Colling, an aero-engineer, wanted better performance from their sailplanes.
From a design standpoint, a sailplane
has far fewer variables than powered aircraft. No propellers, P-factor, exhaust,
cooling, fuel tanks, fire concerns, pressurization, range/endurance, anti-ice
systems, radar, and the like to concern
withjust wings, control surfaces and
a place to sit. Package everything in the
lowest-drag shape imaginable and hope
for some lift. Soaring is one of the last
bastions of the aeronautical purist.
Traditionally, increased soaring performance has been directly proportional
to wingspan. Longer wings equal better
lift to drag. Practically, however, longer
wings make trouble of their own kind:
Simply banking into a turn becomes a
sort of argument, with the pilot madly
chasing errant yaw strings all over the
sky. One of the most competitive categories limits the sailplane wingspan
to 15 metersfairly sporty to fly, but
somewhat lacking in performance when
compared to open class gliders. When
challenged to improve an older 15-meter
sailplane for equivalent performance to
modern (expensive!) ships, Neel and
Zentner found solutions in a clever set
of winglets. They planned for the optimum outward cant of each winglet, only
to discover the tips reached slightly past
the 15-meter limit. Rather than shorten
the wing, they built a secondary break
in the winglet, a sort of polyhedral evident in the pictures. Serendipitously,
16
This one incorporates a spar extension, additional nut plates

and some careful wiring.
this little change in angle resulted in an

unexpected increase in performance.
Flight characteristics improved drastically, to include better yaw stability and
greater aileron authority. Although at
first teased about the tall tips (Compensating for something?), the client
found delight soaring right along with
competition sailplanes costing three
times as much. His modified glider
could climb, turn, and run with the
best. Vortecx obtained a patent on the
concept and went to market.
Installation on a Lancair IV-P
When Roland Manarin of Omaha,

Nebraska, requested winglets for his
beautiful Lancair IV-P, Vortecx Industries went to work. David ran computerized finite element analyses on the
winglet as applied to the Lancair, using
state-of-the-art software. The winglet is
a complex mix of different airfoils and
fixed incidence angles carefully tuned
to an individual airplane. The winglet needs to be perfectly aligned with
the wing and airflow in order to work
effectively. The limits are tight, just
two tenths of a degree. Simply bolting
the winglet to the tip might result in
truly terrible consequences, and make
the airplane difficult to fly. The Lancair
is nicely modeled on the computer
basic information like wing loading,
horsepower and the overall shape of the
aircraft are easy enough. The plot thickens considerably, however, with the
fact that no two homebuilt aircraft are
exactly the same. This is true, to a lesser
degree, of factory-built airplanes, as

well. As such, York and John faced the
problem of achieving perfect alignment
on an airplane with no flat surfaces and
unknown construction accuracy.
To begin, the wingtip required
reinforcement. This particular plane
allowed for a small spar extension to
fit, grafting the large winglet loads
into the path already carried by the
main wingspar. On other aircraft, the
wingtip flange itself might be reinforced with liberal use of carbon fiber
until able to sustain loads generated by
a large vertical surface.
Curious about exactly how much
load the wingtip mount screws could
take, Cal Poly University composite labs
tested several examples to destruction.
Oil flow tests paint a nice picture of

mostly laminar flow on this sailplane.
John Neel (left) and York Zentner adjust a winglet installation.
In each case, the screws failed before

the composite material, with each #10
screw withstanding about 1100 pounds
before shearing. With screws every few
inches, all the way around the wingtip, the winglet effectively becomes a
structural extension of the wing and
can take tremendous flight loads without failure.
With the plane leveled and blocked
in a clean, enclosed hangar. York and
John carefully measured the airframe
using lasers, trammels, and plumb
bobs to determine an accurate centerline reference, which they marked on
the hangar floor. More measuring to
determine wing alignment and incidence, with corresponding marks on
the floor, followed. Moving outward,
Each installation is carefully tuned to the wing. Alignment is

critical before drilling all these holes.
the team arrived at the wingtips with

a good sense of local airflow as pertaining to that particular aircraft. Some
educated guessing followed, involving
several custom protractors and measuring tools, as to perfect placement
of the winglet. From there the winglet
was painstakingly cut to fit. The process is iterative, with each cut followed
by more measuring, another cut, more
measuring, and so on, until the alignment falls within the .2 degree allowance, roughly the width of a Sharpie
line drawn on the floor.
Flight Testing
Flight testing followed, with oil flow

tests and video recording to examine
actual airflow across the winglet. Subtle
adjustment at this point helps dial in

optimum performance. Figure 1 shows
measured performance on Rolands
airplane before and after the winglet
installation. Video of one of the performance flights is posted online; search
Vortecx winglet.
While lowering the stall speed significantly, the winglet seems to have
little detrimental effect at high speed.
Indeed, with increasing altitude, the
winglet enhances both rate of climb
and cruise speed. Above FL200, the
performance gains become very significant20 percent faster cruise and
near doubling the rate of climb! These
are remarkable numbers, considering the Lancair IV is already one of
the highest-performing Experimental
types available. Throttled back slightly,
the winglets enable substantial fuel
savings with no loss of speed over the
stock aircraft. This might translate
into significant fuel savings year over
year. York indicated that these results
are typical of most aircraft fitted with
the Vortecx winglet.
My Turn
After hearing all the hype, I looked forward to the opportunity to fly a set of
these winglets myself. No stranger to
the Lancair IV-P, I felt confident evaluating its performance and handling,
particularly in relation to stall behavior
as affected by the new winglets. York
felt confident, too. He brought his son
Parker along for the demonstration. They
arrived at South Valley Regional Airport
A few examples of the Cal Poly test strips. The screws withstand up to 1100 lbs!

17
(near Salt Lake City) looking and sounding very much like any other Lancair. As
the plane slowed on approach, however,
the distinctive winglets seem to grow bigger and taller. They are not small. I wondered if they disturbed the view from the
cockpit. I also wondered if they affected
handling much at high-yaw conditions
in flight. York assured me that they could
handle any side load in flight without
failure, and that I could play with the
rudder all I wanted.
Roland Manarins airplane is beautiful. Very well finished with excellent
paint and a lovely interior, it is typical
of the high-dollar efforts most builders
put into their Lancairs. The winglets
blend perfectly into the wings, tastefully
painted to match a fairly elaborate paint
scheme. A delightfully complicated pattern of LED lights crown the tips for nav
and strobe functions, and the leading
edge sports landing lights on both sides.
The winglets are beautifully made, with
excellent fit and finish to match the best
of composite construction. The instrument panel carries a mix of old and new,
with a Dynon EFIS replacing the altimeter in an otherwise standard flight director/HSI instrument package. All the
instrumentation, finish, and finery adds
up in weightabout 438 pounds more
than the plane we tested 20 years ago.
Winglets might be especially advantageous in this circumstance, as they help
the wing fly more efficiently. From the
cockpit, I observed the winglets do not
Figure 1: Airspeed vs altitude plot.

18
Appearing large from the outside, the winglets are not intrusive viewed from the cockpit.
intrude into the field of view. They sit far

enough to the side that you have to turn
your head a bit to see them. Even looking
at them directly, they do not seem as big
from inside the plane.
Takeoff and Basic Maneuvers
Loaded with some fuel and three

occupants in an already heavy airplane, I expected to roll for a good
long while on the pavement. Lifting
the nosewheel slightly, the airplane
surprised me by floating off the runway and climbing much sooner than
I expected. The wing felt powerful
from the beginning, climbing strongly
before we had much speed on the
dialunusual and better than a stock

Lancair. Immediately apparent, however, was a degradation in control harmony. The Lancair IV controls do not
harmonize well. It is light and sensitive
in pitch with relatively heavy ailerons.
Winglets make the ailerons more powerful, but they feel heavier, exacerbating the unbalanced relationship of the
controls. Putting some muscle into the
side stick, the same roll rates could be
achieved as without winglets, but I suspect an airplane with winglets would
be rolled slower in general due to the
heavier feel. This is not a major issue,
as the airplane is not aerobatic. The
heavier ailerons lead to a feel of greater
roll stability, and the plane seems to
want to go straightjust like a proper
traveling machine should. As usual,
any change in attitude, speed, or power
setting sent the rudder ball to one side
or another, and required near-constant
adjustment of the electric rudder trim
during maneuvers. This is common
to airplanes with big, high-torque
engines. Once set up for cruise and
carefully trimmed, however, the plane
is easily managed for long flights.
I sampled the rudder during our
cruise to the flight-test area. I suspected
the big winglets might develop noticeable side forces at high angles of yaw,
or beta. They certainly increased the
roll coupling with rudder input. The
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2015 Garmin Ltd. or its subsidiaries
These LEDs are molded in place, draw very little power, and have an indefinite service life.
plane could roll on rudder alone, if you

didnt mind the inclinometer diving
off to the side. It was much like a sailplane, in fact. We noticed some instability at high beta. At some point, the
plane wanted to break away on its own,
trying to rapidly increase yaw with no
further input from the pilot. I suspect
this is caused when the winglet on the
side dragging behind reaches sufficient
angle of attack to generate lift across
its outboard surface. From the cockpit
it feels like a little parachute suddenly
deploys on the wingtip. I could correct
the attitude immediately by releasing
rudder pressure, but the tendency to
snatch to one side surprised me. York
noted that this occurs at angles of beta
much higher than normal. I agree, but
suspect the plane might benefit from a
big ventral fin and rudder extension to
improve yaw stability.
We observed no speed degradation in
level flight at high speed. With so much
increased area out there, I felt that something had to slow down. Apparently not.
The winglet contributes a little thrust
component of lift, negating any increase
in form drag.
of the control response with reduced

speed, the airplane continued as it
had before. At 75 knots and carrying
a little power, the plane began to buffet audibly and through the controls.
Surprisingly, the ailerons continued to
be effective, with gentle control inputs
able to bank left and right at will. Full
stall came with a break to the right,
as usual, but a good deal less than

I remember. With practice, I could
make it break straight aheada huge
improvement over the stock Lancair
IV. This particular plane stalled a little
over 70 knotsabout the same as the
plane we flew 20 years ago. York indicated that the increased weight of the
empty airplane had it stalling quite fast
to begin withover 80 knots, and that
the winglets in general seem to offer
a 10-knot stall speed reduction with
improved control authority and better
warning, to boot. Not a bad solution.
Delighted with the improved stall
behavior, I probed a little further with
Yorks enthusiastic approval. A 2 G turn
to the left resulted in an accelerated stall
that broke back to level flight as it recovered. Astounded, I performed the same
maneuver in a right turn
There It Goes!
At stall, the airplane immediately

snapped to the right, spinning rapidly without provocation. The spin
continued despite the application of
full opposite rudder and lowering the
nose. We rotated about four times to
Stalls
We climbed to 9000 feet msl to sample

stall behavior. I made a gentle reduction in speed, gingerly feeling out the
controls. Aside from a general softening
20
Figure 2: Altitude vs. rate of climb plot.
Conclusion
The Lancair is a very high-performance

airplane with a bit of a reputation. The
Vortecx winglet offers significant performance gains at both ends of the envelope,
while taming the stall behavior. The modification adds 20% to the high-altitude
cruise, a 10-knot reduction in stall speed,
better takeoff, landing, and climb performance, and better stall warning. Vortecx
plans to develop a larger fin and rudder,
which might tame the airplanes low-speed
behavior entirely. Its almost unheard of to
make a plane faster, slower, and safer with
the same mod, but there it is.
Vortecx has been developing winglets
for years, each improving on the last.
The next generation will accomplish the
same performance gains at about 70%
the current size. They have installed custom winglets on a number of aircraft,
including various homebuilts, sailplanes,
and even a Citation jet. In each case, substantial performance gains occurred.
Not every airplane type is a good
candidate for winglets, however. Some
designers do an excellent job with the

wing already, but they are the minority. Vortecx modifications are aimed at
designs where money is left on the table,
so to speak, where performance enhancements pay big dividends. Their services
are not cheap. A great deal of design work
and labor, and a couple of weeks with the
airplane, add up in costs. J
Call John Neel at 435-632-2917 for pricing.
Lewis Bjork
the right in a strange unloaded spin,

as speed degraded. York said, rather
calmly, Get the nose down, about the
same time I applied full forward elevator. We had some success lowering the
nose, when the plane promptly snapped
over to the left for a couple of rotations
and assumed a near vertical attitude.
Shortly afterwards, using very aggressive control inputs and a little patience,
we recovered with a loss of 4000 feet.
Throughout the unexpected event, the
atmosphere in the cockpit was very
calm, almost casual, although it had
our full attention. When everything
settled, we felt quite rattled.
In retrospect, that was a near worstcase scenario. We were heavy, with an
occupant in the back seat. I doubt the
average Lancair IV could have recovered in time. The winglets, then, made
a difference between life and death,
but are not foolproof. This fool went
poking around the stall with too
much confidence in the new handling
and got bit.
Lewis Bjork has constructed

many airplanes, authored
a few books and numerous
articles. He enjoyed flying
for SkyWest Airlines the
last twenty years, and is
married to Linda, a very
patient wife.
They are the
parents of
five children.
21
Flying Other
Peoples Planes
Yes, its funbut beware

of unexpected problems.
By Paul Dye
22
A good ground cockpit checkout is essential when preparing to fly a single-seat airplane for the first time. Pay particular attention to
secondary controls.
One of the benefits I have found of

being in the aviation writing business is
that I get the chance to fly a fair number
of other peoples planes. Whether I am
doing it to write a flight review on the
type, test or check out new avionics, or
am simply offered the chance to go flying, I enter a lot of strange N-numbers
in my log. Sometimes, the airplane is a
type Im familiar with. Sometimes it
is completely new to me. Regardless of
which category the craft falls into, there
are many things to consider when flying
a borrowed airplane.
Safety and Mission Success
In my old job conducting space shuttle

flights, our goal was safety and mission
successin that order. Thats the way I
approach any flightespecially one in
an unfamiliar aircraft. My first priority is that the airplane and I come back
together and intact. I am also cognizant
of the fact that someone cares a great
deal about the airplane (as I do about
my own), and that while fun is important, safety is always paramount.
The mission might be, as I mentioned,
a flight evaluation, a photo hop, avionics
testing, a checkout in type, or training
for some specific piloting task. It might
also be that I am simply borrowing the
airplane to go on a trip, or the owner
Photos: Courtesy of Paul Dye
wants me to fly it and tell him how it

compares to others of the type. Whenever we consent to take the controls,
we have to think about our qualifications, the condition of the airplane, the
known flight characteristics, and what
we can realistically do with the airplane
on the intended flight.
Insurance
Insurance is one of those logistical

considerations that is too important
to ignore. For some, we simply agree
that we are responsible for the craft.
For others, we formally submit paperwork and get coverage. This is mostly
decided by the owner, and it is more
common for a private owner to want
to add the casual pilot to their insurance than it is for a corporate concern
asking for a flight review. Even when
it is simply the case of a friend throwing me the keys to take it around the
patch, it is always a good idea to ask
the insurance questionjust to be
polite and make sure there is no misunderstanding. In some cases, the owner
may not have thought about it, and
bringing it up is a responsible thing to
do. Of course, sometimes the response
is, Well Paul, I have your plane here
on the ground, and Ill enjoy flying it
while you get mine repaired

Companies for which we fly airplanes

are less likely to worry about the insurance issue. They are either confident in
their self-insurance, or know that it can
be tough to get coverage for a new pilot
in an Experimental aircraft. In this case,
they accept the financial risk in order
to have the airplane reviewed or simply
tested by another pilot. Insurance is one
way to mitigate risk, and some simply
choose to accept the financial risk if
they believe the chances of an untoward
event are small. We all hope that is the
case, especially the pilot that is about to
put their little pink body in the seat.
The important thing is that whether
you are borrowing a friends airplane,
flying a demo aircraft from a factory,
or testing an airplane for a corporation,
make sure that you discuss the financial
obligations in advance.
Magazine Flight Reviews
When we fly a new airplane for a magazine review, the best situation is when
it is a two (or more) seat aircraft, and
we can take along a factory pilot or the
owner. In fact, in that case, it is more
correct to say that they are taking us
along. There is little worry about flight
safety, so long as we brief beforehand
on who is pilot in command, and who
will do what in the case of an emergency.
23
Demo and test flights such as these are

sometimes the most funso long as
the demo pilot is experienced, we can
trust them to get the airplane up and
back, and we can concentrate on evaluating and flying, knowing that we have
a safety net if something odd were to
occur. It is easier to take notes, capture
photos, and dedicate 100% of our attention to what we are doing, rather than
having a few brain cells worrying about
survival all the time.
Two-seat airplanes can provide a
more challenging time when the owner
is asking us to help them get used to
the machine, do transition training, or
help them learn their avionics. In this
case, it is usually not a factory-trained
demo pilot with whom we are flying,
but rather a novice owner that may not
be very experienced in type, and toward
whom we will have to dedicate some of
our attention. In short, now we not only
have to worry about flying the airplane,
but also about giving the other pilot
attention. The new Additional Pilot
Program allows an experienced pilot
to go along with one less experienced
during Phase 1 training (under specific
guidelines). This program formalizes
the process and gives some good guidelines for this type of activity.
Single-Seat Aircraft
Single-seat airplanes are, of course,

another matter. In these, you dont
have to divide your attentionbut you
When flying a new airplane that is still in a test programlike this Panther prototypewe frequently wear full protective equipment, including a parachute, often at
the suggestion of the owner. Everyone is concerned about safety.
have to be confident that you can fly

the airplane and bring it back safely,
alone and unassisted. For pilots who
have always checked out in a new airplane with a CFI or safety pilot, that
first time crawling into a machine with
only one seat can be very intimidating.
Good fundamental piloting skills are
important here. So long as the airplane
type has flown before and the previous pilots have not ended up screaming or muttering to themselves as they
hug the earth post-landing, you can be
reasonably certain that it will fly like
an airplane, and you can bring it back
safely to the earth. Fundamental skills
include staying above stall speed, keeping it within the flight envelope, and
The author finds that his first landing in a type (in this case, the original RV-1 after its
restoration) is often his best.
24
knowing how to land with the type of

gear (tricycle or taildragger) that the
type presents. Good fundamentals
apply to any machine, and the mark of a
pilot who is ready for this type of flying
is that they dont just learn airplanes by
rote (memorizing speeds at points in the
pattern, relying on specific altitude cues
for checklist steps, etc.), but rather look
outside (as well as at the airspeed), feel
the aircraft, and find where it fits within
their experience continuum.
With single-seat airplanes, you simply
cant afford to wonder if you are going
to make it backyou have to know
that you will, and that while you might
bounce it, there will never be any doubt
about the safe and successful outcome
of the mission. Having made this transition into numerous single-seat airplanes
myself, and seeing others never take that
step, I suggest doing initial solo flights
in benign airplanes that have straightforward characteristics similar to other
types that the pilot has flown, regardless of the number of seats. They might
think that taking a machine aloft with
a qualified pilot who promises never
to touch the controls might be a good
ideabut the psychological environment is different. You know that they
arent going to let you take them to their
death, so it really isnt being alone.
The single-seat airplanes many of us
are familiar with are usually small, closecoupled, nimble, and can be intimidating
Designs such as the Cassutt often have

many custom systems and parts. The
canopy latch on this ship required careful attention to make sure it was secure.
with their speedand reputation. Others

might be large (a single-seat fighter or
replica) with actual intimidating speed
and flight characteristics. In truth, size
shouldnt matterflight characteristics
should. Stall speed is the first big indicator of the challenge the pilot faces. The
faster it stalls, the faster the approach,
and the quicker youll have to be on the
controls on landing.
Bigger, with more engine torque? Better be prepared for a boot full of rudder
on the takeoff roll. Many pilots, used to
docile aircraft, are scared of quick and
nimbleuntil they find out that it is
more a question of how stable the airplane is than how quickly it maneuvers.
Instability is a problem, but quickness in
itself is just a delight.
Unusual Flight Characteristics
Unique design aspects of an airplane

can affect how it handles, and how it
lands. It is good to find out in advance
if it pitches up or pitches down with flap
deployment. Those big Tundra tires on
a wild new bush planehow do they
react if you land hard? Is the CG forward or aft in the configuration youre
going to fly? This will greatly affect stability and control. And if it is too far one
way or another, you might run out of
control on landingor be pushing on
the stick to prevent an over-flare. If this
is a new airplane with few hours, and the
owner is asking you to test or evaluate it,

