Lieut 2 {BIBlleteoa I forces affecting he ship In order to predict the movement of our ship accurately, we must thoroughly understand the nature and magnitude of the forces which affect her. There are six general sources of force which can be brought to bear on our ship independent of any other vessel. They are the propellers, the rudders, the Mooring lines, the ground tackle, the wind, and finally the. Current. The first four are controllable trom the ship itself. The wind and the current (and this includes tidal currents), though rot controllable, can be utilized to serve our aims if properly handled. Each of these forces can produce important effects, as indicated in Figure 2-1, so it is worth while to take the time to study and understand each of them, Let's re. member from the beginning, however, that these are farags only, and that motion results only after inertia has played its part = ~ = Amodem ship may have a distributed mass of Many thousand tons and may (esisi linear acceleration, but it also has a tremendous moment of inertia to resist rotational accelerations. The Ship is resting in a fluid (water) covered by another through the center of gravity. Thus, when we apply any force to the ship, we can expect motion to gradually build up until a state of equilibrium is reached, at which time the velocity of the motion will become constant Basic principles Forces in water manifest themselves as pressure differences, Water is incompres- sible but by applying force to it we can bull 1 higher pressure in one area as Compared to surrounding areas, and this < will cause the water _to flow from the area of higher pressWIND . FORCE PRODUCED BY ‘30 KNOT WIND FROM '45°,ON THE BOW. 23.000 LBS. CURRENT FORCE REQUIRED TO HOLD SHIP STATION- ARY IN A3 KNOT CURRENT 45° ON THE BOW... 55,000 LBS. — RUDDER 30° RUDDER PRODUCES ‘A SIGE FORCE at 18 KNOTS, OF 45,000 LBS. MOORING LINES AND GROUND TACKLE GINCH MANILA... . 30,000 LBS. SeNCH WIRE 25,500 LBS. SINGH WIRE... 64,400 LBS. 4-4 INCH SPRING LAID WIRE ROPE... 93,000 LBS. jee INCH DIE LOCK. CHAIN "161,000 LBS. PROPELLER THRUST AT15 KNOTS. 55,000 LBS. FIGURE 2-1. Forces which can bear on a ship (figures for a 2,200-ton DD). pressure, When we pull an oar through the water, for instance, we build up high pressure on the face of the blade toward which the blade is moving, and we create Blow pressure on the face which is moving away from the water. During the motion, water flows from the high pressure region t0 the low pressure region ‘The greater the immersed area of the blade, the greater the area upon which the pressure can act. The greater the force applied to the oar, the greater the pressure iference. The average difference of pressure between the two sides, multiplied by the immersed area of the blade, is a measure of the force we are exerting on the ooo, Sinoe the inertia of the water resists the force Being applied by the blade ‘ond of the oar, this resistance, working through the 037 applies a force to the boat Inthe opposite direction. Resistance to the oar exists only when the particles of 44 NAVAL SHIPHANDLINGwater are being set in motion by the movement of the oar. Without the force we apply to the oar, there would be no motion, no pressure difference, and no resis- tance. Thus we see that force, resistance, and motion are irrevocably interlocked when dealing in a fluid medium. The above discussion illustrates the fact that all forces in water manifest themselves as pressure differences. If we are going to apply force on a waterborne object, such as our ship, we can do it only by creating a pressure difference across a part of the ship's structure. And if at any time our ship moves in any way, we know that some force is acting somewhere on our ship's structure—and we can locate that force by looking for the pressure difference that causes it. In any large body of water, there are always two components of pressure present at any point: one is the static pressure due to depth, or sheer weight of the water above the point; the other is the dynamic pressure caused by motion in the surrounding water. In the sea the static pressure does not cause motion, because itis the same everywhere at any given depth level, and hence balances out as far as we are concerned. Bernoulli's Theorem tells us that at any given depth in an open body of water like the sea, the sum of the static pressure and the dynamic pressure is always constant. Normally there is little motion of the water, so the static pressure is all that needs to be considered. When a ship passes through the water or a propeller blade slices into it, however, the water is set into motion and the static pressure is reduced by the amount of the dynamic pressure. Though it is usually the decrease in effective static pressure brought about by setting the water particles in motion that produces our hydrodynamic effects, knowing the magnitude of the dynamic pressure will tell us the pressure difference to be expected from the motion. The magnitude of the dynamic pressure is given by the expression: P = pvt 2g where: = Dynamic pressure in Ibs/ft? = Density of the moving fluid in Ibs/ft® = Velocity of flow in ft/sec = Acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/sec? e seve amount of power consumed In create waves is not easily expressed. If one were to attempt tofinda simple ‘formula in the form of R,, = aV".Ne would find that (n) varied from 1.5 10 11 for viiferent parts of tne speed range. Becayee of the reinforcements and cancellations mantioned above, any formula which expresses a smooth increase in resistance aS ‘speed increases isfarfromacorrect representa- tion of the situation. By representing 2 ship By to disturbances, Professor T. H Havelock of Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne, made an analysis which indicated that the 32. NAVAL SHIPHANDLINGwave resistance would be in the form indicated in Figure 2-10. Distinct humps and hollows in the resistance curve occur as the reinforcements and cancellations cour. The general decrease in resistance at very high speeds (speed-length ratio greater than 2), is experienced because, "when the travelling disturbance travels fast enough, the water does not have time to respond and is not disturbed as much as at lower speeds."