Hydrodynamic Stability

HYDRODYNAMIC STABILITY
MATM028
Matt Turner
October 2011
Books:
1. Drazin: Introduction to hydrodynamic stability
2. Drazin & Reid: Hydrodynamic stability
3. Schmid & Henningson: Stability and transition in shear flows
Aims of the Course
1. To explain phenomena such as why rising smoke changes from a smooth flow into an erratic
flow or why a smooth river flow emerging from a river mouth can ultimately produce vortices
in the sea/ocean.
2. For boundary layer flows close to the surface of a rigid body (e.g. flow over a wing), we
explain how the flow can be laminar (i.e. parallel to the surface) near to the front edge, but
further downstream the flow can be turbulent.
3. Understand fluid flow stability, i.e. whether small disturbances in the flow grow (UNSTABLE) or decay (STABLE) in either space or time.
Contents
1 Important concepts from Hydrodynamics
2 KelvinHelmholtz Instability (An inviscid instability)

2.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Normal modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 1 dimensional disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 2 dimensional disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 KelvinHelmholtz stability using normal modes . . . . .
2.3.1 Special cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Effect of surface tension on KH instability . . . . . . . .
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4
. 4
. 7
. 7
. 8
. 9
. 11
. 12
3 Inviscid Stability
3.1 General theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Piecewise Linear Base Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Continuous velocity profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Criteria for inviscid instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Numerical calculation of eigenvalues c(K) for continuous U (y)
3.3.3 Critical layers in inviscid flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4 Viscous stability
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 Boundary conditions for viscous flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 Strictly parallel base flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 OrrSommerfeld Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Squires Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Squires Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Formal theory of eigenvalues of OSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 Finding eigenvalues numerically using Chebyshev polynomials
4.4.2 Summary of numerical results for OSE . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Viscous stability analysis for Poiseuille flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.1 Numerical results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.2 Asymptotic theory for ODEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.3 Asymptotic theory of OrrSommerfeld equation for large R . .
4.5.4 Summary of solutions of the OrrSommerfeld equation . . . .
4.5.5 Calculating neutral stability curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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47
5 Boundary layers
5.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 General theory for R 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Uniform flow past a flat plate . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1 Notes on Blasius solution . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Flow past flat plate with arbitrary slip velocity U (x)
5.4.1 FalknerSkan solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.2 Numerical results for FalknerSkan . . . . . .
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5.5
5.6
5.4.3 Summary of FalknerSkan profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Stability of boundary layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Comparison of experiment and theory for neutral curve for flat plate . . . . . . . . . 62
6 Laminar/Turbulent transition on a flat

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Stability theory . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Receptivity theory . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Leading edge receptivity . . . . . . . .
6.5 Receptivity due to roughness element .
6.6 Importance of stability properties . . .
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72
A MATLAB Worksheets
A.1 KelvinHelmholtz instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.1.1 KelvinHelmholtz general stability . . . . . . . . .
A.2 Inviscid Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.2.1 Inviscid stability of mixing layer . . . . . . . . . . .
A.2.2 Unbounded piecewise linear mixing layer . . . . . .
A.2.3 Two part piecewise linear boundary layer flow . . .
A.2.4 Blasius boundary layer solution . . . . . . . . . . .
A.2.5 Stability analysis for U = tanh y - numerical results
A.3 Viscous Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.3.1 Eigenvalues for Poiseuille flow. . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.3.2 Asymptotic solution to ODE . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.4 Boundary Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.4.1 FalknerSkan velocity profiles . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.5 Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.5.1 Summary of Goldstein (1983) JFM . . . . . . . . .
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Important concepts from Hydrodynamics
Here we review a few concepts from hydrodynamics that you should know!!! or at least have seen.
Definitions
We define the fluid velocity as u(x,t)=u(x,t)i+v(x,t)j+w(x,t)k, where x=(x, y, z) in Cartesian
coordinates.
A flow is said to be incompressible if u = 0, where /xi + /yj + /zk.
The vorticity of a flow field is denoted by = u.
A flow is said to be irrotational if = 0.
If = 0, then we can find a scalar potential (x, t) such that
u = ,
where is known as the velocity potential.
If the flow is incompressible and irrotational then
2 = 0.
For 2D flows which are incompressible, we can define a streamfunction (x, y) such that
u = (y , x ).
NavierStokes equations
For incompressible flows
Du
=
Dt
F,
p
+ 2 u +
Effect of
Effect of
External forces
pressure
viscosity
e.g. Gravity
where
Du
u
=
+ (u )u,
Dt
t
is the material or convective derivative.
Ignore external forces and nondimensionalise the equation. Assume the problem has a characteristic scale for fluid velocity, U , and a length scale L. e.g. a ball moving through the air
x
=
L
x,
dimensional
non dimensional
n
pos vector
posn vector
= /xi + /yj + /zk =
1
,
u = Uu
1
,
L
U
L
Figure 1: Characteristic length and velocity scales

U2
u
1
U
,
U
+
(
u )
u = p
+ 2 2 u
t
L
L
L
t and p are still dimensional quantities. Divide by U 2 /L
L u
u = 1 p
+ 2 u
.
+ (
u )
2
U t
U
U L
Nondimensionalise p and t by
t=
L
t
U
p = U 2 p,
so
u
u =
p + 1 2 u
,
+ (
u )
Re
t
where Re = U L/ is the Reynolds number.
If Re 1 = viscous term is small. The limit Re known as inviscid limit.
Streamlines
Lines instantaneously parallel to velocity of particles at all points.
For steady flows streamline is path taken by fluid particle.
For 2D flows streamlines are lines
= constant.
Inviscid flows
For steady flows with gravitational field Bernoullis law relates pressure and velocity
1
p + u2 + gz = constant along streamline.
2
For unsteady flows which are irrotational
1
p + ()2 +
+ gz = constant throughout fluid.
2
t
2
Figure 2: Streamlines in the flow.
2
2.1
KelvinHelmholtz Instability (An inviscid instability)

Formulation
Consider 2 fluids
= 2
= 1
and U = U2 i z > 0
and U = U1 i z < 0
z
U2
z=0
U1
Figure 3: KelvinHelmholtz instability setup

U1 and U2 are constants.
If we ignore viscosity, then this flow is incompressible and satisfies the NavierStokes equations if
the pressure is
p0 2 gz
p0 1 gz
z > 0,
z < 0.
But we dont see this flow in experiments. e.g. Vortices develop at the interface between the two
U2
U1
Figure 4: KelvinHelmholtz instability experiment

fluids.
Now we perturb the flow slightly, e.g. the velocity potential becomes
1 = U1 x + 01 (x, t)
2 = U2 x + 02 (x, t)
Position of interface between the 2 fluids
z = Z(x, y, t).
4
z < Z,
z > Z.
= 2
z=0
z= Z
= 1
Figure 5: KelvinHelmholtz instability with perturbed conditions.
Assume the disturbance is restricted to the neighborhood of the interface. i.e.

u U2 i as z ,
so
02 0 as z
01 0 as z

(2.1.1)
Irrotational and incompressible flow

= 2 1 = 2 2 = 0,
so
2 01 = 0
2 02 = 0

(2.1.2)
A fluid particle on the interface must stay on the interface

u2
z= Z
Figure 6: Fluid particle remains on the interface

D(Z)
,
Dt
=
(Z) + u (Z),
t
Z
=
+ (U2 i + 02 ) Z,
t
Z
Z
=
+ U2
+ 02 Z, at z = Z.
t
x
u2 =
2
z
02

z
02
z
Similarly on the other side of the interface

01
Z
Z
=
+ U1
+ 01 Z,
z
t
x
Known as the kinematic condition on the interface.
5
at z = Z.
(2.1.3)
Final condition is that pressure is continuous across the interface.

1
1
2
(1 ) +
+ gz
z < Z,
p1 = C 1 1
2
t

1
2
2
p2 = C 2 2
(2 ) +
+ gz
z > Z,
2
t
where C1 and C2 are constants in space.
Pressure is continuous,

1
1
1
2
2
2
C1 1
(1 ) +
+ gz = C2 2
(2 ) +
+ gz .
2
t
2
t
(2.1.4)
Now consider small perturbations (i.e. 1) and linearise the equations.

NOTE:

1
+ O(2 ),
1 (z = Z) = 1 (z = 0) + Z
z z=0
= 1 (0) + O(),
and

1
1
=
+ O().
z z=Z
z z=0
Linearising equations (2.1.3)

02
z
01
z
=
=
Z
t
Z
t
+ U2 Z
+ O()
x
Z
+ U1 x + O()
)
.
(2.1.5)
Next linearise (2.1.4)

(1 )2 = (U1 i + 01 )2 ,
= U12 + 2U1 i 01 + O(2 ),
0
= U12 + 2U1 1 + O(2 ),
x

0
0
1
1
1 1
02 02
2
2
+
+ gZ = C2 2 U2 2 U2
+
+ gZ .
C1 1 U1 1 U1
2
x
t
2
x
t
Hence equating the coeffs of
O(0 ) :
O() :
1
1
C1 1 U12 = C2 2 U22
2
2 0

1 01
02 02
1 U1
+
+ gZ = 2 U2
+
+ gZ
x
t
x
t
at z = 0. (2.1.6)
Can now solve set of eqns (2.1.5) and (2.1.6) together with (2.1.1) and (2.1.2) to solve for
01 (x, y, z, t), 02 (x, y, z, t), and Z(x, y, t).
NB
01 = 02 = Z = 0
is a solution. To look for a nonzero solution = Eigenvalue problem.
6
2.2
2.2.1
Normal modes
1 dimensional disturbances
Consider
f (x, t) = cos(kx t),

= Re ei(kxt) ,
k and are real constants.
t=0:
f(x,0)
x
1
x=2 /k
Figure 7: Wave disturbance, Wavelength= 2/k, Wavenumber= k.
t = t0 > 0 : Hence f represents a wave travelling in xdirection with speed /k.
1
x
1
x= t 0/k
Figure 8: Wave disturbance at t = t0 .

Temporal behaviour x = 0 Temporal frequency /2, Period 2/.
If we now consider complex,
=
e
=
f (x, t) =
=
i(kxt)
r + ii
ei(kxr t )ei t ,

Re ei(kxt) ,
ei t cos(kx r t).
If i > 0, f (x, t) is a wave growing in amplitude with t.

If i < 0, f (x, t) decays with t.
If i = 0, f (x, t) stays the same amplitude.
7
1
t
1
t=2 /
Figure 9: Wave disturbance at x = 0.
2.2.2
2 dimensional disturbances
Consider
f (x, y, t) = ei(xt) ,
where
x = xi + yj,
= ki + lj,
f = ei(kx+lyt) .
At t = 0, plot lines with f = 1 So, kx + ly = 2n. Interpret f (x, y, t) as wave propagating in
Figure 10: Wave disturbance at t = 0 in 2D.

direction .
As before, if is complex then wave grows in amplitude with t if i > 0.
Alternative notation
,
k
f = ei(kx+lyckt) .
c =
U2
2
z=0
U1
Figure 11: KelvinHelmholtz instability
2.3
KelvinHelmholtz stability using normal modes
Consider a perturbation of the interface z = Z(x, y, t) composed of normal modes either as a sum
X
Z(x, y, t) =
ck,l ei(xt) ,
k,l
or as an integral
Z Z
Z(x, y, t) =
c(k, l)ei(xt) dk dl.
We have linearised the governing equations, so can consider each normal mode separately. Then
find how depends on (i.e. on k and l).
Let Z = ei(xt) , = ki + lj.
01 (x, y, z, t) = f1 (z)ei(xt)
02 (x, y, z, t) = f2 (z)ei(xt)
z < 0,
z > 0.
Substitute 01 into linearised (2.1.2), 2 01 = 0,

2

2
2
+ 2 + 2 f1 (z)ei(xt) = 0,
2
x
y
z

d2 f1 i(xt)
2
2
(ik) f1 + (il) f1 +
e
= 0,
dz 2
df1
K 2 f1 = 0,
2
dz
where K = (k 2 + l2 )1/2 > 0.
Using the linearised boundary condition (2.1.1), 01 0 as z ,
f1 (z) = A1 eKz + B1 eKz ,
= B1 eKz .
Similarly
02 = f2 (z)ei(xt) ,
f2 (z) = A2 eKz ,
9
A2 and B1 will be determined from eqns (2.1.6) and (2.1.5).