25
you need to be on your toes and be honest with yourself: How much experience
do you really have in oddly configured
aircraft? Practicing flying out of trim (in
an airplane you are familiar with) is a
good way to prepare for the unexpected
in a test airplane.
Expect the Unexpected
Aside from being able to actually fly

and land the airplane, there are far more
trivial things that can potentially get you
into trouble when hopping in another
persons airplane for a quick spin around
the patchand most of them would surprise you. Especially in the homebuilt
world, no two aircraft are exactly alike,
and the small differences can provide
big surprises. Our biggest problems, in
fact, arise when flying an aircraft similar
to what we fly all the time. Hey Paul,
youve got over 2000 hours in the RV-8;
could you take mine up and tell me how
it compares to others? Well surethat
should be simple. But gee, this fellow has
the tall-man option, which pushes the
seat back a couple of inches, and since
I can just barely reach the fuel selector
in my own airplane with the harnesses
tight, now I cant reach it at all. The
question isdid I discover that on the
ground, or in the air?
This illustrates the importance of
knowing exactly what is critical to
New to a type? Find a written checklist and follow it meticulouslyespecially if it has

a jet engine (like this TsT-14 sailplane).
flight and having a mentalor better

yet, a writtenchecklist of items that
you always check before flying a new
airplane. These things, if missed, could
cause major distractions or endanger
flight directly. When I sit in a new type,
I move all the controls to full travel,
including engine controls, both primary
(throttle, mixture, prop) and secondary (fuel selectors, ignition switches,
carb heat, etc.). I put on the harness
and make sure that I have good reach to
everything criticaland move my head
around to find potential blind spots.
Dont forget to try the brakes. Some
rudder pedals are awkward, and as we
age, our flexibility decreases. Have you

got full motion everywhere?
Canopy and Door Latches
Canopy and door latches are some of

the greatest gotchas in the homebuilt
world. They can be finicky, they can be
marginaland sometimes, we have to
line up three different things in order
to get them to work. I have learned
through hard experience to have the
owner/designer/builder go through the
latching sequence and pitfalls with me
before we ever get to how do I start the
engine? I have seen two-piece doors
that can really cook your noodleand
New configurations require that we reset our visual

landmarks. If you have never flown a canard, youll
find that the view can be quite different.
26
A good post-flight debrief while things are

fresh in your mind will help bring out the
details of a flight in a new airplane.
some latches that simply didnt work,

or wouldnt work if the airplane flexed
a little. While it is true that in most
certified aircraft, an open door in flight
is almost always survivable, in many
homebuilts, the loss of a door or canopy
can result in tail damageand loss of
control, no matter how cool you remain
in the cockpit.
Electrical Gremlins and

Oddball Fuel Systems
Homebuilts have other issues, often

related to electrical systems. I flew one
airplane that had a five-by-five matrix of
toggle switches that controlled all of the
electrical items in the airplane, including multiple buses and the electronic
ignition. While they were labeled, it
was in some esoteric language that
made sense only to the builder, and the
current owner basically set things up
by rote, making sure that the switches
were on and off in the same pattern for
every flight. I declined to fly that one
solo, by the way. And then there are fuel
systems. Creative fuel systems might
have their place if youre building an
airplane with enough tankage to fly
around the world, but multiple tanks,
valves, and fuel pumps to transfer gojuice around the airplane can give a new
pilot headaches, and if youre going to
take a plane with such a system aloft,
you need to make sure you fully understand where the gas is, and how to get it
to the engine.

27
This Spitfire replica had 450 horsepower, requiring more

than a little rudder on takeoff. But it was a delight to fly!
Where Am I ?
By the wayhave you got a map? It can

be more than just inconvenient to strap
into a new airplane at an airport in an
area you have never flown, then take
offonly to find out that you have no
idea where you are. Many, if not most,
airplanes today have a GPS somewhere
in the cockpit. But some of those handhelds can be mighty tricky to operate,
even if it is just to bring up a map! Make
sure that you either know how to work
the fancy hardware before you go aloft
or have a good local map in your pocket.
when you are all alone in an aircraft

and working hard just to adapt to its
flying qualities. It is easy to reach task
saturation and then have a little extra
annoyance push you over the edgeso
make sure not to take off in a hurry
take the time to ask questions and get
good answers. If, at any time, you find
yourself rushing to get in the air (Hey,
you can fly my plane, but I need to leave
in 45 minutes, so make sure you have
it back by then!), its probably time to
stop, pass on the opportunity, and come
back when you have more time.
Dont Ignore the Small Stuff
Unfamiliar Avionics
Seat and control adjustments, how to

turn on (or off) the heaterthese are all
trivial items that can become significant
Avionics are another huge area of

complication these days. With the
proliferation of glass cockpits, no
two airplanes ever seem configured

the same. Dont get me wrongI am
all for advanced displays that make
a pilots job easier and have been
involved in their development for
decades. However, the user interfaces
are far from standard at this point in
time, and once you start pushing buttons, you can end up with no usable
displays at allor worse, end up with
guidance that is taking you someplace
you dont want to go. There are four or
five major brands of EFIS out there in
the homebuilt world today, and while
all of them have similar displays, when
it comes to critical parameters (such as
airspeed, altitude, and attitude), the
button-pushing and knob-twisting
that you have to do to change a page
or set the altimeter is different from
brand to brand. Once again, know
what you have to do to fly a safe mission, and then keepa-your-hands-off
the rest! If your goal is to experiment
with, and experience, the EFIS, then
have at itbut do a lot more ground
prep with the manuals and with the
system before you go aloftand take
a safety pilot.
When I am flying/testing/evaluating
an airframe, I make sure that I know
how to bring up the primary flight display, bring up a moving map, and set
Given the opportunity, well give any
new airplane a tryeven from the
right seat. Safety firstand then enjoy
the ride!
28
the altimeter. If I have to control radios

and the transponder through the EFIS,
I make sure I can do that as well. I rarely
use the navigation or guidance features
of an EFIS in an airframe evaluation,
so I leave those aloneor I have a
handheld or iPad that I know how to
use along for the ride. Many accidents
have happened due to distractions in
the cockpitwhich is a good reminder
to always check on how to cancel visible and audible alerts before you go flying! Also make sure you ask the owner
if there are any engine parameters that
they are still working out in their
EFIS or engine instrumentation.
Should I Do This?
Flying other peoples planes is a great

way to grow as a pilot, and it is an
honor to reach the point in ones career
when such offers are made. Yet, it is
probably some of the most subtly hazardous flying you might dosimply
because there are so many little things
to learn about a particular Experimental aircraft. Always be brutally honest
SHOP
TIPS
Sometimes it takes a little help to get going. Its always nice to have the owner there to help
start things up.
with yourself before you accept an

offer (or assignment) to fly a new type.
Is your experience base broad enough
to accept? I have turned down remarkable offers to fly some fascinating airplanes because I just didnt feel like I
was qualifieddespite what the owner
thought. I have never met an airplane

that was worth dying forand while
some specific opportunities might
never come again, it is better to be
around later for other opportunities
than to take one that you shouldnt
and make it your last. J
Joining Two Small Wires
Wires too small for regular PIDG crimp-on connectors can

be soldered, but here is a nice alternative that does not involve
heat, smoke, or burned fingers. You can use pins from a D-sub
connector and heat shrink tubing to create a solid, gas-tight connection. This method is fast, easy, and can be disassembled if
needed. This will work on wire up to 20 gauge.
1. Strip and crimp pins as you normally would. Be sure to use
the correct crimper for D-sub pins. This is a 4-position crimper
that automatically sets the correct depth for the crimp.
2. Slip about 3 inches of 3/32-inch heat shrink onto the wire
and connect the pins.
3. Center the heat shrink so you have equal tube over each
side of the pins.
4. Verify the pins are fully inserted and shrink the tube. It is
important to verify that the pins are fully inserted.
5. Review the shrink to be sure it is fully connected. J
By David Boeshaar
D-sub pins and heat shrink

tubing.
Be sure the tubing is tight

around pins, and the pins are
fully inserted.
29
Glass Panel Upgrade

Adding a Garmin G3X Touch to a Wheeler Express.
By Reinhard Metz
My guess is most homebuilt owners

with steam gauges have been seriously
tempted by a glass panel upgradeeven
if only to convince themselves that they
really like steam better! I certainly had
been contemplating an upgrade for
many years. Having become accustomed
to a Garmin GNS 530 in my Wheeler
Express, followed by a recent upgrade
to a GTN 750, I was inclined toward
Garmin as the upgrade path. For the
longest time my only option in terms of
panel space was the G500/600, but that
was out of my budget. When the G3X
came out, it didnt fit my panel well. And
thenalong comes the G3X Touch, at
nearly the same time my vacuum pump
was about due for replacement and the
DG started precessing. I was already
enamored with the GTN touchscreen.
It was a perfect storma couple thousand dollars in potential repairs avoided
and the upgrade siren called out to me:
You can do this! And at almost no extra
cost, considering the resale value of what
comes out of the panel. I had to do it!
30
Now I was on a collision course with

some lingering concerns: Is a glass panel
really better? Is it just a tempting distraction? Are some pilots seriously better off
with steam gauges? To some extent its a
personal decision, a comfort zone issue.
To be honest, when I began the project,
I wasnt completely sure, but in the end,
the old dog was able to learn some new
tricks, and I have come to see the light
(so to speak!)but more on that later.
System Choices
While there are clearly other excellent

alternatives, the Garmin G3X Touch
fit both my comfort zone and panel.
I already had an S-TEC 30 autopilot, but decided at the same time to
replace it with the Garmin integrated
autopilot, which has much greater
functionality, and yes, it provided the
opportunity to sell a certified piece
of equipment to help finance this gig.
This is an amazing time in the world
of homebuilding, given the recent
appearance of non-certified avionics
with capabilities so far out ahead of

their certified counterparts.
Many homebuilders will be hesitant
to perform substantial panel installations on their own. By all means, if you
are not comfortable soldering, crimping, routing wires, etc., seek professional help. On the other hand, theres
nothing like accomplishing a challenging task, and hopefully in what follows,
some may find enough useful ideas and
inspiration to do it themselves. To me,
its very satisfying, as well as confidence
building to know as many details of
your airplane as possible.
Planning For Redundancy
The first step was to decide what stays,

what goes, and how to provide redundancy with the new arrangement. In
the panel right before the upgrade, in
addition to the six-pack, there was the
S-TEC AP/TC, a Rocky Mountain
Instruments microEncoder serving
double duty as a VSI, a Strike Finder,
and two indicators for the Garmin GPS
and KX-155. (Note the affirmation on

the panel above the six fault indicator
lights: In God and Lycoming we trust.
That originated during an IFR flight
passing over the Great Smoky Mountains, looking out the windows in sheer
terror while weaving under a controllers guidance through towering cumulus and lightning, watching the tops of
mountains going by underneath!)
Weve all been taught, and indeed
there are regulatory requirements, to
provide backups for key functionality,
especially when flying IFR. Im a big fan
of doing whats necessary and sufficient,
and keeping it simple. Just because it
can be done, doesnt mean you should.
Im talking about glass panel designs
that go to extremesnow all of a sudden there are three huge LCD displays!
Whats that all about? Planning to open
a stock brokerage in the sky? I contend
thats more of a distraction than useful
functionality or backup.
Its easy to forget where we came from:
The backup used to be the electric turn
coordinator taking over for the vacuum
instruments in case the vacuum failed.
And of course, that was the most likely
scenariographite vanes in that notorious pump suddenly deciding they would
rather just be particles again!
Well, that turn coordinator is a pretty
minimal beast, just enough to keep the
dirty side down. And along with the
compass, you might just barely know
N49EX on a Chicago winter outingBrrrrr!
which direction you are pointed. Im

also not building a commercial airliner,
and beyond redundancy, they have so
much glass because they have two pilots
seated five feet apart, and each would
really like to see the same thing. Thats
the long way of saying that one display
unit is enough for me.
Still, you need a backup. So, the simple
approach to glass cockpit redundancy in
the early days was to keep the vacuum
pump and the mechanical airspeed, altitude, and attitude. But once you adopt
glass, going all electric seems inevitable.
Then the question becomes what electrical backup scheme to pursue.
Heres where Im a staunch believer
in keeping things simple. My electrical
engineering sense is that an outright
Steam gauge panel before upgrades.

Photos: Reinhard Metz
and sudden battery failure is highly

unlikely, but alternator failures do happen. In fact, I have experienced one
under IFR conditions. So, I chose to stay
with a single battery, but added a backup
alternator mounted on the conveniently
vacated vacuum-pump pad.
Similarly, a total bus failure is highly
unlikely, and individual loads are protected and isolated via their circuit breakers anyway. For simplicity, I chose to stay
with a single main and avionics bus structure. If you were to have a bus short, you
would have a much bigger problem than
loss of powerthink fire and smoke!
Also, a dual bus structure with simplex
loads requires ORing diodes, which I am
not particularly fond of.
A better investment is in care of how
buses are mechanically placed and protected from shorting possibilities. On
the topic of circuit breakers, as part of
this upgrade I changed to all pull breakers, which allow you to isolate or shed
load on demand. Items in the avionics
block on top are on the avionics bus segment, while all the rest are on the main
bus, the two being connected by the avionics switch. This isolates the avionics
from engine-start transients. Note that
both alternators power the main bus, and
can therefore power everything. Normal
bus loads will stay within the capacity
of the backup alternator, but just in an
emergency, load can be shed as needed
by pulling breakers. With this approach,
switching to backup is automatic, as the
backup alternator regulation threshold is
31
Dismembered panel viewed through windshield and from the frontnot for the faint-hearted!
set just a bit below the normal charging

regulation voltage of the main alternator.
If the main alternator fails, the backup
takes over automatically, and the switchover is annunciated by an LED in
the fault indication display at the top
of the panel.
The next key redundancy question is
how to back up the PFD and associated
ADAHRS functions, and for that matter, the G3X Touch display itself. Here
again, the popular approach is to duplicate or triplicate the primary display.
Instead, I chose to install a GRT Mini
as the backup.
OK, I admit it: I also didnt really
have enough room for an additional
G3X Touch display. But the GRT Mini
as the backup provides some additional
advantages. It presents software diversity, along with a completely independent ADAHRS and magnetometer,
while having its own internal backup
battery. This makes it completely independent of other aircraft systems in a
pinch. If you choose to directly duplicate the G3X display, then it should
be accompanied by duplication of the
ADAHRS and power input to be truly
effective redundancy and create fully
separate fault groups.
questions. There were, however, several

aspects of the job that provided particular challenges.
First was where to mount the magnetometer. If you follow the guidelines
in the Garmin manual strictlywhat
wires with what current levels to avoid
with what spacing, etc.you pretty
quickly come to the conclusion there is
nowhere acceptable. My joke in writing
to the G3xpert folks was, Ive found the

ideal location: back in the hangar.
The truth be known, its not quite as
onerous as the manual makes it out to
be. In testing, I found that wires carrying currents were not nearly as great a
concern as proximity of ferrous metal.
I opted to go with a wingtip installation, and to my surprise, found a counterweight arm on the aileron that I had
Key Challenges and Insights

From the G3X Touch
OK, now that the system decisions

have been made, its time to plan and
execute the job. The G3X Touch installation is superbly documented in the
Garmin installation manual. I cannot
overemphasize the outstanding support
the G3X team provides when you have
32
Example mark-up of connector diagram for termination guidance and installation verification.
completely overlooked. It is made of

steel, and being within six inches of the
magnetometer was a significant violation. Garmin has an excellent acceptance test in the G3X maintenance
mode that quickly identifies such problems. My suggestion is to run it soon,
with the magnetometer only temporarily in a proposed location. A move
of the magnetometer only about a foot
farther forward in my wingtip eliminated the problem.
Another somewhat challenging task
is the location of the ADAHRS module.
In its favor, the module is conveniently
small and flexible in orientation, but the
location must be very stable and devoid
of vibration. In particular, tempting as
it may be, the instrument panel is highly
discouraged. While the display unit
itself offers a backside mounting for the
ADAHRS, ending up on the instrument
panel is not a good location. My chosen
location on the wingspar carry-through
handily passed the vibration test.
Wiring Techniques
Location of the remaining components

is not so critical. Once they are decided,
its time to plan the wiring.
An upgrade clearly has some unique
characteristics that differentiate it from
a clean-slate, brand-new installation. To
start with, a bunch of stuff gets ripped
out, and that warrants some careful
planning. I made a list of all the wiring
to be removed. Wires that are associated only with the removed equipment
are easy. Others, such as the connections into the remaining GPS, are more
complicated. I listed all the connector
identifications and pin numbers to be
removed. Then I carefully checked them
off as I went along.
Some wiring, such as power feeds,
can be re-used, so tagging them clearly
is most helpful when the new wiring
begins. Existing harnesses get unlaced
along the way, and by the time the
removal process is complete, you have
one heck of a frightening rats nest. But
dont despairit will all go together
again very nicely!
Conventional wisdom is to do as
much, if not all, wiring and harness
Pseudo-physical unit
layout and wire routing
diagram, top view of plane.
creation off the plane and on a bench

as possible. Weve all seen the pictures
of a fully equipped and harnessed new
panel on a workbench, looking pretty
as can be. But in an upgrade, thats just
not possiblea great deal of wiring will
need to be done in place.
The approach I took was to make a
wiring diagram that included all new
and existing equipment, along with a
rough physical placement and expected
physical routing of the wiring. Individual wiring runs were assigned a number. (For example, wire trough along
the right side of the fuselage, the center
route from panel to console, etc.)
Next, I made a detailed list of every
wire to be installed in tabular form,
including check-off boxes, the run
number from the wiring diagram,
wire type, colors, connector numbers,
pin numbers, and notes. This can be

retained as a handy reference for any

future modifications, or God forbid,
troubleshooting.
Using the physical drawing as a
guide, I made a rough measurement
in the plane of every run, giving each
a bit extra just in case (Theres an old
German saying: Three times cut off
and still too short!). For any particular
route, say from the G3X display unit to
the ADAHRS, the same measurement
is valid for all wires in that run. These
lengths were entered into the wiring
table, which was also used to calculate
how much of each type of wire to buy.
To further assist when actually building the harnesses, as well as checking
the job later, I took Garmins connector
diagrams and marked them up with the
wiring that would be done at each one.
Its somewhat redundant, but that often
helps catch slip-ups.
33
Aux power connector under panelenables learning the complexities of new avionics
without running the engine or running down the battery.
Checking, Testing, and Bring-Up

New circuit breaker layoutupper block
is on the avionics busall pull breakers
except for the main alternator output.
Now, were ready to start the wiring.

