THE

MECHANICAL
UNIVERSE
MECHANICS AND HEAT,
ADVANCED EDITION
STEVEN FRAUTSCHI
PROFESSOR OF THEORETICAL PHYSICS
CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

RICHARD P. OLENICK
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF DALLAS
VISITING ASSOCIATE, CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

TOM M. APOSTOL
PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS, CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DAVID L. GOODSTEIN
PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS AND APPLIED PHYSICS, CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
AND PROJECT DIRECTOR, THE MECHANICAL UNIVERSE

The right of the

University of Cambridge
to print and sell
all manner of books
was granted by
Henry VIII in 1534.
The University has printed
and published continuously
since 1584.

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge
London
New York
New Rochelle
Melbourne
Sydney

CONTENTS

Preface

xiii

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE MECHANICAL UNIVERSE

1.1 The Copernican Revolution

1.2 Units and Dimensions
5
1.3 A Final Word
9
Problems
10

Chapter 2 THE LAW OF FALLING BODIES

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4

11

Historical Background
11
Galileo's Law
12
Do Heavy Bodies Fall Faster Than Light Ones?
Medieval Laws of Falling Bodies
14

12

2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9

Experimental Determination of the Law of Falling Bodies

The Average Velocity of a Falling Body
18
Instantaneous Velocity: The Derivative
18
Acceleration
20
A Final Word
22
Problems
23

15

Chapter 3 THE LANGUAGE OF NATURE: DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9

The Development of Differential Calculus

27
Derivatives and Slopes of Tangent Lines
28
Leibniz's Notation. Analytic Definition of the Derivative
31
Rules of Differentiation and Derivatives of Special Functions
32
Antidifferentiation, the Reverse of Differentiation
38
Antidifferentiation and Quadrature
39
The Leibniz Integral Notation
44
Applications of the Second Fundamental Theorem to Physics
48
A Final Word
51
Problems
52

Chapter 4 INERTIA

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6

If the Earth Moves: Aristotelian Objections

The Earth Moves: Galileo's Law of Inertia
Relative Motion
62
Projectile Motion: A Consequence of Inertia
Calculating a Particular Trajectory
65
A Final Word
68
Problems
68

Chapter 5 VECTORS

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9

57

57
60
63

75

Coordinate Systems
75
Vectors
77 .
Addition and Subtraction of Vectors, and Multiplication by a Scalar
The Scalar Product of Vectors
88
The Cross Product of Vectors
93
Derivatives of Vector Functions in a Fixed Coordinate System
96
Position Vector Expressed in Polar Coordinates
100
Uniform Circular Motion
101
A Final Word
105
Problems
106

Chapter 6 NEWTON'S LAWS AND EQUILIBRIUM

6.1 The End of the Confusion

6.2 Newton's Laws of Motion

7 73
774

773

CONTENTS

6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7

Units of Mass, Momentum, and Force

117
Projectile Motion as an Application of Newton's Second Law
Equilibrium: Balance of Forces
720
Equilibrium: Balance of Torques
725
A Final Word
734
Problems
734

7 79

Chapter 7 UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION AND CIRCULAR MOTION

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7

The Genesis of an Idea

747
The Law of Universal Gravitation
742
Acceleration of Gravity on the Earth
749
Why the Moon Doesn't Fall to the Earth
757
Circular Orbits
754
Other Examples of Uniform Circular Motion
756
A Final Word
759
Problems
760

Chapter 8 FORCES

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9

763

The Fundamental Forces: Classification and Unification

The Strength of Gravitational and Electric Forces
765
Contact Forces
768
Application of Newton's Laws
772
Friction
779
Driving on Curved Roadways
785
Motion in a Resistive Medium
787
The Oil-Drop Experiment
792
A Final Word
796
Problems
797

Chapter 9 FORCES IN ACCELERATING REFERENCE FRAMES

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8

747

Inertial and Noninertial Reference Frames

203
Galilean Relativity
204
Inertial Forces
208
Inertial Forces in a Linearly Accelerating Frame
Centrifugal Force
270
Effect of the Earth's Rotation on g
211
Centrifuges
273
A Final Word
275
Problems
276

279
227

203

208

Chapter 10 ENERGY: CONSERVATION AND CONVERSION

10.1 Toward an Idea of Energy

10.2 Work and Potential Energy

763

279

10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9

Kinetic Energy and the Conservation of Energy

228
Gravitational Potential Energy
236
Potential Energy and Stability
240
Heat and Energy
246
Mechanical Advantage and Efficiency of Machines
250
Power
252
A Final Word
253
Problems
254