Subst into (2.1.5)

01
Z
Z
+ U1
,
=

z z=0
t
x
f10 (0)ei(xt) = iei(xt) + U1 ikei(xt)
B1 K = i(kU1 ).
From eqn for 02 ,
A2 K = i(kU2 ).
Equation (2.1.6) gives

02 02
01 01
+
+ gZ
= 2 U2
+
+ gZ
1 U1
x
t
x
t
1 (U1 ikB1 iB1 + g) = 2 (U2 ikA2 iA2 + g) ,
i(kU1 )1 B1 i(kU2 )2 A2 = (2 1 )g.
at z = 0,
Substitute for A2 and B1 to give a quadratic for

(1 + 2 ) 2 2k(U1 1 + U2 2 ) + k 2 (2 U22 + 1 U12 ) + (2 1 )gK = 0,
(check the arithmatic). Now solve for (k, l).
=
S 1/2
k(U2 2 + U1 1 )
,
1 + 2
2(2 + 1 )
where
S = B 2 4AC
B = 2k(U1 1 + U2 2 ) etc.
Rearranging
= k
p
K k 2 ,
where
U2 2 + U1 1
,
1 + 2
1 2
=
|U1 U2 |
1 + 2
(21 22 )g
.
=
1 2 (U1 U2 )2
If K k 2 0, roots are both real. Hence, disturbance neither grows or decays (known as
NEUTRALLY STABLE).
If K k 2 < 0
= k (k 2 K)1/2 i.
Hence two possible behavious, one mode grows with time and one decays.
If any mode grows with time then disturbance will eventually become large and system is said to
be UNSTABLE to the particular k and l of normal mode.
10
2.3.1
Special cases
1: 1 < 2
Recall that K = (k 2 + l2 )1/2 > 0, so if 1 < 2 , then < 0.
K < 0 < k 2 ,
Unstable to all disturbances.
Heavy
Light
Figure 12: 1 < 2 : Expect instability.
2: 1 = 2
= k ki
Unstable to all disturbances (i.e. to all k). Growth rate = k = 2/ where is wavelength
( = 2/k).
Shortest waves are most unstable.
3: If U1 = U and U2 = +U
= U ki
Zero phase speed, growth rate = U k = 2U/. (see this flow again in 3).
4: 1 > 2
Unstable if
k 2 > K
k 4 > 2 K 2 = 2 (k 2 + l2 )
i.e. unstable if
1
k2 > 2 1 +
2
4l2
1+ 2
In (k, l)plane Stable for small k, i.e. for long wavelengths. See appendix A.1.1 for MATLAB
worksheet.
11
l
STABLE
UNSTABLE
k
k=
Figure 13: 1 > 2

n
p
surface
Figure 14: Surface tension at a fluid interface.
2.4
Effect of surface tension on KH instability
The surface tension at a fluid interface satisfies the equation

p1 p2 = n,
where n is normal to the surface and is coefficient of surface tension, where p1 and p2 are pressures
on either side of the interface.
For surface z = Z(x, y), the surface is = z Z = constant.
= (Zx , Zy , 1),
(Zx , Zy , 1)
.
n =
=
||
(1 + 2 Zx2 + 2 Zy2 )1/2
Linearising for small
n = (Zx , Zy , 1) + O(2 ),
n = Zxx Zyy + 0 + O(2 ),
p1 p2 = (Zxx + Zyy ).
Hence this modifies pressure equation (2.1.6).
12
U(y)
Figure 15: Channel Flow
3
3.1
Inviscid Stability
General theory
Consider the stability of basic flow

U = U (y)i.
Stability to disturbances of the form
ei(kx+lzkct)
c=
,
k
in the absence of gravity.

NB
Change of notation: Here base velocity is a function of y and disturbance is a wave in the (x, z)
plane cf 2, where U was dependent on z and disturbance in (x, y)plane.
Inviscid NavierStokes Eqn: Let total velocity be uT ,

uT
+ uT uT = pT ,
t
also
uT = 0
(Incompressible flow).
Consider small perturbation to the base flow

uT = U + u,
pT = P + p,

u
2

+ U U + U (u) + u U + O( ) = P p.
t

O() :
O(0 ) : U U = P, U = U (y)i,

U
(U (y)i) = P,
x
P
= P = constant.
= 0
u
+ U u + u U
t
13
= p.
Take constant
u
u
+ U (y)
+ u (U (y)i) =
t
x

p
.
q
Let u = ui + vj + wk and q = p/.

u
u
U
+U
+v
t
x
y
v
v
+U
t
x
w
w
+U
t
x
q
,
x
q
= ,
y
q
= .
z
=
(3.1.7)
(3.1.8)
(3.1.9)
Also, incompressible, so continuity equation gives

u = 0,
u v w
+
+
= 0.
x y
z
Take
(3.1.10)
(3.1.7) +
(3.1.8) + (3.1.9),
x
y
z
U v v U
( u) + U ( u) +
+
= 2 q,
t
x
y x x y
Using u = 0
2U 0 (y)
v
= 2 q.
x
Eliminate q (i.e. pressure) from (3.1.8)
2v
v
(2 v) + U (2 v) + 2U 0
+ U 00
= (2 q),
t
x
xy
x
y
where
(U vx ) = U 0 vx + U vxy ,
y
2
(U vx ) = U 00 vx + 2U 0 vxy + U vxyy ,
2
y
Hence
v
(2 v) + U (2 v) = U 00 .
t
x
x
(CHECK)
(3.1.11)
NB
This is an equation which gives v, to find u and w we need extra equations. Consider vorticity in
ydirection
u w
= ( u)2 =
,
z
x
can show (exercise)

v
+U
= U 0 .
(3.1.12)
t
x
z
14
Hence, solve (3.1.11) to find v, v is forcing to (3.1.12) hence , u and w can then be obtained
from continuity (3.1.10).
Exercise:
2v
2u 2u
,
+
=
x2 z 2
z xy
and similar equation for w. NB This is a spatial equation no effect on stability.
Return to (3.1.11) and use normal mode analysis. Write
v(x, y, z, t) = v(y)ei(kx+lzckt) (i.e. = ck),

d2 v
2
2
2
v =
k v + 2 l v ei(kx+lzckt) ,
dy
2

d v
2
=
K v ei(kx+lzckt) , K 2 = k 2 + l2 ,
2
dy
in (3.1.11)

ick

2

d v
d2 v
2
2
K v + ikU
K v
= U 00 ik
v,
dy 2
dy 2
2

d v
2
(U c)
K v U 00 v = 0.
2
dy
Given U (y) we have a second order ODE for v. Need 2 boundary conditions on v(y).
Bounded flow e.g. in channel 1 < y < 1. Normal velocity on wall is zero
v(1) = v(1) = 0.
Unbounded flow e.g. KelvinHelmholtz. Condition is that the disturbance is localised
v 0 as |y| .
NB
If U = c when y = yc , we have a singular point (coeff. of highest derivative in ODE is zero).
Return to this later in 3.3.3.
For remainder of this section concentrate on solution of ODE for v. Writing D = y

(U c)(D2 K 2 )
v U 00 v = 0,
known as Rayleighs equation.
3.2
3.2.1
Piecewise Linear Base Flows

Theory
Consider flows such as

U (y) =
U0 y
b
U0
Or more complicated
15
0<y<b
b<y
(3.1.13)
U0
Figure 16: Simple piecewise linear flow.
III
y
II
y
I
0
Figure 17: More complicated piecewise linear flow.

In each region, U depends linearly on y (i.e. U = y + for some , )
= U 00 (y) = 0.
Subst. into Rayleigh Eqn
(D2 K 2 )
v = 0,
in each region
= v(y) = AeKy + BeKy ,
or
= E cosh Ky + F sinh Ky,
with constants A, B or E, F different in each region.
Need matching condition between each region. Consider point y = ys where U (y) has different
linear form, for y < ys and y > ys . U (y) and/or U 0 (y) is discontinuous at y = ys .
16
Rayleigh Eqn
d
dy
(U c)
v 00 U 00 v = (U c)K 2 v,

d
v
0
(U c) U v
= (U c)K 2 v.
dy
Now
ys +
dy,
ys
and let 0,
Z ys +

ys+
d
v
2
0
= K lim
(U c)
v dy ,
(U c) U v
0
dy
ys
ys
= 0.
+
Letting [] denote []yys ,

s
[(U c)
v 0 ] = [U 0 v].
Need 2nd matching condition. Let

f = (U c)
v 0 U 0 v,

f
v0
U 0 v
d
v
=
=
.
(U c)2
(U c) (U c)2
dy U c
Again
R ys +
ys
dy and let 0.

Z ys +
f
v
=
dy 0,
2
U c
ys (U c)
as 0 (assuming U (ys ) 6= c).

Hence 2 matching conditions

v
= 0 and
U c
[(U c)
v 0 ] = [U 0 v].
In most examples considered U (y) is continuous, i.e. [U ] = 0, hence
3.2.2
[
v ] = 0,

d
v
[U 0 ]
v (ys )
=
.
dy
U (ys ) c
Examples
1One part boundary layer

U (y) =
U0 y
b
U0
v(0) = 0 and v 0 as y .
17
0<y<b
,
b<y
y
II
b
I
0
U0
Figure 18: One part boundary layer.

In I

vI = A eKy eKy .
In II
vII = BeKy .
Matching conditions at y = b,
[
v] = 0 :
A eKb eKb
= BeKb ,

A e2Kb 1 = B.
v(b)[U 0 ]
,
[
v] =
U (b) c

[
v 0 ] = KBeKb KA eKb + eKb ,

= KeKb B + A e2Kb + 1 ,

BeKb Ub0
v(b)[U 0 ]
=
.
U (b) c
U0 c
0
So
K B + A e2Kb + 1
U0 B
.
b(U0 c)
Eliminating B
K

U0 (e2Kb 1)
e2Kb 1 + e2Kb + 1
=
,
b(U0 c)

Kb(U0 c)2e2Kb = U0 e2Kb 1 ,

U0 e2Kb 1
U0 c =
,
2Kbe2Kb

1 e2Kb
c
= 1
.
U0
2Kb
18
c is real for all values of K (i.e. for all k and l), i.e. Neutrally stable.
c
= f (X)
U0
X = 2Kb,

1 eX
f (X) = 1
.
X
f(X)
1
X
Figure 19: f(X).
So 0 < c < U0 and c is larger for larger K i.e. short waves travel fastest.
2Mixing layer
U (y) =
U0
U0 y
b
U0
y>b
|y| < b ,
y < b
I
b
U0
U0
II
b
III
Figure 20: Piecewise mixing layer.

B. conditions on v(y)
v 0 as |y| .
19
vI = P eKy ,
vII = QeKy + ReKy ,
vIII = SeKy .
I:
II :
III :
[
v ] = 0 at y = b
P = Q + Re2Kb .
(3.2.14)
S = R + Qe2Kb .
(3.2.15)
[
v ] = 0 at y = b
At y = b

[
v 0 ] = KP eKb KQeKb + KReKb ,

= KeKb P Q + Re2Kb ,

P eKb Ub0
v(b)[U 0 ]
=
.
U (b) c
U0 c
Using
[
v0] =
v[U 0 ]
,
U0 c
and eliminating P using (3.2.14)

Q = Re
2Kb

c
1 .
2Kb 1
U0
Similarly at y = b
2Kb
R = Qe

c
1 .
2Kb 1 +
U0
(Check this)
Eliminate Q and R
1 =
e4Kb =
c2
=
U02
=

c
c
e
2Kb 1
1
2Kb 1 +
1 ,
U0
U0

c2
2 2
4K b 1 2 4Kb + 1,
U0

2
1
e4Kb
1
,
2Kb
4K 2 b2

2
1
e4X
1
= f (X),
2X
4X 2
4Kb
where X = Kb.
If f (X) < 0 then c is imaginary = Unstable. If f (X) > 0 then c is real = Neutrally stable.
As X , f 1. As X 0

1
1
1
(4X)2
f (X) =
1
+
1 4X +
,
X 4X 2
4X 2
2
= 1 2,
= 1.
20
f(X)
1
0.639
1
Figure 21: f(X).
For small X f < 0 i.e. Unstable for small K. For large X f > 0 i.e. Neutrally stable for large K.
A MATLAB handout for the unbounded mixing layer can be found in appendix A.2.2.
3Two part boundary layer
0 < y > 21
2by
2(1 b)y + (2b 1) 12 < y < 1
U (y) =
1
y>1
See the MATLAB worksheet in appendix A.2.3.
3.3
3.3.1
Continuous velocity profiles

Criteria for inviscid instability
Consider U (y) with 1 y 1.

Rayleighs equation
(U c)(D2 K 2 )
v U 00 v = 0,
v(1) = 0,
v (complex conjugate)
v
U 00
d2 v
2
2
K
|
v
|
|
v |2 = 0,
dy 2
U c

1
Z 1
Z 1
2
v
d
v d
v
d v
d
v
dy
=
v
dy,
dy 2
dy 1
1
1 dy dy
Z 1 2
d

v dy by b.c..
= 0

1 dy
Hence
Z
2 !
Z 1
d

v
U 00
2
2
K |
v | +
dy =
|
v |2 dy,
dy
1 U c
Z 1
(U c )U 00 2
=
|
v | dy.
|U c|2
1
21
(3.3.16)
Taking imaginary part

Z
0=
1
ci U 00
|
v |2 dy,
|U c|2
so for unstable wave, ci > 0, =

Z
U 00
|
v |2 dy = 0,
|U c|2
(3.3.17)
Therefore U 00 (y) must change sign in interval 1 y 1. This is known as RAYLEIGHS

CONDITION, a necessary condition for inviscid instability is that the basic flow has an inflection
point. i.e. ys such that U 00 (ys ) = 0.
Taking the real part of (3.3.16)
Z 1
(U cr )U 00 2
|
v | dy < 0.
(3.3.18)
|U c|2
1
If U 00 (ys ) = 0 and U (ys ) = Us
1
Z
(Us cr )
U 00
|
v |2 dy = 0 by (3.3.17).
|U c|2
(3.3.19)
Hence (3.3.18)-(3.3.19) =
Z
(U Us )U 00 2
|
v | dy < 0.
|U c|2
Hence
U 00 (y) (U (y) U (ys )) ,
must be negative somewhere in the flow.
This is known as FJORTOFTS CRITERION- another necessary condition for inviscid instability.
Examples
1.
U (y) = tanh y,
(either bounded, i.e. 1 < y < 1 or unbounded)
U 0 = sech2 y,
U 00 = 2sech2 y tanh y.
Hence
U 00 (ys ) = 0 = ys = 0 so U (ys ) = 0,
So satisfies Rayleighs criterion.
U 00 (U U (ys )) = 2sech2 y tanh y tanh y 0 (equality only when y = 0).
So satisfies Fjortofts criterion, = likely to be unstable for some disturbances. (Not guaranteed because conditions are not sufficient).
22
2.
y
1 < y < 1,
4 y2
2y(y 2 + 12)
=
.
(4 y 2 )3
U (y) =
U 00
U 00 (0) = 0 = satisfies Rayleigh criterion.