* Actually, other experimeriis have shown that at very high speeds the ship rides up on its bow wave and a decrease in wave resistance is experienced. Eddy resistance As the water flows past the underwater body of the ship, if there are abrupt changes in the surface of the hull, separation and turbulence may occur. When the flow of water breaks away from the skin of the ship, such as at the after edge of a square stempost, an area of confused eddying results. This area is aft of the ship's structure and is characterized by a lower pressure than is found in the surrounding water; therefore, a drag force is exerted on the ship as a result of eddies. Though a well-designed ship will have few such areas, the eddy resistance caused by blunt edges and projections must be considered. "Speed and Power of Ships, by Rear Admiral David W. Taylor, CC, USN (Ret), page 46. WAVE RESISTANCE g 10 20 30 v Yo FIGURE 2-10. Wave resistance as a function of the speed-length ratio for two distur bances traveling through the water separated by one shiplength (L). (Based on Figure 56 of Speed and Power of Ships, by Rear Admiral David W. Taylor (CC), USN (Ret,).) 33 FORCES AFFECTING THE SHIPEddy resistance (into this category is lumped all resistance caused by separation and turbulence around hull endings and hull openings) varies as the frontal area of the surface causing the disturbance and the square of the velocity of the water flow. Thus, even small causes of eddying may become important at high speeds. Appendage resistance The previous discussion has considered the simple hull of the ship without its appendages such as the propeller shafts, struts, rudders, bilge keels, etc. Each of these projections contributes to the resistance of the ship as it moves through the water, and, depending upon the nature and design of the appendage, any of the previous sources of resistance may apply In general, the underwater appendages of a well-designed ship are deep below the surface of the water, so they contribute little to the wave-making resis- tance of the ship. They are usually quite streamlined to minimize the eddy resis tance, so our main source of resistance is the frictional resistance. Thus we can consider that the appendage resistance is generally proportional to the wetted surface of the appendages and the square of the velocity of flow past them. Air resistance and wind resistance Determining the air or wind resistance of a ship with a complex superstructure is very difficult except by experiment. Though certain data are available on the resistance of flat plates at various inclinations, it would be nearly impossible to evaluate the effect of the multitude of interacting surfaces in the superstructure of even a small ship. Consequently there are no formulae which apply to this source of resistance. Experiments on a number of ships show, however, that air resistance varies in the range of from 1¥% to 3 percent of the total water resistance of the ship at maximum speed. This leads to the conclusion that the air resistance is only a minor factor as compared to the water resistance of a ship, and can be neglected in most, considerations. Though simple air resistance (the resistance to the ship's motion through still air) may be neglected, wind resistance cannot be overlooked. A ship steaming at 10 knots into a 20-knot wind (thus feeling a 30-knot relative wind) may be expend- ing as much as 20 percent of her power to overcome wind resistance. Another factor to be considered is that the maximum resistance to motion ahead may occur when the relative wind is on one bow instead of dead ahead. Thus the direction of the wind may have an effect in determining the resistance. A last factor in considering the wind is that a wind with a beam component usually necessitates the use of rudder to hoid the ship on her course, and even a small rudder angle increases the drag of the ship appreciably. 34 NAVAL SHIPHANDLINGSquat As the ship increases speed she sinks bodily in the water, and then, at the critical speed (speed-length ratio about 1.2), the bow begins to rise and the stern begins to sink as the ship “squats.” As the first crest of the bow wave system moves aff from the bow with increase of speed, the bow begins to be buoyed up by its own wave, and so the bow rises. If we remember the interaction of the bow and stem wave systems, we can see that the stem will sink into the hollow created as the first trough of the bow wave system coincides with and augments the stern system hollow near the screws. As the ship squats, her resistance increases abruptly. Shallow water effect As the ship enters shallow water, the character of the wave changes. A wave created at a given speed in shallow water has a longer wave length than a wave created at the same speed in deep water. Consequently, the