The Stewart Platform

The Stewart-Gough or the Stewart Platform5 device is a six degree of freedom (mobility six)
kinematic chain with closed loops. The kinematic chain consists of a base and a moving platform
each of which is a spatial hexagon. See Figure 7. Every vertex of the base hexagon is connected
to one vertex of the moving platform hexagon by one leg. Similarly, every vertex of the moving
hexagon is connected to a vertex of the base hexagon by a leg. There are six such legs. Each leg
has is a serial chain consisting of two revolute joints with intersecting axes, a prismatic joint and
a spherical joint. Typically the prismatic joints are actuated.
The mobility of a Stewart Platform can be easily verified to be six. Each leg has three links
and four joints. If we include the moving platform,
n = 6 3+1 = 19.
The connectivity of the revolute and the prismatic joint is one. The connectivity of the spherical
joint is three. There are 6 X 2 revolute joints, 6 prismatic joints and 6 spherical joints.
The Stewart Platform has actuators for all its six prismatic joints and it is therefore possible to
control all six degrees of freedom.

Degrees of freedom of a system

The number of independent variables (or coordinates) required to completely specify the
configuration of the mechanical system. It is also the number of independent inputs required to
drive all the rigid bodies in the mechanical system.

Kinematic chain
A system of rigid bodies connected together by joints. A chain is called closed if it forms a closed
loop. A chain that is not closed is called an open chain.

Serial chain
If each link of an open chain except the first and the last link is connected to two other links it is
called a serial chain.

Connectivity of a joint
The number of degrees of freedom of a rigid body connected to a fixed rigid body through the
joint. The revolute, prismatic and helical joints have a connectivity 1. The spherical joint has a
connectivity of 3. Sometimes one uses the term degree of freedom of a joint instead of the
connectivity of a joint.

Numerical Example
CRS F3 is holding a plate. The plate is at location (0, 0, 200) in the tool coordinate system. At
the ready position, the tool coordinate system is at (500, 0, 600).

What is the location of the plate in the base coordinate system?

If the base is rotated 30 about Z0, what is the location of the plate?

0 = Tran (500, 0, 600) Rot(y, 90) N

0
0
1
0

0
1
0
0

1 500
0 0
0 600
0 1

] [] []
0
0
200
1

700
0
600
1

0 = Rot (Z, 30) Tran (500, 0, 600) Rot(y, 90) N

[
][
[ ] []
0.866 0.5
0.5 0.866
0
0
0
0

433+173
250+100
600
1

0
0
1
0

0
0
0
1

1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0

0 500
0 0
1 600
0 1

][

0
0
1
0

0
1
0
0

1
0
0
0

0
0
0
1

][]
0
0
200
1

606
350
600
1

If we swap the order of z rotation and translation, we will have

Tran(433,250,600) Rot(z, 30) Rot(y,90).

The Denavit-Hartenberg Parameters in Robotics

The Denavit-Hartenberg (D-H) framework is a method for assigning frames of reference
to a serial robot arm constructed of sequential rotary (and/or translational) joints connected with
rigid links. If the robot arm is imagined at any fixed time, the axes about which the joints turn are
viewed as lines in space. In the most general case, these lines will be skew, and in degenerate
cases, they can be parallel or intersect.

