Peregrinationes archaeologicae

in Asia et Europa
Joanni Chochorowski dedicatae

Instytut Archeologii Uniwersytetu Jagielloskiego

Wydawnictwo Profil-Archeo

Peregrinationes archaeologicae
in Asia et Europa
Joanni Chochorowski dedicatae

Redakcja

Wojciech Blajer

Krakw 2012

Redaktor tomu
Wojciech Blajer
Sekretarz naukowy
Karol Dzigielewski
Wsppraca redakcyjna
Anna Gawlik, Marcin S. Przybya, Piotr Godlewski
Recenzent
Zbigniew Bukowski
Redakcja techniczna, skad i amanie
Magdalena Dzigielewska
Layout
Beata Kulesza-Damaziak, Studio Grafiki Wydawniczej "Karandasz"
Projekt okadki
Karol Dzigielewski, Beata Kulesza-Damaziak
Korekta
Karol Dzigielewski, Wojciech Blajer i autorzy
Tumaczenia streszcze
Redakcja i autorzy
Korekta jzykowa
Piotr Godlewski, Aeddan Shaw, Wojciech Blajer
Publikacja sfinansowana ze rodkw na dziaalno statutow Wydziau Historycznego Uniwersytetu Jagielloskiego
Wydanie I, Krakw 2012
ISBN 978-83-931345-4-0 (Profil-Archeo)
ISBN 978-83-934218-2-4 (Instytut Archeologii UJ)
Copyright by Wydawnictwo Profil-Archeo, Instytut Archeologii UJ & Wojciech Blajer
Ksika, ani aden jej fragment, nie moe by przedrukowywana ani powielana w jakiejkolwiek formie
bez pisemnej zgody wydawcy.
The book, or any part of it, may not be reproduced or copied in any form without written permission from the editor.

Redakcja
Instytut Archeologii Uniwersytetu Jagielloskiego
ul. Gobia 11, 31-007 Krakw
tel. +48 12 663 12 72, 633 12 80
e-mail: wojblajer@gmail.com
karol.dziegielewski@uj.edu.pl

Wydawnictwo
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www.pracowniaprofil.pl

Peregrinationes archaeologicae in Asia et Europa Joanni Chochorowski dedicatae, Krakw 2012

Spis treci / Contents

List gratulacyjny Dziekana Wydziau Historycznego Uniwersytetu Jagielloskiego........................................................9

Tabula Gratulatoria........................................................................................................................................................................11
Wykaz prac Profesora Jana Chochorowskiego ogoszonych drukiem w latach 19702011..........................................13
Svend E. Albrethsen
Do you remember? An archaeological excavation on Svalbard with Jan Chochorowski (Pamitasz? O wykopaliskach
wSvalbardzie z Janem Chochorowskim)...............................................................................................................................................21
Roger Jrgensen
A Pomor outpost at Kapp Lee, Svalbard (Przyczek Pomorcw w Kapp Lee w Svalbardzie)..............................................29
Jutta Kneisel
Gesichtsurnen und ihre Kopfbedeckung. Neue Erkenntnisse zum Phnomen der Gesichtsurnen im nordeuropischen Kontext ( Face-urns and their headdress. New studies on the phenomenon of face-urns in the North-European
context)....................................................................................................................................................................................................39
Agnieszka Krzysiak
Dwa miecze brzowe z Machowinka, pow. Supsk (Two bronze swords from Machowinko, Supsk district).......................57
Radosaw Janiak
Kamienna konstrukcja w ksztacie odzi na cmentarzysku kurhanowym w Nowej Sikorskiej Hucie, stan. 2, pow.
Kartuzy (Stone setting in the shape of a boat from the barrow cemetery in Nowa Sikorska Huta, site 2, Kartuzy district)..............65
Anna Bochnak, Tomasz Bochnak
Nieznane przedstawienie tarczy na ceramice kultury pomorskiej ze zbiorw Fundacji Ksit Czartoryskich w Krakowie
(Unknown depiction of a shield on Pomeranian culture pottery from the collection of Princes Czartoryski Foundation in Krakw)............71
Jacek Gackowski
Przeom epok brzu i elaza w midzyrzeczu Wisy, Drwcy i Osy w wietle nowszych odkry i refleksji interpretacyjnych
(The Bronze to Iron Age transition between the Vistula, Drwca and Osa rivers in light of recent finds and interpretations).................77
Jan Dbrowski
Rola metalu w epoce brzu (The role of metal in the Bronze Age)...........................................................................................87
Maciej Kaczmarek
Osady z epoki brzu na Nizinie Wielkopolsko-Kujawskiej uwagi o stanie bada (Settlements from the Bronze Age in
Nizina Wielkopolsko-Kujawska remarks on the state of research)...................................................................................................93
Tadeusz Malinowski
Zabytki kultury pomorskiej ze Szczepankowa w powiecie mogileskim (Pomeranian culture artefacts from Szczepankowo
in Mogilno district)................................................................................................................................................................................101
Karol Dzigielewski
Problemy synchronizacji danych paleoklimatycznych i archeologicznych na przykadzie tzw. wahnicia subatlantyckiego
(Problems of paleoclimatic and archaeological data synchronization as exemplified by the Subatlantic abrupt climatic shift)............109
Jarosaw Lewczuk
Cmentarzysko ciaopalne kultury uyckiej z III okresu epoki brzu w Onie Lubuskim, stanowisko 17 (Cremation
cemetery of the Lusatian culture from Bronze Age Period III at site 17 in Ono Lubskie, Lubuskie Province)............................... 121

Peregrinationes archaeologicae in Asia et Europa Joanni Chochorowski dedicatae, Krakw 2012

