Cracked Casting Lecture 8

7/11/2010
g
y of Engineering
g
g and Technology
gy
Bangladesh
University
MME6203AdvancedTopicsinFoundryEngineering
Lecture 8
Lecture8
Casting Defects
5. Linear Contraction in Casting 3
A.K.M.B.Rashid
Professor,DepartmentofMME
BUET,Dhaka
7/11/2010
Todays Topics
z Cold cracking
Crack initiation
Crack growth
z Residual Stress
Casting stress
Quenching stress
Stress relief
B. Rashid, DMME, BUET
Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress
Page 03 of 20
Cold Cracking
Cold cracking is a general term used to emphasize the
different nature of the failure from that of hot tearing.
Hot tearing implies a failure occurring at temperatures
above the solidus, while cold cracking occurs at
temperatures below solidus (thus, it can be rather worm).
While tear is a ragged failure in a weak material, a crack is
more straight and smooth, and occurs in strong materials.
z Stress required to nucleate and propagate crack is more significant
z Stress was less significant in hot tearing; strain was more important.
Occasionally a failure appears to fall somewhere between

the tear and crack.
Page 04 of 20
7/11/2010
z The driving force for nucleation and growth of a cold

crack is stress.
z Crack may either be transgrannular or intergrannular
depending on the relative strength of grain and grain
boundaries.
z Depending on the temperature at which the crack is
formed, it may or may not be oxidized.
The colour of the crack is a useful guide to when it is formed; an uncoloured
metallic surface will indicate that the crack occurred at a temperature near to
room temperature; the normal temper colours ranging from light straw to yellow
to blue to brown indicate greater expousure to time at temperature.
Page 05 of 20
Crack Initiation
z Cracks start from stress raisers.
z A stress raiser can be an abrupt change of section of the
casting (this is well-known to design engineers); but in
any case these do not likely to cause an increase in stress
by much more than a factor of 2.
z More severe stresses are raised by sharper features, such
as oxide skins and folds. This are already constitute a
kind of crack and are cast into place at the time of filling
of the mould.
More dangerous because they occupy a large portion of the section of
casting, and are undetectable.
Page 06 of 20
7/11/2010
z Oxide films are probably the most important initiators

of cracks in light alloys
Castings made using good running systems are usually not sensitive to
problems of cracking.
z During welding, stresses in the weld are extremely high

due to constraints of the surrounding solid metal (which
is at room temperature, and very strong)
Cracks may start even from a micropore (which is spherical !) due to very
hi h ddriving
high
i i fforce.
Page 07 of 20
Crack Growth
z As casting cools, stress
stress-relaxation
relaxation processes become
progressively slower, and eventually stop altogether.
More elastic stress can be built up, which can speed up the process of
crack growth
Segregation of impurities to grain boundaries (for example, hydrogen,
sulphur and phosphorous in steel) and formation of low-melting compounds
(such as FeS, MnS, different carbides, AlN) help transgranular growth of
crack.
crack
Page 08 of 20
7/11/2010
Residual Stress
z Stresses accumulated inside the casting during contraction
to room temperature may have been released by the
castingg failingg by
y slow tearingg or sudden cracking.
g
z If the casting survived the catastrophic failure modes, these
stresses are retained inside the casting. Is there any wrong
about that ?
z There are reports that casting flew into pieces with a bang
when being machined,
machined or even when simply standing on
the floor.
We are unaware that the casting may be on the brink of catastrophic failure,
because, of course, the problem is invisible; the casting looks perfect.
It is the last thermal treatment, and the rate of cooling from the final
temperature, which is important so far as residual stresses are concerned.
Casting Stress
z Overall casting stresses
can be calculated as:
= E = ET
Page 10 of 20
7/11/2010
z Degree of ramming (variable mould hardness) or different

levels of moisture content (variable mould strength) have no
impact on the residual stresses of casting.
z Residual stresses are also
independent of casting
length (L).
z Casting temperature
increases residual stresses.
z Reducing the time of
casting in mould (stripping
time) reduces residual
stresses in casting.
Figure 6.22 Residual stress in aluminium alloy and grey
iron castings as a function of stripping time. Data from
Dodd (1950) and IBF Technical Subcommittee (1949).
z Relative variation in cross section or rigidity in different

members of casting can increase the residual stresses in
casting
Increasing the dimension of centre bar twice the dimension of outer bars
generates a stress over 200 MPa in the centre bar, which is enough to fracture
the bar during cooling.
z In steel castings, larger sections may be forced cooled or

even chilled to equalize their cooling rates with those of
thinner members up to the eutectoid temperature; below
this temperature cooling should be slow, so that plastic
relaxation through creep can occur.
Page 12 of 20
7/11/2010
Quenching Stress
z Residual stresses are likely to be higher if the casting
is quenched by water
z Heat flows in time t in a material having thermal
diffusivity D:
X = (Dt)1/2
D = K/
CP
K = thermal conductivity (for aluminium, 200 W/m/K)