In the D-H framework, a frame of reference is assigned to each link of the robot at the
joint where it meets the previous link. The z-axis of the ith D-H frame points along the ith joint
axis. Since a robot arm is usually attached to a base, there is no ambiguity in terms of which of
the two () directions along the joint axis should be chosen, i.e., the up direction for the first
joint is chosen. Since the (i + 1)st joint axis in space will generally be skew relative to axis i , a
unique x-axis is assigned to frame i, by defining it to be the unit vector pointing in the direction
of the shortest line segment from axis i to axis i + 1. This segment intersects both axes
orthogonally. In addition to completely defining the relative orientation of the ith frame relative
to the (i 1)st, it also provides the relative position of the origin of this frame.
The D-H parameters, which completely specify this model, are:
1. The distance from joint axis i to axis i + 1 as measured along their mutual normal.
This distance is denoted as ai .
2. The angle between the projections of joint axes i and i + 1 in the plane of their
common normal. The sense of this angle is measured counterclockwise around
their mutual normal originating at axis i and terminating at axis i + 1. This angle
is denoted as i .
3. The distance between where the common normal of joint axes i 1 and i , and
that of joint axes i and i + 1 intersect joint axis i, as measured along joint axis i.
This is denoted as di.
4. The angle between the common normal of joint axes i 1 and i , and the common
normal of joint axes i and i + 1. This is denoted as i , and has positive sense
when rotation about axis i is counterclockwise.
Hence, given all the parameters {ai , i , di , i } for all the links in the robot, together with how
the base of the robot is situated in space, one can completely specify the geometry of the arm at
any fixed time. Generally, i is the only parameter that depends on time.
In order to solve the forward kinematics problem, which is to find the position and
orientation of the distal end of the arm relative to the base, the homogeneous transformations of
the relative displacements from one D-H frame to another are multiplied sequentially. The
relative transformation, Hi1 from frame i 1 to frame i is performed by first rotating about the
x-axis of frame i 1 by i-1, then translating along this same axis by ai1. Next we rotate about the
z-axis of frame i by i and translate along the same axis by di . Since all these transformations
are relative, they are multiplied sequentially on the right as rotations (and translations) about
(and along) natural basis vectors.

Motion Control
Motion control in NC machines is achieved by issuing coordinated motion commands to
the individual drives of the machine tool. Almost all commercial NC machines employ DC or
AC electrical motors that linearly drive stages/tables mounted on ball-bearing leadscrews. These
leadscrews provide low-friction (no stick-slip), no-backlash motions with accuracies of 0.001 to
0.005 mm or even better. High-precision machines employ interferometry- based displacement
sensors to provide sensory data to the (closed loop) controllers of the individual axes of the
machine tool (Chap. 13).
Rotational movements (spindle and other feed motions) are normally achieved using
high-precision circular bearings (plain, ball, or roller). Motion Types Machine tools can be
utilized to fabricate workpieces with prismatic and/or rotational geometries. Desired contours
are normally achieved through a controlled relative motion of the cutting tool with respect to the
work piece. Holes of desired diameters, on the other hand, are normally achieved by holding the
workpiece fixed and moving a rotating drill bit into the workpiece vertically. Correspondingly,
NC motions have been classified as point-to-point (PTP) motion (e.g., drilling) and contouring,
or continuous path (CP), motion (e.g., milling and turning).
In PTP systems, the workpiece is moved from one point to another in the fastest manner
without regard to the path followed. The motion is of asynchronous type, where each axis
accomplishes its desired movement independent of the others. For example, the X_Y table of the
drilling press would follow the path shown in Fig. 3a, where the Y axis continues its motion from
Point A to the desired Point B, while the X axis remains stationary after it has already
accomplished its necessary incremental motion. Once the table reaches Point B, the drill head is
instructed to move in the Z axis, the necessary distance, and cut into the workpiece.
In CP systems, the workpiece (in milling) or the tool (in turning) follows a well-defined
path, while the material removal (cutting) process is in progress. All motion axes are controlled
individually and move synchronously to achieve the desired workpiece/tool motion (position and
speed). For example, the X_Y table of a milling machine would follow the path shown in Figure

3b, when continuously cutting into the workpiece along a two-dimensional path from Point A to
Point B.
For both PTP and CP motions, the coordinates of points or paths can be defined with
respect to a global (world) coordinate frame or with respect to the last location of the
workpiece/tool: absolute versus incremental positioning, respectively. Regardless of the
positioning system chosen, the primary problem in contouring is the resolution of the desired
path into multiple individual motions of the machine axes, whose combination would yield a
cutter motion that is closest possible to the desired path. This motion-planning phase is often
called interpolation. In earlier NC machine controllers, interpolation was carried out exclusively
in dedicated hardware boards, thus limiting the contouring capability of the machine tool to
mostly straight-line and circular-path motions. In modern CNC machines, interpolation is carried
out in software, thus allowing any desired curvature to be approximated by polynomial or splinefit equations.
FIGURE 3 (a) Point-to-point; (b) continuous path motion.