Marek Gedl
Uwagi o brzowych szpilach wrzecionowatych (Remarks on bronze pins with spindle-shaped heads)...............................129
Micha Bugaj
Nieinwazyjne badania osady obronnej w Wicinie (A non-destructive survey of the fortified settlement in Wicina).............135
Bogusaw Gediga
Grb kobiecy (?) wyposaony w militaria z Domasawia, pow. Wrocaw (A female (?) grave from Domasaw, Wrocaw
district, furnished with elements of weaponry).......................................................................................................................................149
Renata Abamowicz
Wstpne wyniki ekspertyzy archeozoologicznej szcztkw kostnych ze stanowiska 11 w Kornicach, wojewdztwo
lskie (Preliminary results of archaeozoological evaluation of bone remains from site 11 in Kornice, Silesia)...........................161
Bogusaw Chory, Boena Chory
Uwagi o osadnictwie zachodniego Beskidu midzy Beczw a So w modszej epoce brzu i wczesnej epoce elaza
(Remarks on the Younger Bronze Age and Early Iron Age settlement in the Western Beskid (Beskid Zachodni) Mts., between the
Beczwa and Soa rivers)....................................................................................................................................................................169
Ondej Chvojka, Tereza lkov
Zur Deutung der urnenfelderzeitlichen streifenfrmigen Siedlungsobjekte (An interpretation of linear ditch-objects from
some Urnfield period settlements)......................................................................................................................................................183
Michaela Lochner
Thunau am Kamp eine befestigte Hhensiedlung der Urnenfelderkultur und der auergewhnliche Fund eines
Tonfsschens (Thunau am Kamp a fortified hill site of the Urnfield Culture and the unique find of a clay barrel)................... 193
Vladimr Podborsk
Der neue Fund eines Deichselwagens aus der Ostslowakei (A new find of a cart model (Deichselwagen) from eastern Slovakia)..205
Biba Teran
Musterbilder auf Knochen ein Element der Identitt der frheisenzeitlichen Fzesabony-Mezcst-Kulturgruppe
(Patterns on bones an element of the identity of the Early Iron Age Fzesabony-Mezsct-Group).......................................215
Horia Ciugudean
The chronology of the Gva culture in Transylvania (Chronologia kultury Gva w Siedmiogrodzie).............................229
Agnieszka Gil-Drozd
Rozwj obrzdku ciaopalnego na obszarze Europy rodkowej w modszej epoce kamienia i pocztkach epoki brzu
(okoo 55002000 B.C.) (The development of the cremation rite in Central Europe in the Neolithic and beginnings of the Bronze
Age (ca 55002000 B.C.)).......................................................................................................................................................................245
Elena Miroayov
iarov hrob sbohatou vbavou zo dane (Richly furnished cremation burial from daa, Slovakia)...........................253

ii (Signs on the pottery of the Kutanovice culture)...............................263
Renata Madyda-Legutko, Elbieta Pohorska-Kleja
Uwagi o osadnictwie w Kotlinie Sanockiej u schyku epoki brzu i w pocztkach epoki elaza (Remarks on Late Bronze
Age and Early Iron Age settlement in the Sanok Basin).............................................................................................................273
Piotr N. Kotowicz, Marcin S. Przybya
Osada z przeomu epoki brzu i wczesnej epoki elaza w Ladzinie, pow. Krosno, stan. 10 (The settlement from the Bronze
Age/Early Iron Age transition in Ladzin, Krosno district, site 10)................................................................................................. 283
Sylwester Czopek
Nowe znaleziska scyto-trackiej ceramiki toczonej z wczesnej epoki elaza na terenie poudniowo-wschodniej Polski
(New finds of Scytho-Thracian wheel-made pottery from the Early Iron Age in south-eastern Poland).....................................297
Marta M. Korczyska, Klaus Cappenberg, Tobias L. Kienlin, Jakob Ociepka
Vorlufige Resultate und methodische berlegungen zu der Prospektion bronzezeitlicher Fundstellen im mittleren
Dunajectal, Kleinpolen (Current results and methodological remarks on the surveying of Bronze Age sites along the middle
Dunajec River, Little Poland)........................................................................................................................................................ 307
Pawe Valde-Nowak
Neolityczny uk z Kamiennika (Neolithic bow from Kamiennik).......................................................................................... 323

Peregrinationes archaeologicae in Asia et Europa Joanni Chochorowski dedicatae, Krakw 2012

Jacek Grski, Przemysaw Makarowicz

Nowe datowania radiowglowe kurhanw i grobw beznasypowych trzcinieckiego krgu kulturowego z Maopolski
i Wielkopolski (New radiocarbon datings of the barrows and flat burials of the Trzciniec cultural circle from Maopolska and
Wielkopolska )..................................................................................................................................................................................331
Anna Gawlik
Pochwki szkieletowe ze st. 1 z Witowa interpretacja obrzdku pogrzebowego (Skeleton burials from site 1 at Witw
interpretation of burial rite)..........................................................................................................................................................341
Ulana Gocman, Igor Piekos
Gospodarka hodowlana na terenie wielokulturowej osady w Zagrzycach, gm. Kazimierza Wielka (od III okresu epoki brzu do wczesnego okresu wpyww rzymskich) (Animal husbandry in the multiphase settlement in Zagrzyce,
Kazimierza Wielka commune ( from Bronze Age Period III to the Early Roman Period))........................................................349
Marcin Biborski
Nowe odkrycia rzymskich mieczy zdobionych inkrustowanymi przedstawieniami figuralnymi i znakami
symbolicznymi (New findings of Roman swords decorated with encrusted figural representations and symbolic signs)................359
Piotr Kaczanowski, Judyta Rodziska-Nowak
Hunowie na ziemiach polskich. Prba podsumowania problematyki (The Huns on Polish an attempt to summarise).........371
Elbieta Magorzata Kosiska
A unique find of Scythian provenance from the Lublin region (Unikatowe znalezisko proweniencji scytyjskiej z regionu
lubelskiego)..............................................................................................................................................................................................................379
Sylwester Sadowski
Nowe znalezisko czekana typu scytyjskiego z poudniowo-wschodniej Polski (A new find of a Scythian battle-axe from
south-eastern Poland).......................................................................................................................................................................385
Katarzyna lusarska
Ikonografia spoecznoci wczesnej epoki brzu Pnocnego Nadczarnomorza (The iconography of the Early Bronze Age
societies of the Northern Pontic zone)................................................................................................................................................391