U 00 (y)(U (y) U (0)) =
2y 2 (y 2 + 12)
0,
(4 y 2 )4
Does not satisfy Fjortofts criterion = Flow is stable. (stable to inviscid disturbances).
3. Blasius Boundary layer (see later in course)
f 000 + f f 00 = 0,
with boundary conditions
f (0) = f 0 (0) = 0,
f 0 (y) 1 as y ,
U (y) = f 0 (y).
Solve numerically
U 00 (y) < 0 for 0 < y < ,
Does not satisfy Rayleigh criterion = Stable to inviscid disturbances. This can be seen in
worksheet A.2.4.
3.3.2
Numerical calculation of eigenvalues c(K) for continuous U (y)
Example
U (y)
1 < y < 1,
Rayleighs equation
(U c)(D2 K 2 )
v U 00 v = 0
v(1) = 0.
1. Fix K and choose a value of of c.

2. Fix v(1) = 0 and d
v /dy(1) = 1 (Non-zero value, doesnt matter on exact value, linear
equation). Hence have 2 initial conditions for 2nd order ODE. Solve numerically, i.e. advance
y from 1 to 1.
3. Hence find v(1).
If v(1) = 0, then we have chosen the correct value of c.
If v(1) 6= 0, need to change value of c and resolve equation. Tricky part is to choose new
guess fore c, particularly since c is complex.
For numerical solution for U = tanh y, see worksheet A.2.5.
23
3.3.3
Critical layers in inviscid flows
Rayleighs eqn
(U c)(D2 K 2 )
v U 00 v = 0.
Singular point when coefficient of highest derivative is zero.
If U1 < U < U2 then for some c real and U1 < c < U2 we have some point y = yc where U (yc ) = c.
y = yc is known as the critical layer.
yc
U1
U2
Figure 22: Critical layer.

At the critical layer y = yc , U (yc ) c = 0. Approximate Rayleighs equation for y yc .
Let Y = y yc .
1
U U (yc ) + Y U 0 (yc ) + Y 2 U 00 (yc ) + O(Y 3 ),
2
1 2 00
0
c + Uc Y + Y Uc + O(Y 3 ) where Uc0 = U 0 (yc ),
2
U 00 Uc00 + Y Uc000 + O(Y 2 ).
2

1 2 00
d
2
(Y + Y Uc )
K v (Uc00 + Y Uc000 )
v
2
dY 2
2

d
Uc000
1 Uc00
0
2
00
Y Uc 1 + Y 0
K v Uc 1 + Y 00 v
2 Uc
dY 2
Uc
2

00
00 1
d
Uc
1 Uc
Uc000
2
Y
K v 0 1 + Y 0
1 + Y 00 v
dY 2
Uc
2 Uc
U
!c!

2
d2 v
Uc00
Uc000 1 Uc00
2
Y
+
K
+
Y v
dY 2
Uc0
Uc0
2 Uc0
Uc0
using binomial expansion of 1 +
1 Uc00
Y U0
2
c
1
= 0,
= 0,
= 0,
= 0,
d2 v
(p + qY )
v = 0,
dY 2
24
(3.3.20)
where p, q constants given by U . Equation valid for small Y . Can extend to higher powers of Y .
Look for series solutions of (3.3.20)
v = Y
an Y n
a0 6= 0.
n=0
(n + )(n + 1)an Y
n=0
( 1)a0 Y 1 + Y
n+2
pan Y
n=0
(m + 1 + )(m + )am+1 Y m
m=0
n+
qan Y n++1 = 0,
n=0
pam Y m
m=0
qam1 Y m = 0.
m=0
Equating coeffs of Y 1
( 1)a0 = 0,
= = 0 or = 1 ( a0 6= 0).
Equating coeffs of Y 0
( + 1)a1 pa0 = 0 a1 =
p
a0 .
( + 1)
Eq coeffs of Y 1 , obtain a2 in terms of a0 and a1 ect.

Taking = 1
1
a1 = pa0 ,
2
1
v = Y (1 + pY ) + O(Y 3 )
2
This is one solution of (3.3.20).
Choosing = 0 = a1 = . Cant generate second solution in this way.
To find second solution (Frobenius method).
Let
v = v1 v1 is first solution.
Subst into equation (3.3.20)
v1 00 + 2
v10 0 = 0.
Let f = 0 , solve 1st order ODE
f (Y ) = k
v12
(can set k = 1 to generate 2nd soln)
1
1
= 2 2 (1 pY + O(Y 2 )),
2
v
a0 Y
1
p
= 2 + 2 ln Y + O(Y ).
a0 Y
a0
d
dY
Hence second solution

1
v2 = v1 =
a0

1
pY
1
1 + pY +
ln Y 1 + pY + .
2
a0
2
25
NB: Appearance of ln term needs special treatment, see later.

General solution is now
v = A
v1 + B
v2 .
General Theory
U (yc ) = c and assume U 0 (yc ) 6= 0.
2 linearly independent solutions. Tollmien inviscid solutions
v1 (y) = (y yc )P1 (y),
U 00
v2 (y) = P2 (y) + c0 v1 (y) ln(y yc )
Uc
where P1 (y) and P2 (y) are analytic at y = yc and P1 (yc ) = P2 (yc ) = 1.
Check this agrees with first two terms of solutions derived above.
General solution
v = A
v1 (y) + B
v2 (y).
If flow is bounded, i.e. y1 < y < y2 with v(y1 ) = v(y2 ) = 0, then
v = A (
v1 (y)
v2 (y1 ) v2 (y)
v1 (y1 )) ,
applying b.c at y = y1 . Applying b.c at y = y2 , for nonzero v (i.e. A =
6 0), need
v1 (y2 )
v1 (y1 )
=
.
v2 (y1 )
v2 (y2 )
Each of v1 and v2 depends on c and K. So this gives us our dispersion relation.
i.e. c(K).
Branch cutsbrief revision
ln Z is a multivalued function.
Set Z = Rei(+2n) with |Z| = R, arg(Z) = , where n Z.
ln Z = ln R + i( + 2n).
Define a branch cut which originates from branch point at Z = 0, so that ln Z is uniquely defined
and continuous everywhere except for a discontinuity across the branch cut.
Define 2 < arg(Z) <
ln Z = ln R + iarg(Z).
Clearly got discontinuity across the branch cut.
[ln Z] = 2i.
Consider 2nd Tollmien inviscid solution.
Branch point at y = yc , U (yc ) = c. If c is complex then yc is typically complex (e.g. U (y) = tanh y,
c = i = yc = tan1 ()i). If c is real, may have branch point on the real axis.
e.g. U (y) = 1 y 2
26
1 < y < 1,
cut
Z
Z=0
Figure 23: Branch cut.
yc
yc
(b)
(a)
Figure 24: Branch points on real axis.

If
c = cr
yc =
1 cr .
Branch points on real axis for 0 < cr < 1.

If yc is not on the real axis, define branch cut so that it doesnt cross the real axis, i.e. parallel to
the imaginary axis, away from the real axis.
If branch point lies on real axis, have 2 choices
(a) For y < yc
ln(y yc ) = ln |y yc | i.
For y > yc
ln(y yc ) = ln |y yc |.
(b) For y < yc
ln(y yc ) = ln |y yc | + i.
For y > yc
ln(y yc ) = ln |y yc |.
Notes
1. Which branch cut to take is discussed in 4, effect of viscosity.
2. v2 (y) is continuous at y = yc = normal velocity v is continuous.
27
3. As y yc
v2 1 +
Uc00
(y yc ) ln(y yc ).
Uc0
00
Discontinuity in v20 at y = yc , size= i UUc0 ,

c
= Discontinuity in
d
v
,
dy
= Jump in u(y),
i.e. streamwise velocity across the critical layer, known as a phase jump.
28
4
4.1
Viscous stability
Introduction
Nondimensional NavierStokes
1
uT
+ uT uT = pT + 2 uT ,
t
R
here R is the Reynolds number.
4.1.1
Boundary conditions for viscous flow
If solid boundary has velocity Us , then fluid velocity on surface is

uT = U s ,
cf inviscid theory
uT n = Us n,
i.e. condition on normal velocity at boundary no condition on tangential velocity.
e.g. Fixed boundary at y = 0:
viscous conditions
uT = vT = wT = 0 on y = 0,
inviscid conditions
vT = 0 on y = 0.
4.1.2
Strictly parallel base flows

uT = U (y)i + u(x, t),
pT = P + p.
Subst. into NS,

u
u
1

+ U
+ u (U i) = P p + (2 U )i + 2 u + O(2 ).
t
x
R
R
Equate coefficients of 0 :
P +
1 d2 U
i = 0.
R dy 2
Hence from j and k components

P
P
= 0 and
= 0,
y
z
= P = P (x),
i component
dP
1 d2 U
=
,
dx
R dy 2
Func of x only
Func of y only
29
(4.1.21)
Hence both sides must be constant.

=
P
= constant,
x
(constant pressure gradient) and U (y) must be quadratic

U (y) = ay 2 + by + c,
(compare with inviscid theory where any base flow could be considered).
Special cases
1. U (y) = 1 y 2
1 y 1 Poiseuille flow
dP
= constant 6= 0,
dx
y=1
y=1
Figure 25: Poiseuille flow

2. U (y) = y
1 y 1 Plane Couette flow

dP
= 0,
dx
i.e. P = constant.
i.e. gives viscous flow between 2 plates moving in opposite directions. (NB In general Couette
flow describes flow between 2 cylinders rotating in opposite directions).
4.2
OrrSommerfeld Equation
Equation governing unsteady disturbances. From (4.1.21), equating O() coefficients,

u
u
dU
1
+U
+v
i = P + 2 u.
t
x
dy
R
Now focus only on normal modes
i(kx+lzckt)
ei(kx+lzckt) = (
i.e. u = u
u(y), v(y), w(y))e
p = p(y)ei(kx+lzckt) ,
30
y=1
y=1
Figure 26: Plane Couette flow

1
dU
d
p
uyy K 2 u, vyy K 2 v, wyy K 2 w .
ik(U c)
u + v i = ik p, , ilp +
dy
dy
R
In component form

1
uyy K 2 u ,
R

1
U0
(U c)
u
uyy K 2 u =
p v,
ikR
ik
ik(U c)
u + U 0 v = ik p +
or
2

D K 2 (ikR)(U c) u = ikR
p + RU 0 v,
2

D K 2 (ikR)(U c) w = ilR
p,
2

2
D K (ikR)(U c) v = RDp.
(4.2.22)
(4.2.23)
(4.2.24)
Also have continuity equation

u = 0,
ik
u + D
v + ilw = 0.
Also have b. condns.
e.g. u = v = w = 0,
on fixed boundaries e.g. y = y1 and y2 .
4.2.1
Squires Transformation
Using this transformation can simplify the system

K u = k
u + lw,
K
p = p,
k
v = v,
= k R.
R
K
New set of variables u, v, p, R.

31
(4.2.25)
Notation : L = D2 K 2 (ikR)(U c),
= D2 K 2 (iK R)(U
c).
k (4.2.22) + l (4.2.23)
KL
u = i(k 2 + l2 )R
p + kRU 0 v,
k
= iK 2 R p + kRU 0 v,
K
p + K RU
0 v
= iK 2 R
p + RU
0 v.
L
u = (iK R)
From (4.2.24)
p,
L
v = RD
and from (4.2.25)
iK u + D
v = 0.
Eliminate p
0
p + RD(U
D(L
u) = iK RD
v),
R
0
= iK L
v + RD(U
v).
Next eliminate u
0
D(L(iK u)) = K 2 L
v + iK RD(U
v),
2
0
D(L(D
v )) = K L
v + (iK R)D(U
v).
LHS:
D(L(D
v )) = D(D2 K 2 (iK R)(U
c))D
v,
2
2
2
0 D
= D (D K )
v + (iK R)(U c)D2 v + (iK R)U
v.
RHS:
00
K 2 (D2 K 2 )
v + K 2 (iK R)(U
c)
v + (iK R)(U
v + U 0 D
v ).
LHS=RHS

(U c)D2 v + U 0 D
(iK R)
v K 2 (U c)
v U 00 v U 0 D
v = (D2 K 2 )2 v
1
(U c)(D2 K 2 )
v U 00 v =
(D2 K 2 )2 v
iK R
ORRSOMMERFELD EQUATION.
Notes
(i.e. viscosity vanishes) we obtain Rayleighs equation.
1. As R
32
2. (D2 K 2 )2 v = D4 v 2K 2 D2 v + K 2 v.
4th order differential.
i.e. 4th order ODE for v(y) cf 2nd order equation (Rayleighs) for inviscid flows. so need 2
extra boundary conditions.
For bounded flows (i.e. y1 < y < y2 ) inviscid conds:
v(y1 ) = v(y2 ) = 0,
viscous flow
u(y1 ) = u(y2 ) = 0,
i.e. v(y1 ) = v(y2 ) = u(y1 ) = u(y2 ) = 0.
But
iK u = D
v,
d
v
d
v
(y1 ) =
(y2 ) = 0.
dy
dy
i.e.
3.
k
R
K
R.
R
=
R
K = (k 2 + l2 )1/2
To each 3 dimensional solution to OrrSommerfeld equation, there corresponds a 2D solution

at a lower Reynolds number. (cf Results for inviscid 2D modes (l = 0) grow fastest).
4.3
Squires Equation
As for inviscid case, need another equation involving u(y) and w(y)
to fully determine velocity.