P = density (for aluminium, 2700 kg/m3)
CP = specific heat capacity at constant pressure
(for alumiunium, 1000 J/kg/K approx)
D = thermal diffusivity (for aluminium, 10-4 m2/s)
Page 13 of 20
z Water quenching cools

the bar form 500 C to
250 C in about 5 s.
z Below this temperature,
stress will start to
accumulate because of
slow relaxation process
z In this 5 s, heat will travel about 20 mm (from equation)
i.e., throughout the cross-section.
The casting will not accumulate any residual stress.
Page 14 of 20
7/11/2010
z For a larger casting (e.g., cylinder block) distance to travel

heat is greater (of the order of 100 mm).
Thus the time available is still only 5 s, so heat will travel only 20 mm.
The 100 mm cylinder block will suffer extreme non-uniformity, and
consequently generate high quenching stress.
z To avoid high quenching stress in cylinder block

The casting needs to cool at rate at which it can equalize its temperature
within tolerable limits.
By using forced air cooling, approximately 100 s is now available, sufficient
for the heat to diffuse the 100-mm distance (as the above equation will confirm).
Page 15 of 20
z For steel castings, thermal diffusivity D is close to 10-5 m2/s.

The average diffusion distance of heat is only 7 mm in 5 seconds, and
30 mm in 100 seconds.
This increases the problems of casting thick steel samples without generating
much quenching stresses. That is why a long annealing cycle is required for
relieving internal stresses in steel.
z There are other intermediate cooling rate options are

available. Cooling in water also generate vapour blankets
during emersion of hot casting, which generates complex
stress pattern in casting, and differ from casting to casting.
z Uses of high-boiling-point liquids (such as oil) are
unacceptable due to their flammability hazard and smoke
generation problems.
Page 16 of 20
7/11/2010
z Uses of liquid polymer are nowadays become more

popular because of their high viscosity, which resists
boiling and provides an even cooling.
z Some polymers (e.g., polyalkylene glycol) have reverse
temperature coefficient solubility, due to which
polymers become less soluble at high temperature,
become sticky like solid grease. Due to this, boiling is
inhibited and uniform cooling is attained. At lower
temperatures, the polymers become soluble again, and
can be taken back into solution.
solution
These polymers are highly efficient in reducing quenching stresses in those
castings which are required to be quenched as a part of their heat treatment.
Properties developed are also more reproducible.
Page 17 of 20
Stress Relief
z Natural ageing is the most common way of relieving
internal stresses in grey iron casting.
z Artificial heat treatment is todays the most reliable and
efficient (although somewhat more energy intensive !)
method reducing internal stresses.
The casting is heated to a temperature at which sufficient plastic flow can
occur by creep to reduce the strain, and hence reduce the stress)
This
Thi is
i ddesigned
i d tto ttake
k place
l
within
ithi a reasonable
bl time,
ti
off th
the order
d off an
hour or so
It is important that stress is not re-introduced by cooling from the stressrelieving treatment.
Page 18 of 20
7/11/2010
Page 19 of 20
z The casting is often found to initiate crack during

re-heating.
The casting is already has high internal stress. Inside the furnace,
the surface is heated first and expands, before the centre becomes warm.
Thus the centre will be placed under an additional tensile stress, the total
being perhaps sufficient to exceed its tensile strength
The problem is avoided by re-heating sufficiently slowly that the
temperature in the centre is able to keep pace (within tolerable limits)
with that at the outside.
z Some
S
other
h approaches
h off stress relief:
li f
Application of vibration
Application of sub-resonant treatment
Page 20 of 20
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7/11/2010

B. Rashid, DMME, BUET

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

Occasionally a failure appears to fall somewhere between

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

z The driving force for nucleation and growth of a cold

B. Rashid, DMME, BUET

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

z Oxide films are probably the most important initiators

z During welding, stresses in the weld are extremely high

B. Rashid, DMME, BUET

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

B. Rashid, DMME, BUET

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

B. Rashid, DMME, BUET

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

z Degree of ramming (variable mould hardness) or different

z Relative variation in cross section or rigidity in different

z In steel castings, larger sections may be forced cooled or

B. Rashid, DMME, BUET

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

K = thermal conductivity (for aluminium, 200 W/m/K)

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

z Water quenching cools

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

z For a larger casting (e.g., cylinder block) distance to travel

z To avoid high quenching stress in cylinder block

B. Rashid, DMME, BUET

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

z For steel castings, thermal diffusivity D is close to 10-5 m2/s.

z There are other intermediate cooling rate options are

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

z Uses of liquid polymer are nowadays become more

B. Rashid, DMME, BUET

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

B. Rashid, DMME, BUET

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

B. Rashid, DMME, BUET

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

z The casting is often found to initiate crack during

B. Rashid, DMME, BUET

Lec #8: Casting defects cold crack & residual stress

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