(The Gordeyevka Phenomenon)...............................................................................................395
Maya Kaschuba, Marina Vakhtina
Moderner Stand der Untersuchungen des frheisenzeitlichen Fundmaterials aus der befestigten Anlage von Nemirov
am Sdlichen Bug (Current state of research over the Early Iron Age materials from the fortified settlement at Nemirov upon the
Southern Bug)..................................................................................................................................................................................405

( ) (Scythian
priestess dress (archaic period sites from the Forest-Steppe Right-Bank Dnieper))...........................................................................417
Anna Zieliska
Rola kobiety w plemionach koczowniczych, czyli w poszukiwaniu prawdziwych Amazonek (The role of women
in nomadic tribes, or in search of the real Amazons)....................................................................................................................427
,
(Two unique acinaces from the Cherkasy oblast)....................................435
,

(Kurgans at Gladkovshchina monuments of the Scythian archaic era from the Left-Bank Dnieper
terrace Forest-Steppe).....................................................................................................................................................................441

(Belskoe fortified settlement)....................................................................................................................461

(The Solokha burial ground in the context of Scythian
chronology).......................................................................................................................................................................................467

(Barrow with the burials of armed Scythian girls).....................475

Peregrinationes archaeologicae in Asia et Europa Joanni Chochorowski dedicatae, Krakw 2012

,
- (Scythian Period cemetery at Mamay-Gora)............................................485
Vyacheslav I. Molodin
The Ob-Irtysh forest-steppe in the Bronze Age (Lasostep dorzecza Obu i Irtysza w epoce brzu).........................................491

-
(The significance of archaeological research in the great Scytho-Sarmatian period mounds on the Bugry site
in the foothills of the Altay)...............................................................................................................................................................501


(Burials in stone cists and the problem of cultural continuity in the Altai mountains between the Early Scythian period
and the Hunnu period)....................................................................................................................................................................511
-
(Burial rite as a basis
for the identification of proper Scythian kurgans in Azerbaijan).....................................................................................................519


(From the history of studies on Pre-Scythian era horse equipment in Eastern Europe and the North Caucasus)....................529
Jan Bouzek
Central Europe and Caucasus in the Early Iron Age (Europa rodkowa i Kaukaz we wczesnej epoce elaza)..................537
Andrzej Mierzwiski
Achilles hiperborejski esej o mitycznym spenieniu (Hyperborean Achilles an essay on mythical fulfilment)..............549
Wojciech Machowski
Grecy czy Scytowie kogo pochowano pod kurhanami na antycznych nekropolach Olbii i Pantikapajonu? (Greeks or
Scythians who was buried in the mounds of the ancient necropoleis of Olbia and Pantikapaion?)..............................................557
Ewdoksia Papuci-Wadyka
A Phoenician amphoriskos from Olbia in the collection of Jagiellonian University in Krakw. Notes on our
research in the Ukraine (Fenicki amphoriskos z Olbii w kolekcji Uniwersytetu Jagielloskiego w Krakowie. Uwagi o naszych
badaniach na Ukrainie).................................................................................................................................................................565
Maya Kashuba, Oleg Levitski
The Hallstatt house-building techniques of the Carpathian-Danube region and the emergence of circular pit-houses
in the Early Scythian period in North-West Pontic (Techniki budowy domostw w okresie halsztackim na obszarach karpac-

ko-naddunajskich i kwestia pojawienia si kolistych budynkw zagbionych w okresie wczesnoscytyjskim w pnocno-zachodnim

Nadczarnomorzu)............................................................................................................................................................................573

Joachim liwa
Aphek-Antipatris (Tell Ras el-Ain). Stanowisko z epoki rodkowego brzu II i naczynie z kolekcji Instytutu Archeologii Uniwersytetu Jagielloskiego (Aphek-Antipatris (Tell Ras el-Ain). A site from the Middle Bronze II and a ceramic vessel
from the collection of the Institute of Archaeology of the Jagiellonian University).............................................................................583
Krzysztof M. Ciaowicz
Nie tylko depozyty. Drobna plastyka figuralna z Tell el-Farcha (Not only deposits. Figural fine art from Tell el-Farkha)...589
Magorzata Smorg Rycka
Szlachetny barbarzyca chroni Rzym? Kilka uwag o interpretacji przedstawie na tzw. dyptyku Stylichona (The noble
barbarian protecting Rome? Some notes on the interpretation of representations of the Stilicho diptych).......................................599
Janusz A. Ostrowski
Dwa polskie XVI-wieczne opisy Campi Phlegraei (Two Polish descriptions of Campi Phlegraei from the 16 th
century)...........................................................................................................................................................................................609

Peregrinationes archaeologicae in Asia et Europa Joanni Chochorowski dedicatae, Krakw 2012, 537547