As before define
u w
=
z
x
(( u)2 - i.e. vorticity in y direction).
Normal modes
= il
u ik w.
Recall
(4.2.22)
(4.2.23)
L(
u) = ikR
p + RU 0 v,
L(w)
= ilR
p,
il(4.2.22) ik(4.2.23)
L(
) = ilRU 0 v
K 0
= il RU
v.
k
This is known as SQUIRES EQUATION.
33
(4.3.26)
Forced by v solution of OrrSommerfeld eqn (OSE), but may also have eigensolutions. i.e.
Consider solution with v = 0 and
L(
) = 0,
i.e.

c) = 0.
(D2 K 2 ) iK R(U
NB
The eigensolutions to the Squire equation are damped, i.e. Im(c) < 0 for all K, R.
Proof
Multiply by and
4.4
R y2
y1
dy.
Formal theory of eigenvalues of OSE
Could try the same method as for Rayleigh eqn to find e-values c. Assume bounded flow y1 < y <
y2 .
1.
v(y1 ) =
d
v
(y1 ) = 0,
dy
fix K and R.
2. For numerical solution, need 2 extra conds at y1 . Fix
d2 v
(y1 ) = 1.
dy 2
Choose a value for
d3 v
(y )
dy 3 1
and a value for c.
d
v
3. Integrate eqn (i.e. solve numerically starting from y = y1 ) If v(y2 ) = dy
(y2 ) = 0, then have
correct c. In practice enormous numerical problems, no one uses this method.
Alternative method
4th order eqn = 4 lin indep solns
v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 ,
v(y) = A1 v1 + A2 v2 + A3 v3 + A4 v4 .
4 conditions
v(y1 ) = v(y2 ) =
and 4 unknowns A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 .
Solve in matrix form
v1 (y1 )
v1 (y2 )
0
v1 (y1 )
v10 (y2 )
v2 (y1 )
v2 (y2 )
v20 (y1 )
v20 (y2 )
d
v
d
v
(y1 ) = (y2 ) = 0,
dy
dy
v3 (y1 )
v3 (y2 )
v30 (y1 )
v30 (y2 )
34
v2 (y1 )
A1
v2 (y2 ) A2
v20 (y1 ) A3
v20 (y2 )
A4
= 04 .
Nonzero solutions if determinate of matrix is zero. Hence, formally

c) = 0,
F (K, R,
(problem is finding indep solns).
we can find a set of solutions for c
Hence given K and R
(n)
c(n) = c(n)
r + ici .
NB
For bounded flows, there is an infinite set of discrete eigenvalues.
4.4.1
Finding eigenvalues numerically using Chebyshev polynomials
We can use Chebyshev polynomials to approximate solutions to the OSE (and Rayleigh equation),
and acquire the global set of eigenvalues for a particular base flow, U (y).
Chebyshev polynomials are an orthogonal set of functions defined by
Tn (x) = cos(n cos1 x),
where n is an integer which gives the order of the polynomial. The first five Chebyshev polynomials
are
T0
T1
T2
T3
T4
=
=
=
=
=
1,
x,
2x2 1,
4x3 3x,
8x4 8x2 + 1.
We can approximate a function f (x) defined on [1, 1] by

f(x) =
N
1
X
an Tn (x),
n=0
where an are the coefficients of each polynomial that need to be found. One advantage of Chebyshev
polynomials is |Tn (x)| 1 for all x [1, 1], so each term in f(x) is bounded.
Rather than work out the coefficients of each Chebyshev polynomials in our expansion, we can
find the numerical value of each Chebyshev polynomial some point at x = X via the recurrence
relation
Tn+1 (X) = 2XTn (X) Tn1 (X),
by noting that T0 (X) = 1 and T1 (X) = X. Then the numerical value of the k th derivative of each
polynomial at x = X can be found via the recurrence relation
(k)
T0 (X) = 0,
(k)
(k1)
T1 (X) = T0
(k)
T2 (X)
Tn(k) (X) =
(X),
(k1)
4T1
(X),
(k1)
2nTn1 (X)
n
(k)
Tn2 (X) for n 3.
n2
35
Therefore we have to map our solution domain to y [1, 1], and substitute
v =
N
1
X
an Tn (y)
(4.4.27)
n=0
into the Orr-Sommerfeld equation. Evaluating this function at the special points

j
yj = cos
N 1
(known as collocation points) for j = 2, , N 3 will produce N 4 equations for the N unknowns
an . Also, by using the 4 boundary conditions v(1) = v0 (1) = 0 and noting that
Tm (1) = (1)m
Tm0 (1) = (1)m1 m2 ,
(CHECK)
gives us a system of N equations and N unknowns.

This system can be written as
Aa = cBa
where c is the eigenvalue and a is the vector of the unknown coefficients an .
This equation can then be solved using a matrix eigenvalue solver (see books on matrix methods
or the MATLAB help for more information). The resulting numerical solution will produce N
eigenvalues and for each eigenvalue it will produce a vector a of coefficients which can then be
used to produce the eigenfunction from (4.4.27). The more Chebyshev polynomials used in the
approximation, the more eigenvalues will be found, however there are numerical problems in using
this method.
An example of this approach for solving the Poiseuille flow problem is given in worksheet A.3.1.
4.4.2
Summary of numerical results for OSE
sufficiently small, all c(n) < 0 so flow is stable.

1. For R
i
increases, one eigenvalue crosses the real axis,
2. As R
(1)
ci > 0,
i.e.
and hence we have an unstable mode.
3. Hence we obtain a region in (K, R)plane

where flow is unstable.
4.5
Viscous stability analysis for Poiseuille flow

U (y) = 1 y 2 ,
1 y 1,
00
U (y) = 2.
Does not satisfy Rayleighs criterion (i.e. U 00 = 0 somewhere in the flow). Hence it is NOT
inviscidly unstable.
We will see that the flow is unstable for ranges of K and R.

OSE:
1
(D2 K 2 )2 v,
(U c)(D2 K 2 )
v U 00 v =
iK R
and can consider problem as 2D (use Squires transform to convert back to 3D).
will dropoff R,
36
4.5.1
Numerical results
See handouts from books for calculations of eigenvalues for R = 10, 000.
Figure 3.1a Schmid and Henningson 3 classes of eigenvalues A, P, S.
Split modes into odd v(y) =
v (y),
even v(y) = v(y).
See also Drazin and Reid, fig 4.19. This just shows even modes.
Notes
1. Infinite number of e-values on the S branch, finite on A and P.
2. Average mean flow between y = y1 and y2
Z y2
Z
1 1
1
2
U (y) dy =
=
1 y 2 dy = ,
y2 y1 y1
2 1
3
same as cr (phase speed) of S modes.
3. For R > Rc (K), one e-value crosses real axis but only one mode. This is an even mode,
subsequent analysis focus on even modes.
4. The curve R = Rc (K) is known as the Neutral Stability Curve.
See fig 3.8 Schmid and Henningson.
Minimum Rc (K) as K varies is known as the critical Reynolds number.
Rcrit = min(Rc (K)) as K varies,
= 5767 corresponding to K 1.02.
Typical neutral curves
K
Upper branch
UNSTABLE
lower branch
R
R crit
Figure 27: Typical neutral curve
If R < Rcrit system is stable to all disturbances.
37
4.5.2
Asymptotic theory for ODEs
Consider the ODE
dy
+ y = x,
(4.5.28)
dx
with x 0 and 0 < 1. One b. cond y(0) = 1.
Solve naively by assuming = 0, and we have y = x. But this contradicts the boundary condition!!!!!!!
dy
The paradox arises from dx
not becoming small as 0, this term is as important as the other
two.

y
y=x
x
Figure 28: The approximate solution y = x is plausible, provided neither x nor y is small.
Where x is small we expect a boundary layer to join the line y = x to the boundary condition
x = 0, y = 1.
Rescale x = X where X = O(1) and =constant. (NB Because ODE is linear in y we dont
have to rescale w.r.t y).
dy
+ y = x,
dx
dy
+ y = X ,
dX
dy
+ 1 y = 21 X.
dX
(A)
(B)
(C)

1. Does (A) balance (B)?

dy
+ 1 y = 0 = = 1.
dX
1
Therefore, term (C) is 0 as 0, so consistent.
2. Does (A) balance (C)?
38
dy
1
= 21 X = = .
dX
2
1/2
But (B) is now
y as 0, so inconsistent.
3. Does (B) balance (C)?
1 y = 21 X,
y = X,
Therefore = 0 and y = X = x, solution we already had.
Returning to (1) = 1, x = X.
dy
+ y = X,
dX
The solution of this which satisfies y(0) = 1 is called the inner solution.
Let yinner (X) = y0 (X) + y1 (X) + O(2 ), then ODE gives
(y00 + y10 ) + y0 + y1 + O(2 ) = X,
(y00 + y0 ) + (y10 + y1 X) + O(2 ) = 0,
where prime denotes diff w.r.t X.
Now compare different orders of .
O(1) :
y00 + y0
Z
dy0
y0
= y0
y0
= 0
satisying
y(0) = 1,
Z
=
dX,
= AeX
= eX .
A = 1 to satisfy b.c.,
At O(),
y10 + y1 X = 0,

d
y1 eX = XeX ,
dX
Z
X
XeX dX,
y1 = e

Z
X
X
X
y1 (X) = e
Xe e dX ,
y1 (X) = X 1 + BeX .
the boundary condition gives
y(0) = 1,
y0 (0) + y1 (0) + O(2 ) = 1,
y0 (0) = 1 and y1 (0) = 0 (no 0 s on RHS).
39
This gives us
y1 (0) = 0 1 + B = 0,
B = 1,
y1 (X) = X 1 + eX .
Recap:

yinner (X) = eX + X 1 + eX + O(2 ),
inner solution for which X = O(1), i.e. x = O().
The outer solution is y = x which you can check formally by substituting
youter (x) = Y0 (x) + Y1 (x) + O(2 ),
in the outer region x .
The solution consists of two expressions, each valid in a different region. We hope the expressions
match to one another in an overlap region, known as the matching region. In this region we have
two limiting processes to consider,
1. x 0 in outer solution,
2. X with 0 and x remaining fixed (X = x1 ), for the inner solution.
Limit process (2) applied to our inner solution

yinner = eX + eX + X 1 ,

x
= ex/ + ex/ + 1 .