Since most of the wiring will become
part of an existing harness, final end-toend lengths will need to be determined
in place, if you would like your finished
harness to look somewhat neat. Going
down the wiring list, terminate only one
end of each wiring run at a connector
associated with the new equipment. The
Garmin instructions are quite clear and
comprehensive on best practices here;
its interesting to see the carry-over of
discipline and style from the Garmin
certified product documentation.
Once these partial harnesses are
ready, its time to head for the plane. At
this point, I temporarily plugged each
connector into its LRU (line-replaceable unit)the GDU 460 display,
GSU 25 ADAHRS, both GA 28s, the
magnetometer, GMC 305, GAD29,
and GDL 39A.
For each run already terminated at
one connector, I systematically went
down the list and ran the wire in its
bundle, cut it to length, and terminated
it in the other connector. Power feeds
from the circuit breaker block were similarly laid into their bundles to determine length, then cut and terminated.
One last thing at each connector is to
give each wire a decentbut not damagingtug to ensure that the crimp is
solid and the pin is properly seated in
the connector shell.
34
This is where the real fun begins! The

one thing you really do not want to do
is let the smoke out of these wonderful
new (expensive) toys. Nows the time to
take your time, relax, and check everything very carefully. Heres where the
mark-ups of the connectors from the
Garmin installation manual come in
again. As such, this is somewhat of an
independent audit that will catch any
errors in the wiring table.
I made a set of probe wires from leftover connector pins or sleeves, and used
them to check connections at each connector, using the LRU connector diagrams again as the guide. First thing at
each connector is to verify the proper
pin populations, then move on to check
connectivity, the first being power. I
have a line power supply that I can plug
into my airplane bus to not run the
battery down, and I used it to energize
plane power.
Start with all the breakers pulled.
Then at each LRU connector, verify the
power pins and correct associated circuit breaker with a voltmeter and check
ground connections with a buzz to
ground. These are the most important connections to check, but
verification of other wiring is
important to avoid damage
and at least minimize or
eliminate any later difficult troubleshooting. At a
minimum, I recommend
checking the full CAN
(controller area network) bus
connectivity. In my case, I
also checked every new wire connecting

into the GTN 750too many dollars
involved there to take any chances!
Now its time for the big moment of
reckoning. Start with individual circuit
breakers and the display unit, and see
that it initializes properly. Here again
its virtually a necessity to have an external power supply so that you can leisurely perform the variety of bring-up
tests and configurations. I find it useful
also for just sitting in the plane to learn
your new electronics, play with them,
enter flight plans, etc. My auxiliary
power connector is located under the
right bottom of the instrument panel.
Once everything powers up, its time
to perform unit and data link configurations so all the pieces can talk to
each other. This can be a bit tricky. The
Garmin manual specifies the configurations on each page of their general wiring diagrams for each LRU.
To organize the process, I copied each
of the applicable pages and marked the
pertinent items, as well as made a table
Male and female connector verification probes.

Garmin and GRT magnetometers mounted in the right wingtip

all fiberglass, aluminum and brass mounting and hardware.
Flying It
Everything up and running? Passed the

vibration and magnetic interference
tests? Ground calibrated the magnetometer? OK, time to fly!
I have to admit, the first flights
involved a certain amount of trepidation, especially since I started out not
completely sure of this whole thing. In
fact, I made my first flights with the old
ASI and altimeter temporarily patched
into the pitot/static system and taped
to the bottom of the panel, as a transition aid. And I have to admit, the first
couple of flights I couldnt help but look
down to them occasionally, especially
on takeoff rotation and landing. It takes

a bit of practice to develop the intuitive
sense of critical airspeeds and altitudes
from the tape presentations that were
captured in a glance at the round instruments. However, it didnt take long to
become comfortable and realize the
many advantages of the new technology.
Once you train yourself to absorb key
information at a glance from the different presentation, it becomes clear how
much more is packed into a tighter space
and how it simplifies the scan.
One additional challenge I encountered was in tuning the autopilot. For the
most part, its performance was immediately excellent with minor tweaks to the
gains, except for an altitude hunt of some
+/- 30 feet that I could not get rid of.
It turns out that the ADAHRS pressure sensors are exceptionally sensitive,
and the static pressure delivered by my
pitot tube static ports was not stable
enough. In other words, slight pitch
changes to hold altitude resulted in
disproportionate pressure changes due
to the angle changes of the pitot tube,
resulting in an altitude oscillation.
This problem was never apparent
in the altimeter before, but certainly
noticed by the new autopilot. As a test,
using cockpit air stabilized the altitude
hold of the AP, but was unacceptable as
a permanent solution due to not being
the correct outside pressure and thus
delivering incorrect altitude and airspeed readings at flying speed. So, psychologically hard as it was, I had to drill
some holes in the fuselage and add side
static ports, similar to what you find on

many certified craft. If you have a pitot

tube that includes the static ports, you
may encounter the same problem.
Now that I have become used to flying with the new glass, here are a few
final thoughts: This stuff is so pretty and
enticing that I suggest you make a concerted effort to teach yourself to keep
your eyes outside the plane as much as
possible and use the glass only as is functionally needed, not as is possible. Back
in 1964, Marshall McLuhan warned
about television that, The medium is
the message. It applies as much today to
glass panels in airplanes.
Finally, with a radically different
redundancy scheme, practice failure
modes. Whatever backup scheme you
chose, become comfortable with reduced
configurations and alternate displays. J
Reinhard can be reached at n49ex@aol.com
Reinhard Metz
of all the configuration data. While

being a duplicate, it is a good future consolidated reference of how the system
was configured. The tricky part is that
this requires you to ensure that all connected existing equipment is up to the
latest software version, and also that you
verify both the connections and configuration associated with connected
LRUs that seem a bit questionable as
you look at the Garmin diagrams.
For example, the connections and
configuration of my recently installed
GTX 327 transponder were not correct
in the current installation manual. New
transponders do not need a direct connection from the ADAHRS for air data,
but rather will get it automatically via
the ARINC 429 link through the GPS.
These nuances may vary depending on
your installation, and I encourage you to
seek clarification with the Garmin folks
where necessary.
ADAHRS mounted on wingspar carrythrough, a pretty vibration-proof

and central locationunder/behind pilot seat, seat rails to either side.
Reinhard built his Wheeler

Express over an eight-year
period and has been flying
it for 16 years. He is a
retired Bell Labs electrical
engineer and has a second
career in commercial food
equipment. Reinhard lives
in Wheaton, Illinois, and
often flies out of DuPage
Airport with
his aviation
enthusiastic
daughter
Ashley.
35
Whos Got
the Time?
Are you logging pilot flight time and

aircraft time in service correctly?
By Owen C. Baker
For the first powered airplane flight,

flown by the Wright brothers in December 1903, historical records show both the
distance flown, 162 feet, and the elapsed
flight time, 12 seconds. Not many pilots
today keep an ongoing record of how far
they have flown in any given flight, or the
total distance flown to date. But a record
36
of flight time per flight and total flight

time to date is considered such a standard
measuring criteria of piloting experience
and qualifications that every pilot wants
to keep some reasonably permanent
record of that time.
Beyond an individual pilots personal
desire to maintain a record of flight
time, federal regulations require it. Certain flight-time records must be kept in
order to qualify for higher ratings, to fly
certain types of aircraft, or to fly in certain flight conditions such as at night or
under instrument flight rules.
It is also necessary to keep track
of airframe and engine time in serwww.kitplanes.com & www.facebook.com/kitplanes
vice. Without this information, it is

extremely difficultif not impossibleto properly maintain an aircraft
and keep it in airworthy condition.
Lets take a look at some of the most
common devices used to keep track of
pilot and aircraft time.
Hobbs Meters
John Weston Hobbs (18891968)

invented the Hobbs meter, an electrically
driven, elapsed time recording device.
There are still indeed actual Hobbs
meters that can be obtained for installation in homebuilt aircraft. The generic
term, Hobbs meter, is also used for similar devices from other manufacturers.
A Hobbs meter is commonly turned
on and off by sensors that detect engine
oil pressure, air pressure, or landing
gear contact with the ground. Hobbs
meters can also be controlled with a
manual switch.
Time in service, with respect to
maintenance records, is defined in the
FARs as the time from the moment an
aircraft leaves the surface of the earth
until it touches down at the next point
of landing. Therefore, if a Hobbs meter
is installed so that it runs and records
elapsed time whenever the aircraft is airborne, i.e., landing gear not in contact
with the ground, it will provide an accurate and regulatory compliant record
Hobbs meters are quite common in rental aircraft, but the time they record is not
exactly in synch with pilot flight time as defined by the FARs.
for all components on the aircraft, such

as the engine and prop, that require a
record of time in service.
It might also be convenient and reasonable for the pilot to use that very
same recorded airborne time as pilot
flight time, but it will not be pilot flight
time as defined by the federal regulations (see sidebar).
Creating a record of engine or aircraft
time in service by having the Hobbs
meter record elapsed time whenever
the engine is producing oil pressure is
a very common practice for rental aircraft. However, it is not in compliance
with the federal regulation for time in
service. It will also hasten the arrival of
the time due for overhaul of the engine
or the work on any aircraft components that require maintenance
based on time in service.
Tachometers
The mechanically driven hour meter on a tachometer

is unable to accurately record either pilot flight time
or time in service as defined by the regulations.
Photos: Notley Hawkins, Owen C. Baker, and Paul Dye
A common device for

recording elapsed time
for service purposes
is a tachometer that is
mechanically driven by
engine rpm. An Experimental/Amateur-Built
aircraft operating under day
VFR conditions only is not
required to have a tachometer.
But the operating limitations
of that same aircraft operating at night or under IFR do
require compliance with FAR
Section 91.205 paragraphs (a)

and (b), which state that a tachometer

must be installed.
The primary purpose of the tachometer is to inform the pilot of engine
rpm at any given moment. But somewhere along the line, tachometers
also began to display the total time
of engine operation. The elapsed time
display on the instrument requires
a conversion ratio of instantaneous
engine rpm into elapsed time of engine
operation. If, say, 2000 rpm were chosen as the standard mechanical revolution rate to convert into one minute of
elapsed engine operating time, then
any engine operation at less than 2000
rpm would generate less than one minute of elapsed engine operating time,
and any operation at an rpm greater
than 2000 would generate more than
one minute of elapsed engine operating time. Therefore, any mechanically
driven engine tachometer that includes
a time readout cant accurately record
either pilot flight time or time in service as defined by the regulations.
EFIS and EMS
Now we examine what the digital age

has to offer for meeting the homebuilders automatic time recording
desires. There is a wide variety of digital EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument
System), EIS (Engine Information System) and their associated displays and
software available to the homebuilder.
That variety, along with the ability
to modify the manufacturers initial
37
The probability that either an EFIS or EIS could be programmed to automatically

record elapsed pilot flight time in exact compliance with the defining federal regulation is very remote.
software in some cases, makes an exact

comparison of one airplanes time in
service or pilots flight time record to
another airplanes time in service or
pilots flight time record a very difficult
and complex problem. The probability
that either an EFIS or EIS could be
programmed to automatically record
elapsed pilot flight time in exact compliance with the defining federal regulation is very remote. However, with
research and understanding, an EFIS,
and even an associated transponder
that incorporated an elapsed time
recording capability, could possibly
offer a convenient means of automatically recording time in service.

So what can the homebuilder and
pilot do? Here are some suggestions:
Dont obsess about creating and comparing elapsed time records with other
airplanes and pilots. Many people are
not recording pilot flight time or time
in service the same way that you are,
and neither are they in exact compliance
with the defining regulations.
Do explore the sophisticated record
keeping systems that are available
and then select equipment and a
method of documentation, simple
What is Pilot Flight Time?

There are many devices that can accurately record elapsed time. But exactly what elapsed
time record is being kept, and for what purpose, can be a confusing subject.
The official FAA interpretation of the start of pilot flight time is the moment the wheels
start to roll as the aircraft leaves the parking area under its own power in order to go flying.
Accordingly, time that is spent taxiing, doing engine runup, and waiting for takeoff clearance at the end of the runway should all be recorded as flight time. Considering the delays
involved in operating at some airports, a pilot could become a multi-thousand-hour pilot
pretty quickly using that official interpretation.
On the other hand, pilots are certainly exercising some very important pilot-in-command
duties from the time they leave the parking space until starting takeoff roll. Should all of
that time be ignored and not recognized in some fashion?
After flying, official pilot flight time ends when the aircraft first arrives at a location
from which it will no longer move under its own power, i.e., comes to rest,even
though the engines may still be running and there may be several minutes of very important shutdown procedures for the pilot to go through.
There are many individual pilots, commercial operators, and airlines that do not record
pilot flight time in exact conformance with FAA regulations. Homebuilt pilots face the
same dilemma because there is no readily available device that automatically keeps track
of officially defined pilot flight time. Youre on your own to start, stop, calculate, and
record flight time in a reasonable manner.
O.B.
38
With the Garmin G3X Touch, engine hours

and total hours are both shown on the
main engine page.
or complex, that seem to reasonably

fit both your, and the federal governments, elapsed time record needs, and
stick with them. Be consistent in how
you gather and record elapsed time so
that you can view and show the results
with some confidence.
One example: The choice for the
pilot of one digital EIS-equipped airplane was to just record tach time
from the EIS for both pilot flight time
and time in service. The EIS software
generated zero elapsed time anytime
the engine rpm was less than 1500
rpm and real clock time in hours and
tenths any time the engine rpm was
above 1500 rpm. Recording the EISprovided elapsed tach time for both
pilot flight time and engine time in
service short-changed both of these
times since for some amount of airborne time while practicing landings
in the pattern, the engine was below
1500 rpm and the EIS was therefore
not generating any elapsing time.
These inaccuracies were considered
minor and acceptable because the
method was consistent and greatly
simplified the record keeping in both
elapsed time categories.
Finally, be both wary and charitable of someone elses time claims and
dont make a big deal of it unless you
are billing or getting paid by the hour
and minute. J
ENGINE THEORY
Engine Basics
& Layouts
Why our engines are shaped the way they are.
By Tom Wilson
Change being inevitable, the editor in chief has declared I should write
a series on engine anatomy for those
moderns deprived of shop class and
robbed of self-realization by all the plastic shrouding under modern car hoods.
Youve been warned.
This being a multi-article enterprise, lets
define the objective as introducing piston
engine fundamentals to you, the aviation
experimentalist. This will be more lecture
hall than lab work, with hope that a better understanding of the why of piston
engines will aid you in the how of their
selection, installation, and upkeep.
40
Pumping Air
Before getting into why all the Lycoming,