Jan Bouzek

Central Europe and Caucasus

in the Early Iron Age

Central Europe and Caucasus in the Early Iron Age. The article revisits the question of the interrelations between the Caucasus and Central Europe in the frame of mutual trajectories
some leading westwards and other eastwards between the
two areas, including those with the Balkans. The Sabatinovka
and Belozerka cultures of the Late Bronze Age showed links
with both the Caucasus and the Central European Urnfield
cultures, including some acceptance of western and southern
impulses, but contact between Central Europe and the Caucasus and North Pontic areas reached a peak in HaB2C1
(i.e. according to present chronology, to late 10th8th century
B.C.). The Cimmerian mounted warriors with bows and arrows brought with them bimetallic daggers, new more sophisticated horse trappings and symbolic objects connected with
shamanism; they contributed to the collapse of several groups
of the Urnfield culture complex in the eastern part of Central
Europe and established themselves as a ruling class, at
least in the group called the Mezcst culture in
Hungary.

he jubilee of our learned colleague, who

devoted many years to the study of the
eastern relations of Central Europe in the Early
Iron Age (esp. C h o c h o r o w s k i 1993; C h o c h o r o w s k i ed. 2004; 2007) is a good occasion to
once more sum up the evidence regarding relations
between the Caucasus region and Europe which was
outlined i.a. by the present author many years ago
(B o u z e k 1974; 1983).
The predecessors

The area north of the Black Sea, between the Carpathians and the Caucasus, was mainly steppe, and the
steppe was rather free country. In the famous passage
of Herodotus on Scythians, in which the Persian envoy
asks why they do not fight for their country, the Scythians reply that they have neither cities nor agricultural
land to fight for (H e r o d . IV,127). For nomads the
steppe was like the desert or the sea: a free space across

Europa rodkowa i Kaukaz we wczesnej epoce elaza. Artyku

jest prb powtrnej analizy wzajemnych powiza pomidzy
obszarami Kaukazu i Europy rodkowej, a take kontaktw
pomidzy tymi regionami i obszarem Pwyspu Bakaskiego.
Cho ju zwizane z pn epoka brzu kultury sabatinowska i
bieozierska wykazuj powizania tak z obszarem Kaukazu, jak i
ze rodkowoeuropejsk kultur pl popielnicowych adaptujc
przy tym niektre zachodnie i poudniowe impulsy kulturowe
to najwiksze natenie kontaktw pomidzy Europ rodkow,
Kaukazem i stref nadczarnomorsk przypada dopiero na fazy
HaB2-C1 (t.j. zgodnie z obecn chronologi od pnego X do
VIII w. przed Chr.). Kimmeryjscy konni wojownicy, uzbrojeni
w uki i strzay, z ich bimetalicznymi sztyletami oraz nowymi,
bardziej wyrafinowanymi formami ogowia koskiego i symbolicznymi przedmiotami zwizanymi z praktykami szamaskimi,
przyczynili si do upadku wielu grup krgu pl popielnicowych
we wschodniej czci Europy rodkowej i osadzili si
jako klasa przywdcza, przynajmniej w tzw. kulturze
Mezcst na terenie Wgier.

which various groups could move rather freely

with their herds. This concerned the steppe, not
the forest-steppe north of it, and in this southern
zone only the periods in which agriculture was not
developed. We may remember the Neolithic Precucuteni-Tripolje culture in its early stages, and, partly,
the Sabatinovka culture of the advanced Bronze Age.
Otherwise, the Kurgan (Pit and Catacomb cultures, as
well as the earliest Srubna culture), were largely pastoralist peoples without permanent settlements (cf. now
esp. A p a k i d z e et al. eds 2009).
The horse had been a common domestic animal
since the Eneolithic in the temperate zones of Europe
and Asia and it was used to draw wagons. Relations between the Caucasus and Central Europe in the Eneolithic were also connected with horses, as shown by the
mace-heads in shape of a horses head, besides other objects and pottery with impressions of cord, etc. Since
ca. 2000 B.C. light-wheeled chariots has also been used
for military purposes. The Mitanni and Hyksos who
invaded Egypt were among the first to use war chari-

Peregrinationes archaeologicae in Asia et Europa Joanni Chochorowski dedicatae, Krakw 2012

ots successfully on a large scale, but the real nomads

in the full sense of this word only developed together
with the mastery of horse riding, in which the rider can
fully impose his will on the horse (cf. S c h a u e r ed.
1994; H n s e l, M a c h n i k eds 1998). This level of
horsemanship was developed in the steppes north of
the Caucasus and was first widely used by two groups
of Pontic nomads, initially by the Cimmerians and
later by the Scythians. Practically contemporary with
the nomads of the European steppe were other groups
between the Ural and northern China; many Early
Iron Age elements of horse harness are distributed
from northern China (Ordos area) to Europe (cf. esp.
H l l m a n n, K o s s a c k eds 1992). The horse was
the basic mean of transport for nomads, as well as a
source of food and the main component of their military might. Riding enabled the much faster transport
of men and women across large distances than previously possible by foot or by means which were accessible to large groups of people, not only their leaders,
like the earlier chariots.
The developed Srubna culture of the North Pontic area was divided (first by A.I. Terenokin) into an
earlier Sabatinovka culture, and a later Belozerka group
(Te r e n o k i n 1965). The Sabatinovka culture represented a floruit of the Pontic Late Bronze Age civilisation, with large-scale agricultural activity and sophisticated metallurgy, while the Belozerka stage showed
more modest occupation concentrated only along the
main rivers, as the steppe dried up. The Sabatinovka
culture can best be compared with BrCD. This concerns also the cheek-pieces of horse-bits, like one from
Susanskoje, with parallels in Central European HaA1
2 (G e d l 1994; O t r o e n k o 1998; K l o k o
1998; K e m e n c z e i 1984; 1996).
The evidence of the Hordeevka cemetery in western Ukraine is very important for the external relations
both to the west and east (B e r e z a n s k a j a 1998).
The amber beads of the Tiryns and Alumire types
show connections with Greece and Italy, other items
with Central Europe and with the east. Of particular
importance are also the results of excavations of Valentina Kozenkova in the Caucasus area, the Zmejskoe settlement and the Seren Jurt cemetery (K o z e n k o v a
1977; 1989; 1992; 1998), and those of the Tli cemetery
in the central Caucasus (southern Ossetia Te c h o v
1980; 1981; 1985; P r u s s 1993; 1994). A selection of
Caucasian objects with good parallels in HaAB central Europe, Italy and Greece is illustrated on fig. 1.
The Belozerka fibulae represent a phenomenon
which is to some extent exceptional in the North Pontic area, as are other characteristics of the Belozerka
culture. General surveys of them, especially those from
Moldova and the western Ukraine, has been published
by a number of scholars; most recently V.P.Vanugov
(2008) brings an exhaustive survey of the Belozerka
fibulae. The violin-bow fibulae with a double loop come
from Lukaevski kurgan, irokoe and Strumok, the
538