In letting 0 with x fixed, both terms ex/ are exponentially small w.r.t 0. This leaves
for small

x
1 = x ,
yinner

so yinner x = youter .
This means that the 2 solutions in the 2 regions are all thats needed, there is no third region. The
above analysis can also be recreated by considering the exact solution to (4.5.28) which is
x
y = x + (1 + )e .
See worksheet A.3.2 for exact solution and inner and outer approximations.
The above problem motivates thoughts on boundary layers in other fluid problems.
4.5.3
Asymptotic theory of OrrSommerfeld equation for large R
OSE with boundary conditions

v(1) = D
v (1) = v(1) = D
v (1) = 0.
Inviscid Solutions
40
If KR 1, we can then write

1 (1)
v .
RK
Substitute into OSE, = Rayleighs equation for v(0) .
v = v(0) +
(4.5.29)
(U c)(D2 K 2 )
v (0) U 00 v(0) = 0,
2nd order ODE for v(0) (y) cant satisfy 4 b. conds given.
(typical of singular perturbations, where the small parameter is multiplying the highest derivative,
cf 4.5.2)
Solving this equation we obtain the 2 Tollmien inviscid solutions (see 3)
v1 = (y yc )P1 (y),
U 00
v2 = P2 (y) + c0 v1 (y) ln(y yc ).
Uc
Writing
v(0) = A1 v1 + A2 v2 ,
the expansion (4.5.29) is going to become invalid when
1. y is close to yc because v2 is not analytic in neighborhood of yc due to log term.
Alternative approach is that U c is small close to yc and so different terms balance in full
OSE.
2. y is close to 1 because then v(0) cant satisfy the 2 conditions at y = 1 and 2 conditions
at y = 1. (cf inviscid analysis when only needed to satisfy v = 0 at y = 1)
Hence need a boundary layer at y = 1 and 1 in which viscosity is important.
NB
Since unstable mode is even, concentrate only on even modes. Consider OSE for 1 < y < 0.
Boundary conds
v(1) = D
v (1) = 0,
D
v (0) = D3 v(0) = 0.
Hence no need to consider the boundary layer at y = 1.
Viscous solutions
Look for asymptotic forms of other 2 linearly independent solutions of OSE, v3 and v4 .
Wall layer at y = 1
Let y = 1 + Y , 1.
U (y) = 1 y 2 = 2Y + O(2 ),
U 00 (y) = 2.
41
Subs into OSE

(2Y c)

2
1 d2
1 d2
1
2
2
K v + 2
v=
K
v.
2 dY 2
iKR 2 dY 2
d
v
dY
To satisfy the b. conds v(Y = 0) =

terms from RHS.
Largest term on LHS
(Y = 0) = 0, we need a dominant balance including viscous
c d2 v
.
2 dY 2
Largest on RHS
1 1 d4 v
.
iKR 4 dY 4
Hence choose
= (KR)1/2 1 ( KR 1).
Leading order equation becomes
d2 v
d4 v
+
ic
= 0.
dY 4
dY 2
Two solutions v = 1 and v = Y . These are just approximations to the inviscid solutions close to
the wall.
Other solutions are
v = exp(Y ) where 2 = ic.
Want solution which decays away from the boundary, so we can match the solution with main
part of the fluid.
vBL = exp(Y ), = (ic)1/2 = ei/4 c1/2 for real c,
= exp((y + 1)(KRc)1/2 ei/4 ).
Outer approximation to v3 and v4
Let
Z
v = exp

g(y) dy
for arbitrary constant .
This is a standard technique for solving differential equations which involve rapid oscillations,
known as the WKB approximation (or WKBJ).
Substitute this expression into OSE to give a nonlinear equations for g(y)
Z

D(
v ) = g exp
g dy ,
Z

2
0
2
D (
v ) = (g + g ) exp
g dy .
So

1
g 4 + 6g 2 g 0 + 4gg 00 + 3g 02 + g 000 2K 2 (g 2 + g 0 ) + K 4 = (U c)(g 2 + g 0 K 2 ) U 00 . (4.5.30)
iKR
42
As before balance terms on LHS (viscous) and RHS. Need g large for balance
i.e.
i.e.
g4
= O(g 2 ),
KR
g = O((KR)1/2 ).
Hence, set
g = (iKR)1/2 g0 (y) + g1 (y) + (iKR)1/2 g2 (y) + ,
substitute into (4.5.30) and equate powers of (KR)1/2 .
Obtain
g02 = U c,
g0 (y) = (U (y) c))1/2 ,
5 U0
g1 (y) =
.
4U c
Hence
Z
v = exp
g dy ,

Z
1/2
= exp (iKR)
Z
g0 (y) dy exp

g1 (y) dy
1 + O (KR)1/2
Z
5 y U0
5
g1 (y) dy =
dy = ln(U c).
4
U c
4

Z y

5/4
1/2
1/2
v(y) = (U c)
exp (iKR)
(U c) dy 1 + O (KR)1/2 .
Z
yc
Hence

v3 = (U c)5/4 exp (KR)1/2 Q(y) ,

v4 = (U c)5/4 exp +(KR)1/2 Q(y) ,
where
i/4
Q(y) = e
(U c)1/2 dy.
yc

(NB: Defined so arg (U c)1/2 = /2 for U c < 0).
If we let y 1, then v3 vBL , the viscous wall solution we obtained before (CHECK). Its clear
that these solutions are not valid in the critical layer where U c 0.
Inner approximation to v3 and v4 valid in critical layer
We are interested in the neutral curve, i.e. Rc (K), on which Im(c) = 0. On neutral curve, c is real
and y = yc lies on the real y axis.
Let y yc = Z, Z is new inner variable.
U (y) = U (yc ) + (y yc )U 0 (yc ) + ,
= c + ZUc0 + O(2 ).
43
Substitute into OSE

ZUc0

2
1
1 d2
1 d2
00
2
2
v.
K v Uc v =
K
2 dZ 2
iKR 2 dZ 2
Balance largest terms on LHS

ZUc0 d2
,
dZ 2
and RHS
1 1 d4
.
iKR 4 dZ 4
Choose
= (KR)1/3 .
To leading order

d2
iUc0 Z
2
dZ
d2 v
= 0,
dZ 2
and this is a 4th order equation 4 linearly independent solutions.

v = 1
v = Z
the Tollmien inviscid solutions.
To find other 2 solutions, let =
d2 v
.
dZ 2
local approximation to v2 ,
local approximation to v1 ,
Find a transform from Z to Z to convert equation to
d2
= 0,
Z
2
dZ
known as Airys equation commonly appears in stability analysis.

and Bi(Z).
See methods textbooks and MATLAB (or MAPLE) help.
Two solutions Ai(Z)
Summary of asymptotic structure
Viscous wall layer at y = 1, width (KR)1/2 . Critical layer width (KR)1/3 . NB wider than
wall layer.
Poiseuille flow
U = 1 y2,
yc = 1 c for c 1.
So unless c is small, the critical layer is away from the wall.
4.5.4
Summary of solutions of the OrrSommerfeld equation
1. Two inviscid solutions

v1 valid as leading order approximation to viscous solution everywhere.
v2 valid as leading order approximation, except in critical layer. Can find correction to v2 in
critical layer, but doesnt enter calculation of neutral stability.
44
2. Two viscous modes v3 and v4

v3 exponentially large in 1 y < yc ,
v4 exponentially small in 1 y < yc ,
from WKB approximations.
Also,
v3 exponentially small in yc < y 0,
v4 exponentially large in yc < y 0.
Expression for v3 and v4 from WKB valid everywhere except in critical layer.
Separate expressions for v3 and v4 in critical layer (using matched asymptotic expansions).
Close to boundary y = 1, expression for v3 as a viscous boundary layer, comes from limit
of WKB form as y 1.
3. Structure of solution
Recall neutral stability curve
K
Upper branch
UNSTABLE
lower branch
R
R crit
Figure 29: Typical neutral curve
On neutral stab. curve KR 1, and c = cr + ici , ci = 0 ( Neutral stability) and cr 1

(not proved here, but follows from later).
For small c, position of critical layer?
U (y) = 1 y 2 ,
1 y < 0.
Critical layer at yc where

U (yc ) = c,
1 yc2 = c,
yc = 1 c.
So for cr 1, critical layer is close to boundary y = 1.
45
Size of c determines whether the critical layer overlaps the narrower viscous wall layer.
Lower branch

c = O (KR)1/3 ,

= yc + 1 = O (KR)1/3 .
y
y c =O(KR)
(KR)
1/3
1/2
Figure 30: Viscous wall layer inside critical layer

i.e. viscous wall layer within critical layer. Often called Triple Deck theory.
outer
critical
viscous+critical
Figure 31: Triple deck structure

Upper branch

c = O (KR)1/5 ,

yc + 1 = O (KR)1/5 .
viscous wall layer lies outside critical layer. Referred to as FiveDeck Theory.
46
yc =O(KR)
(KR)
1/3
1/5
O(KR)
1/2
Figure 32: Viscous wall layer outside critical layer
5
3/4
2
1
Figure 33: Fivedeck structure

4.5.5
Calculating neutral stability curve
v3 gives viscous boundary layer at y = 1,

v4 gives viscous boundary layer at y = 0.
But for even modes there is no boundary layer at y = 0. v4 can be dropped from the general
solution for v in 1 y < 0 (can formally be justified with error calculation).
Write general solution as
v = A
v1 + v2 + C v3 ,
To satisfy boundary condition at y = 0, D
v = D3 v = 0 ( even mode),
A
v10 (0) + v20 (0) + C v30 (0) = 0.
v3 is exponentially small at y = 0
Check that D
v=0
Write
v20 (0)
= A = 0
.
v1 (0)
D3 v = 0 from OSE using U (y) = 1 y 2 .
v = (y) + C v3 (y),
v0 (0)
(y) = v2 (y) 20
v1 (y).
v1 (0)
47
Satisfy boundary condition at y = 1

v(1) = 0,
D
v (1) = 0,
=
=
(1) = C v3 (1),
0 (1) = C v30 (1).
Hence eigenvalue relation for c in terms of K and R is then

0 (1)
v0 (1)
= 3
.
(1)
v3 (1)
inviscid solution
viscous mode
Series expansion for v1 and v2 and hence (y).
To find RHS we can use the different approximations for v3 (y) that were obtained.
1. Viscous boundary layer approximation for v3 (y)
See fig 4.8 of Drazin and Reid
As R , results agree with numerics for upper branch only. No lower branch predicted.
On upper branch, viscous boundary layer form is good approximation to v3 at the wall.
Not when the critical layer overlaps.
2. WKB approx for v3 (y)
See fig 4.8 of Drazin and Reid
Agrees with numeric results as R , but does not give good results for moderately large
R, so not good for finding Rcrit .
3. Turning point approx to v3 (y)
i.e. solution valid in critical layer involves Airy functions.
Good agreement with numerics, somewhat surprizing.
See fig 4.11 of Drazin and Reid.
48
5
5.1
Boundary layers
Formulation
Nondimensional NS equation
1
u
+ u u = p + 2 u,
t
R
u = 0.
For a 2D flow, can write velocity potential in terms of a streamfunction (x, y)

u = (y , x ).

yt + y
x
y = px +
x
y

xt y
x = py
x
x
y
1 2
y ,
R
1 2
x .
R
(5.1.31)
(5.1.32)
Eliminate p
(5.1.31)
(5.1.32),
y
x

1
2
+ y
x
2 = 4 ,
t
x
y
R
(5.1.33)
(Alternative derivation is to take of NS to eliminate p).

Note
For 2D flows 2 = , where vorticity = k. Hence we can write (5.1.33) as
1
(, )
= 2 .
t
(x, y)
R
This is known as vorticitystreamfunction equation.
5.2
General theory for R 1
Outer expansion
= 0 +
1
1 + O(R2 ).
R
Leading order inviscid

2
0 + 0y
0x
2 0 = 0.
t
x
y
Solve subject to u n = 0 on solid surface (standard inviscid b.c), i.e. =constant.
In general u s 6= 0. i.e. Flow does not satisfy the viscous b. condition that u = 0 on surface.
Let s be a coordinate along the surface and
u s = U (s, t) =
49
.
n
= u s.)
(Exercise: check
n
Hence need a boundary layer at the wall, i.e. rescale n, n = N with 1. N is blayer variable.
Also equation is nonlinear for , so also rescale
= .
Since

=
,
N
n
U (s), we choose = 1 to ensure N

is O(1).
then as N and n 0,
n
Next choose (as a function of R) so viscous terms enter at leading order.
For simplicity consider a flat plate.
y = Y, =
1 2
2 =
+
=
+ O(1).
x2 y 2
2 Y 2
2
Subst. into (5.1.33) to give

1 1
1
Y Y + Y
x
Y Y =
Y Y Y Y + smaller terms.
2
2
t
x
Y

R 4
Choose R2 = 1 to balance terms.
= R1/2 ,
gives width of the blayer.
Y Y t + Y Y Y x x Y Y Y = Y Y Y Y .
Integrate once wrt Y
Y t + Y Y x x Y Y = Y Y Y + f (x, t),
(check by differentiating).
Let Y , need to match the outer/inviscid solution, i.e.

U (x, t),
Y
and so
2
0 etc.
Y 2
Substituting
U
U
+U
= f (x, t).
t
x
Blayer equation becomes
Y t + Y Y x x Y Y Y Y Y = Ut + U Ux .
B. conds
= 0) = 0 ( wall is streamline),
(Y
Y (Y = 0) = 0 ( tangential velocity = 0),
Y (Y ) U (x, t) (matching to outer).
50
5.3
Uniform flow past a flat plate

U =1
also steady flow
Y Y x x Y Y Y Y Y = 0.
try to separate variables, but first we need a transform for Y variable. Let
= h(X)()
where
= g(x)Y,
X = x.
Chain rule
X

=
+
,
x
x X x
=
+ g0Y
,
X
g0
=
+
,
X
g

=
,
y
Y
= g .
Substitute into (5.3.34).

xY
!

g 0
+
,
X
g

g0
0
= g
h + h ,
g

0
gh
g0h
0
= g h +
+
.
g
g
= g
Similarly for other terms (check these).

1
g0h
g0h
1
g0h
0
0
h +
+
h +
= 0
g
g
g
g
g
(gh)0 2 h0
= 0.
g2
g
B. conds
(0) = 0,
(0) = 0,
gh U as ,
U

.
gh
Fn of only
Fn of X only
51
(5.3.34)
Hence choose gh = U . For flat plate uniform flow U = 1, i.e. gh = 1.

0
Also choose hg = 1, we get ODE for ()., i.e.
+ = 0,
known as Blasius equation (see earlier handout for numerical solution).
Since g = h0 and hg = 1,
hh0 = 1,
h2
= x + C,
2
p
h =
2(x + C).
For convenience, choose C = 0,
g = (2x)1/2 .
Hence
= (2x)1/2 () where =
5.3.1
Y
.
(2x)1/2
Notes on Blasius solution
The x component of velocity in the blayer

u = y = Y
where
=
= gh ,
= (),
Y
R1/2 y
=
.
(2x)1/2
(2x)1/2
If we return to dimensional variables ( use to denote dimensional variable).