Continental, and Rotax engines are horizontally opposed, lets start at the beginning to establish that piston engines are
air pumps. Their working fluid is air,
which is aspirated into a closed cylinder,
expanded many times to increase its pressure and thus push the piston into doing
some work such as turning a propeller.
Expanding the air is the only reason we
add fuel and then set it on firesimply to
heat and thus expand the air.
Remember that breathingthe ability of an engine to inhale and exhale
Nothing says airplane engine quite as

loudly as a radial. And in the case of this
2400+ hp R-2800 Pratt & Whitney on
homebuilt air racer Wildfire, you can take
the loud part literally. A very successful
engine, the R-2800 owes much to its ability
to efficiently shed waste heat via advanced
forged (not cast) cylinder heads with
numerous, thin, machined fins. Modern
Lycoming and Continental cylinders pale
in comparison.
airis a fundamental function driving its ability to do work. The other

basic is how well the engine expands
the air it breathes. More air mass and
more expansion mean more power. It
Its useful to consider an aircraft

engine as a collection of cylinders flying in formation. The cylinder is the
basic unit of engine design; its where
the engineer makes his first sketches
and compromises.
A primary selection is how large to
make the cylinder. Larger cylinders
greater diameter, piston stroke, or both
make more power, but when all the
physics are considered, one huge cylinder
doesnt cut it. Scaling up an .049 Cox
Thimble Drone to lift an RV-10 would
lead to teeth-buzzing balance issues, horrible friction, tremendous fuel waste, and
be rather difficult to prop start.
Furthermore, because general aviation engines have little need to turn high
rpm as well see, its less expensive and
less weight to use fewer, larger cylinders
than in a car. Lycomings ubiquitous
O-360/540/720 cylinder (the O-360
uses four, the O-540 six and the O-720
eight, of the same cylinder) displaces a
voluminous 90 cubic inches. Thats 1474

cubic centimeters (1.5 liters) or roughly
the displacement of an entire air-cooled
VW engine per cylinder! A comparable
360-cubic-inch automotive engine would
turn higher rpm and use eight cylinders.
One upper limit on cylinder diameter
is the time necessary for the combustion
flame front to travel across the bore. In
practice 6 inches is the limit at any conventional engine rpm and piston stroke,
and this is with two spark plugs mounted
across from each other. Single-plug
combustion chambers must be smaller,
one reason auto-engine cylinders rarely
exceed 4.5 inches. Still, large-bore cylinders have strong advantages, mainly in
allowing larger valves and letting those
valves breath better because they arent
shrouded by narrow cylinder walls.
Speaking of which, our engineer definitely establishes the basics of cylinder
breathing. Traditionally this is accomplished via two relatively large poppet
valves: one each intake and exhaust.
Four smaller valvestwo intake and
two exhaustpackage a considerably
larger window of valve area in a given
size cylinder, and in many modern car
engines this provides superior breathing.
Engine design begins with the cylinder

because its where the airflow meets combustion. Once the cylinder is designed,
such as this Lycoming 360/540/720 parallel
valve unit, the rest is selecting the number
of cylinders, their mechanical arrangement,
and providing the resulting breathing,
lubrication, cooling, and other systems.
We find much of the bellyaching in hangar flying bull sessions regarding ancient
engine technology a little over-blown, but we must say there is room for improvement
in combustion chamber design. At least the two spark plugs are widely spaced (at 1 and
7 oclock in this photo); that and superior gasoline have helped these large, sort of lazy
airflow chambers get by for decades.
also follows that it takes fuel to make

power; how much fuel an engine uses is
a surprisingly useful rule of thumb to
how much power it is making.
The Cylinder
Photos: Tom Wilson
It also worked in old car enginesone

of the first four-valves was the dominant
1912 Peugeot grand prix carand highachieving aircraft engines such as the
Allison and Rolls-Royce V-12s of WW-II
fame were four-valve designs. But four
valves cost more than two valves, and its
certainly less expensive initiallyif perhaps not as efficient in the long runto
make a slightly larger displacement cylinder to obtain the same power.
Somewhat related to the number
of valves is the shape of the combustion chamber formed by the cylinder
head and top of the piston. The short
story here is legacy Continental and
Lycoming chambers are open as barns
and out of date as omni navigation,
while the Rotax offers a more advanced
quench-type chamber. Its the same
story with the intake and exhaust ports.
Another basic is how fast the cylinder
will operate, that is, what is the engines
rpm range. Consider the primary reason to have a piston engine in a plane is
to turn a propeller (thrust is what were
really after), so accommodating the propellers needs is smart policy. And it turns
out propeller efficiency is best at very low
rpm, so unless the daunting engineering,
41
Inverted inlines fit aircraft well. Their narrow frontal area is inherently aerodynamic,
and putting the crankshaft at the top of the fuselage gives the propeller maximum
possible clearance. Originally fitted with a four-cylinder inverted Menasco inline, this
Ryan now wears a six-cylinder inverted Ranger.
Torque and Horsepower

Engine output is rated in torque and horsepower. Interestingly, torque is a measurement of
force only; it does not consider time or distance. Think of a locked doorknob. If you grasp the
knob and try to turn it, the force you exert could be stated as so many pound-feet of torque.
And yet the doorknob hasnt budged.
Horsepower is a calculated number that considers torque through time. In our doorknob
example there is zero horsepower until the doorknob begins to rotate. We wont get into the
math, other than to say torque is measured directly by engine dynamometers and horsepower is never measured, only calculated, by plugging torque into a formula that introduces
time. In practice this unit is one minute as introduced by rpm, revolutions per minute.
As an aircraft builder youll want to know the math behind calculating horsepower results
in parity between torque and horsepower at 5252 rpm. Below that rpm torque is the larger
number (given in pound-feet) and above that number power is always the larger number
(given in horsepower). At exactly 5252 rpm the torque and power curves should cross.
Its fairly obvious additional rpm is the easy path to horsepower as long as torque doesnt
drop off too steeply with rpm. Not so obvious perhaps is peak torque coincides with an
engines peak fuel efficiency. In other words, peak torque is where the engine is turning
enough rpm to breathe efficiently, but not so fast that friction from bearings and piston
rings, plus losses to pumping air, oil, water, and accessories has built-up to absorb some of
the power released by burning fuel.
As a consequence, traditional light aircraft engines are tuned by their designing engineers to emphasize torque, and cruise at their peak torque rpm, especially if no prop speed
reduction unit is involved. If youre an engine enthusiast familiar with automotive practices, the resulting large-displacement, low-rpm, torque-oriented aircraft engines utilize
basic, tractor-like tuning parameters. However, much of the advanced techniques needed
by higher-rpm, horsepower-oriented engines are wasted on low-rpm torque monsters, and,
in fact, asking a smaller, higher-rpm, horsepower-oriented engine to efficiently make gobs
of torque (force) to turn a low-speed propeller results in appreciation of how lightweight,
simple and efficient a big, dumb, slow, air-cooled airplane engine can be.
On the other hand, as the smaller, high-speed Rotax and a few Chevy LS conversions
show, advances in breathing, efficient combustion chambers, water cooling, fueling, and
sparking can make smaller, faster, lighter engines competitive.
T.W.
42
cost, and weight of a prop speed reduction unit are deemed unavoidable, low
engine rpm is advantageous. Friction
from the bearings, piston rings, and so
on are all reduced in low-rpm engines
as well. Most practically thats a boon to
fuel economy, but it also means less heat
rejection is necessary.
Duty cycle is another fundamental
driving aircraft engine design. The term
is engineer-speak for what percentage of
time the engine spends producing maximum power. For example, auto engines
are sprinters, rarely asked to put out
max power and spending well over 95%
of their life loafing around 30% of their
maximum capability. Aviation engines
are more akin to marine engines, where
relatively short periods of maximum
effort are followed by endless hours at
a high percentage of maximum power.
The familiar 75% power setting comes
to mind. So, while checking weight
growth always hangs over the engine
designer, robustness of what he does
put in the engine is a necessity.
L, V, W and Xs
As the designer begins to arrange his cylinders into an engine he is confronted

with more realities and endless compromises. Above all an aircraft engine
must be reliableno need to belabor
thatbut in aircraft, mechanical integrity is a prime directive, so good balance
basics and inherent mechanical strength
of the architecture matter. The engine
absolutely must be lightweight, both as
an engine and as a part of the propulsion
system where the prop, reduction unit,
and fuel consumption are considered.
Minimal frontal area is a plus, as is tight
packaging to help with CG calculations.
In the end simplicity is an admirable goal.
Traditionally the trend has been to
fewer, larger, slower cylindersexcept
for when the power requirements are
huge and the cylinder count goes way
up, and lately, when smaller, higherspeed engines sometimes offer increased
efficiencies. This tradition started with
the Wright brothers and their helper
Taylor, who started with four cylinders in a row. Their 12-hp inline-4 gave
just enough displacement at 201 cubic
Unlimited P-51 racer Strega shows off its Rolls-Royce Merlin V-12 during pre-race repairs.
At about 140 cubic inches each, Merlin cylinders are just 16 cubic inches smaller than
the contemporary R-2800 radials jugs. Better balanced and inherently less stressed
around the crankshaft, the Merlin can safely turn 15% higher rpm. Advantage V-12 in
sprint applications, but the extra rpm isnt much help in long-haul cruising.
inches. Thats horrible volumetric efficiency by todays standards, and wasnt

exceptionally good even in 1903, but it
was superb for a home workshop effort
and got the job done, if just barely.
Their key propulsion accomplishment
was limiting engine weight to 180
pounds and developing impressively
efficient propellers. By comparison,
todays Rotax 912 iS gives 100 hp from
83 cubic inches in a 140-pound package (includes PSRU, but not exhaust or
alternator). Thats over eight times the
horsepower from not quite one and a
third times less weight, and almost two
and a half times less displacement.
A major benefit of the inline-4 architecture the Wrights selected is a short,

stiff crankshaft, yet another concept
playing a surprisingly important and
reoccurring part in aviation engine
design. Large-displacement cylinders
place a premium on crankshaft torsional
rigidity because the fewer, but stronger,
power strokes twist the crankshaft with
each cylinders firing. Shorter crankshafts are inherently stiffer and need less
reinforcing mass.
Adding two cylinders, we arrive at the
beautifully balanced inline 6-cylinder.
Narrow, these package nicely in singleseat airplanes, and Mercedes and BMW
Oberursel and Siemens rotaries hang on the Deutsches Museum wall. Imagine all this
mass rotating with the propeller and a tiny rudder out back. Light and powerful, such
rotaries had their day in WW-I but were eclipsed by V-8s by wars end.
43
An engines form and airframe installation are deeply intertwined.

This 1938 Grumman F3F-2s huge cooling inlet area, no cowl flaps,
and downward facing collected exhaust were all old ideas five
years later. The Grummans 1000-hp R-1820 Wright radial gave 250
mph, almost as fast as todays Reno biplane racer Phantom with
one-third the muscle.
Almost too obvious to note, radials present billboard frontal area.

Late WW-II research showed all of this can be mitigated by careful
cowling design employing minimal inlet area plus exhaust pipe
energy on the exit as this racing Yak shows. But the engineering
needed to efficiently mate a radial to its cowling and airframe is
seemingly beyond most homebuilders interest or abilities.
How Many Spark Plugs Is That?

Piston aircraft engines took on amazing
dimensions as designers struggled for
power during the big-engine peak prior
to turbines taking over in commercial and
military aircraft. Pratt & Whitney reached
the mainstream radial engine pinnacle with
their 28-cylinder R-4360. With 4-rows of 7
cylinders, it defines the limits of multi-row
air-cooled radial possibilities. Even larger
radials were on the boards using water
cooling and marshalling 7755 cubic inches in
Lycomings case, or had even reached limited
Even with the complexity of two
production as the 4300-hp, 24-cylinder, aircrankshafts and 24 cylinders, Allisons
V-3420 double vee was competitive
cooled Soviet VD-4K; but by then 15,000-hp
with the big radials and made one hp
turbines were on the way.
per pound in the early 1940s. Thanks
But for imaginative packaging, what
to high cylinder pressures enabled
engineers did with the basic V-12 architecby water cooling, early V-3420s made
ture takes the rag off the bush. Of course
2600 hp, and studies showed 4800 hp
possible using the latest Allison parts
they had turned it upside down (Daimler
and GE turbos in 1945. Compared
Benz 600 series) and put a second behind a
to a P&W R-4360, this was a smaller,
first to make a V-24 (Fiat AS.6). But Allison
higher-speed engine, much as a Rotax
also joined two V-12s side-by-side driving
is to a Lycoming.
a common gear reduction unit to form the
quite successful V-3420 double vee. They even proposed doubling the double vee to
form a V-6840!
Join a V-12 to an inverted V-12 and you get an X-24 (Daimler Benz, Packard, Rolls-Royce
and many others). Getting the Siamesed connecting rods in these engines to live doomed
most of these early examples. The same issue was sometimes present in W engines; those
are typically three banks of four cylinders to form a W-12. Napier, among others, was
successful in the 1920s with this layout, known in England as a broad arrow.
Other layouts include the H, which is two horizontally opposed engines stacked one over
the otherusing two crankshaftsand joined by a common gearbox. The H-24 Napier
Sabre is the best known of the breed.
T.W.
44
built excellent examples during WW-I

(180 hp and 675 pound-feet of torque
at 1400 rpm), with the form remaining
popular with Menasco and others until
WW-II. But crankshaft rigidity is a factor, plus the overall engine is relatively
long in small general aviation craft, and
worst of all, gathers weight quickly.
Joining a pair of inline 4-cylinders
to make a vee arrives at one of the great
engine layouts: the V-8. The crankshaft
is shorter than an inline-6s because the
cylinders can be somewhat overlapped,
and large displacement is possible with
relatively small frontal area. The more
frequent power impulses help with balancing and torsional concerns as well.
The same is true but more so by joining a pair of inline-6s into a V-12. Thats
because a V-8 balances with the cylinder
banks separated by 90 degrees, whereas
the V-12 needs a narrower 60 degrees
for less frontal area. The more frequent
power impulses of the V-12 help with
the admittedly long crankshafts torsional rigidity needs, and all considered,
the form remains an elegant way to
package large displacement engines.
Upward spiraling weight and friction
characteristics make the V-12 less tenable in small displacements.
Rotaries & Radials
Cooling was a major issue of pre-WW-I

engine designers, leading Clerget,
Gnome, Le Rhone and others to the
rotary layout. Here the cylinders resemble
Simplicity, and thus reduced weight and low

cost, are flat-engine virtues. This Lycoming
540 looks especially lean without its visually
bulky baffling, and its no illusion. Hot-rodded with 10:1 pistons, this example dynoed
320 hp and 640 pound-feet of torque at 2700
rpm, but weighs just 400 pounds. The offset
of the cylinders is also readily apparent here.
Each bulky, finned cylinder has its own crank
throw; with narrower water-cooled cylinders,
the engine could be even shorter.
spokes emanating from a hub, the hub

being the crankcase. The authenticating
characteristic is the crankshaft is bolted
to the airframe, the propeller is bolted
to the front of the crankcase, and the
entire engine and propeller spin around
the stationary crankshaft! This provided
adequate cooling airflow when mounted
to the painfully slow aircraft of the day.
An extreme design, rotaries produced
nasty gyroscopic forces and allowed only
primitive intake and exhaust systems,
but provided good power to weight.
Approaching 200 hp their mass and
resulting gyroscopic forces became overpowering, making the type obsolete
before the end of WW-I.
Outwardly radials look like rotaries,
but get the cart behind the horse by
bolting the crankcase to the airframe
and letting the crankshaft rotate. Like
rotaries, radials can have multiple rows
of an odd number of cylinders; one
and two rows are common, but Pratt &
Whitneys R-4360 had four rows. The
number of cylinders per row is always
odd. Seven- and 9-cylinder single-row,
plus 14- and 18-cylinder twin-rows
were popular.
Radials obviously differ substantially
in detail from vee and flat engines, but
major radial advantages are they can
package huge cubic inch displacement
...and leave your engine

monitoring to EIS.
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45
Horizontally-opposed engines may be near perfect technically for light aircraft but, ugh,
the looks. The late, great Mira Slovaks Bucker Jngmann went from inverted inline Hirth to
horizontally-opposed Lycoming for many practical reasons, but it turned the Jngmanns
original narrow nose into an ugly nostrilled box.
in an arguably compact and definitely

weight-conscious format. Radials enjoy
very compact crankshafts, but all the
cylinders per bank attach to a single
connecting rod throw on that crank.
This leads to a humongous connecting
Engine Decoding
Time-honored labeling protocol for aircraft engines uses a letter prefix to denote
the engine layout followed by numerals
giving the engine displacement in cubic
inches. Thus, Lycomings O-320 decodes
as O = opposed layout (flat) of 320 cubic
inches; Allisons WW-II V-12 is a V-1710 (vee
layout, 1710 cubic inches). Continentals
familiar 220-hp radial is an R-670.
Below are common engine designator
prefixes:
O = Opposed
R =Radial
L = Inline
I = Injected
S = Supercharged
TS = Turbo-Supercharged
G = Geared
AE = Aerobatic
L = Left-hand rotation
H = Helicopter
Multiple prefixes are often used,
making a TSIO-540 a Turbo-Supercharged,
Injected, Opposed, 540-cubic-inch engine.
Alphanumeric suffixes identify detail
change to the core engine. Theyre beyond
the scope of this article, but useful when
detailing an engines exact configuration
with accessories.
T.W.
46
rod, bearings and so on, all of which

discourage high rpm. So do the large
pistons and typically long strokes.
Another radial characteristic is
complicated rotating forces. Only the
one master connecting rod attaches
directly to the crankshaft, while the
other link rods connect the remaining
pistons to the single master rod. The
result is a riot of oscillating weight, rod
geometries, and thus complex balancing issues as reciprocating weight rises
in larger radials.
All told, radials are traditionally
larger displacement and turn pedestrian rpm. Add in their Henry VIII
frontal area and manly cubic inches
to get a healthy appetite for gasoline,
albeit in a light, muscular package.
Even so, in the pre-dog whistle era, big
radials financially outperformed highstrung inlines in airline (and even
bomber) duty, even if the inlines held
speed and fuel efficiency advantages.
Today general aviation airframes are
too small to make use of a couple thousand cubic inches the radial architecture is best at, and so the small Rotec
radials satisfy an important nostalgic
niche, while the Soviet-era M14P provides tight CG packaging in powerhungry aerobatic aircraft.
Flat and Happy
Continental can lay claim to the first

horizontally opposed 4-cylinder aircraft
enginethe 37-hp, 143-pound A40
dating from 1930. By 1938 Harold Morehouse at Lycoming designed the similar
O-145, and rival Franklin released a flatfour of their own. At the time radials and
inlines prevailed, but its no coincidence
these manufacturers simultaneously pioneered the flat layout as the design offers
compelling advantages.
If you think of the flat engine as an
inline with the cylinders veed so far
theyre 180-degrees apart, its easy to
see the flat engine is a little shorter
than an inline because the cylinders
can be overlapped. Again, a stiffer
crankshaft results. Once cowled and
baffled, the flat layout, even when overall a bit long in 6- or even 8-cylinder
form, nevertheless air-cools well. Frontal area is rather small, and if bulged
cowl cheeks, and especially a prop
extension, are utilized, a relatively fine
entry is easily achieved. From a balance perspective the flat layout is identical or better than an inline-4 or -6,
and no heavy or expensive crankshaft
counterweights are required at lower
engine speeds. The form even lends
itself to water cooling if desiredsee
Continentals Voyager series.
Definitely not least of its virtues, the
flat engine can be quite lightweight.
The compact cylinder arrangement,
and thus shorter overall length, is the
primary reason, but also a good amount
of the cylinder and crankcase hardware
can do double duty. Besides not needing crankshaft counterweights, the
balanced forces and shorter crankshaft
naturally support large-displacement
cylinders on a light crankcase.
In short, the horizontally-opposed
engine landed in a happy spot just
prior to WW-II and has been the de
facto general aviation engine since.
That has lead to economies of scale for
several generations of pilots, the result
being the light-plane world understands the layout to the point that trying anything else today smacks of wild
enthusiasm for the untried. Thats fine
for what it may have done for us in
cost containment, but its stifling too
as the ubiquity of flat engines has led
to a sameness in airframe shape thats
frankly a little boring.
Next time well detail engine breathing on the intake side. J
Aeronautical
Decision Making
It seemed like a good

idea at the time.
By Michael Robinson
When a non-pilot asks me about flying, they are often surprised when I tell
them its as much a mental exercise as a
physical skill. Pilots know that flying is
a constant game of assigning probability
to what if scenarios and the search for
potential outs if things go wrong. Nearing 1000 hours as a private pilot, I felt
pretty adept at navigating this process.
A recent flight has reset that assessment,
however, and I want to share with you
how, using logic and reason, I talked
myself into a situation that nearly took
two lives. This story involves equipment
failure, but I hope that the slippery slope
of poor decision making is what shines
through as the true cause.
It Didnt Look That Bad
The incident flight was planned from