knee-shaped ones from Strumok, Sepnoj, Kazaklia, and

Saharna, the early bow-shaped variety from Stepnoj and
Kazaklia and the snake-shaped types from Lukaevskoe
poselenie. All came from female graves, which also
contained amber and glass beads (Va n u g o v 2008,
210214). They can be roughly compared to the Submycenaean fibulae in Greece (fig. 1:1), but they are
simpler in execution and apparently local products,
although not without southern and western inspiration (B o u z e k 2011). This all allows for a similar date
for the Ukrainian fibulae to be ascribed, so it seems to
be more plausible to put the transition of the Sabatinovka/Belozerka to ca. 1100 B.C. (cf. Va n u g o v
1996; O t r o e n k o 1998). While the Belozerka
people still partly employed agriculture, the successive
Cimmerian culture was typical for nomads. The Cimmerian culture belonged to the koine of Geometric
styles, but here the newly accomplished art of riding
was in foreground. The Caucasian fibulae are more
closely connected with the Greek series (fig. 1:3,4,9)
(B o u z e k 1983, 204205).
Horse and riding, nomadism
Horse was an animal much admired in Greek and
even other Indo-European mythologies. The winged
horse Pegasus helped Perseus to win his victory over
the Gorgon and also over the sea dragon menacing
Andromeda, thus opening the way into the new Iron
Age. Pegasus represented wisdom inspiring poetry,
and the connection of the horse with the forces of wisdom was equally valid for normal horses. Nomadism, in the fullest sense of the word as described by
Strabo (G e o g r. VII,3,7 and XVII,4,6), only became
possible with horse-riding in the steppes where it concerned cattle herdsmen. Cattle, horses and camels like
long grass, while sheep and goats prefer short and do
not move rapidly enough for real nomads.
This great invention in human history developed
in the first centuries of the last millennium B.C.: its
first masters emerged in the area north of the Caucasus and the Black and Caspian seas. From the 9th century B.C. on, the Assyrian army employed mounted
archers. The groups of mounted warriors and squires
in Assyrian reliefs show that the Assyrian army adapted the old system of the charioteer and the warrior to
the new concept of cavalry. But this innovation only
became a decisive strike force after the refinement of
horse harnessing and the skill of riding.
The 9th8th centuries B.C. saw the first successful
attacks by mounted warriors, first in temperate Europe, and later in late 8th7th century B.C., in Anatolia
and the Near East. The military success of the Cimmerian and Scythian raids in the Near East struck fear
everywhere: even the Jewish prophets Jeremiah and
Isaiah used a simile of their raids (Gumurru) as examples of the worst danger for their compatriots.

Central Europe and Caucasus in the Early Iron Age

Fig. 1. North Pontic and Caucasian objects of Balkan and Central European affinities (after B o u z e k 1983)
Ryc. 1. Znaleziska z terenw pnocnego Nadczarnomorza i Kaukazu wykazujce zwizki zBakanami i rodkow Europ (wg
B o u z e k 1983)
Lukaevka, Moldova (1); Zmejskoe, Russia (2); Novyj Afon, Georgia (3); Abarchuk (4,6,9); Eeri (5,12); Styrgaz (7); Tli,
Georgia (8,10); Seren Jurt, Russia (11)

Of course, the mastery of riding was one of the

achievements of the new Iron Age mind, of which the
Greeks were the protagonists, but this particular role in
the Early Iron Age drama was performed by the Pontic
nomads, and the Greeks only followed their models slowly. Archaeologically, the area of the Eurasian steppes and
neighbouring countries both in the West and the East
(China) is marked by identical or similar types of harness:
horse-bits (fig. 4:4), other metallic parts used for keeping
leather straps in position, where they cross each other
(fig.4:7), and for decoration (phalerae, fig. 4:1), rattles
(fig. 6:15) and the like (cf. B o u z e k 1997, 179203).
The vast Eurasian area is also marked by horse burials. The sacrifice of horses to the dead, whose soul they
should accompany, is sometimes marked only symbolically by placing bridles or yokes with the funeral chariot
in the grave (most of the Hallstatt burials), while the cases
of horse sacrifice of the kind described by Herodotus (IV,
72) cannot be uncovered archaeologically. Still, the area
of distribution of horse burials is immense, reaching from
China to Europe. The first horse burials in the Pontic area
date from the 3rd millennium B.C. and, not much later,
they also appear in Greece (the Middle Helladic Mara-