reinforcements and severe squatting occur at lower speeds in shallow water than in deep water. Thus, in shallow water, the resistance of the ship rises more rapidly as the speed increases. Because the severe reinforcements occur at a lower speed in shallow water, it is possible for certain very high speed ships to reach a higher maximum speed in shallow water than in deep water. This is possible because they are operating beyond the peak of the wave resistance curve (Figure 2-10), and as the whole curve shifts to the left as a result of the longer wave length in shallow water, the wave resistance at the speed they are steaming actually decreases. Total resistance The combination of all of the above-mentioned sources of resistance is shown in Figure 2-11. Though the particular curves shown do not illustrate the hump and hollow character of wave resistance in deep water, this characteristic is quite marked in the shallow water curves. The general sinkage of the ship at the lower speeds, and the squatting and abrupt increase in resistance as the speed is increased, can be clearly seen. It will be noted that if a ship, scaled up from the model, had the power to overcome the equivalent of 60 Ibs. resistance for the model, she could make a higher speed (that is, operate at a higher speed-iength ratio) at this power in shallow water than in deep water. Rough water effects In addition to the general sources of resistance which the ship encounters in smooth water, there is additional resistance if the surface of the water is not smooth. As the ship encounters seas from ahead, her trim is constantly changing and she 35 FORCES AFFECTING THE SHIPz Ss Sz 350} 70 £2 <3 BP o 60 gd FI g Zao 505 wt 2 Su z ZS. o2| = z oe é 2 Lz Ja0 ee l@ 420 DEPTH OF WATER 14 FEET 36 INCHES — — —| 24 INCHES 10 oe 4 6 8 10 42 i4 16 18 20 22 SPEEDWLENGTH RATIO vo FIGURE 2-11. Resistance and changes in level of a 20-foot model of a high-speed warship. crashes into the approaching seas. As she rolls in response to the waves, the shape of the submerged portion of her hull is constantly changing. These effects cause an increase in the resistance to her forward motion. The pitching of the ship is the most severe deterrent to speed that is caused by rough water. It increases all the normal sources of resistance and, additionally, may cause losses in propulsive efficiency as the screws race when they come near the surface. Rolling, though causing increased resistance, is much less detrimental than ‘one might think. Itis difficult to determine experimentally the increase in resistance caused by pure rolling, but certain experiments indicate that inclinations up to 20° cause an increase in resistance of only a few percent. Rough seas, however, do have a marked effect on the ship's resistance and the power required to drive her. The cube rule Itis seen, therefore, that the causes of the resistance encountered by a shipare very complex. Though the thumb rule long used by marines that “the power required and the fuel consumed for a given speed go up as the cube of the speed” is applicable 36 NAVAL SHIPHANDLINGin certain speed ranges, the rule does not hold true for all ranges, especially when wave resistance becomes an important factor. The power required at any speed is equal to the total resistance multiplied by the speed (force x velocity = power), and for the "Cube Rule” to be correct, the resistance would have to vary as the square of the speed. We have seen that this is far from true for all cases The resistance of the ship is the sum of all of the factors mentioned above, and it is not susceptible to simple analysis. The shiphandler should be impressed, however, with the fact that the resistance encountered, the power required, and the fuel consumed increases drastically as the speed increases. When the speed is increased until squatting is encountered, the resistance increases even more rapidly, and the steaming efficiency of the ship is severely reduce. The length of a ship is a very important factor in determining the resistance, and the speed-length ratio is an excellent index in considering the resistance. Two similar ships operating at the same speed-length ratio will require power in the ratio of the squares of their lengths. The higher the speed-length ratio, especially beyond critical speed(, “greater than 1.2), the greater the proportion of total power which is expended uselessly in creating waves. The wastage of power in creating surface waves leads one to the interesting realization that a streamlined submarine, cruising at a sufficient depth to be free from surface effects, can attain a higher speed for a given power than an equivalent ship on the surface at the same power. A deeply submerged submarine encounters resistance which is proportional to the square of her speed, but the surface ship encounters a much higher resistance for the same speed. It is because of this wastage of power in creating wake waves that inventors are constantly searching for ways of causing a ship to “plane at high speeds and thus be able to escape this major source of drag on a conventional hull. Wind Another important source of force on the ship is the wind. This force warrants thorough study because it is not only outside the control of the shiphangler but is quite changeable. Though the wind is often a hazard to the shiphandler, it can also bea very useful aid. By carefully playing the effect of the wind on the ship we can do ‘things that would have been impossible through the use of the engines and rudders alone. The