Let U be a typical velocity
Let L be a typical length.
U*
BL
Figure 34: Boundary layer flow on a flat plate

U L
But there is no length scale in the problem, so L should not appear in expression for u (x , y ).
R=
u=
u
,
U
x=
x
,
L
52
y=
y
,
L

=
U L
1/2
y
L
2x
L
1/2

=
1/2
y
,
(2x )1/2
so no dependence on L , as required.
NB
In dimensional variables
= (2U x )1/2 ().
Width of the boundary layer
Various measures
1. Simplest
is point at which u is 99% of the freestream value.
u
y*
Figure 35: Boundary layer thickness 99% measure.

If (c ) = 0.99

2
U
1/2
x1/2 c .
Numerically c = 3.47,

= 4.91
x
U
1/2
.
2. The displacement thickness 1 is defined by

1
0 0
=
0
u
1
U
dy .
Here u U (slip velocity) as y , where is an approximation to the boundary layer

thickness.
In terms of inner (or blayer) variable
53
Matching region
U*1
Outer inviscid solution

boundary
layer
Figure 36: Matching region.
=R1/2

(1 ())
=
0

=
2x
U
1/2 Z
2x
U
1/2
d,
(1 ()) d.
0
Integral exists because 1 (in fact tends exponentially).

Numerically
(1 ()) d 1.2167,
0

1.72
x
U
1/2
.
3. Definition of momentum thickness
0 0

u
u
=
1 dy ,
U
U
0

1/2 Z
2x
(1 ()) d,
=
U
0
1/2
x
0.660
.
U
Z
Each measure takes the form
=k
x
U
1/2
,
where k is a dimensionless O(1) constant. Get similar results for more general boundary
layers, but different k.
Commonest measure to use is the displacement thickness. Note in all cases that the width
of the boundary layer increases with x1/2 .
54
Sometimes define a Reynolds number based on boundary layer thickness

1/2
x
U
U
= k
,
R =
1/2
U x
= k
,
1/2
= kRx .
R is Reynolds number based on blayer thickness.
Rx is Reynolds number based on blayer thickness downstream.
5.4
Flow past flat plate with arbitrary slip velocity U (x)
e.g. Wind tunnel with curved walls.
Figure 37: Wind tunnel with curved walls.

Same PDE in blayer as before
Y U (x) as Y .
In general, cant find transform = g(x)Y so solution is seperable, but with suitable choice of
g(x) can simplify the equation,
Y Y x x Y Y Y Y Y = U Ux .
Let
= g(X)Y,
X = x,
= h(X)(X, ).
Chain rule
g 0
x = X +
,
g
g 0
= h + hX +
h ,
g
extra term
cf U = 1 case
0
55
Same analysis as before, but 2 extra terms

+
h0
(gh)0
h
U UX
2 2 + (X X ) = 3 .
g
g
g
g h
Boundary condition
U (X)
.
gh

Choose g and h to simplify equation,
h0
= 1,
g
gh = U
so
g = h0
h0 h = U,
Z X
h2
U dx,
=
2
c
convenient to let c = 0,
so
Z
h =
2
1/2
U dx
Z
g = U 2
1/2
U dx
Hence,

+ + 1 2 + (X X ) = 0,
where
RX
2 0 U dx dU
(gh)0
UX
=
= 2 =
,
g2
g
U2
dX
RX
2 0 U dx
h
U
=
= 2 =
.
g
g
U2
NB
Often transform the streamwise coordinate, X,
Z X
=
U (x) dx,
0
to put the equation in standard form

+ + 1 2 + 2 (X X ) = 0,
where is a function of .
is known as the pressure gradient parameter (or Hartree parameter).
56
NB
Pressure gradient is
dp
= U UX ,
dX
(from nondimensional NavierStokes or Bernoulli).
Assuming U > 0.
dp
< 0 known as favourable pressure gradient flow is accelerated downstream.
If UX > 0, dX
p
>0
High
Low
Figure 38: Figure of pressure gradient.

If UX < 0, adverse pressure gradient.
5.4.1
FalknerSkan solutions
If =constant, then solution with
= 0 exists.

+ + 1 2 = 0.
True if U (X) = AX n (check)
=
2n
.
n+1
Aside
Do any other U (X) give =constant?
Need
R
U dx
UX = 0
UZ2
0 U 2
U dx =
,
UX

U 2 UXX
U = 0 2U
,
UX2

U 2 UXX
1
=
2
U,
UX2
0
U UXX = kUX2 .
57
Nonlinear 2nd order ODE. Try U = eX ,

2 e2X = k2 e2X ,
i.e. solution for k = 1. Any more?
5.4.2
Numerical results for FalknerSkan
Method
1.
(0) = (0) = 0
choose (0) = a.
2. Solve ODE by integration from = 0.
If
(max ) 6= 1 max 1,
then adjust a.
Summary of Results
Solutions do exist with Umax > 1, i.e. Disregard on physical grounds.
Figure 39: FalknerSkan profile which is neglected.

1. If n > 0 = > 0,
Unique solution for ().
2. 0.0904 < n < 0 = 0.1978 < < 0,
Two solutions exist, one with (0) > 0, and one with (0) < 0, corresponds with flow
reversal.
3. < 0.1978
No solutions exist.
i.e. solutions exist for favourable pressure gradients and small adverse pressure gradients.
See MATLAB handout A.4.1.
58
Flow reversal
(0)>0
(0)<0
Figure 40: FalknerSkan profiles for 0.1978 < < 0.

5.4.3
Summary of FalknerSkan profiles
1. Adverse pressure gradients ( < 0) thicken boundary layer.

2. (0) < 0 = flow reversal at wall (rarely occurs see later). Such flows formally exist for
small adverse pressure gradients.
3. As decreases from positive values down to 0.1978 uy (0) (0) decreases to zero.
4. Boundary layer separation
Figure 41: Boundary layer separation.

At simplest level, flow reversal signals blayer separation.
Figure 42: Boundary layer separation.

5. In general, solve (X, ) as a PDE marching downstream from X = 0.
59
If ( = 0) approaches zero, we expect separation to occur.

Example
Rankine body Source in a uniform flow
Figure 43: Rankine body.

Can find slip velocity on surface U ()
min
Figure 44: Rankine body pressure gradient.

Results suggest if min > 0.1978 blayer stays attached.
min can be slightly less than 0.1978 and stay attached (due to presence of terms) but
larger -ve values = separation.
5.5
Stability of boundary layers
In 2 and 3 we considered stability of steady flows of the form

u = U (y)i,
i.e. strictly parallel flows. For viscous flows we showed that only strictly parallel flows were
U (y) = Ay 2 + By + C.
Two flows in particular are commonly studied.
60
1. Poiseuille Flow
U (y) = 1 y 2 .
Neutral stability curve,
K
Upper branch
UNSTABLE
lower branch
R
R crit
Figure 45: Poiseuille flow neutral stability curve.

2. Couette flow
U (y) = y
1 y 1.
Corresponds to flow between 2 plates moving in opposite directions.

Couette flow is stable,
Now consider boundary layer on a flat plate zero pressure gradient (i.e Blasius boundary layer).
Using same notation as before
= R1/2
y = R1/2 Y,
Y
= (2x)1/2 () =
.
(2x)1/2
Let u = U i + V j,

=
= (),
y
Y

Y
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
=
= R
= R
(2x)
(2x)
.
x
x
(2x)3/2
U =
V
Note that V = O(R1/2 ). i.e. For R 1 = V U , i.e. the flow is almost parallel.
Now consider a point dimensional distance x from leading edge of plate. Recall there is no natural
length scale in problem for nondimensionalisation of NavierStokes.
Choose L = x so
U L
U x
R=
=
.
61
Hence at fixed point
x
x = = 1,
L
and
Y
= .
2
Then repeat stability analysis for strictly parallel flows, ignoring the j component of velocity. (can
be built into theory as a correction nonparallel correction).
Basic structure is the same, with viscous wall layer and critical layer inside the steady boundary
layer.
Obtain similar results
U = ()
K
Upper branch
UNSTABLE
lower branch
R
R crit
Figure 46: Blasius boundary layer, neutral curve.

Main difference in analysis is that instead of having 4 b. conditions at the 2 walls as in Poiseuille
flow, here extra conditions are that v decays exponentially for large y.
Results
See fig 4.22 Drazin and Reid
R1 = Reynolds number based on displacement thickness.
R1 =
U
1/2
= 1.72Rx .
where the notation is 1 K.

Fig 4.22 in neutral stability curve for Blasius flow.
Fig 4.24 illustrates effect of pressure gradient (i.e. ) on critical Reynolds number.
Adverse pressure gradients reduce critical R. i.e. Adverse pressure gradients = blayer is more
unstable.
5.6
Comparison of experiment and theory for neutral curve for flat

plate
In developing theory for stability we considered disturbance of the form

ei(kxt) ,
62
(ignoring zdependency, i.e. 2D theory).

Take k real and found a dispersion relation, formally
D(k, ) = 0,
k real, solved D(k, ) = 0 to give
= r + ii ,
ei(kxr t) ei t .
So if disturbance is known at t = 0, we can find whether disturbance grows or decays with time.
This is known as TEMPORAL STABILITY. In experiments it is hard to set up conditions so
disturbance is known everywhere at t = 0. Easier to force a disturbance at a particular point. e.g.
Oscillating strip on a plate, or a vibrating ribbon in the flow above the plate.
x=0
x=x
Figure 47: Oscillating strip or vibrating ribbon.

In this case, we know disturbance at x = x0 for all time. e.g. oscillating at frequency , say
u(x0 , t) = Aeit .
Hence, suggests we take real and solve the dispersion relation D(k, ) = 0 to give a complex
wavenumber k.
ei(kxt) = ei(kr xt) eki x .
ki > 0, disturbance decays downstream
STABLE
x
x0
Figure 48: Spatially stable.
ki < 0, disturbance grows downstream
This is known as SPATIAL STABILITY.
63
UNSTABLE
x
x0
Figure 49: Spatially unstable.

Theory
Neutral curve for spatial stability is obtained in similar method as for temporal.
unstable
Figure 50: Neutral curve.

Experiments
Schubauer and Skramstad (1947)
Wind tunnel test in general.
Test section
Summary of experiment
1. Incoming flow as uniform as possible (uses meshes etc to cut turbulence and lining on walls
of tunnel to cut noise/vibration).
2. Vibrating ribbon known frequency () and amplitude.
3. Hot wire probes accurately measure flow speed close to plate.
Results
See figs 4.29 and 4.30 (Drazin and Reid)
64
meshes
to reduce
turbulence
Test section
Figure 51: Wind tunnel experiment.
hot wire
probes
vibrating
ribbon
Figure 52: Test section.

Parameters
F =
U
,
=
1/2
= 1.72Rx ,
where
R
U x
=
.
Parallel theory vs Nonparallel theory
= x1/2 .
Parallel theory OrrSommerfeld equation.
nonparallel theory extra terms in OrrSommerfeld.
65

parallel theory
not so good
(significant growth
in bl thickness)
x*
flow almost parallel
expect parallel theory
to be good
Figure 53: Nonparallel b-layer.
66
Laminar/Turbulent transition on a flat plate
6.1
Introduction
Flat plate in uniform flow
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
Transition point
Figure 54: Flat plate in uniform flow.

Detection of transition point
1. Direct measurement of flow speed (using hot wire probe).
2. Visualisation e.g. introduce smoke traces.
3. Surface measurements e.g. pressure/shear.
From experiments position of transition is very sensitive to experimental setup.
1. Smoothness of plate.
2. Turbulent level of incoming flow.
3. Noise/acoustic disturbances in tunnel.
6.2
Stability theory
Consider U and fixed, then we can draw the neutral stability curve in dimensional x , plane
( denotes dimensional quantities). (see spatial stability theory).
stable
unstable
x* x*1
0
x*
x*
Figure 55: Neutral stability curve for spatial stability.

67
Consider a vibrating ribbon frequency 0 positioned at x0 .

For x0 < x < x1 disturbance decays exponentially.
For x1 < x < x2 disturbance grows exponentially.
For x2 < x < disturbance decays exponentially.
Amplitude
initial
amplitude
x*0
x*
x*
x*2
Figure 56: Schematic of disturbance amplitude.

But in deriving OrrSommerfeld equation, we assumed the unsteady disturbance was small compared to steady flow. If amplitude of the unsteady disturbance grows large, linear equation is no
longer valid and we need a nonlinear equation. With linear equation, solution eit continue to
be eit . With nonlinear equation, these terms give rise to e2it , e3it etc (i.e. higher harmonics)
and it is this that eventually leads to turbulence in the blayer.
Hence transition point loosely corresponds to onset of nonlinear behaviour. Expect transition point
to lie downstream of neutral stability point, assuming that initial forcing is small.
Amplitude
nonlinearity
at this amp
A
B
C
x*A
x*
x*
x*
x*2
x*
Figure 57: Amplitude schematic.

xA =transition point for disturbance A.
Large initial forcing (by vibrating ribbon etc) = transition point closer to neutral stability point.
Notes
1. Wavelength of disturbance is short at lower branch important later.
2. Unstable waves in blayers are called TollmienSchlichting waves (TS waves).
68
3. In practical cases, we dont have a forcing in the blayer, but instead blayer is forced by
unsteady disturbances in the freestream (e.g. noise).
So to find transition point, need to determine how TS waves are generated by the interaction of
freestream and the blayer. known as boundary layer receptivity.
6.3
Receptivity theory
Consider
u = U (1 + ei t )i 1,
as velocity far from flat plate.
Figure 58: Velocity far from plate.