Destin, Florida (DTS) to Key West
roughly following the coastline. The
Photos: Michael Robinson
late December morning weather was

IFR at DTS, with areas of low ceilings
and light rain/mist with a few isolated
patches of moderate/heavy rain. As the
morning wore on, I watched this narrow system slide across the airport and
move east. I compared the radar imagery on the iPad with what I saw out the
window and decided that it wasnt that
bad, and I should be able to pick my way
through and remain VFR.
DTS was VFR around noon, so
my wife and I boarded our Harmon
Rocket II, confident in the knowledge I could turn around and return
if needed. The Rocket is a strong performer, but this particular example
is not equipped for IMC with only a
single EFIS as an attitude reference.
This lack of redundancy was not a concern as I intended to remain strictly
visual, and Im not instrument rated

anyway. Per procedure, I contacted

ATC, received a squawk code prior to
departure, and established radar contact
immediately after takeoff. ATC asked
for my normal cruise altitude and I
responded, 7500 after I pass under
the weather. ATC acknowledged and
instructed me to remain VFR. I engaged
the autopilot and focused on managing
the aircraft, traffic, and weather. Initial
cruise under occasional rain showers
was accomplished just as expected
slightly challenging, but VFR.
EFIS and Pitot Problems
Eventually the cloud base lowered and

rain became more frequent, bringing
the first hint of trouble in the form of
lost communication between the EFIS
and the magnetometer located way
back in the tail. Loss of magnetic heading indication was not an immediate
47
concern to me considering the multiple

GPS sources available displaying course
and heading. I convinced myself that
this was a temporary condition anyway,
figuring that the magnetometer would
come back after I found dry weather
just a few miles aheadso I pressed on.
After continuing on a few more minutes, lower ceilings and isolated patches
of low hanging clouds drove me to disengage the autopilot and maneuver
slightly to remain VFR. While hand flying in the slowly deteriorating, but still
VFR weather, the pitot tube apparently
swallowed a slug of water as my airspeed
and angle of attack (AoA) display suddenly lit up like a Christmas tree. Indicated airspeed was hovering around
500 knots, and the AoA (also driven off
the pitot) was bouncing up and down
the full scale. Though disconcerting
and certainly unwelcome, I once again
rationalized this away as a non-critical
element, as I was in cruise, could see the
ground, and had multiple GPS groundspeed displays. Finally, I was practiced
and comfortable flying the airplane
without reference to airspeed. Besides, I

just need to go a few more miles
An important factor I overlooked,
however, was that this failure removed
the autopilot function and, like it or not,
Id be hand flying from here on. A very
effective tool (automation in inadvertent
IMC) was gone, and I didnt even give
it a second thought. The situation was
unraveling slowly, but like a frog in a pot
of water warming up on the stove, I didnt
recognize how bad things were getting.
Into the Clouds
I was in marginal but visual weather

and down to a still relatively safe 1200
feet agl when things went from uncomfortable to legitimately bad in the blink
of an eyeI plunged headlong into a
cloud hiding in plain sight. Suppressing mild panic, I quickly weighed my
options between a 180-degree turn and
a climb straight ahead and convinced
myself of a seemingly well-reasoned
decision: Despite my lack of instrument
training and extensive guidance that
180 is the thing to do, a straight-ahead
climb for a few more miles seemed

safer than a low-altitude 180 with
obstructions. Decision made, I confessed to ATC that I was now IMC and
starting a climb on course. As much as I
feared an enforcement action, I feared a
midair collision more.
ATC replied with the query, Are you
instrument equipped and trained?
My reply was, Negative.
Do you need assistance?
Not at this time, but keep an eye
on me.
My confidence that I was capable of
hand flying in solid IMC turned out
to be justified, as I made it up to 7500
feet and on course with little difficulty.
Though my confidence in my own ability
was still being proven, I never questioned
the reliability of the modern electronic
marvel on the instrument panel that was
making it all possible. Single-point failure, yes, but I reasoned the possibility of
a failure of the EFIS in the brief time I
really needed it was remote at best.
My approach to risk management
was about to change. I was still in hard
IMC and about to level off when that
incalculable random internal failure
materialized: The EFIS screen flashed
once and went dark, removing my only
useful reference to the horizon. I have
read enough accident summaries to
know that my inner ear would betray
me in seconds, and I would be powerless to prevent the inevitable. I froze all
control input in an attempt to lock out
any inner ear influence and hopefully
maintain an even keel. My 1000-fpm
climb rate continued, and I thought for
a brief moment that I might just beat the
odds. Reality struck quickly, however,
when the VSI needle reversed direction,
passed through zero, and settled firmly
against the mechanical stop at 4000
fpmall without any perceptible control input. I knew at this moment that I
was going to be dead, and soon.
Sixty Seconds to Live
The Plan
VFR flight from Destin, Florida, to Key West. Estimated time en route was 2.8 hours.
48
Recalling the adage to fly the airplane

as far into the crash as possible, I jerked
the throttle to idle and input a touch
of left aileron (knowing this particular
airplane to be slightly right wing heavy)
while pulling back on the stick. It was

a desperate and ineffective move as the
altimeter continued to unwind at an
alarming rate. As I stared at the instrument, confused by my inability to control the airplane, as well as accepting the
stupidity of my actions, I came to the
sobering realization that the unwinding
altimeter was a graphic illustration of
our time left to live:
700060005000
Despite the closed throttle, the
increasing wind noise howling over
the airframe and stiffening controls
were an unmistakable indication
that airspeed was building quickly. A
glance at the GPS groundspeed provided stark confirmation: 240 knots
and climbing. I found cold comfort
with the realization that death would
be instantaneous and my innocent,
trusting wife would not suffer. It is a
bad day of flying when the best spin
you can put on the situation is, Were
going to die, but it wont hurt.
Completely due to my own actions,
a simple VFR flight had quickly deteriorated to the point where I was now
moments from death. I had a windscreen filled with featureless gray and
a rapidly unwinding altimeter, yet
all I could do was watch and wait for
whatever was next. I did know that
if I was going to break out, Id better
The panel included useful VFR instrumentationbut no real backups for IMC flight.
be ready for anything because it was

going to be low.
400030002000
With the end near, I strained to see
through the murk and came to realize
the walls of my vision were closing in.
I was still unconsciously pulling the
stick hard enough to initiate G-LOC
(G-force induced Loss of Consciousness). Fighting the primitive instinct
to survive by pulling up, I relaxed the
back pressure, restoring my vision just
as the featureless gray in the windscreen
changed to vivid green forest, and I
burst out the bottom at 1000 feet. A
little aileron and 6 G pull took most of
the available room between the clouds
and trees, but there was no impact, the
wings stayed on, and I was once again
in visual, controlled flight. It seemed
The Decision
Fly under 90 miles of rain and marginal VFR.

like an eternity, but the plummet from

7500 feet took less than 60 seconds.
Trapped
Elation quickly faded as we discovered

we were now trapped in a small pocket
about a mile in diameter. All around us
the cloud base was sitting in the treetops while above, wispy tentacles hung
from an unstable sub-1000-foot ceiling.
Worse, below us was nothing but an
unbroken carpet of 75-foot-tall pine trees
growing three feet apart. Slowly orbiting
in light rain at 300 feet agl, I had enough
fuel to carry me through the afternoon
and into darknessboth a blessing and
a curse. I contemplated a scenario involving a radio call to dispatch a rescue team,
followed by a controlled crash into the
trees, but burning to death in twisted
wreckage seemed a likely outcome. I was
in no rush to exercise this option.
A few more minutes surveying my
surroundings and the EFIS screen
inexplicably came back to lifealbeit
still without heading or airspeed.
Once again, with an incalculable swing
of luck, my situation was suddenly
improved with the addition of a second,
yet equally frightening option: plunge
back into the murk, trusting our lives
to the attitude information presented
on an instrument that would likely fail
at any second. There could be no way to
expect another miraculous recovery if
the screen went dark again.
About this time ATC gave me a call
and said he noticed I was maneuvering and asked if I was OK. I told him
I was visual, in a small clearing, trying
to find a way through. He next offered
49
Simply flying through air doesnt usually remove paint. The horizontal tail shows evidence of high-speed precipitation impact.
the location of the nearest airports and

the direction of better weather both
pieces of information I had at hand
thanks to the GPS and weather displays.
I didnt tell him about the failed attitude
indicator or the fact that my plunge
from 7500 feet moments before was
not by choice. I also didnt declare an
emergency, though Im certain he knew
I was in trouble. I knew exactly where I
wanted to goI just couldnt get there
from here. The situation was clear
aside from traffic separation, the voice
on the radio was not going to save me.
No Good Options
Reduced to the choice between likely

death in a forced landing or possible
death in IMC, I chose the latter and
announced to ATC that I was once
again IMC and climbing. I plunged into
the cloud wall climbing at 1000 fpm,
strongly motivated to distance myself
from the trees and towers below. My
desire to climb was almost overwhelming as I focused intently on the EFIS
screen, searching for any sign of failure,
and praying to the Lord with every fiber
of my being for the screen to stay lit.
Climbing on course, I passed through
light, dark, dry, heavy rain, a few lightning flashes, and moments of severe
turbulence until things started to calm
down around 9000 feet. Without an airspeed indication I focused on maintaining a 1000-fpm climb, and in my intense
concentration, I overlooked the fact
that even a 1250-pound airplane with
260 hp on the nose eventually runs out
of climb performance. I was unknowingly trading airspeed for climb rate.
At about 11,500 feet, the airplane shuddered and stalled hard. I immediately
50
checked the stick forward to break the

stall and stomped on the rudder to level
the wings, but recovery was far too soon
and I experienced an immediate post
recovery stall. This scenario repeated
twice more until on the final recovery I
held forward stick until I saw 130 knots
groundspeed on the GPS. Groundspeed
now joined my rudimentary instrument
scan, and I made sure to balance forward progress with climb rate from then
on. Back in controlled flight I droned
on through the gray in a shallow climb
and apparently started to relax enough
to notice a numbing cold. The canopy
was fogged over on the inside, but what
good would clearing it do? I couldnt
see past the wingtip anyway.
Icing in IMC
I continued up to 15,200 feet and

wiped the canopy clear, hoping I could
finally catch a glimpse of blue sky

above. Instead I saw an opaque layer of
ice on the windshield and also noticed
the ailerons were becoming sticky. Not
good: Im flying a VFR airplane with no
anti-ice capabilities of any kind in hard
IMC, icing, and near the flight levels. I
leveled off and pondered my next move
when I heard a nearby IFR aircraft
check in with ATC at 17.5. Hopeful
for a positive report, I asked if he was
on top, but he responded that he was
still IMC. Realizing that I was going to
have to drive out the side of the weather,
I informed ATC that I was going to
descend to 11.5 and headed for warmer
air. Back at 11,500 I was still IMC, but
I was at least dry, free of ice, and the
EFIS was still bright. For the first time
in more than an hour, I allowed myself
the luxury of believing we might survive. A few more minutes of cruise and
The Result
Recording instrumentationand a radar shottells the harrowing tale.
the solid mass enveloping us lightened,

started to break up and slowly offered
glimpses of the Gulf of Mexico below.
After 1.2 hours in IMC, I now found
myself nearing the coastline and finally
in bright afternoon sunshine.
Calling It Quits
Once again legitimately VFR, I hit

my waypoint and turned southbound
along Floridas west coast. Taking stock
revealed the airplane was performing
well; we were not injured, and though
the Keys were no longer in range, we
still had plenty of fuel. A visual survey
of the aircraft showed no damage, so
we pressed on to Punta Gorda for fuel
and a possible relaunch to the Keys.
The landing and long taxi to the fuel
pumps were anti-climactic, but were as
welcome as the warmth of the Florida
afternoon sun. Careful inspection of
the airplane at the fuel pumps revealed
no damage except for some missing
paint, but power-on checks of the airplane presented a dark EFIS. This
unwelcome sight provided the clarity to
finally call it quits for the day. With a
new appreciation for how quickly your
outs can disappear, the choice to tie
the airplane down and get a hotel room
was an easy one. J
Michael Robinson
Michael Robinson is a
second-generation pilot,
A&P, and was a U.S. Air
Force aircraft technician
for 10 years. He holds a
private pilot certificate and
currently flies his Harmon
Rocket II and a friends
RV-8, which he also maintains. Both aircraft are used
for cross-countries, aerobatics, and a developing
interest in formation work.
And yes, an instrument rating is high on the agenda.
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51
Aircraft Wiring
Electrical System Contactors
for Experimental Aircraft
By Marc Ausman
This month well discuss battery and

starter contactors. Contactors are used
to switch high-current loads on the aircraft. Think of them as a big relay. A coil,
when energized, creates a magnetic field
and pulls the mechanical switch closed.
The coil only draws a little bit of current, but allows you to switch very highcurrent loads like the starter. Figure 1
is a diagram showing a generic contactor. Figure 2 shows how the contactors
are wired in a typical electrical system.
There are two types of contactors generally used in Experimental aircraft:
Type
Duty Cycle
Controlled By
Starter
contactor
Intermittent Duty
+12/24 volts
Battery
contactor
Continuous Duty
Ground
Power (+) IN
Coil
Threaded post: switch to ground to activate
Generic Contactor
Figure 1: A generic contactor. The coil draws a little bit of current, but it allows you to
switch very high current loads like the starter.
52
Battery
Contactor
STARTER
Battery
Main Bus
Starter
Contactor
Figure 2: Typical wiring for battery and starter contactors.
One Post
Two Post
2
Battery Contactors
The battery contactor (also known as a

master relay, master contactor, or master
solenoid) is a continuous-duty contactor,
and it does become quite warm during
normal operations. It comes with either
one or two posts for the coil. It typically
draws about 0.7 amps at 14 volts. This
contactor is switched with a wire that
comes from the master switch in the
cockpit. The master switch is wired to
ground. When you turn on the master
switch, the wire to the battery contactor
becomes grounded and then the contactor closes, which then provides power to
the bus and starter contactor.
The battery contactor is used to isolate
the battery from the rest of the aircraft.
Shutting it off (via the master switch)
generally removes power from the aircraft and cockpit in case of an emergency.
Power OUT
3
1
From
battery
Ground this
post to
engage
3
4
Ground this
post to
engage
From
battery
Connect
posts 3 and
4 with short
18 ga wire.
It is then
electrically
same as
single-post
contactor
Figure 3: Single-post and double-post master contactors. Internal wiring is shown at bottom.
Starter Contactors
The starter contactor (also known as

a starter relay) is an intermittent-duty
relay that is designed to operate for only
short periods of time. This contactor
draws about 4 amps at 14 volts.
Youll see in Figure 4 that the contactor coil is grounded via the bracket on
the back of the contactor. The starter
coil is energized when +12/24 volts is
applied to the S post (which controls
the coil).
Coil gets ground from

rear mounting bracket.
The starter contactor provides power

to the starter cable and starter only
during start. This way, there is not an
immediate problem if the starter cable
shorts against the engine during flight.
Additionally, the starter contactor is
designed upside down so that the
internal contact stays open during high
positive-G maneuvers.
I recommend installing a diode across
the coil on each contactor used in the
aircraft (master, starter, landing gear, air
conditioning, etc.). You can use a common 1N5400 diode available from any
electronics supply house.
Why is it best to install a diode
across the contactor coil? Doing so
minimizes arcing across the control
switch contacts (master and starter
switches), extending switch life. All of
the energy stored in the coil has to go
somewhere when the coil is de-energized, and the diode provides a way to
bleed off the excess energy. Figure 8
shows the effect of mounting a diode
on contactor coil.
Contactors are also used for air conditioning systems, hydraulic pumps, and
to tie buses together. Since these are seldom used in Experimental aircraft they
are not covered here.
S Terminal
Positive power from the
starter switch activates coil
(closes contactor).
I Terminal
Bus voltage is on this
post when the contactor
is closed.
Figure 4: Typical starter contactor.

to master switch
Battery
to master switch
Battery
Note direction of diode
One Post
Two Post
Figure 5: Diode on battery contactor.

Use ring terminal to
fasten to mounting bolt (ground)
From battery contactor
To starter
S terminal
Figure 6: Starter contactor, viewed from

the top.
Figure 7: Diode on starter contactor.
Starter Annunciator
Rear-mounted Batteries
Electrical considerations for rear-mounted

batteries are minimal, but important.
Be aware of the following:
The battery contactor should be
mounted near the battery itself. If
there is a short on the main power
cable that runs to the front, it can
be corrected by turning off the master switch.
The starter contactor is typically
mounted on the firewall in the
engine compartment.
Illustrations: Marc Ausman
Figure 8: Effect of mounting diode on contactor coil.