Trajectory Planning
As discussed above, a robotic manipulator is required to move either in PTP or in CP motion
modes in task space. However, robot motion control necessitates that commands be given in joint
space to yield a required task space end-effector path. We must plan individual joint trajectories
joint displacement, velocity, and acceleration as a function of time, to meet this objective. PTP
and CP motions are treated separately below:

Point-to-Point Motion: In PTP motion, the robot end-effector is required to move from
its current point to another: a point is defined by a Cartesian frame location (position and
orientationpose) with respect to a global (world) coordinate system (Fig. 14a). Although the
path followed is of no significance, except for avoiding collisions, all manipulator joints must
start and end their motions synchronously. Such a strategy would minimize acceleration periods
and thus minimize joint torque requirements a phenomenon not considered in NC machining
due to the absence of significant inertial forces.
Trajectory planning for PTP motion starts by determining the joint displacement values at
both ends of the motion corresponding to the two end-effector Cartesian frames Fe1 and Fe2
inverse kinematics, 1i and 2i, i=1, n, for an n-dof manipulator. The next step involves
determining individual joint trajectories: a vast majority of commercial robots only utilize
kinematics to determine these trajectories; only a very few utilize the dynamic models of the
manipulators. We will address both approaches below.
The dynamic model of the robot, clearly indicates that the availability of joint torques to
maximize joint velocities and accelerations is a function of the instantaneous robot configuration
and the geometry and mass of the object carried. In the absence of dynamic model utilization
during trajectory planning, one must therefore assume some logical limits for the joint velocities
and accelerations. Normally, worst-case values are utilized for these limits, i.e., assuming that the
robot configuration is in its most unfavorable configuration and carrying a payload of maximum
mass.
Based on these limits and user-defined joint trajectory velocity profiles, trapezoidal, or
parabolic, we must first determine the slowest joint, #k, i.e., the joint that will take the longest
time to accomplish its motion, k = 2k -1k. The time required to achieve k is defined as
the overall robot motion time for the end-effector to move from frame Fe1 to Fe2. All other
joints are slowed down to yield a synchronous motion for the robot that ends at time tf.
Continuous Point-to-Point Motion: In CPTP motion, the robot end effector is required to move
through all intermediate points (i.e., end-effector frames) without stopping and preferably
following continuous joint velocity profiles. A common solution approach to this problem is to
achieve velocity continuity at an intermediate point by accelerating/decelerating the joint motion
prior to getting to that point and in the process, potentially, not pass through the point itself but

only close to it. A preferred alternative strategy, however, would be the employment of spline
curves for the individual segments of the joint trajectory.
Through an iterative process, one can fit cubic or quintic splines to all the trajectories of
the robots n joints, while satisfying displacement, velocity, and acceleration continuity at all the
knots. The overall motion time can be minimized through an iterative process or using
parametric closed form equations, subject to all the joints individual kinematic constraints (i.e.,
max and max).
Continuous Path Motion: In CP motion, the robot end-effector is required to follow a Cartesian
path, normally with a constant speed. The motion (translation and rotation) of the end-effector
frame is defined as a function of time. The solution of the (joint space) trajectory planning
problem for CP motion requires discretization of the Cartesian path in terms of a set of points
(frames) on this path separated by Cartesian distance and time. The robot can then be required to
carry out a CPTP motion through these points, as described above, whose corresponding joint
displacement values are determined by inverse kinematics.
In CPTP motion, however, the end-effector can be forced to pass only through the
selected set of points yielding a Cartesian path that approximates the desired path (e.g., a
straight-line motion with constant endeffector orientation with respect to the workpiece). If the
resultant path following errors in Cartesian space are greater than an acceptable threshold, we
would have to increase the number of points selected to approximate the desired path.
As a generalization of CP motion for real-time implementation, one can simply use the
inverse Jacobian matrix of the robot in determining joint velocities corresponding to the
instantaneous end-effector velocity requirements (Eq. 14.5). This method, originally proposed by
D. E. Whitney in the early 1970s, is commonly known as the resolved motion-rate-control
method. If at any instant, the robots dynamic capabilities cannot match the required end-effector
motion requirements, a tracking error results.