Chapter 11 THE CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9

The Universe as a Machine

263
Newton's Laws in Retrospect
265
The Center of Mass
266
The Law of Conservation of Momentum
269
Rocket Propulsion
273
Energy and Momentum Conservation in Collisions
Center-of-Mass Coordinates
282
Impulse: Collision Forces and Times
286
A Final Word
288
Problems
289

Chapter 12 OSCILLATORY MOTION

12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.10
12.11
12.12
12.13

275

295

Finding a Clock That Wouldn't Get Seasick

295
Simple Harmonic Motion
297
The General Solution of the Differential Equation of Simple
Harmonic Motion
307
Examples of Simple Harmonic Oscillators
303
Energy Conservation and Simple Harmonic Motion
306
The Simple Pendulum
309
Gaining Insight Through Approximations
312
Damped Oscillations
313
Forced Oscillations
316
Describing Resonance
377
Damped Forced Oscillations
327
Swinging and Singing Wires in the Wind
326
A Final Word
327
Problems
330

Chapter 13 ANGULAR MOMENTUM

13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4

263

Rotary Motion
335
Torque and Angular Momentum
Angular Momentum Conservation
Force and Torque
342

335

336
338

13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8

Kepler's Law of Equal Areas

344
Vortices and Firestorms
348
Conservation of Angular Momentum and Energy
A Final Word
355
Problems
356

Chapter 14 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

14.1
14.2
14.3
14 A
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
14.9
14.10
14.11
14.12
14.13
14.14

473

An Ancient Question
473
The Gyroscope
475
Angular Velocity of Precession
422
The Earth as a Gyroscope
425
A Final Word
426
Problems
427

Chapter 16 KEPLER'S LAWS AND THE CONIC SECTIONS

16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
16.8

363

Rotation of a Rigid Body About a Fixed Axis

363
Center of Mass of a Continuous Mass Distribution
364
Moment of Inertia
371
Calculation of Moments of Inertia
374
The Parallel-Axis Theorem
378
Energy and Work in Rigid-Body Rotation
381
Analogies Between Rotational and Translational Motion
The Physical Pendulum
384
The Torsion Pendulum
387
Combined Translations and Rotations
388
Kinematics of the Rolling Wheel
393
Rolling Down an Inclined Plane
394
Coriolis Forces
396
A Final Word
407
Problems
407

Chapter 15 GYROSCOPES

15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5

350

The Quest for Precision

437
Kepler's Laws
433
Conic Sections
437
The Ellipse
439
The Conies and Eccentricity
439
Properties of the Ellipse
442
Cartesian Equations for Conic Sections
A Final Word
448
Problems
448

446

437

CONTENTS

Chapter 17 SOLVING THE KEPLER PROBLEM

17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.7
17.8
17.9
17.10
17.11

Setting the Stage

451
Polar Coordinates and the Unit Vectors andO
452
Solution of the Kepler Problem
457
Celestial Omens: Comets
459
Energy and Eccentricity
460
Orbits and Eccentricity
467
Kepler's Third Law
463
Planetary Motion and Effective Potential
464
Applications of Orbital Dynamics
466
Calculating the Orbit From Initial Conditions
469
A Final Word
472
Problems
473

Chapter 18 NAVIGATING IN SPACE

18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5

477

Freeways in the Sky

477
Navigating in Space
478
Transfer Orbits
480
Gravity Assist
485
A Final Word
487
Problems
489

Chapter 19 TEMPERATURE AND THE GAS LAWS

19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
19.5

497

Temperature and Pressure

497
The Gas Laws of Boyle, Charles, and Gay-Lussac
The Ideal-Gas Law
499
Temperature and Energy
500
A Final Word
507
Problems
503

Chapter 20 THE ENGINE OF NATURE

20.1
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5
20.6
20.7

457

505

The Age of Steam

505
Work and the Pressure-Volume Diagram
507
The First Law of Thermodynamics
572
Adiabatic and Isothermal Processes
575
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
579
The Carnot Engine
527
A Final Word
525
Problems
526

497

Chapter 21 ENTROPY

21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5

537

Toward an Understanding of Entropy

531
Engines and Entropy
534
Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
An Implication of the Entropy Principle
547
A Final Word
544
Problems
544

Chapter 22 THE QUEST FOR LOW TEMPERATURE

22.1
22.2
22..3
22.4
22.5
22.6

539

547

Cooling Off
547
The States of Matter
548
Behavior of Water
557
Liquefaction of Gases
553
The Joule-Thomson Effect
557
A Final Word
559
Problems
560

Appendix A THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

Appendix CONVERSION FACTORS

563

565

Appendix FORMULAS FROM ALGEBRA, GEOMETRY, AND TRIGONOMETRY

Appendix D ASTRONOMICAL DATA

577

Appendix E PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

573

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Index

579

575

569