wind normally acts to force the ship bodily downwind. The force it exerts is proportional to the square of the velocity of the wind, the cross-sectional area Presented normal to the flow of air, and the form of the superstructure in the air flow. If we double the velocity of the relative wind, we quadruple the force on the ship from this source, If we tum the ship so that a larger cross-section is presented normal to the wind, the resultant force is increased. If the superstructure of the ship is irregular and presents many flat surfaces to the wind, the force of the wind will be larger than if the superstructure presents a smooth, streamlined form. 37 FORCES AFFECTING THE SHIPIt is relatively easy to predict the reaction of the wind on a given ship. If the ship has high freeboard and is of shallow draft, the force from the wind will be great, the resistance to motion from the water will be small, and the ship will respond quite readily to the wind. If the ship is of deep draft and presents a small streamlined body to the wind, the wind effect will be minimal. This also applies to the sections of the ship. With a given ship, if the bow is high, the stern low, and the ship trimmed down by the stern, the wind will tend to carry the bow downwind. Generally speaking, a ship lightly loaded is more sensitive to the wind than one heavy laden. lf we remember that the propellers and rudders give us means to apply force to the stern only, it is apparent that to force the ship to turn into a beam wind, it is necessary to overcome the wind force tending to blow the bow downwind. We must move the stern downwind faster than the wind is moving the bow downwind. If the bow presents a much larger “sail” area than the stem, the side force needed at the stern might be quite large. Since the side forces available from the engines alone are relatively small, it is often necessary to gain considerable headway before the additional force from the rudder is sufficient to overcome the wind. Current The last general force to be considered is the force due to current. The resistance of the underwater body of the ship to the flow of water is very similar to the resistance of the superstructure to the wind; however, the force resulting is much larger for a given velocity because the density of the medium is much greater. The streamlin- ing of the hull is most important, and the top speed of a given ship is that speed at which the total resistance of the hull exactly balances the maximum force that can be delivered by the propeliers. The resistance of the underwater body to the flow of current is proportional to the square of the velocity of the current and the cross-sectional area presented to the flow, and is inversely dependent upon the streamlining of the body with respect to the direction of the flow. Obviously the resistance of the hull to a given current from ahead would be much smaller than the resistance to the same current from abeam. Since the current is by definition the movement of the water, the ship is normally carried along with this movement. If we handle our ship as though there were no current and the stationary objects were moving at the speed of the current butin the opposite direction, we would have little trouble predicting the behavior of the ship. This simple solution is satisfactory for a steady current, but unfortunately the current is not steady in the vicinity of stationary objects. However, the special problems of current in the vicinity of docks and buoys will be covered later. Actually, it is impossible to have a current relative to the ship other than from ahead or astem except by the application of forces external to the ship. Ifthe flow of current relative to the ship is to be other than parallel to the axis of the keel, there must be some restraining force provided by mooring lines or ground tackle. The shiphandler must always consider the current in maneuvering his ship 38 NAVAL SHIPHANDLINGnear stationary objects. He must add the current vector to the vector of his own ship's motion through the water to determine his true movement relative to the ground. As he changes his speed through the water he must remember that the current velocity remains generally constant, and he must compensate for it. Finally, as he handles his ship broadside to the current, he must expect to be swept along with the current unless he uses exiernal means to restrain the ship, and in that case the forces required will be relatively large. SUMMARY We have now examined the forces that come to bear on a ship due to the environ- ment in which it operates and the manner in which it is propelled and controlled We have considered the reasons why these forces exist, and we have prepared ourselves to be ready to estimate these forces for a given ship in a given situation. The shiphandler must always be alert for evidences of conditions which will affect the handling of his ship. He must watch his bunting and rigging to deter- mine the relative wind, and he must watch the surface of the water for signs of the true wind and current. If he is completely aware of the forces playing on his ship, he can compensate for the undesired effects and make use of the helpful effects. A thorough understanding of all of the forces which can act upon the ship is the comerstone of ability at shiphandling. Unless the shiphandler thoroughly understands the forces that come to play on his ship, how they act, and how they can be controlled, he cannot hope to handle his ship efficiently. 39 FORCES AFFECTING THE SHIP