Effectively, acoustic wave approaching the plate. How does the unsteady disturbance generate TS
waves.
Length scale from disturbance l = U .

Reynolds number based on this length
Re =
U l
U 2
=
.
Assume Re 1.
From earlier, the wavelength of TS waves is short, so generation of TS waves occurs when steady
flow solution varies on short streamwise scale.
1. e.g. leading edge of plate rapid blayer growth
Figure 59: Leading edge receptivity.

2. Roughness on plate
69
Figure 60: Roughness receptivity.
6.4
Leading edge receptivity
See Goldstein - Journal of Fluid Mechanics (1983) 127, and my notes on this research paper.
6.5
Receptivity due to roughness element
Roughness centred at x = x0 ,
y = H f (x x0 )
f (x) 0 as |x| .
H*
x*
Figure 61: Roughness element.

We know the wavelength of a disturbance near to the lower branch, xn ( ), is given by
= O(3 xn ).
This suggests that unstable disturbances will be generated by interaction of unsteadiness in the
freestream ( ) with the roughness on the surface of the plate, if the roughness has a similar
length scale to wavelength of the unsteady disturbance (i.e. width O(3 xn )). Consider roughness
close to neutral point (or lower branch) i.e. x0 = O(xn ).
With this length scale we obtain the same triple deck structure as before. Here y = xy .
0
If we take H = 5 hx0 , then roughness has same scale as the inner or wall layer.
If h 1, then roughness is small compared to the wall layer means we can solve linearised
equations in wall layer.
Boundary conditions on the plate
u(y = H f (X)) = 0,
v(y = H f (X)) = 0.
70
u*=U*(1+ e
i t*
x*
x*
0
Figure 62: Roughness element.

~
y= 3y
upper or outer
y= 4y
main
y= Y
wall layer
x*0
X=O(1)
X=x*x*0
3 x*0
Figure 63: Roughness element triple deck.

In terms of nondimensional parameters in lower deck
u(Y = hf (X)) = v(Y = hf (X)) = 0,
where h 1 and f (X) = O(1). We can expand u and v as a Taylor series
u(Y = hf ) = u(0) + hf u0 (0) + O(h2 ).
Boundary condition becomes
u(0)
= hf (X),
u0 (0)
and similarly for v(Y ).
Find that, if:
1. Roughness is upstream of neutral point then wave decays with distance downstream but then
grows when lower branch point is reached.
2. Roughness is downstream of neutral point, then disturbance grows.
Roughness elements close to lower branch point create unstable disturbances with highest
magnitude = earliest transition.
71
2)
1)
x*
x*n
x*0
Figure 64: Schematic of disturbance amplitude.
2
1
Fluid
Figure 65: Flow between two cylinders.
6.6
Importance of stability properties
1. Mixing of fluids
u(r) is velocity in direction say. Stability depends on 1 , 2 , r1 , r2 . No mixing of fluid if
stable.
2. Drag on a body
Drag force:
Inviscid (known as form drag) F =
blayer is turbulent.
ds. Viscous contribution from blayer, larger if
Form drag is related to size of wake behind body (large wake = large drag).
(a) Streamline body
72
u
2 r2
1 r1
r2
r1
Figure 66: Velocity of fluid.
Figure 67: Streamline body.

(b) Blunt body
Figure 68: Blunt body.

In (b) if we want to minimise drag, we want boundary layer to be turbulent to delay separation
and makes wake narrower. Decrease in form drag outweighs small increase in boundary layer drag.
i.e. golf ball rough to make boundary layer turbulent and reduce total drag.
For streamline bodies (i.e. (a)) the viscous boundary layer drag outweighs form drag, so try to
reduce it by making boundary layer laminar for as long as possible. i.e. Delay transition point.
Typical techniques smooth surfaces. also suction through the surface stabilises the flow.
73
A
A.1
A.1.1
MATLAB Worksheets
KelvinHelmholtz instability
KelvinHelmholtz general stability
Plotting the contours of constant growth rate for the KelvinHelmholtz instability.
clear
gamma=0.5;
[k,l]=meshgrid(0:0.01:2.0,-2.0:0.01:2.0);
f=k.^2-gamma*(k.^2.0+l.^2.0).^(0.5);
contour(k,l,f,[0,0.5,1.0])
2
l 0
1
2
0
0.5
1
k
1.5
Figure 69: KelvinHelmholtz growth rates = 0.5
gamma=1.0;
For fixed k > , largest growth rate is for l = 0, i.e. 2D disturbances are most unstable.
74
l 0
1
2
0
0.5
1
k
1.5
Figure 70: KelvinHelmholtz growth rates = 1.0
75
A.2
A.2.1
Inviscid Stability
Inviscid stability of mixing layer
Plotting the value of c2 as a function of X = Kb.

clear
x=0:0.01:5;
zero=0*x;
f=(1-0.5./x).^2-0.25*exp(-4*x)./x.^2;
plot(x,f,x,zero,k)
1
0.5
f(X) 0
0.5
1
0
Figure 71: Mixing layer stability.
76
A.2.2
Unbounded piecewise linear mixing layer
A MATLAB code to solve the piecewise linear mixing layer problem.

clear
clc
syms y b P Q R S k c
bb=1.0;
v1=P*exp(k*y);
dv1=diff(v1,y);
y1=-b;
u1=-1;
du1=diff(u1,y);
v2=Q*exp(k*y)+R*exp(-k*y);
dv2=diff(v2,y);
y2=b;
u2=y/b;
du2=diff(u2,y);
v3=S*exp(-k*y);
dv3=diff(v3,y);
u3=1;
du3=diff(u3,y);
eqn1=subs(v1,y,y1)-subs(v2,y,y1);
eqn3=subs(dv2,y,y1)-subs(dv1,y,y1)-subs(v1,y,y1)*(du2-du1)/(subs(u1,y,y1)-c);
[soln_P,soln_Q,soln_R]=solve(eqn1,eqn2,eqn3,P,Q,R);
disp=expand(subs(eqn4,{P,Q,R},{soln_P,soln_Q,soln_R})/S);
disp2=disp(1);
c1=solve(disp2,c);
for j=2:1001
k1(j)=(j-1.)/1000.;
c11r(j)=double(subs(real(c1(1)),{b,k},{bb,k1(j)}));
c11i(j)=double(subs(imag(c1(1)),{b,k},{bb,k1(j)}));
end
figure(1)
plot(k1,c11r,k,k1,c12r,k)
77
figure(2)
plot(k1,c11i,k,k1,c12i,k)
0.5
0.5
cr
ci
0
0.5
0.5
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Figure 72: Unbounded mixing layer stability.
78
0.8
A.2.3
Two part piecewise linear boundary layer flow
A MATLAB code to solve the two part piecewise linear boundary layer problem.
clear
clc
syms y b P Q R S k c
bb=-0.2;
v1=P*(exp(k*y)-exp(-k*y));
dv1=diff(v1,y);
y1=0.5;
u1=2.0*b*y;
du1=diff(u1,y);
v2=Q*exp(k*y)+R*exp(-k*y);
dv2=diff(v2,y);
y2=1.0;
u2=2*(1-b)*y+(2*b-1);
du2=diff(u2,y);
v3=S*exp(-k*y);
dv3=diff(v3,y);
u3=1.0;
du3=diff(u3,y);
[soln_P,soln_Q,soln_R]=solve(eqn1,eqn2,eqn3,P,Q,R);
disp=expand(subs(eqn4,{P,Q,R},{soln_P,soln_Q,soln_R})/S);
disp2=disp(1);
c1=solve(disp2,c);
for j=2:3001
k1(j)=(j-1.)/1000.;
end
for j=1:2000
yy(j)=(j-1.0)/1000.0;
79
if (yy(j)<y1)
u(j)=double(subs(u1,{b,y},{bb,yy(j)}));
du(j)=double(subs(du1,{b,y},{bb,yy(j)}));
elseif (yy(j)<y2)
else
end
end
figure(1)
subplot(2,2,2)
plot(k1,c11r,k,k1,c12r,k)
subplot(2,2,3)
plot(k1,c11i,k,k1,c12i,k)
subplot(2,2,1)
plot(u,yy,k)
axis( [-0.3 1.1 0 2])
subplot(2,2,4)
plot(du,yy,k)
0.5
0.5
0
0
2
0.5
0
0.5
0
1
2
0
0
Figure 73: b = 0.2.
80
0.5
0.5
0
0
2
0.05
0
0.05
0
0
0
Figure 74: b = 0.49.
0.5
0
1
0
0
2
1
0
0.5
0
0
Figure 75: b = 0.8.
81
0.5
1
0
2
0.5
0
0.5
0
1
2
0
5
Figure 76: b = 0.2.
82
A.2.4
Blasius boundary layer solution
Define a function file blasius.m containing the ODE information

function ysol=blasius(x,y)
ysol=[y(2); y(3); -y(1)*y(3)];
Then solve ODE using
clear
xspan=[0 6];
y0=[0; 0; 0.4696];
[x,y]=ode45(@blasius,xspan,y0);
zero=0*y(:,1);
plot(x,y(:,2),x,zero,k)
1.5
0.5
0
0
Figure 77: Plot of U (y)
plot(x,y(:,3),x,zero,k)
83
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
Figure 78: Plot of U 0 (y).
84
A.2.5
Stability analysis for U = tanh y - numerical results
For most U (y), Rayleighs equation

(U c)(D2 K 2 )v U 00 v = 0,
can not be solved exactly. Here we consider U = tanh y in the unbounded region < y < .
The boundary conditions on v(y) are v 0 as |y| . Since U 00 /(U c) 0 as |y| the
conditions of decay on v(y) become
v C eKy
v C+ eKy
which can be written as
v 0 (y)
v(y)
as
y ,
as y ,
K y
.
K y
Thus for given K we must find c so that these boundary conditions are satisfied. This turns out
to be a difficult numeric problem since c is typically complex. Here I summarise the method used
and then present some results.
General numerical approach
1. We solve the ODE in the interval y [ym , ym ] starting from y = ym where ym is large. I
used ym = 5. The initial conditions then become
v(ym ) = ,
v 0 (ym ) = K,
where the value of does not matter since the equation is linear.
2. We then choose a value of c, integrate (i.e. solve) the equation numerically and then find the
value of v 0 (ym )/v(ym ). If the correct value of c has been chosen, this value should be close
to K, otherwise a new value of c is chosen.
3. The subtle part of this calculation is in choosing a new value of c using the previous results.
For this particular problem there is some simplification possible. v(y) = sechy is a solution
of Rayleighs equation if c = 0 and K = 1. For 0 < K < 1 it turns out that Re(c) = 0 with
Im(c) a decreasing function of K. (NB It is possible to prove that if the unstable eigenvalue
is unique, then the real part of c is independent of K).
Thus to find c(K) we let c = i and reduce from 1 until v 0 (ym )/v(ym ) K.
The MATLAB scritps are
function vsol=rayleigh(y,v,k,c)
vsol=[v(2); -2.0*tanh(y)*sech(y)^2.0*v(1)/(tanh(y)-c)+k^2.0*v(1)];
and
85
clear
epsilon=0.1;
lambda=1.0;
options = odeset(AbsTol,1e-8,RelTol,1e-8);
j=1;
for k=0.05:0.05:0.95
a=1000.0;
b=1.0;
min=10000000.0;
while (abs(a/b+k)<min);
min=abs(a/b+k);
yspan=[-5 5];
v0=[epsilon; epsilon*k];
c=lambda*i;
[y,v]=ode45(@rayleigh,yspan,v0,options,k,c);
last=length(y);
lambda=lambda-0.0001;
a=v(last,2);
b=v(last,1);
end
k
lambda+0.0002
(lambda+0.0002)*k
j=j+1;
kk(j)=k;
lambdalambda(j)=lambda+0.0002;
growth(j)=k*(lambda+0.0002);
end
kk(1)=0.0;
lambdalambda(1)=1.0;
growth(1)=0.0;
j=j+1;
kk(j)=1.0;
lambdalambda(j)=0.0;
growth(j)=0.0;
figure(1)
plot(kk,lambdalambda)
figure(2)
plot(kk,growth)
The results for c(K) = i 0 < K < 1 are given below:
86
K
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
(K) K(K)
1.0000 0.0000
0.9157 0.0458
0.8367 0.0837
0.7644 0.1147
0.6975 0.1395
0.6352 0.1588
0.5769 0.1731
0.5221 0.1827
0.4705 0.1882
0.4215 0.1897
0.3750 0.1875
0.3307 0.1819
0.2883 0.1730
0.2477 0.1610
0.2086 0.1460
0.1710 0.1283
0.1347 0.1078
0.0995 0.0846
0.0654 0.0589
0.0323 0.0307
0.0000 0.0000
Table 1: Stability results for U = tanh y.
87
0.2
0.8
0.15
0.6
0.1
0.4
0.05
0.2
(a)
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
(b)
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure 79: (a) Im(c)(K) and (b) growth rate as function of K.