thon tumulus) and in the Middle East. From Dark Age

Greece, we have first the Lefkandi Hero of the 10th century, but the majority of examples everywhere date from
8th to 4th century B.C.
Nearly as large as the distribution of horse burials is
that of the specific types of Early Iron Age horse-bits.
The so-called North Caucasian types after H.A. Potratz
(= all A.A. Iessens types and also those of G. Kossack,
here fig. 4:4) allow tighter control of the horse than the
earlier types of the Bronze Age (Trancaucasian types after
P o t r a t z 1966; cf. P o d b o r s k 1970), which were
mainly intended for a team of horses drawing a chariot.
On the Hungarian plain, these nomads found a land
similar to their steppe and they seem to have stayed there
for some time, before being absorbed by the local population, but their raids (like those of later Huns, Hungarians
and Tatars) even reached France, and their impact was
felt in Spain.
Mounted warriors brought to their neighbours not
only their skill in cavalry warfare, but also their beliefs,
connected with the Eurasian animal style and shamanism
(E l i a d e 1957; R a e v s k i j 1975). The first, Geometric stage of this style was transmitted by the Cimmeri539

Peregrinationes archaeologicae in Asia et Europa Joanni Chochorowski dedicatae, Krakw 2012

ans and their allies. Among the objects connected with

shamanism, one may mention rattles and bells, partly in
openwork (fig. 6:1119), and the so-called jug-stoppers known in the Caucasian and Macedonian schools
of bronzework (fig. 5:18,10), the crosswise objects characteristic of the Cimmerians (fig. 5:1216), mace heads
and pendants with protrusions (fig. 5:1721), and wheels
with spokes (fig. 5:24,2628). Admiration for successful
cavalry brought not only an imitation of the way of life
of the Cimmerians by the leading military aristocracies of
European final Bronze Age and Early Hallstatt cultures,
but also an admiration for their beliefs: some symbolic
motifs used in shamanistic rituals were transformed into
personal ornaments (cf. M i t r e v s k i 1991; B o u z e k
1997, 197205; 2007a) (figs. 56). The majority of the
European and Greek Early Iron Age bits derive from the
North Caucasian-Cimmerian series, which penetrated into large parts of Europe, as studied by A.A.Iessen
(1952), G. Kossack (1980), V. Podborsk (1970): the

types Iessen I and III and the Szentes-Vekerzug horse-bits

(fig. 2:2, 4:4) were also known in some parts of western
Europe, including Spain (B o u z e k 1997, 197199).
It may be assumed that the nomadic impact of 10th9th
century B.C., deriving from Cimmerian raids, affected
large parts of Europe and established another aspect of
the koine of Early Iron Age Geometric styles, connected
with horses and riding: this impact also inspired the life
style of the new HaC aristocracy in large parts of temperate Europe.
Cimmerians and ThracoCimmerians
The main period of Central European contact with
the Caucasus area is the period of Cimmerian raids
and the beginning of the Thraco-Cimmerian bronzes
in Central Europe, which has been dated independent-

Fig. 2. Generalized map of the distribution of Cimmerian and related bronzes: bimetallic daggers (1); horse-bits (2); sceptres
(3); Cimmerian finds in Asia Minor (4); Thracian bronzes (5); area of the early Macedonian bronzes (MB); Koban and Kuban
cultures (K); Colchis culture (C), Central Transcaucasian groups (TC) (after B o u z e k 1983 with addenda)
Ryc. 2. Uoglniona mapa rozprzestrzenienia brzw kimmeryjskich i pochodnych: bimetaliczne sztylety (1); kiezna (2); skipetary (3); znaleziska kimmeryjskie w Azji Mniejszej (4); brzy trackie (5); obszar wystepowania wczesnych brzw macedoskich
(MB); kultury kobaska i kubaska (K); kultura kolchidzka (C); grupy centralno-transkaukaskie (TC) (wg B o u z e k 1983
z uzupenieniami)
540

Central Europe and Caucasus in the Early Iron Age

Fig. 3. Bimetallic daggers of the Golovjatino-Leibnitz (19) and Gamw-Berezovka (1018) types (after B o u z e k 1983)
Ryc. 3. Bimetaliczne sztylety typu Golovjatino-Leibnitz (19) i Gamw-Berezovka (1018) (wg B o u z e k 1983)
Leibnitz, Austria (1); Klein Neundorf, Lausitz, Germany (2); Panad, Romania (3); Kamenomostskoe, Ukraine (4); Brigetio-Komrom, Hungary (5); Demkino, Volga area, Russia (6); near Kiev, Ukraine (7); Keskem, Hungary (8); Biljarsk, Russia (9);
Abadzechskaja, Russia (10); Kotou near tramberk, Moravia, Czech Republic (11); Achmolovskij mogilnik, Upper Mari region, Russia (12,16); Tatarskoe Burnaevo near Kujbyev, Russia (13); Blagodarnoe, reg. Otradno, Russia (14); Gamw, Poland
(15); Kolca Gora near Kislovodsk, Russia (17); Vysokaja mogila near Chiinu, Moldova (18)
541

Peregrinationes archaeologicae in Asia et Europa Joanni Chochorowski dedicatae, Krakw 2012

Fig. 4. Thraco-Cimmerian horse bit (4), sceptres (2,6), buttons (1,3,5) and cross-shaped tubular object (7) (after B o u z e k
1983)
Ryc. 4. Trako-kimmeryjskie kiezna (4), skipetary (2,6), guzy (1,3,5) i krpulec rurkowaty w ksztacie krzya (7) (wg B o u z e k
1983)
Adaevci, Croatia (1,3); Srvz canal and Ugra, Hungary (2,4); Nagyenyed-Kakasdomb, Hungary (5,7), Turiec area, Slovakia (6)

ly by G. Kossack (1980) and myself (B o u z e k 1974;