g-Code
A g-code program consists of a collection of statements/blocks to be executed in a sequential
manner. Each statement comprises a number of wordsa letter followed by an integer

number. The first word in a statement is the block number designated by the letter N followed by
the number of the block (e.g., N0027, for the 27th line in the g-code program). The next word is
typically the preparatory function designated by the letter G (hence, the letter g in g-code)
followed by a two-digit number. Several examples of G words are given in Table 1.
TABLE 1 Some G Words
Code Function Code Function
G00 Point-to-point motion
G01 Linear-interpolation motion
G02 Clockwise circular-interpolation
G03 Counterclockwise circular interpolation motion
G20 Imperial units
G21 Metric units
G32 Thread cutting motion
G98 Per-minute feed rate
G99 Per-revolution feed rate
The preparatory function is followed by dimensional words designated by axes letters X, Y, and
Z with corresponding dimensions, normally expressed as multiples of smallest possible
incremental displacements (e.g., X3712 Y-47000 Z12000; multiples of 0.01 mm) or in absolute
coordinates (e.g., X175.25 Y325.00 Z136.50). The feed rate and spindle speed words are
designated by the letters F and S, respectively, followed by the corresponding numerical values
in the chosen units. Next come the tool number word designated by the letter T and the
miscellaneous function word designated by the letter M (Table 2).
A typical g-code program block is
N0027 G90 G01 X175:25 Y325:00 Z136:50 F125 S800 T1712 M03 M08;
TABLE 2 Some M Words
M00 Program stop (during run)
M02 End of program
M03 Spindle start clockwise

M05 Spindle stop

M08 Coolant on
M11 Tool change
M98 Call a subprogram
M99 Return to main program
INTEGRATED AND AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING
Integrated manufacturing uses computers to connect physically separated processes. When
integrated, the processes can share information and initiate actions. This allows decisions to be
made faster and with fewer errors. Automation allows manufacturing processes to be run
automatically, without requiring intervention. This chapter will discuss how these systems fit into
manufacturing, and what role they play.
An integrated system requires that there be two or more computers connected to pass
information. A simple example is a robot controller and a programmable logic controller working
together in a single machine. A complex example is an entire manufacturing plant with hundreds
of workstations connected to a central database. The database is used to distribute work
instructions, job routing data and to store quality control test results. In all cases the major issue
is connecting devices for the purposes of transmitting data.
Automated equipment and systems dont require human effort or direction. Although this
does not require a computer based solution
Automated systems benefit from some level of integration
Why Integrate?
There is a tendency to look at computer based solutions as inherently superior. This is an
assumption that an engineer cannot afford to entertain. Some of the factors that justify an
integrated system are listed below.
a large organization where interdepartmental communication is a problem
the need to monitor processes
Things to Avoid when making a decision for integration and automation,
- ignore impact on upstream and downstream operations
- allow the system to become the driving force in strategy
- believe the vendor will solve the problem

- base decisions solely on financials

- ignore employee input to the process
- try to implement all at once (if possible)
Justification of integration and automation,
- consider BIG picture
- determine key problems that must be solved
- highlight areas that will be impacted in enterprise
- determine kind of flexibility needed
- determine what kind of integration to use
- look at FMS impacts
- consider implementation cost based on above
Factors to consider in integration decision,
- volume of product
- previous experience of company with FMS
- product mix
- scheduling / production mixes
- extent of information system usage in organization (eg. MRP)
- use of CAD/CAM at the front end.
- availability of process planning and process data
* Process planning is only part of CIM, and cannot stand alone.
ADVANTAGES OF AUTOMATION IN MANUFACTURING
In many cases there are valid reasons for assisting humans
- tedious work -- consistency required
- dangerous
- tasks are beyond normal human abilities (e.g., weight, time, size, etc)
- economics
Advantages of Automated Manufacturing,
- improved work flow
- reduced handling
- simplification of production
- reduced lead time
- increased moral in workers (after a wise implementation)
- more responsive to quality, and other problems
- etc.