Thus we see that the system is unstable for 0 < K < 1. In fact the system is stable (Im(c) < 0)
for K > 1 but finding the eigenvalues for K > 1 turns out to be quite complicated.
Recall that K = (k 2 + l2 )1/2 and that the growth rate is given by (k, l) = kIm(c) = k(K).
The numerical results show that is monotonically decreasing function of K and so for a given k,
the maximum growth rate occurs when l = 0.
Using the commands in the MATLAB worksheet below, you can verify that these eigenvalues are
correct. Choose a value of K and compare the eigensolution v(y) when c = c(K) with v(y) when
c take other values.
We can plot the eigensolution using
clear
epsilon=0.1;
k=0.6;
c=0.2883*i
yspan=[-5 5];
v0=[epsilon; epsilon*k];
[y,v]=ode45(@rayleigh,yspan,v0,options,k,c);
last=length(y);
plot(y,v(:,1))
For the case K = 0.6 we have found the approximate value of c = 0.2883i we find an eigensolution
which decays exponentially at large y, but if we choose an incorrect value of c, 0.4i say, then the
eigensolution consists of both eKy and eKy parts of the solution, and does not tend to zero for
large y.
88
4
1.2
1
0.8
2
0.6
0.4
0.2
(a)
0
5
(b)5
Figure 80: (a) c = 0.2883i and (b) c = 0.4i for K = 0.6.
89
A.3
A.3.1
Viscous Stability
Eigenvalues for Poiseuille flow.
Finding the eigenvalues for Poiseuille flow U (y) = 1 y 2 for y [1, 1] with K = 1.0 and
= 10000.
R
% Matlab script to find global eigenvalues for Poiseuille flow
clear
N=121;
R=10000.0;
alpha=1.0;
% The collocation points are at ybar=cos(m*pi/(N-1)) for m=0..N-1
% Setup matrix t of Chebyshev polynomials and their derivatives at each collocation
% point
for m=N-2:-1:2;
ybar=cos(m*pi/(N-1));
t=0.0;
t(1,1)=1.0;
t(1,2)=ybar;
for ii=2:N-1;
t(1,ii+1)=2.0*ybar*t(1,ii)-t(1,ii-1);
end
for j=2:5;
t(j,1)=0.0;
t(j,2)=t(j-1,1);
t(j,3)=4.0*t(j-1,2);
for k=4:N;
t(j,k)=2.0*(k-1.0)*t(j-1,k-1)+(k-1.0)/(k-3.0)*t(j,k-2);
end
end
% Evaluate the base flow at value of ybar
U=1.0-ybar^2.0;
dU=-2.0*ybar;
d2U=-2.0;
% Setting up matrices of Orr-Sommerfeld equation
for j=1:N;
a(N-m,j)=U*(t(3,j)-alpha^2*t(1,j))-d2U*t(1,j)-1.0/(i*alpha*R)*(t(5,j)-2.0*alpha^2*t
b(N-m,j)=t(3,j)-alpha^2*t(1,j);
end
end
90
% Boundary conditions
for j=1:N;
a(1,j)=1.0;
a(2,j)=(j-1.0)^2.0;
a(N-1,j)=(-1.0)^(j-2.0)*(j-1.0)^2.0;
a(N,j)=(-1.0)^(j-1.0);
b(1,j)=0.0;
b(2,j)=0.0;
b(N-1,j)=0.0;
b(N,j)=0.0;
end
% find eigenvalues c
[V,D]=eig(a,b);
% put eigenvalues into plottable form
for j=1:N;
realc(j)=real(D(j,j));
imagc(j)=imag(D(j,j));
end
plot(realc,imagc,+,[0 1],[0 0])
axis([0 1 -1 0.1])
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
= 10000..
Figure 81: Temporal eigenvalues for plane Poiseuille flow with K = 1 and R
91
A.3.2
Asymptotic solution to ODE
The exact solution to
dy
+ y = x,
dx
with x 0 and 0 < 1 with one b. cond y(0) = 1, is

yexact = x + (1 + )e .
The 1st and 2nd approximations to the outer solution are
(1)
youter = x,
(2)
youter = x ,
while the 1st and 2nd approximations to the inner solution are
(1)
yinner = ex/ ,
(2)
yinner
x/
= e
+ e
x/

x
+ 1 .

The 5 solutions can be plotted using the code below

clear
clc
eps=0.1;
x=0:0.025:1;
y=x-eps+(1+eps)*exp(-x/eps);
yo1=x;
yo2=x-eps;
yi1=exp(-x/eps);
yi2=exp(-x/eps)+eps*(exp(-x/eps)+x/eps-1);
plot(x,y,k+,x,yo1,r,x,yo2,b,x,yi1,g,x,yi2,c)
92
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure 82: Asymptotic approximations to the exact solution.
93
A.4
A.4.1
Boundary Layers
FalknerSkan velocity profiles
To plot FalknerSkan profiles for pressure gradient = 2n/(n + 1), we solve

f 000 + f f 00 + (1 f 02 ) = 0.
To do this, create the file
f_skan.m
,
function vsol=f_skan(x,f,n)
vsol=[f(2); f(3); -f(1)*f(3)-2.0*n/(n+1)*(1.0-f(2)^2.0)];
and use along with
clear
n=1.0;
fspan=[0 10];
f0=[0.0; 0.0; 1.23259];
[y1,f1]=ode45(@f_skan,fspan,f0,options,n);
last=length(y1);
%f1(last,2)
n=0.3;
fspan=[0 10];
f0=[0.0; 0.0; 0.9002];
n=0.0;
fspan=[0 10];
f0=[0.0; 0.0; 0.4696];
n=-0.05;
fspan=[0 10];
f0=[0.0; 0.0; 0.3098];
94
n=-0.05;
fspan=[0 10];
f0=[0.0; 0.0; -0.1418];
figure(1)
plot(y1,f1(:,2),k,y2,f2(:,2),k,y3,f3(:,2),k,y4,f4(:,2),k)
figure(2)
zero=f5*0.0;
plot(y4,f4(:,2),k,y5,f5(:,2),k,y5,zero,k)
The value of f 00 (0) is found by trial and error by searching for when f 0 (10) 1.
1.2
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0
0.2
0
10
Figure 83: FalknerSkan profiles for m = 0.05, 0, 0.3 and 1, and the two profiles for m = 0.05.
95
A.5
Transition
A.5.1
Summary of Goldstein (1983) JFM

U 2
U
,
Based
on
lengthscale
,

= Re1/6 ,
Re =
Note: Here we use to denote dimensional quantities.

2 regions see Figure 1.
1.
x = O(1) i.e x = O

RECEPTIVITY REGION
Boundary layer is growing so nearparallel flow assumption cannot be made.

Streamfunction for unsteady disturbance satisfies

00
0
3/2
(F 0 ) + 2x (F 0 F 0 ) + 2ix0 = (2x)
i
u (x),
0 +
x
x
with
0 = 0 = 0 on = 0 and 0 (2x)1/2 u (x) as ,
where here we take u = 1. These are eqns. (3.2)(3.5).
The solution takes the form
0 = ST +
(i)
Ci AP ,
i=1
(i)
where ST is determined by the local flow (Stokess solution) and AP are eigensolutions
which satisfy 0 0 as . Ci are numerical coefficients determined by forcing near
to the leading edge.
Key thing about the eigensolutions is
AP

(2x)3/2
= Cg0 (x, ) exp
3U00
as x ,
which is (3.6), where

=
=
e7i/4
3/2
n
i/4
3/2
n = n ei ,
n > 0,
Hence Re() > 0 and AP decreases in amplitude with distance downstream.
wavelength of disturbance
96
,
x
x1/2 ,
(A.5.35)
(e.g. = eikx , 1/k). Hence wavelength shortens with distance downstream. So terms in
(2.19) ignored to obtain (3.2) e.g. 6 x 2 /x2 , eventually become same size as terms retained.
So (3.2) no longer valid when x = O(2 ).
2.
2
x = O( ) x = O
2 U

ORR SOMMERFELD or TRIPLE DECK REGION.
x1 = 2 x
(see 4.3 with r = 2),

Z x
i
s
(x1 , ) dx ,
= G exp
0

wavelength (non dim) ,
1/2
(cf x1/2 = x1
from (A.5.35)).
Variation of (x1 ) given in figure 3, from numerical solution of OrrSommerfeld.

As 0, stable for x1 < 3.03, and unstable for x1 > 3.03 (from figure 3(b)).
Note: Neutral point
xN

= 0.344

1/3
(A.5.36)
From figure 3(a) see wavelength shortening up to x1 0.9 and matching to first eigensolution as
x1 0 (overlap region between receptivity and OrrSommerfeld).
Hence first eigensolution matches onto TS wave which starts to grow at neutral point (lower
branch of neutral curve).
So large C1 = Unstable wave larger at neutral point,
= Nonlinear effects important soon after lower branch neutral point,
= Earlier transition.
C1 depends on nature of freestream disturbancedetermined numerically, known as Receptivity
coefficient.
Equation (A.5.36) gives the equation of lower branch of neutral curve in dimensional ( , x )
plane (valid for large x ).
Lower branch in , R plane (i.e. Notation of OrrSommerfeld equation (4.10)) given by (4.47)
large Rlimit.
TripleDeck
Asymptotic solution of OSE as R can be analysed as 3 different asymptotic forms in 3 layers:
97
Main:
=
y3
= O(1),
(2x)1/2
1/2
= y = O(3 x1/2 ) = O(2 x1 ),

so y = O(2 ) at lower branch,
y
= O(4 ).
or
x
Outer:
= O(1 )
y = O()
y
= O(3 ),
x
y = O(3 )
y
= O(5 ),
Wall layer
= O()
Wavelength

=O
= O(3 ).
= O()
x
x
These are conventional triple deck scales nondimensionalised by downstream position. (Varies
from Goldstein only at higher orders).
98

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2 KelvinHelmholtz Instability (An inviscid instability)

5.4.3 Summary of FalknerSkan profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

6 Laminar/Turbulent transition on a flat

Important concepts from Hydrodynamics

Figure 2: Streamlines in the flow.

KelvinHelmholtz Instability (An inviscid instability)

Figure 3: KelvinHelmholtz instability setup

Figure 4: KelvinHelmholtz instability experiment

Figure 5: KelvinHelmholtz instability with perturbed conditions.

Assume the disturbance is restricted to the neighborhood of the interface. i.e.

Irrotational and incompressible flow

A fluid particle on the interface must stay on the interface

Figure 6: Fluid particle remains on the interface

Similarly on the other side of the interface

Final condition is that pressure is continuous across the interface.

Now consider small perturbations (i.e.   1) and linearise the equations.

Linearising equations (2.1.3)

Next linearise (2.1.4)

Figure 8: Wave disturbance at t = t0 .

If i > 0, f (x, t) is a wave growing in amplitude with t.

Figure 10: Wave disturbance at t = 0 in 2D.

Figure 11: KelvinHelmholtz instability

KelvinHelmholtz stability using normal modes

c(k, l)ei(xt) dk dl.

Substitute 01 into linearised (2.1.2), 2 01 = 0,

A2 and B1 will be determined from eqns (2.1.6) and (2.1.5).

Substitute for A2 and B1 to give a quadratic for

Figure 13: 1 > 2

Figure 14: Surface tension at a fluid interface.

Effect of surface tension on KH instability

The surface tension at a fluid interface satisfies the equation

Figure 15: Channel Flow

Consider the stability of basic flow

in the absence of gravity.

Consider small perturbation to the base flow

Let u = ui + vj + wk and q = p/.

Also, incompressible, so continuity equation gives

Eliminate q (i.e. pressure) from (3.1.8)

For remainder of this section concentrate on solution of ODE for v. Writing D = y

Piecewise Linear Base Flows

Consider flows such as

Figure 16: Simple piecewise linear flow.

Figure 17: More complicated piecewise linear flow.

Letting [] denote []yys ,

Need 2nd matching condition. Let

as  0 (assuming U (ys ) 6= c).

In most examples considered U (y) is continuous, i.e. [U ] = 0, hence

1One part boundary layer

Figure 18: One part boundary layer.

Figure 20: Piecewise mixing layer.

and eliminating P using (3.2.14)

Continuous velocity profiles

Consider U (y) with 1 y 1.

Taking imaginary part

so for unstable wave, ci > 0, =

Therefore U 00 (y) must change sign in interval 1 y 1. This is known as RAYLEIGHS

U 00 (0) = 0 = satisfies Rayleigh criterion.

Numerical calculation of eigenvalues c(K) for continuous U (y)

1. Fix K and choose a value of of c.

Critical layers in inviscid flows

Figure 22: Critical layer.

using binomial expansion of 1 +

Now consider small perturbations (i.e. 1) and linearise the equations.

as 0 (assuming U (ys ) 6= c).

Equation governing unsteady disturbances. From (4.1.21), equating O() coefficients,

If KR 1, we can then write

On neutral stab. curve KR 1, and c = cr + ici , ci = 0 ( Neutral stability) and cr 1

General theory for R 1

U (s), we choose = 1 to ensure N