1983) to the 9th century B.C., a date now further raised
to late 10th century by dendrochronological studies in
Switzerland and Germany. These are not much earlier
than the dates given by A.I. Terenokin (1976; 1981) for
the earlier of both Cimmerian stages, ernogorovka (c.
900750 B.C.), while the later stage Novoerkassk (after
the Novoerkasskij hoard) should be dated, according to
him, c. 750650 B.C., a date which may also be probably
slightly raised. The Thraco-Cimmerian objects in the
eastern part of Central Europe are, according to MllerKarpe`s chronology, typical of HaB3, but also the nearly
complete absence of typical HaB2 hoards east of Bavaria
suggests an earlier date for their arrival.
542

Cimmerian culture, as defined by Terenokin (1976),

had several roots: one of them was local, a certain degree of tradition from the previous Belozerka phase, a
second was in the Caucasian (Koban culture) tradition,
the third in the Volga-Kama area (C h a l i k o v 1977)
and a fourth in the Ananino culture and the Minussinsk
area. This all points to a shared, nomadic origin for Cimmerian culture and that of the later Scythians. The stelae
(so-called stag-stones) and the daggers (fig. 2:1,3) show
eastern links, most other bronze objects, including maceheads with figural motifs (fig. 2:3; 4:2; 6), link the Cimmerians with the Koban culture, while pottery seems to
show some degree of local Pontic tradition of the Belozerka phase. Graves of both stages of the Cimmerian culture

Central Europe and Caucasus in the Early Iron Age

Fig. 5. Comparative chart of bronze objects from the northern Caucasus Kuban area (14, 12, 1718, 2223, 26, 2930, 37),
from the Northern Balkans and Carpathian Basin (after B o u z e k 1974)
Ryc. 5. Tablica porwnawcza obiektw brzowych z pnocnego Kaukazu regionu Kubania (14, 12, 1718, 2223, 26,
2930, 37), pnocnych Bakanw i Kotliny Karpackiej (wg B o u z e k 1974)
Adaevci, Serbia (5); Somlyhegy, Hungary (6); Somlyvsrhely, Hungary (13); Hungary (14); Ugra, Hungary (19); Prozor,
Bosnia and Herzegovina (20); Nagyenyed-Kakasdomb, Hungary (24); Batina, Croatia (27, 3132); Glasinac, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2234); Trilophon-Messimeri, Greece (78,16); Belasica, Macedonia (9); Kumanovo, Macedonia (10,39); Amphipolis, Greece (11); Gevgelia, Macedonia (15); Chauchitsa, Greece (21, 3435); Donja Dolina, Bosnia and Herzegovina (25);
Radanja, Macedonia (28); Olynthus, Greece (36)
543

Peregrinationes archaeologicae in Asia et Europa Joanni Chochorowski dedicatae, Krakw 2012

Fig. 6. Macedonian and Thracian bronzes and their parallels (after B o u z e k 1974)
Ryc. 6. Macedoskie i trackie brzy oraz ich odpowiedniki (wg B o u z e k 1974)
Bulgaria (1); Kuban area, Russia (2, 4, 9); Stara Zagora, Bulgaria (3); tip, Macedonia (5); near Rila monastery, Bulgaria (6); Transylvania, Romania (7); Radanja, Macedonia (8); Prozor, Bosnia and Herzegovina (10); Luristan, Iran (11); Redkin Lager, Armenia (12); Upper Kuban, Russia (13); Rusanovii, Glasinac, Bosnia and Herzegovina (14); Ttno, Bohemia (15); Iljak, Glasinac,
Bosnia and Herzegovina (16); Bex, Switzerland (17); Subingen, Switzerland (18); Staraja mogila near Kelermes, Russia (19)
544

Central Europe and Caucasus in the Early Iron Age

are distributed over vast territories from the Kuban and

Volga-Kama area over the Crimea, Ukraine and Moldavia
to north-eastern Bulgaria (Belogradec, Enda; fig. 2). The
most characteristic objects are daggers of the GamwBerezovka types, horse bits of the North Caucasian type
according to H.A. Potratz, particular arrowheads and
less specific spearheads (cf. B o u z e k 1997, 194196;
I v a n i k 2001), while decorative parts of horse harness
and personal ornaments are rare. Rattles in openwork
(fig. 6:1119) were probably ritual objects, and Maltese
crosses seem to have possessed a particular symbolic significance (fig. 5:29), perhaps solar (understandable with
a northern people who were neighbours to the mythical Hyperboreans, cf. D i o d . S i c . II,47), or perhaps
representing the centre of the universe, of the four-sided
world like in Scythian mythology (R a e v s k i j 1979).
G. Kossack, in a paper presented to the Schleswig conference in 1991, found models of this ornament on Assyrian
reliefs, which may be correct, but it does not explain the
particular meaning of the motif in Cimmerian culture
(K o s s a c k 1994). Cimmerian mounted warriors were
the leading force in the movement to central Europe. The
Mezcst culture is the archaeological name for the central region of this nomadic entity in the Hungarian basin,
its impact in other parts of Central Europe is known under the name Thraco-Cimmerian bronzes; in both cases
Cimmerian and Caucasian relations are clearly traceable
(K e m e n c z e i 1984; 1996; K a l i c z, K o s 1998;
M e t z n e r - N e b e l s i c k 1998; 2002; M a c h o r t y c h 1998; S m i r n o v a 1998) (figs. 46).
Literary sources on Cimmerians
and archaeology
There are two main groups of literary sources for
the Cimmerians: Near Eastern and Greek. The former
are mainly contemporary documents on wars within
the Assyrian border zone, the latter mostly stories taken from old traditions or memories. Both are mainly
concerned with those aspects of Cimmerian history
which directly affected the civilized world, i.e. there
are viewed from angle different from our position. For
Homer (Odyssey I,14) the Cimmerians were a people
living in a mythical land of fog and darkness, on the
fringes of the inhabitable world (cf. S t r a b o I,2,9).
The first references to the Cimmerians with the Assyrians date from 722713 B.C. In a letter, Sancherib
informs his father Sargon II about the presence of Cimmerians in the region of Urartu, and Scythians are also
mentioned. During the reign of Sancherib (705681
B.C.) the Cimmerians attacked Asia Minor and destroyed the Phrygian empire: the Phrygian king Midas
committed suicide (cf. H e r o d . I,6,15). This presumably happened in 696/695 B.C. (Eusebius date) although a date twenty years later cannot be excluded.
American excavations at Gordion uncovered considerable destruction (dated, however, by 14C much earlier),