Firewall
Master
Switch
Starter
Contactor
Battery +
Battery
Contactor
Main Bus
If the starter welds itself closed, the

starter motor can remain engaged to
the crankshaft while the engine is running. You cant hear when this happens,
but you may see a big repair bill in the
future. It can be useful to wire a starter
indicator lamp on the panel that lights
while the starter contactor is closed.
ALT
Cabin area
Figure 9: Layout of rear-mounted battery and contactors. Fuse and shunt not shown
on alternator b-lead.
Attach the alternator b-lead and the

main bus cables to the un-switched
side of the starter contactor (where
the cable comes forward from the battery contactor). The main bus is then
run back through the firewall to the
bus bars or Vertical Power system. J

Read the Book
Hopefully this article has helped you

understand electrical system contactors. It is an excerpt from my new book
entitled Aircraft Wiring Guide. For
more information, or to order a copy,
visit www.aircraftwiringguide.com.
53
maintenance matters
Recapped tires: Save money
without sacrificing quality.
Major tire users, from over-the-road
truckers, to the airlines, to general aviation flight schools, know that retread
tires can save big money over time and
do not hesitate to use them. Some individual airplane owners are in on their
secret, but many others arent. There is
no reason why you cant reap some of
the savings others have been collecting
for themselves, especially when Desser
Tire & Rubber Company, the number one
aviation tire retreader, makes it so easy.
Cost Savings
Most people look to retread tires first
to save money, and that is a very good
reason to do so. They are definitely less
expensive and not by just a few dollars.
Desser retreads can be purchased outright without a core tire in exchange, or
you can send in your good used tire and

save even more. Desser pays the freight
back to you if you use the exchange program. You will have to pay to ship your
used tires to them. The table on the next
page shows a comparison of Desser
retreads and some name brand tires.
Of course, you will need a reusable
tire to exchange or have recapped if you
wish to take advantage of the exchange
price. Desser will reject any used tire
that it does not feel will be 100% reliable
after recapping. Used tires can usually
be recapped at least once, and sometimes up to three or four times with a
good quality core tire. The more money
you spend to get a good tire the first
time, the more likely you are to get multiple recaps out of the original tire. Some
airline tires have been recapped 17 or 18
Desser retreads tires of all sizes from 4-inch Cub tires to massive
airliner tires weighing hundreds of pounds.
Dave Prizio
54
times, but this is not typical for smaller

general aviation tires.
Your long-term savings will be the
average cost of the original new tire
plus the recapping costs. For example,
say you purchase a new 6.00 x 6, 6-ply
Goodyear Flight Special II, a medium
quality and competitively priced tire, and
get two recaps out of it, a conservative
goal. The original tire costs $119. Each
recap costs $47 each, so the total cost
over three tires worth of use comes to
$119+$47+$47=$213, for an average cost
of $71. This saves you an average of $48
per tire use or $144 overall. This is more
than enough to buy a new tire again.
Quality
There was a time when people thought
of retread tires as substandard, and the
After a visual inspection, each tire is subject to inspection by laser

shearography. Any imperfections show up on the computer screens.
Dave Prizio is a Southern California native who has been plying the skies of the L.A. basin and
beyond since 1973. Born into a family of builders, it was only natural that he would make his
living as a contractor and spend his leisure time building airplanes. He has so far completed
threea GlaStar, a Glasair Sportsman, and a Texas Sport Cuband he is helping a friend
build a fourth, an RV-8. When he isnt building something, he likes to share his love of aviation
with others by flying Young Eagles or volunteering as an EAA Technical Counselor. He is also
a licensed A&P mechanic and a member of the EAA Homebuilt Aircraft Council.
occasional truck tire tread left along

the side of the road is a reminder that
there are still some low quality retreads
out there. However, Desser recaps have
many years of proven performance
among a number of major airline and
flight school users. These people would
not be using Desser retreads if they were
not having good results. Tire failures cost
big money to these people. They are not
interested in saving a few bucks on a
tire, only to have an airplane out of service unexpectedly and possibly at some
remote location.
Desser insures quality by first visually
inspecting every tire that comes in for
recapping. If any cuts or excessive sidewall cracking is found, the tire is rejected.
The same applies to any tire with cord
showing. These tires are rejected before
they even begin the process. Next Desser
uses a process called laser shearography
to examine every casing before it gets
retreaded and every retread tire before
it leaves their factory. The laser shearography process will show damage to sidewalls that may not be obvious in a visual
inspection. There is 100% inspection of
every tire twice. Bad tires simply do not
make it through the process.
The next question is, how do they
wear? Desser says the rubber they use is
denser than the typical rubber used on
new tires. The downside to this is that
their retread tires are a bit heavier than
new tires, but the upside is that they will
outlast most new tires in service, especially for heavy users who make a lot of
Desser Retread Tire Prices Vs. New Tires

Retail Price
Michelin Air
$129.85
Goodyear Flight Special II
$99.75
5.00 x 5, 6-ply
Desser Aero Retread, outright
$52.75
Desser Retread, exchange
$42.00
Michelin Air
$184.95
$119.00
$68.75
6.00 x 6, 6-ply
$47.00
Michelin Air
$189.75
$189.75
$109.00
$85.00
8.00 x 6, 6-ply
takeoffs and landings. Desser also makes

what they call a Monster Retread that
has 60% more tread on it than a standard tire. They claim that it is the longest wearing tire at any price. Monster
Retreads are larger in overall diameter,
though, so they may not be suitable for
use with tight fitting wheelpants or for
planes with retractable gear. Their standard retreads will work with close fitting
wheelpants and retractable gear systems
in almost every case.
Desser Tire is an FAA-authorized repair
station, so their retread tires come with
FAA paperwork to show that they are
usable on certificated aircraft. Experimental owners may not care about
this, but not everyone who reads this
magazine flies an Experimental airplane,
although we hope they will someday.
Retread tires just out of the mold get trimmed and prepared for
shipping.
Photos: Dave Prizio
Brand
Size
New Aero Classic Tires

Desser also sells new tires under the
Aero Classic name. They have some new
tires that may be of some interest to
our readers. Those who fly taildraggers
know that the standard 2.80/2.50x4,
4-ply tailwheel tires do not hold up well.
Desser has a solution to this problem in
their Aero Classic 280/250-4, 6-ply tire.
For about $14 more you get a much sturdier tire that will by far outlast the typical 4-ply tailwheel tire.
Desser has recently come out with the
Aero Classic 8.50x6, 4-ply smooth tire for
off-airport use in planes of 3200 pounds
or less gross weight. This tire only weighs
10 pounds, about 5 pounds less than the
typical 8.50x6, 6-ply tire. It is 22 inches
tall overall when inflated to 22 psi. They
run $225 each plus tube. There are a few
These tires have been ground down to eliminate their old tread in
preparation for retreading.

55
Tires with new rubber in place await their turn in the heated tire
molds. The heat bonds the rubber to the tire casing and forms a
new tread pattern into the tire.
other smooth tires currently available,

with more likely to come in the future.
How to Get Desser Retread Tires

Desser retread tires are available from
Aircraft Spruce, but the name Desser
does not appear in their catalog. Rather
AERO Wheel and Brake Service, an affiliated company, is shown as the supplier.
They are the same tires despite the
name. Unfortunately Aircraft Spruce
only carries a few sizes and only sells
retread tires outright.
Desser retread tires are also available directly from Desser in Montebello, California. You can call them or
go to their web site for ordering forms
and more information. Their web site
is at www.desser.com or call 800-2478473. As was mentioned before, to take
advantage of the exchange price, you

will need to send Desser a good used
tire for a core, and you will need to pay
shipping to get the tire to them. When
your tire is finished Desser will pay the
shipping back to you. If you have any
doubt about whether or not your tire
can be recapped, please feel free to
call Desser and ask for their assistance.
They would much rather talk to you
than have you send them a tire that is
not suitable for retreading.
Desser Aircraft Hoses and

Windshields
Desser also makes FAA-approved aircraft
hoses to suit most any aviation need,
from low-pressure rubber hoses to highpressure Teflon hoses. All of their fittings
are hydraulically swaged onto the hoses,
Newly retreaded tires bristle with sprues left from the molding
process. These will be trimmed off in the next step of the manufacturing process.
56
This mold is in the process of making a 6.00x6 Monster Retread.

These tires have 60% more tread depth to provide long-lasting
tires for operators such as flight schools.
so they wont come off, even under the

harshest conditions. They will also install
firesleeve for you during hose assembly.
They use Stratoflex products exclusively.
Every hose is carefully cleaned and
tested for two minutes at twice the rated
pressure. This gives a level of confidence
in these hoses that is not available with
hoses you make up yourself. When ordering hoses be sure to talk to the hose man
at Desser about how he wants the length
measured. No one wants to throw away
an expensive hose because it came out
the wrong length.
Desser also makes acrylic windshields
for certificated and Experimental airplanes under the Cee Baileys name. Their
products can be found in Glasair and
Zenith kits, as well as the Vans RV-10. They
can also do custom work on request. J
Dessers hose man demonstrates the pressure testing equipment

in his shop. Every hose is tested to twice its rated pressure before
he lets it out of his hands.
Got Wings?
Heres what you get in

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Risky Business
Mission planning
stick to the plan.
I flew my RV-7A for the first time a few

months ago! Actually, I flew her twice
that morning. She flew straight and true,
and climbed like a bat out of hell. No
squawks, no heavy wing, no overtemps,
no leaks. I logged a 1.0, and everything
was just awesome!
Well, that is, it was awesome for the
second flight.
The first flight was not awesome. It
was Abby-Normal from the get-go. Right
at liftoff I noticed I had no airspeed on
the Dynon SkyView PFD speed tape (hey,
what can I say, I was looking forward
at my rotation sight picture, flying the
plane). As the ground dropped away and
my mind processed the lack of indicated
airspeed, the lovely SkyView lady twice
whispered into my ear, Cylinder Head
Temperature. Number 3 was at 396 F
(202 C) and in the red.
I had a plan for this. And I stuck to it.
cross-country to an airport surrounded

by high terrain. As he approached his
destination, the underlying scattered
clouds thickened into a broken deck. At
the same time, the setting sun made visibility ever more challenging.
Prudently, the pilot requested the
GPS-A approach and navigated his way
to the IAF (Initial Approach Fix) to intercept the inbound course. Stated differently, he implemented and executed the
continuation of his IFR plan. However,
before he reached the IAF, he observed
what looked like a clear visual path to the
arrival airport. At the same time, ATC told
him to expect to hold because of another
arriving aircraft.
The pilot changed his plan: He told
ATC that he would continue visually
due to VMC conditions, and he turned,
descended, and crossed final inside the
final approach fix. He had the local town
in sight and figured he had a 2000 foot

ceiling. However, lighting conditions
were far darker underneath the clouds.
He tried several times to activate the
pilot-controlled runway lights on Unicom, but could not see a runway.
Unsure whether to climb or circle the
runway to try keying-on the runway
lights, he maintained his last heading,
which he thought would keep him clear
of the rocks. However, he unknowingly
entered a slight right turn and flew into
rising terrain. The aircraft struck trees and
terrain, suffering considerable damage.
Thankfully, everyone aboard survived.
If you know me well enough by now,
you know I tend to hang my hat on old
adages. Theyre the lessons that stick
with me; I remember them when I need
them. This RV-10 pilot had an IFR flight
plana plan that would have taken him
safely to his destination. There werent
Plan the Flight, Fly the Plan

Theres no denying that many pilots
and builders, for whatever reason, walk
to the aircraft with a plan, but then get
into trouble when they decide to do
something completely different. Often
theyre reacting to some circumstance
or influence that confronted them in the
air, something they should have learned
about during their planning stage. Perhaps they didnt perceive its importance. Perhaps they chose to ignore it.
Or perhaps they didnt even investigate
the contingency.
Several winters ago, an RV-10 pilot
filed an IFR flight plan for a late afternoon
The author preparing to launch his RV-7A on its maiden flight. Moments later, immediately
after takeoff, he discovered he had zero indicated airspeed and a high CHT reading. Are
these problems incorporated into your plan?
Sidney Mayeux
58
Sid Scroll Mayeux has over 25 years of experience in aviation training, safety, and
risk management in the military, civilian, airline, and general aviation sectors. He
currently trains Boeing 777 pilots, and he is building a Vans RV-7A.
Loving it when a plan comes together.
many good reasons for him to change

that plan. Several good adages apply to
this RV-10 event and its lessons.
Plan the flight, and fly the plan is one
of the first lessons my flight instructors
taught me long ago as a young second
lieutenant learning how to fly in the
U.S. Air Force. It applied not only to the
days flight, but also to the mission plan
when engaging the enemy. It was usually followed by stick to the plan. Once
youve got your plan in action, it should
take something really important to drag
you off the plan, because if it aint broke,
dont fix it.
The same lessons have helped me in
the shop building my RV-7A. OK, maybe
Ive got ADHD. Sometimes I have walked
into my hangar with an idea of what
I wanted to accomplish that day, but
something bright, shiny, or glaringly out
of place grabs my attention. Whoosh! Off
I go, off track without a plan, and both
efficiency and productivity plummet.
I learned to enter the shop with a specifically defined plan for the days build
activities. Today, I will finish drilling,
deburring, dimpling, and priming the
elevator skin and doublers. If I finish early,
or something prevents me from accomplishing that task, I will look forward and
study the rudder build. Thats my plan.
Make your plan, and stick to it.
Plans Change
Noun, verb, period. Plans change.
Well, yes, sometimes they do. However,
I always wince whenever I hear a pilot
utter that phrase because I cant help
but feel a little suspicious. It often means
Photos: Sid Mayeux
the pilot either didnt fully think through

their plan, or it was ultimately unsuited to
the circumstances surrounding its execution. It may even mean the pilot never
really had faith in the plan itself, and was
more inclined to make up the final plan
on the fly. Did that mean the original
plan was really just a square-fillera
plan created solely for the sake of creating and having a plan?
Or did the pilot build and execute the
best possible plan given all pre-flight
information available, then demonstrate
brilliant flexibility in the face of everchanging circumstances to save the day
with a new plan? Or was it skill and luck?
When it comes to flight planning,
weve all learned and implemented some
form of structured planning process. For
a VFR cross-country, its probably something like this: Choose a destination;
review the weather, NOTAMs, airspace,
and TFRs; select a route; choose a cruise
profile and altitude; compute times, distances, and speeds; get familiar with the
destination and alternate airports; check
your equipment; update your briefings;
and file a flight plan. Throughout it all,
prepare for the unexpected.
Kitbuilding can follow the same
sort of process. Choose a sub-assembly; select a plans diagram and build
instructions chapter, and review them;
select your tools and materials; measure the cuts and holes as required;
update the measurements; make the
cut/bend/rivet; test fit; then evaluate
any unexpected problems.
So in both cases, its at this point that
I have heard pilots and kitbuilders utter

Fits Your Budget

and Your
Garage!
Visit www.SonexAircraft.com
or call: 920.231.8297
59
Aftermath of an IFR RV-10 pilots decision to approach and land visually in IMC conditions.
Everyone survived. (Photo: Courtesy of New York State Department of Environmental Conservation)
that troublesome phrase: Plans change.

I cant help but feel skeptical. Why did
they have to change?
The real question is why werent these
deviations part of the plan all along?
Well-constructed and well-considered
planning spends equal or more time on
the contingencies than on the primary
plan. The pilot/builder then presents
him- or herself with sufficient contingency plans to cover whatever surprises
that arise. By executing the contingency
(if the contingency plan became necessary), it was not a matter of creating a new
plan; it was always part of the plan, and
pulling the trigger on the plan becomes
easy and drama-freeand with a greater
chance for success.
So there I was, that spring Sunday,
only seconds after my baby-new RV-7A
had unstuck itself from the runway and
slipped its first surly bonds, with my
mind processing the absence of indicated airspeed and the presence of a #3
CHT number bathed in red. I admit that
I didnt really take any time to gauge
whether the high reading was even out
of tolerance; what was important is that
it was in the red, and it made my new
SkyView girlfriend unhappy.
This exact scenario was one aspect
of my overall plan, and the scenario
was this: Things were not right with the
60
airplane, to the point that I wished the

test flight to stop. I had chair-flown this
scenario repeatedly, so executing the
contingency portion of my plan came
automatically. I transitioned my airspeed
reference to the GPS groundspeed,
which I was confident would function
reasonably since it worked fine in my
taxi tests. I retarded the throttle out of
the takeoff range and back to normal
downwind pattern settings. These were

based on my transition training.
The CHTs simmered down. After downwind, base and final calls, I floated to a
successful no-flap landing using the full
stretch of pavement. I logged a 0.1.
To me, this short first hop didnt count
toward the RV grin (back in the chocks,
my wife noted that I was sort of all business). However, after finding the swapped
AoA (angle of attack) and pitot lines, and
resetting my EMS CHT values and thresholds to match my Lycoming manual (oops,
my bad for forgetting that), the second
hop was the real counter. Im proud of my
airplanes performance on that second
ride, and my RV grin still hurts.
But Im more satisfied by my own performance on that first short hop. I had a
plan, and I stuck to it. J
Note: All references to actual crashes are

based on official final publically-released
NTSB and Air Force Accident Investigation Board reports of the accidents, and
are intended to draw applicable aviation
safety lessons from details, analysis, and
conclusions contained in those reports. It
is not our intent to deliberate the causes,
judge or reach any definitive conclusions
about the ability or capacity of any person,
living or dead, or any aircraft or accessory.
Recovery crews lift a crashed RV-10 from the woods after the IFR pilot attempted a visual
approach in IMC. (Photo: Courtesy of New York State Department of Environmental Conservation)
Home Shop Machinist
Boring on the vertical.
The terms drilling and boring are

often interchanged, but in the context
of metalworking, they are not the same.
Drilling is how we create a hole, and
boring is how we enlarge and true an
existing hole.
In previous columns I have shown
various boring operations on the lathe
[Home Shop Machinist, September
2014, November 2014, and August 2015].
This month well look at boring on the
vertical milling machine and two common ways to bore precision holes.
A typical boring head shown with various

boring bars and the adjustable slide.
End Mill Boring

Boring a small hole (up to -inch) is
greatly simplified if the design calls for
a standard-size end mill diameter. End
mills are more rigid than drill bits and
more precise. An end mill in a collet or
tool holder has very little run-out compared to a drill bit in a Jacobs chuck. This
makes them an excellent choice for precise bores.
To make a 1/4-inch bored hole, for

example, start by drilling a clearance
hole that is slightly undersized, such as
with a 3/16- or 7/32-inch twist drill. Then,
swap out the drill chuck for an end mill
to make the final size. You will probably
Pre-drilling a clearance hole, then plunging with an end mill is a fast and easy way to
precision bore a holeas long as the size matches something in your end mill collection.
Bob Hadley
Photos and illustration: Bob Hadley
have to raise or lower the knee (or raise

the head if you have a mini mill) to facilitate the tool change. While any Z-axis
movement will not alter the alignment
for final boring, its a good practice to use
the table locks to prevent inadvertent Xor Y-axis movements. If for some reason
you have to make an X or Y move, simply zero the dials on the handles before
you traverse the table. That way you can
zero in to the original location after the
tool change. If you get lost, or dont trust
your repositioning accuracy, an edge
finder can be used to re-establish the
center of the hole.
Its possible to use a center-cutting
end mill without drilling a clearance hole.
But it will not be as accurate or have as
nice a finish. With a clearance hole, the
end mill is removing very little material.
A lighter cut makes for a smoother finish.
Bob Hadley is the R&D manager for a California-based consumer products company. He holds
a Sport Pilot certificate and a Light-Sport Repairman certificate with inspection authorization
for his Jabiru J250-SP.
61
It also generates less heat, which results

in a more accurate bore.
For most home shops, the drill and
end mill method will be practical up to
-inch, simply because -inch will be
the largest diameter end mill in the collection. To make larger bores, or bores
other than end mill sizes, an adjustable
boring head is the ticket.
Using a Boring Head

