Aeroelasticity

Lecture 7:
Supersonic Aeroelasticity
G. Dimitriadis
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Introduction
A All the material presented up to now
concerned incompressible flow.
A In this lecture we will present a simple
treatment of 2D supersonic flow
aeroelasticity.
A The discussion will concern the same
pitch-plunge airfoil treated in the 2D
incompressible case.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Pitch-Plunge airfoil
A Flat plate airfoil
with pitch and
plunge degrees
of freedom.
A Equations of
motion:
# m S & ) h

, # K h
%
(* - + %
$ S I ' +

. $ 0

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

0 & ) h , ) l(t) ,
( * - = *m (t)K ' + . + xf .

Supersonic flow
A In order to complete the model, we need to derive
expressions for the lift and moment around the flexural
axis, in the presence of a supersonic free stream.
A The supersonic free stream is defined by:

Airspeed U,
Pressure P,
Temperature T,
Density ,
Speed of sound a,

A Furthermore, the air is described by the ratio of

specific heats at constant pressure and constant
volume, i.e.
cp
=
= 1.4
cv

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Steady Potential equation

A For supersonic flow, the steady potential
equation, in terms of perturbation
potential, is given by
2
2

2
+
1
M
( ) x 2 y 2 = 0

= u,
=v
x
y

A Where
A And u, and v are small local velocity
perturbations from the free stream
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Linearized Small Disturbance Equation

A For unsteady flows, the potential equation includes
unsteady terms.
A The Linerized Small Disturbance Equation is given
by:
2
2
2
2

(1 M 2 )

M
1

+

2
2
2 =0
2
a xt a t
x y

A Where, again, the potential represents a small

perturbation.
A This equation is difficult to solve. As a first
approximation, a 1D method known as piston
theory can be used.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Piston theory
A The aerodynamics of the moving wing are
calculated with the piston theory assumption:

Flow disturbances spread in a direction normal to the

wings surface. The wings movement is equivalent to
the movement of a piston in a column of air.
All disturbances are isentropic

A Under this assumption, the pressure on the

surface of the wing is given by 2
% 1 w(x,t) ( 1
p( x,t ) = p '1 +
*
2
a )
&

A Where w(x,t) is the downwash velocity

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Downwash
A The downwash velocity of the wing is
given by
%' U ( t ) + h
( t ) + x x 
( t )

f
w ( x,t ) = &
'( U ( t ) + h
( t ) + x x f 
( t )

(
(

) )
)

 



 




A As usual, the pressure difference is

calculated from p = pl pu
A But the 2/-1 exponent makes this
calculation difficult.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Binomial series
A The binomial series is a special case of a
Taylor series.
A For |x|<1:

(1 + x )
A where

" a% n
= $ ' x
n =0 # n&

n
" a%
a k + 1 a( a 1) ( a n + 1)
=
$ '=
n!
k
# n& k =1

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Binomial expansion
A Assume that the downwash velocity is much smaller
than the speed of sound, we can use a binomial series
on the pressure equation:
2
1

# 1 w(x, t) &
p ( x, t ) = p %1+
(
2
a '
$
2
3
#
&
#
&
#
&

+1

+1
w
w
w
(
)
(
)
2
3
p %1+ +
% ( +
% ( ((
%
a
4 $ a '
12 $ a ' '
$
M

=
Where
is a correction factor
2
M 1

A Retaining only the linear# term leads

to
&
w
p ( x, t ) p %1+ (
a '
$

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Pressure difference
A Then the pressure difference is given by
)
)
U + h
+ x x f 
,
U + h
+ x x f 
,
p = pl pu p +1 +
. p +1
.
a
a
*
*
U + h
+ x x f 

A So that p 2 p

A Then the total lift acting on the airfoil is

given by:
2 p c
U + h
+ x x f 
dx
l = pdx

0
a 0
c

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

))

Lift force
A So that the lift force becomes
2 pc *
*c
, 
,


l = pdx
. U + h + + x f - /
0
2
a +
c

A Noting that the the speed of sound is:

p
a =

A We finally obtain

2 U c '
'c
) 
)


l=
+ U + h + ( x f * ,
*
2
M (
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Moment around flexural axis

A The moment around the flexural axis is
given by
2 p c
U + h
+ x x f 
(x x f )dx
mxf = p(x x f )dx

0
a 0
c

))

A Which leads to:

2 U c & & c
(
(
&c
( 
1 2
2
mxf =
+U ' x f ) + ' x f ) h + c 3cx f + 3x f 
,
)
2
3
M '
2

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Lift and moment

A Remembering from lecture 1 that
m 2
#c
%
S = m x f , I =
c 3cx f + 3x 2f
$2
&
3

A We can simplify the lift and moment

expressions such that:
S (
2 U c &


U + h + 

l=
m )
M '

S
2 U c &
S 
I (
mxf =
U + h + 

M '
m
m
m )
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Equations of motion
A Substituting the lift and moment
expressions into the aeroelastic equations
of motion gives:
# m S & ) h

, # K h
%
(* - + %
$ S I ' +

. $ 0

) #

+ S 
& ,

+
h
0 & ) h , 2 U c 3 $
' 3
m
*
(* - =
S
S 
I 3
K ' + .
M 3
U + h + 

m
m .
+ m

A i.e. the complete supersonic aeroelastic

model
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

In matrix form
A In matrix form the equations of motion can
be written as:
S /m & ) h
, # K h
# m S & ) h

, 2 U c # 1
%
(* - +
%
(* - + %
M $ S /m I /m' +
. $ 0
$ S I ' +

.
0
U & )0,
2 U c #
S( =* +
%%
M $ 0 U (' +0.
m

0 & )h ,
(* K ' + .

A These are quasi-steady, small disturbance

equations. They are valid for M>1.2.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Solution
A The equations of motion are 2nd order linear
ODEs and can be solved as usual.
A At each value of the Mach number and
airspeed, the eigenvalues, i, i=1,,4, can be
evaluated.
A From the eigenvalues, natural frequencies,
i, and damping ratios, i, can be calculated.
A The natural frequency and damping ratio
variation with airspeed can be plotted for
each Mach number.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Example 1
Eigensolution for a free
stream Mach number of
1.5 . The natural
frequencies and
damping are plotted for
all airspeeds between 0
and 700m/s.
There is a flutter point at
approximately 607m/s.
Is this a physically
possible flutter speed?

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Unmatched flutter speeds

A The flutter speed calculated in this example may or may
not be physical, it depends on the systems flight
condition.
A Consider the case where the wing is flying at sea level and
the atmospheric pressure is 1bar:
=1.225kg/m3
p=101325Pa

A Then the speed of sound is 340m/s. Therefore, the flutter

speed of 607m/s corresponds to a Mach number of 1.8.
A But the Mach number used for the simulation is 1.5. This
case is an example of an unmatched flutter speed. The
system can flutter but not at an attainable Mach number.
A As the flutter Mach number is higher than the simulation
Mach number, this is a safe flight condition.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Example 2
The free stream Mach
number is still 1.5 and
the flight condition is
the same. However,
the spring stiffnesses
have been decreased
so that the flutter
speed is now 511m/s.

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Matched flutter speed

A The speed of sound is still 340m/s.
However, the new flutter speed is 511m/s.
A This flutter speed occurs at a Mach
number of 1.5, the same as the simulation
Mach number.
A This is an example of a matched flutter
speed: flutter occurs at the simulation
Mach number.
A Clearly the flight condition is not safe.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Example 3
The free stream Mach
number is still 1.5 and
the flight condition is
the usual. The spring
stiffnesses have been
further decreased so
that the flutter speed
is now 420m/s.
This corresponds to a
Mach number of 1.2.
The flight condition is
very unsafe.

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

International Standard
Atmosphere
A According to the equations of motion, the
aerodynamic forces depend on the Mach number,
flight speed and air density.
A The air density is a function of the flight altitude.
A The altitude also defines the speed of sound.
Therefore, the aerodynamic forces only depend on
flight altitude and flight Mach number.
A The International Standard Atmosphere
determines the variation of density and speed of
sound with altitude from sea level.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

ISA Graph
Air density,
speed of sound,
pressure and
viscosity ratios
with respect to
their values at
0m.
Altitude range:
0-21000m

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Mach-Airspeed diagrams
A For each Mach number and altitude, the
flutter speed can be determined.
A This calculation will give rise to MachAirspeed diagrams for all flight conditions of
interest.
A The diagrams will feature a flutter speed
curve and a true airspeed curve.
A All flight conditions for which the true
airspeed lies below the flutter speed are safe.
A All others are unsafe.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Mach-Airspeed example 1
Pitch plunge
aeroelastic system
at 5000m.
All flight conditions
are safe for Mach
numbers between
1.2 and 5.