but no characteristic Cimmerian objects. A group of

Cimmerians probably settled for some time near Sinope, and Asarhaddon mentions an Asssyrian victory
over them in 679 B.C. The military leader of the Cimmerians in their 679/678 campaign is called Tupa in
Assyrian records.
Another group of Cimmerians probably entered
Anatolia from Thrace. This is suggested by Strabo,
when he speaks about an alliance between the Cimmerians and the Thracian Treres and Edoni (for Treres:
S t r a b o I,1,10; I,3,21; VII frgs. 11 and 36; for Edoni:
cf. XII,3,34, XII,8,7 and XIII,4,8), tribes later living
in Central Bulgaria (Treres), in the area of the Thracian bronzes (fig. 2, 6:13) and in Chalcidice (Edoni),
where the Macedonian bronzes developed (fig. 2 and
fig. 5 right, fig. 6:56,14; cf. B o u z e k 1974; 2007a).
The Lydian king Gyges even sought aid against them
from Assurbanipal. A second attack on Lydia in 652
B.C. was successful and Sardis (with the exception of
the citadel) was sacked and Gyges killed.
Traces of a similar impact on the Mezcst culture
in the Hungarian basin and in the Thraco-Cimmerian
bronzes are not recorded in written sources, but are
traceable archaeologically. Herodotus explicitly mentions Tyras (Dniestre) in present-time Moldova as the
place where the Cimmerian kings fought a fratricidal
battle and were buried, and from where the common
people left their homes. After this, Herodotus describes
the escape of the remainder of the Cimmerians along
the Black Sea west of the Caucasus to the area of Sinope
(IV,12), and this may be the story of one of their main
military forces, while the other rather moved westwards. Strabos reference to the Cimmerians joining
forces with the Thracian Treres and Edoni (cf. above)
makes it highly probable that some Cimmerians moved
west from the Pontic steppes. The Edoni and Paeonians shared the territory where the first canonical Macedonian bronzes with Caucasian relations started, and
this could not have happened much after 800 B.C. The
Thraco-Cimmerian bronzes in the eastern part of Central Europe originated ca. 900 B.C., i.e. about 150 years
earlier than the first Assyrian reports of Cimmerians in
the region of Urartu (B o u z e k 2007b).
The leader of the Cimmerian troops in 652 B.C. is
named Lygdamis in Greek sources, and there is a parallel name Tugdamme in the Assyrian records. According to Strabo, Lygdamis was later killed in Cilicia, and
Assyrian archives probably confirm this report. This
happened between 637 and 625 B.C. and the second
foundation of Sinope in c. 630 B.C. may probably be
a result of the defeat of the Cimmerians. Herodotus,
however, mentions (I,16) that the last Cimmerians were
only driven out of Asia Minor by Alyattes, in about 600
B.C. The Scythians, who followed them, were lords of
Urartu between 625 and 585 B.C., and their Near Eastern campaign lasted, according to Herodotus (IV,1), 28
years. The Pre-Scythian arrowheads and other objects
usually ascribed to the Cimmerians (rather than to Ear545

Peregrinationes archaeologicae in Asia et Europa Joanni Chochorowski dedicatae, Krakw 2012

ly Scythians, cf. B o u z e k 2007b), have been found in

several sites in Anatolia (cf. fig. 2:4).
If we restrict the name Cimmerians to military
bands invading Anatolia and the Near East (L a f r a n c h i 1990; I v a n i k 1993; S a u t e r 2000),
we do not respect other Greek sources mentioning
them in the Pontic area. According to the latter, we are
entitled to use the name of the Cimmerians in a sense
similar to that in which Herodotus used the name
Scythians, in rather general terms. This would also allow us to explain why their military attacks in Europe
brought similar impulses there as those of the Scythians two centuries later. To reject other sources and
stick only to Assyrian records, or to reduce their story
only to its latest phase, and cut off the ernogorovkaNovoerkassk complex from their material heritage,
creates more problems than it solves. The traditional
explanation still seems to be more reasonable than later attempts to change it, which only respect some selected part of the available archaeological and literary
evidence. It should, however, be noted that the first
Kelermes tumuli contained Novoerkassk type offerings; the transition from Cimmerian to Scythian
style was fluent (G a l a n i n a 1997; D u b o v s k a j a
1997; B o u z e k 2001).1

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Jan Bouzek
Charles University, Institut for Classical Archaeology
Praha, Czech Republic
jan.bouzek@ff.cuni.cz

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