Boring heads come in many sizes, from
micro to behemoth. A good size for the
home shop is a two-inch boring head
like the ones in the photos. Look to pay
around $100 to $130 for an import set
that includes a small assortment of boring bars and the appropriate shank or
taper for your machine (usually R8 for
most knee mills or MT3 for the mini mill).
I purchased mine at LittleMachineShop.
com, but similar sets are available from
Enco, KB Tools, and Amazon.
At first glance, the boring head might
appear a little intimidating. Its actually
quite basic: Theres one or more sockets
to clamp the boring bar, jib-clamping
screws, and an adjusting dial.
My two-inch boring head has three
tool positions: The center-vertical position is used for small holes, 5/16 inch
being the minimum (depending on
the boring bar used) and adjustable up
to about 1 inch. The outside-vertical
position is for holes from about 11/8 to
about 23/8 inches (again, depending on
the boring bar used). The horizontal
tool position can make bores from 21/2
The key features of a typical adjustable boring

head.
62
Thread-on shanks allow boring heads to be adapted to fit any type spindle.
inches up to whatever length boring bar

you have, or whatever you have the guts
to try! Keep in mind that each setup will
have its own practical limit for rpm, balance, and tool chatter. Note that some
boring heads, especially smaller ones,
may have only one tool position, but
they all have some method, typically a
graduated dial with a hex key socket, to
adjust the slide offset.
To bore a 0.860-inch hole for the
example, I started with a -inch clearance hole. Since the minimum size for my
boring head is 5/16-inch diameter, starting
with -inch gave ample room for the tool
to go in the hole without touching. I then
adjusted the slide until the cutter tip just
touched the inside of the hole and noted
the dial reading. The dial is graduated in
0.002-inch increments. Each full turn of
the dial moves the slide 0.050 inch. Since
were working with diameters, for every x
of slide movement (or depth of cut), we

get 2x change in diameter. Therefore,
to enlarge my -inch clearance hole to
0.860 inch, I need a slide movement of
about 0.180 inch (0.180 x 2 = 0.360).
I say about because I like to make a
light first cut, check the result, and adjust
accordingly. In this case I set the slide to
remove 0.030 inch. The cutting went
very smoothly and resulted in a cleanly
machined hole that measured 0.569
inch. This told me the touch-off point
in the clearance hole was 0.509 inches.
With the new dimension noted, I did two
passes removing 0.070 inch (0.070 on
the dial = 0.140 diameter increase) and
measured to confirm. This left me with
a 0.005-inch final pass to clean up the
bore and hit the target dimension. Upon
inspection with my bore gauge, the
hole was 0.861 inch. All in all, this was an
excellent result considering I didnt use
Using the boring head to make small, medium, or large bores. Note when using the
horizontal position, you need to use a left-hand boring bar.
Opening the -inch pilot hole with a 0.030-inch initial cut (left). Tightening the jib clamping screws after adjusting the offset (right).
anything fancier than my 8-inch caliper

to check the bore between passes.
The goal of boring is to achieve an
accurate size with a smooth finish. If the
first pass or test cut results in chatter,
then the depth of cut, spindle rpm, and
choice of boring bar may be contributing factors. The example part was 7075
aluminum and the spindle rpm was set at
900. For steel I would have set the rpm to
500, and possibly reduced the depth of
cut to around 0.020 inch.
The spindle rpm and feed rate depend
on the material, the size of hole you are
making, and how much the slide is offset.
If you end up with a lot of slide offset, the
boring head will be out-of-balance and
can cause the machine to vibrate. Your
only choice is to lower the rpm until the
vibration is eliminated or, at least, minimized. As you lower the rpm, the feed
rate needs to be slower as well to maintain a smooth finish.
Final Thoughts
Boring can be a slow and tedious process (no pun intended). To get good
results, you have to be patient and
meticulous. Making a series of light
passes will give you better results than
pushing large, heavy cuts.
Note also that to maintain a good finish, you must feed the cutter back out of
the hole at the same rate that you feed it
in. There is always some deflection in the
boring bar, so the feed-out pass is what
actually determines the size of the bore.
You should measure the bore after
each pass to confirm that your adjustments correspond with the expected or
target dimension.
Every time you move the slide to set a
new depth of cut, you must retighten the
jib clamping screws that secure the slide.
The offset adjustment is finite: about
one-third of the head diameter is as far
as you can go and safely clamp the head.
Its possible to open a -inch hole

to a 3-inch hole with our 2-inch boring
head. You start in the middle socket,
move the bar to the outside socket, then
install a bar in the horizontal socket. Cut,
then measure, and so on, until you land
on the desired dimension.
Be patient! J
The hole on the left was bored using an end mill and the one on the right using the boring
head. Both are good examples of a cleanly machined surface made by boring.
63
Getting
the Spark
Back
By David Boeshaar
Im not talking about magnetos here.

Im talking about a stalled project. In
every major project, there is always a
time when you suddenly look around
and ask: What was I thinking? I cant
do this! Ill never get this done! This
can stop all progress and lead to ED
(Experimental Devaluation) and premature sale of a project at a significant
loss. This project stall is not just unique
to Experimental aviation. Whether you
are restoring an antique car, remodeling
a bathroom, planting a new lawn, building a tree house, or even developing the
next great million-dollar app, we all hit
this wall. The secret to success is getting
past the block and moving on.
Here are my 10 tips for getting your
project back on track:
1. Open and review all documentation you have for your project. This
includes any project plan you have,
calendars, plans, instruction books
and your builders log. Review all the
Im going to convert this stuff into an airplane? What was I thinking!
64
progress you have made to date and

celebrate a bit.
2. List current roadblocks. This includes
budget, space, skill limitations, and
equipment requirements. Try to
list one or more solutions for each
roadblock. Remember, thousands
of projects have been completed
before yours. Even Orville and
Wilbur got stalled.
3. Clean the shop. Organize your tools,
parts, equipment, workspace and
My recent block: Making the big cut to separate the windshield

from the aft portion of the canopy.
supplies. Double-check your inventory. Getting rid of the cobwebs in

the shop will get rid of the cobwebs
in your head, too.
4. Visit a project. Spend a little time
visiting a project similar to yours,
but one that is six months to a year
ahead of you. Do not visit another
stalled project!
5. Get a ride in a completed project.
Nothing is more motivating than
getting airborne!
6. If you are blocked by a major step,
complete some smaller sub-projects.
Every rivet you buck is one more you
do not have to do later.
7. Go to an airshow, fly-in or breakfast.
Get the smell of avgas and dripping
oil back in your life.
8. Reconnect with the Experimental
aviation world. Read some magazines, surf your favorite Internet
sites, attend an EAA meeting, go
to the EAA web site and wander
around. Watch a few EAA videos.
9. If you are reading this article in a
bookstore, renew your subscription
to Kitplanes.
10. Have your project visited. Find an
EAA tech counselor who will stop
by and see what you have done.
Even if you are early in your project, a pair of experienced eyes will
help you get going.
Every project can hit a block. Often
you can hit a block more than once.
Getting past the blocks are how projects get completed. J
David Boeshaar
David Boeshaar is a systems

analyst for corporate
Disney. A former mechanic,
teacher, and computer
help desk guru at a major
university, he is now building a Vans RV-9A for fun
with his brother-in-law. As
the new guy in aviation,
Dave has learned lots,
both good and expensive,
and hopes to pass along a
little help to the builders
coming up behind him.
Photos: David Boeshaar
65
CHECKPOINTS
I really dont remember when I first
heard about them or perhaps first saw
one. It could have been on one of my
early cross-country flights that I happened to notice airplanes parked in
backyards. I do know that once discovered, it became a dreamthat of living
in an aviation community. And it came
true. Twice now. And it is all I ever hoped
it could be. Those of you who happen to
be living in an aviation community can
understand what I am referring to, but
for those aviators who arent, perhaps I
can help you to dream as well.
For the past 12 years we have been living at Mallards Landing in Locust Grove,
Georgia, just south of Atlanta. For five
years prior to that, we resided at another
community called Stoney Point Field, on
the north side of Atlanta. Heres my reply
to those who ask about living with our
airplane: When we die, if we get to go to
Heaven, it will be a lateral move. Let me
tell you why.
Living the dream.

It soon became clear that the aircraft
TLC department was suffering a little.
Later on I noticed that when we got back
from a flight, Carol was anxious to go
home, while I was more wanting to do
a post-flight and clean the airplane. And
as the family grew to four and we moved
into bigger airplanes, the scenario was
the same. We would land, everyone
wanted to go home, and I wanted to tidy
up the airplane. Of course, I could always
go back to the airport, and I did, but
that was time away from the family. And
there was always something at home
that I needed or vice versa; I would end
up leaving something at the airport that
I needed at home.
Heres a little funny event that didnt
seem so funny at the time. During the
construction process of the RV-4, I heated

the two-car detached garage workshop.
I think better when I am warm, and
working with aluminum seems to create more chill in the winter. On Christmas Eve Day, the planned day for the
move to the airport, it was bright blue
skies when we got up, so we went and
rented a flatbed trailer. Unfortunately,
by the time we were done loading, an
unforecast, typical lakefront snowstorm
had moved in. It was a very stressful
drive to the airport, luckily without any
problems. However, back at the garage,
I had turned the heat off as we loaded
the last items. A propane torpedo heater
provided the heat, and it kept the temps
nice and toasty. Later that night, as I was
in bed, I heard water running, but didnt
No Drive to the Airport

One of the things I noticed early on with
airplane ownership was that the airplane
was located at an airport some distance
away from home. This became very apparent when the RV-4 was first relocated to
the airport after two years of construction at home. And of course we moved
it during one of the coldest winters I ever
remembered. It was below zero every day
for weeks! So not only was I reluctant to
go to an unheated hangar, the drive time
to/from the airport was certainly non-productive and time-consuming.
Vic Syracuse
66
Heres the RV-4 loaded on a trailer for the move to the airport, just as an unforecast snow
storm moved in.
Vic is a Commercial Pilot and CFII with ASMEL/ASES ratings, an A&P, DAR, and EAA Technical
Advisor and Flight Counselor. Passionately involved in aviation for over 36 years, he has built
10 award-winning aircraft and has logged over 7800 hours in 69 different kinds of aircraft. Vic
had a career in technology as a senior-level executive and volunteers as a Young Eagle pilot and
Angel Flight pilot. He also has his own sport aviation business called Base Leg Aviation.
make the connection until I got up in the

morning and went out to the garage and
saw the huge mess. The water line had
frozen (-10F will do that) and the busted
pipe was now spewing water across the
garage, workbench, and all of my tools,
and freezing solid. What a disaster!
After the RV-4, I trailered the Kitfox for
nine years to various airports. The folding
wings on the Kitfox saved on hangar rent
and the TLC factor went back up. Having
it at home in a drive-under basement
was fun. Of course, access to local airports was a whole lot easier before 9/11.
The Good and Not-So-Good

A lot of that has changed with having
the airplane right at home, some for the
good, and some for the not-so-good.
The not-so-good is really small and has
to do more with self-discipline than
anything else. Of course, as pilots we all
know how addictive airplanes can be.
It can be really hard sometimes to not
go out to the hangar. After all, there is
always something to mess around with.
A really funny thing happened to make
this point clear to me. One day we took
our 3-year-old granddaughter for her
first airplane ride in the RV-10, and afterwards we were all looking at the pictures. It was a typical discussion with a
3-year-old of showing pictures and asking questions. One picture showed her
in front of the RV-10 and our house was
in the background. When Carol asked
whose house that was, she responded,
Grandmas. We all hung on the reply to
the next question, Where does Grandpa
live? Without missing a beat, the answer
was, The hangar. Busted by a 3-yearold! Oh, did I tell youour oldest son
and his family (7-year-old granddaughter and 1-month-old grandson) live right
across the runway from us? Taking her
flying in the Kitfox to see the Christmas
lights sure is a lot of fun.
As for the good, I could go on forever. Clearly the airplanes get a whole
lot more TLC than they ever did. They
are usually in tip-top shape and always
ready to go. And there is no need to
arrive early to pre-heat if required. Its
just a matter of plugging it in the night
before on the way to bed. I also dont
Photos: Vic Syracuse
Give Us Your
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Each month, were asking for pictures
on a specific topic like:
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Best workshop extraction (getting
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Theres a new topic every month,
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67
mind doing projects that might spread

out over a couple of days, if necessary,
spending a few hours each day, as
opposed to spending a whole day at
the airport, or making several trips to
get more tools. Oh yes, I do have some
duplicate tools because Sears or Home
Depot were closer to the airport than
home. And now it is so nice that when
we come back from a trip, I get to finish
up putting the airplane away just about
the time dinner is ready.
And heres something that happens
much more often than it ever did when
the airplanes were based at the airport:
short local flights, sometimes just to
see the sunset. Once in a while (actually quite often in Georgia, especially in
the fall), just after dinner, the air is really
calm, the sky is beautiful, and it just begs
you to go flying. No problem when the
airplane is only a few steps away. And
the family also seems more willing to
go along since the ride to the airport is
no longer required. Sometimes I swear
it is the airplane that pops up with the
idea. I know if I were an airplane, I would
certainly want to be getting out of the
hangar. At least that is my story, and Im
sticking to it.
A Family-Oriented Community
Theres a much larger aspect of living
in an aviation community that I want
to share with you, especially from what
I have seen in ours that has over 120
families residing here. There is a wealth
of information across many segments of
aviation, from military, corporate, airline,
and general aviation, along with lots
The Kitfoxs folding wings sure helped to save on hangar costs, as well as increasing the
TLC factor on the airplane. Maintenance at home was much easier.
of aircraft construction and repair constantly occurring. It is a bustle of activity,

and if you arent careful about when to
leave your hangar door open or closed,
you will get all kinds of visitors.
A long time ago we decided that
the community would also be familyoriented. After all, we cant fly all of the
time, and it is nice to have the family
around! So, we put in a nice community pool, upgraded the tennis courts,
and added a playgroundmostly with
volunteer work! Its been really cool
watching the families grow, and especially seeing kids solo, and even go off
to aviation schools or the military. This
summer one of the kids was accepted
into Naval Aviator Flight School. His parents sure are proud! The rest of us are
jealous, of course.
It seems pilots of all walks are into
sharing, from Angel Flight organizations to Pilots N Paws. Pilots at Mallards arent any different. Twice a year,
usually in May and October, we have a
Saturday Aviation event where we invite

family, friends, local neighborhoods and
schools to participate in a day of flying
and eatingall for free. Luckily, we have
lots of volunteers who cook and serve
the food, along with pilots who volunteer their aircraft. Throughout the years
I have sometimes flown for eight hours
in the Stearman, giving rides to lots of
Young Eagles and their parents. It is very
rewarding to see all of the smiles on the
kids, but the most rewarding is that twice
so far, a Young Eagle has returned and
told me that they got their license after
that flight with me. Hearing Mr. Vic, I got
my license! was way cool. I sure wish this
had happened when I was young.
I know we have inspired some kids to
begin their own fun journey in aviation.
And it is nice when our friends drop in
to see us and park their airplane in our
backyard. If someone had told me when I
was a kid that this would happen, I would
have thought I was dreaming. I guess
some dreams can become reality! J
The Community Fly-In At Mallards Landing

usually has lots of airplanes in the authors
backyarda dream come true!
68
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69
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70
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LANDING GEAR
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73
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Lost logbooks and airworthiness certificate,

confusion about Light Sport Aircraft.
By Mel AsbeRry
Question: I purchased an Experimental airplane with over 500 flight

hours. The granddaughter who
inherited the plane had a garage
sale and sold the container with all
the aircraft records in it, including
the airworthiness certificate. How
do I get a new one from the FAA?
Answer: This is really pretty simple
once the research is done. First, you
will need to re-create new logbooks
using information that you can obtain
from anyone who has worked on the
aircrafti.e., annual condition inspections, transponder certifications, etc.
Then add a statement that this information is to the best of my knowledge.
This entry will need to be notarized.
Next, you can apply to the local
FSDO or a DAR for a replacement airworthiness certificate and operating
limitations. The new operating limitations will be the latest edition.
Question: I recently purchased an
incomplete Star-Lite project with no
logs or builders info. How do I proceed to complete the project as an
Experimental/Amateur-Built LSA?
Answer: You will need to get some
kind of statement from someone who
knows that the project, to this point,
Photo: Mel Asberry
has been amateur-builti.e., not built

with excessive commercial assistance.
There is no formal format for this, just
something to convince the inspector
of the amateur-built status. This statement, along with the builders log for
your portion of the build, and an eligibility statement, FAA form 8130-12,
will be presented to your FAA inspector or DAR at the time of the airworthiness inspection.
Now, lets try to clear up some confusion about Light Sport Aircraftthere
is no such thing as an Experimental/
Amateur-Built LSA! Its either an
Experimental/Amateur-Built aircraft,
an Experimental Light Sport Aircraft,
or a Light Sport category aircraft.
LSA is a definition of aircraft characteristics. It does not refer to how an aircraft is registered. Your project will be
registered as an Experimental/AmateurBuilt aircraftand as long as it meets
the definition of an LSA as defined in
14 CFR 1.1, it will be eligible to be
flown by a Sport Pilot. However, that
does not make it a Light Sport Aircraft.
Even a vintage Piper Cub may meet the
definition, and therefore be eligible to
be flown by a Sport Pilot. But again, that
doesnt make it a Light Sport Aircraft.