TABLE
1

Code
G00
G01
G02

Some G Wordsa
Function
Point-to-point motion
Linear-interpolation motion
Clockwise circularinterpolation
motion

Code
G20
G21

Function
Imperial units
Metric units

G32

Thread cutting

G98

Per-minute feed
rate
Per-revolution feed

Various measures of
flexibility,
- Able to deal

with slightly, or greatly mixed parts.

- Variations allowed in parts mix
- Routing flexibility to alternate machines
- Volume flexibility
- Design change flexibility

The Architecture of Integration

Integrated manufacturing systems are built with generic components such as,
- Computing Hardware
- Application Software
- Database Software
- Network Hardware
- Automated Machinery
Manufacturing requires computers for two functions,
- Information Processing - This is characterized by programs that can operate in a batch
mode.
- Control - These programs must analyze sensory information, and control devices while
observing time constraints.
An integrated system is made up of Interfaced and Networked Computers. The general
structure is hierarchical: Corporate > Plant > Plant Floor >Process Control
The plant computers tend to drive the orders in the factory.
The plant floor computers focus on departmental control. In particular,
- synchronization of processes.
- downloading data, programs, etc., for process control.
- analysis of results (e.g., inspection results).
Process control computers are local to machines to control the specifics of the individual
processes. Some of their attributes are,
- program storage and execution (e.g., NC Code),
- sensor analysis,
- actuator control,
- process modeling,
- observe time constraints (real time control).
To perform information processing and control functions, each computer requires connections,
- Stand alone - No connections to other computers, often requires a user interface.
- Interfaced - Uses a single connection between two computers. This is characterized by
serial interfaces such as RS-232 and RS-422.
- Networked - A single connection allows connections to more than one other computer.
May also have shared files and databases.
Types of common interfaces,

- RS-232 (and other RS standards) are usually run at speeds of 2400 to 9600 baud, but
they
are very dependable.
Types of Common Networks,
- IEEE-488 connects a small number of computers (up to 32) at speeds from .5 Mbits/sec
to 8 Mbits/sec. The devices must all be with a few meters of one another.
- Ethernet - connects a large number of computers (up to 1024) at speeds of up to 10
Mbits/sec., covering distances of km. These networks are LANs, but bridges may be
used to connect them to other LANs to make a WAN.
Types of Modern Computers,
- Mainframes - Used for a high throughput of data (from disks and programs). These are
ideal for large business applications with multiple users, running many programs at once.
- Workstations (replacing Mini Computers) - have multiprocessing abilities of
Mainframe, but are not suited to a limited number of users.
- Micro-processors, small computers with simple operating systems (like PCs with
msdos) well suited to control. Most computerized machines use a micro-processor
Manufacturing Automation Protocol was a computer network standard released in 1982 for
interconnection of devices from multiple manufacturers. It was developed by General Motors to
combat the proliferation of incompatible communications standards used by suppliers of
automation products such as programmable controllers. By 1985 demonstrations of
interoperability were carried out and 21 vendors offered MAP products. In 1986 the Boeing
corporation merged its Technical Office Protocol with the MAP standard, and the combined
standard was referred to as "MAP/TOP". The standard was revised several times between the
first issue in 1982 and MAP 3.0 in 1987, with significant technical changes that made
interoperation between different revisions of the standard difficult.
Although promoted and used by manufacturers such as General Motors, Boeing, and others, it
lost market share to the contemporary Ethernet standard and was not widely adopted. Difficulties
included changing protocol specifications, the expense of MAP interface links, and the speed
penalty of a token-passing network. The token bus network protocol used by MAP became
standardized as IEEE standard 802.4 but this committee disbanded in 2004 due to lack of
industry attention.