There are many ways to register an

aircraft. An aircraft may be registered as
Experimental/Amateur-Built, Experimental Light Sport, Special Light Sport,
Experimental Exhibition, Standard category, and others. There are three ways
a Light-Sport aircraft may be registered:
1. Light Sport categorythis is an
aircraft built by a factory and is known
as a Special Light Sport Aircraft.
2. Experimental Light Sport Aircraftthis is an aircraft built from a certificated ELSA kit and assembled exactly
according to the manufacturers instructions. It may be modified after certification as long as the modification does not
take the aircraft out of LSA parameters.
3. Special Light Sport Aircraft converted to an ELSAthis process allows
the owner to modify the aircraft within
LSA parameters, but the aircraft may no
longer be used for commercial purposes.
It seems like the FAA went out of their
way to make this extremely confusing. If
so, they were successful. In my opinion,
the definition in Part 1.1 should read
LSC as in Light Sport Compatible. J
Please send your questions for DAR
Asberry to editorial@kitplanes.com with
Ask the DAR in the subject line.
75
When homebuilders describe their

projects, they often mention structural
beef-ups or modifications intended to
make the airplane stronger. When we
fly, our lives depend on the structural
strength of our airplanes. It is natural to
want to make it stronger to get that extra
little secure feeling.
Unfortunately, many of these changes
have no positive effect on the airplane,
and some are actually detrimental to
either the performance or safety of
the machine.
Modifying the structure of an airplane
is a non-trivial undertaking. Changes
should only be incorporated if they really
do make a meaningful improvement to
safety or performance.
The first question to ask before any
change to an airplane structure is, Is
this modification really necessary? If
the structure is already strong enough
to handle the loads it will encounter
in flight, there is no virtue in making it
stronger. Beefing it up will not make the
airplane safer.
The second question to ask before
modifying an airplane structurally (or any
other way for that matter) is, Do I know
enough to make sure that the modifications I make will have the desired effect
and be safe?
This is vitally important. There are
many ways a builder can inadvertently
do harm with structural modifications
intended to add strength.
Weight
Weight is the enemy of performance. A
good airplane structure must be light
Barnaby Wainfan
76
Beefing it up.
as well as strong. Adding weight to the
structure will hurt the performance of
the airplane.
Adding weight to an airplane can trigger a rapidly diverging nightmare. Any
modification that adds weight to one
part makes it necessary to modify other
components to carry the newly added
weight. These modifications will also
add weight. The final weight growth is
far greater than the weight added by the
initial modification.
For example, if a builder beefs up the
fuselage structure, the wing must now
carry more weight. In order to keep
the limit load factor (Gs) the same, the
wingspars must get stronger, making
the wing structure heavier. Since the
airplane is now heavier, the landing
gear must also get stronger to handle
the increased landing loads, and the
structure the landing gear attaches to
must be strengthened, adding still more
weight. This process cascades through
the entire airplane.
The increased weight will hurt performance. If the builder wants to retain
the same range, payload, and speed in
his modified, heavier airplane, he must
increase its fuel capacity and horsepower. Of course, both the extra fuel and
the bigger engine add still more weight,
and so it goes. Each added bit of weight
imposes extra loads on other parts of the
airplane, and they must each be reinforced in turn.
Runaway weight growth has hurt
many airplanes, and the rate of weight
growth once the process has started is
surprisingly high. The art to designing
a good airplane structure is to make

it strong enough without making it too
heavy. Once the designer has achieved
this, poorly thought out modifications
will usually do more harm than good. As
a rough rule of thumb, adding one pound
of arbitrary dead weight to an airplane
increases the takeoff gross weight about
five pounds, if the performance of the
airplane is held constant, and all of the
changes necessary to accommodate the
initial pound of weight increase are made.
An alternative approach is to compensate for the weight increase of beef-ups
by reducing the payload or fuel load of
the airplane. One must ask, at this point,
if the airplane has really been improved
These spar doublers have been tapered to

prevent stress concentrations where the
ends of the doublers would otherwise form
a step with the spar. If the doublers werent
tapered, the spar would likely fail at a
lower load with the doublers than it would
without them.
is a principal aerodynamics engineer for Northrop Grummans Advanced Design organization.

A private pilot with single engine and glider ratings, Barnaby has been involved in the design of
unconventional airplanes including canards, joined wings, flying wings, and some too strange
to fall into any known category.
by modifications that made it heavier

and reduced payload and/or range.
Stress Risers and Unintentional

Weak Spots
Sometimes an attempt to strengthen a
structure will actually weaken it. There
are many ways this can happen, but we
will look at two of them.
Stress concentrations: There is a
phenomenon called a stress concentration or stress riser, which is a matter of
concern for all structural designers. If a
loaded member has a hole or a notch in
it, or changes cross-section suddenly, very
high stresses will be induced locally in the
material right near the shape discontinuity.
The load being carried by the part
of the member that was cut away must
suddenly find another load path. If the
cut is abrupt, as is the case with a notch
or a step, the load does not have room
to smoothly redistribute itself uniformly
across the member, and most of it ends
up being borne by the material right near
the base of the notch or step. This material is very highly stressed and may fail
at a relatively low overall member load.
A good structure should be designed to
avoid such stress concentrations.
One major risk in a structural beef-up
attempt is that the beef-up modification
may create a stress concentration that
was not present in the unmodified structure. If this happens in a highly loaded
point of the structure, the modified
structure will likely fail at a lower total
load than the unmodified structure.
A common form of this error is adding
doublers to reinforce spar caps or webs.
Many builders add doublers, or extra
plies to the inboard portions of spars,
to make them stronger. If the doublers
are not properly tapered, there will be a
stress concentration where the end of the
doubler forms a step in the spar material.
The spar will probably fail just outboard
of the end of the doubler, at a lower load
than a spar without the doubler.
Stress risers can also occur around bolt
holes and lightening holes. If a modification involves adding fasteners in a place
where there were none before, the stress
concentrations around the fastener holes
can be a significant problem.
High local stress concentrates here as the load carried by the

doublers is suddenly dumped into the mainspar element.
Attempting to strengthen a spar by adding doublers can actually make it weaker if the
doublers end abruptly. The notch between the doubler and the mainspar causes a stress
concentration at the end of the doubler.
Flutter: Changing the stiffness and/or

the mass distribution of an airplane structure changes the critical flutter speed.
Which way it changes depends on the
details of how the modification affects
the natural frequencies and mode shapes
of the flutter modes of the airplane.
Changes that increase the stiffness of a
fixed flying surface (wing or tail) will usually increase the critical flutter speed. This is
not a guarantee of safety. It is possible that,
while increasing the stiffness of the surface,
the modification will also change how it
deflects, and cause other problems. At
least one airplane I know of has had wing
failures caused by stiffening the structure
in the wrong place, which changed the
way the wing twisted under load.
This kind of change can also, in rare
cases, cause a new, unexpected flutter
mode to appear. I have encountered this
once in my career, when a change in the
stiffness of a landing gear door caused a
large change in the way the door moved
under air loads. This change introduced
a previously insignificant flutter mode.
On its first flight, the airplane lost a landing gear door when it fluttered off. Fortunately, the door did not hit anything
vital as it departed, and the airplane
landed safely. Had it been a tail surface
instead of a landing gear door that fluttered, the story would not have had as
happy an ending.
Changes to control surfaces are particularly likely to cause problems. One
thing that should always be avoided is
any modification that moves the center
of gravity of a control surface aft. This is
almost sure to reduce the critical flutter
speed. Flutter speed is so sensitive to
control surface mass distribution that on
some production airplanes (notably the
V-tailed Bonanza), an improperly done
paint job can move the control surface
Photo: Mark Schrimmer, Illustration: Barnaby Wainfan
CG enough to cause flutter. I have seen

more than one case where builders
added plies to strengthen the control
surfaces of a composite airplane. This
type of modification actually makes
the airplane much less safe. The control
surfaces as designed are already strong
enough and stiff enough to handle
any loads they will experience over the
approved flight envelope. Adding plies
to the control surface skins moves the
center of gravity of the control surface
aft, and makes the surface heavier. Both
of these mass properties changes make
the surface more flutter prone. At best,
if the builder adds extra mass balance to
compensate, the airplane will be unnecessarily heavier. Without the additional
mass balance, the airplane will be much
more likely to encounter flutter within
its previously approved flight envelope.
This is very dangerous, and the possibility of flutter should be treated with the
utmost seriousness and care.
Feeling Lucky?
Modifying the structure of an airplane is a
major step. It can have many effects, not
all of which are obvious. Some of these
effects can be very dangerous, since they
may significantly weaken the structure.
If the structure of the airplane you are
building is adequate to take the expected
flight loads, it is a good idea to leave it
alone, and build it as designed. If you
feel you must modify the structure, make
sure that the effects of the modifications
are carefully analyzed by a properly qualified person before you make them. Proofloading of a modified structure before
flight is a safety must. Modifying an airplane structure by eyeball estimation and
guesswork is a form of aeronautical Russian roulette, and you never know when
there is a round in the chamber. J
77
Back in the days when dinosaurs

roamed the earth and Narco was the aircraft radio manufacturer, both aircraft
and pilots needed FCC radio licenses. It
was little more than a paperwork shuffle,
but woe to the student that showed
up for a flight exam without these little
scraps of paper. To boot, the radio in
those aircraft used continuous-receive
tuning from 108 to 126 megacycles via
the coffee grinder handle and had gasp
12 transmit crystals installed.
Sometime in the mid-70s the FCC
came to its bureaucratic senses and
eliminated the paper station license for
the airplane and the paper-restricted
third-class radiotelephone certificate for
the pilot. In their stead, the FCC formalized authorized frequencies on which
the aircraft transmitter could be used in
the territory of the USA. Along about this
time, the crystal-less 90-channel transmitter became the standard, followed
shortly by the 180-channel, 360-channel,
720-channel, and todays 760-channel
radio transceivers.
As I said, the FCC has rules about
which of those 760 channels we can
use and what we can use them for.
You may wish to visit www.ecfr.gov and
then choose Title 47, then browse Part
87. If you go to 87.187 you can see the
general frequencies that we can use.
If you go down to (j), you can see that
chatter frequency 122.75 is the authorized channel for fixed-wing aircraft
(123.025 for copters).
While international flights are not
bound to FCC rules outside the USA,
Jim Weir
78
Beachball bingo.
there are some international conventions
that allow overseas chatter on 123.40 and
123.45. Colloquially, airliners adopted
the term finger and fingers for these
two frequencies. For the most part, the
airlines stayed silent on finger(s) while
inside this country. Although the airlines
follow FCC regulations, private (and a lot
of homebuilt aircraft) have decided that
these so-called Beachball frequencies
are great chatter frequencies, whether or
not they are legal to use.
Rant On
Inside this country, Beachball frequencies 123.4 and 123.45 (called from here
on four/five) are only authorized to
flight test stations for aircraft and aircraft component manufacturers. At one
time four/five were the only two VHF
frequencies available, and those of us
who applied for and received test station licenses had these two to pick from.
Generally, we used .4 for voice coordination and .45 as a beacon frequency
or to telemeter real time data down to
The venerable old Narco Superhomer.

(Photo courtesy of www.cessna172club.com)
the ground test station. Since testing

takes a rather large investment in test
equipment, receivers, antennas, and
mountains of test data from these two
frequencies, we who were licensed on
four/five many years ago simply kept our
authorization for these two frequencies.
One might conclude that a homebrew
aircraft builder is a manufacturer of aircraft in accordance with 87.301 (a)(1), and
I wont argue with that. However, 87.305
(et seq.) requires that the builder apply
for a separate FCC license for one of the
frequencies in 87.303 and go through the
Frequency Coordination Council for the
region in which they propose to operate.
Note well that this only gives them the
Antenna pattern test range at RST Labs.

Understand that when BillyBob and Bubba
start talking near the end of a multi-hour
test, the person sitting in the hot sun
doing the testing might get a little testy
when they have to run the test over again.
is the chief avioniker at RST Engineering. He answers avionics questions in the Internet newsgroup www.pilotsofamerica.comMaintenance. His technical advisor, Cyndi Weir, got her
Masters degree in English and Journalism and keeps Jim on the straight and narrow. Check
out their web site at www.rst-engr.com/kitplanes for previous articles and supplements.
authorization to communicate with their

own ground test station, not another test
aircraft in flight. This does require a separate paper license and the fee is about
$100 every ten years.
Not only that, but any test flight must
be coordinated with other test stations
within a 200-mile radius to determine
whether or not any interference will
occur and, if so, how to coordinate the
testing to mitigate any interference.
Ive heard the old argument that since
our aircraft radios have these two frequencies installed, we can use them as
we see fit. I answer as follows:
a. We also have 121.5 installed. Try
chattering on that frequency and
see what happens. Oh, nothats
the emergency frequency. We cant
do that. Why not, isnt it installed?
Same logic.
b. My speedometer on the Miata
goes to 120 mph. Try making this
argument to the nice officer that
clocked you at 120 on the freeway.
Finally, consider the consequences.
I have an aircraft in flight that I am running a test onlets say a new antenna
design. It takes perhaps two hours to run
the test, so weve got aircraft time, pilot
time, engineer time, and all the rest of the
supporting services to do the test. Add it
all up and it is about a thou$and bucks an

hour. An hour and a half into the test, BillyBob and Bubba come onto the channel
chattering about the corn fritters over at
Rosie Beanbags Airport Cafe. There went
a rather expensive test down the drain,
and we wait until they get out of range to
try the whole thing all over again. Been
there, done that. And once it was three
tests in a row.
The general fine for any violation of
Part 87 is $10,000 and a year in the slammer for each violation. Each push of the
PTT switch is a separate violation. Dont
believe me? Talk to the pilots at the
Watsonville, California, airshow that
got nailed for using four/five as their
personal airshow frequency.
I dont speak for all the manufacturers,
but I do tell you that it doesnt bother me
in the least, once Ive asked politely for
chatter to move to the legal 122.75 and
the chatter continues, to call the cops
(in this case the FCC office over in Livermore, California) and ask that they have a
friendly little chat with the aircraft(s) and
pilot(s) in question.
If you think that these pilots dont know
that what they are doing is wrong, I ask you
to monitor four/five and see how often
these aircraft give either their N-number
call sign or where they are going. Not
Forbidden Frequencies
Because they are easy to remember, 123.400 and 123.450 are the frequencies most abused. But they arent the only frequencies you should
avoid. There are others, shown below, that are also reserved for testing.
87.303 Frequencies You Cant Use
(a) These frequencies are available for assignment to flight test land
and aircraft stations:
kHz
3281.0
MHz
MHz
MHz
123.175
123.225
123.400
123.200
123.375
123.450
(b) These additional frequencies are available for assignment only to

flight test stations of aircraft manufacturers:
MHz
MHz
MHz
MHz
123.150
123.325
123.475
123.575
123.250
123.350
123.525
123.275
123.425
123.550
Photos: Jim Weir
a chance. Most of them know they are

doing wrong and couldnt care less how
it impacts those of us trying to do our job.
Rant Off
Now that we know that Beachball four/
five are not legal to use, lets look at what
we might be able to legitimately use for
air-to-air chatter.
a. As stated above, 122.75 for fixed
wing and 123.025 for fling-wings
anywhere in the USA.
b. 121.95, 122.85, and 127.05 for aircraft
flying around the Grand Canyon.
c. Several frequencies in Arizona,
off the coast of California, and
off the coast in Hawaii (dont ask,
I have no idea why). See Section
87.187 for a list of these frequencies and locations.
d. 122.925 for forestry and fish &
game operations.
e. 121.95, 122.775, 122.85, 123.30, and
123.50 for pilot training operations.
f. 122.9 for practice search and rescue
and 123.1 for actual S&R.
Enough of all this chatter about chatter and back to the good stuff next
month. I should have some ideas about
power supplies, dimmers, and a lot more
interesting things coming up. Until then,
stay tuned. J
87.305 Frequency Coordination
(a)(1) Each application for a new station license, renewal or

modification of an existing license concerning flight test frequencies, except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section, must be
accompanied by a statement from a frequency advisory committee.
The committee must comment on the frequencies requested or
the proposed changes in the authorized station and the probable
interference to existing stations. The committee must consider all
stations operating on the frequencies requested or assigned within
320 km (200 mi) of the proposed area of operation and all prior
coordinations and assignments on the proposed frequency(ies).
The committee must also recommend frequencies resulting in the
minimum interference.
87.187 Frequencies You Can Use
(j) The frequency 122.750 MHz is authorized for use by

private fixed wing aircraft for air-air communications. The
frequency 123.025 MHz is authorized for use by helicopters for
air-air communications.
J.W.

79
By Robrucha
80

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Going Glass: Making the Switch

October 2015 | Volume 32, Number 10

14 Taming the Lancair IV: Vortecx winglets make a glass

22 Flying Other Peoples Planes: Yes, its funbut

beware of unexpected problems. By Paul Dye.

30 Glass Panel Upgrade: Adding a Garmin G3X Touch to a

40 ENGINE THEORY: Engine basics and layoutswhy our engines

47 Error Chain: Aeronautical decision makingit seemed like a

75 ask the DAR: Lost logbooks and airworthiness certificate,

Editors Log: Have you asked why? By Paul Dye.

58 Risky Business: Mission planningstick to the plan.

66 Checkpoints: Living the dream. By Vic Syracuse.

KITPLANES October 2015

Magic Hole Finder

I would like to offer one more simple

Builders are always looking for alternatives, and we encourage everyone to

Hints and Kinks

Thank you for an excellent magazine.

encourage him to write more of those

Weve passed your thoughts on to Jim.

SubSonex and Blriot

August was another great issue! I was

I read the letter in the July issue asking

Thanks for all the letters we received on

Web site Information:

KITPLANES October 2015

www.kitplanes.com & www.facebook.com/kitplanes

Have you asked why?

If all you know is

KITPLANES October 2015

A good backcountry airplane gets even better.

KITPLANES October 2015

www.kitplanes.com & www.facebook.com/kitplanes

The Carbon Cub EX

KITPLANES October 2015

Optional Airstreak tires and Alpha Omega suspension. Smooth

KITPLANES October 2015

The new EX-2 features redesigned ailerons with curved top

plane. It is relatively stable with aileron

hard to find much to complain about

The New EX-2

Randy walked us around the EX-2 to

www.kitplanes.com & www.facebook.com/kitplanes

Carbon Cub EX-2

done, but it would be a challenge to get

I am not sure what that translated to

Cruise speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 kt

Landings were every bit as gratifying

CubCrafters optional Executive Glass Touch instrument panel with

KITPLANES October 2015

Under the EX-2s cowling is the CC340, a 340-cubic-inch 180-hp

ground rolls. The large and effective

it is pretty good in the world of Super

Light Sport Eligibility

For builders who want no-compromise

Whats in the Box?

KITPLANES October 2015

be built with a gross weight of 1865

The CC340 Engine

CubCrafters is most unusual in that

lightweight parts developed by CubCrafters and ECi complete this unique

Building a Carbon Cub EX-2

With options, the Carbon Cub EX-2

time for inexperienced builders. It is

14 Taming the Lancair IV: Vortecx winglets make a glass

22 Flying Other Peoples Planes: Yes, its funbut

30 Glass Panel Upgrade: Adding a Garmin G3X Touch to a

40 ENGINE THEORY: Engine basics and layoutswhy our engines

47 Error Chain: Aeronautical decision makingit seemed like a

75 ask the DAR: Lost logbooks and airworthiness certificate,

58 Risky Business: Mission planningstick to the plan.

66 Checkpoints: Living the dream. By Vic Syracuse.