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Mach-Airspeed example 2
The same pitch
plunge aeroelastic
system at 2000m.
All flight conditions
are safe for Mach
numbers between
1.2 and 3.5.
Flight conditions
at Mach numbers
higher than 3.5
are unsafe.

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Full aircraft configurations

A For full aircraft configurations, the linearized
small disturbance equation must be solved,
in 3D.
2
2
2
2
2
M
1

(1 M ) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 2 a xt a2 t 2 = 0

A This partial differential equation can be

solved using spatio-temporal numerical
integration.
A However, it is still a potential equation and,
therefore, it can be solved using potential
solutions.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Sub/Supersonic panel methods

A Assume that the structure of the aircraft is
vibrating sinusoidaly with frequency .
Then, the potential can be written as
= ( x, y,z)e it
A Substituting back into the linearized small
disturbance equation we get
2
2
2

M
2 1
2
(1 M ) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 2i a x + a2 = 0

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Non-dimensionalize
A Define non-dimensional coordinates
x" = Lx, y" = Ly, z" = Lz

A where L is a characteristic length and

= 1 M 2

A The equation becomes

2
$ 1 M 2 ' 2 2 2
LM

L
2

&&
)
+
+

2i

2
2
2
2 =0
2 )
a x,
a
% 1 M ( x, y, z,

A So 2that 2

2
2
LM
L
2
+
+

2i

2
2
2
2 = 0 for M < 1
a x$
a
x$ y$ z$

2
2 2 2
LM
2 L
+ 2 = 0 for M > 1
Introduction
to Aeroelasticity
2 +
2 +
2 2i
x$ y$ z$
a x$
a

Modified potential
A Furthermore, define a modified potential
such that
( x#, y#, z#) = ( x#, y#, z#)e iM x #

A Where is the compressible reduced

frequency given by
kM
L
=
, and k =

A Then we obtain:
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

2 2 2
2
+
+
+

= 0 for M < 1
2
2
2
x$ y$ z$
2 2 2
2

= 0 for M > 1
2
2
2
x$ y$ z$

Potential solutions
A Applying Greens theorem to this latest equation, it can be shown
that solutions can be obtained in terms of a sum of singularities,
such as sources, vortices or doublets.
A Using sources and doublets and transforming back into the original
coordinates we obtain

( x, y,z) =
+

1
E

1
E

( x , y ,z )e
S

( x1, y1,z1)e iM
S

iM

KdS +

KdS
n

A Where is the source strength, is the doublet strength, E=4 for

M<1, E=2 for M>1, n is a vector normal to the surface and:

cos( R)
e iR
for M < 1, K =
for M > 1
K=
R
R
x1 x
y1 y
z1 z
2
2
2
, =
, =
R = + + , =
Introduction to Aeroelasticity
L
L
L

Surface discretization
Source and
doublet panels
are placed on
the surface of
the aircraft.
The geometry
can be
significantly
simplified by
this process.
The wake can
also be
discretized.
Drawing from ZAERO
manual.

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Boundary conditions
A The source and doublet strengths are
obtained from the application of the nonpenetration boundary condition over the
complete surface of the aircraft.
A This boundary condition is unsteady, since
the aircraft structure is vibrating.
A It can be written in terms of the modal
displacements of the structure. In this case,
the complete unsteady aerodynamic forces
can be written in modal space.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

ZAERO Example
Trapezoidal wing with wingtip tank and pylon-store.

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Discussion
A This full aircraft approach is satisfactory for both
subsonic and supersonic aeroelastic problems.
A However, at transonic flight conditions, the
aerodynamics become very complicated. Shock
waves can oscillate on the wing surfaces, introducing
nonlinearity and causing Limit Cycle Oscillations.
A Furthermore, the oscillating shock waves can interact
with the boundary layer, forcing its separation. Even
higher levels of nonlinearity can be generated.
A Under these circumstances, linearized methods
cannot be applied and higher fidelity aerodynamic
modelling is required.

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Example: Goland Wing

A The Goland wing is a straight rectangular wing
with a store.
Its aeroelastic response
is modeled using a
coupling of CFD and FE
methods
The CFD is an Euler
equation solver while the
Finite Element analysis
retains only the first four
modes of vibration

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Bifurcation Goland Wing

A Goland wing aeroelastic response at
M=0.85

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Bifurcation Goland Wing

A Goland wing aeroelastic response at
M=0.90

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Bifurcation Goland Wing

A Goland wing aeroelastic response at
M=0.91

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Bifurcation Goland Wing

A Goland wing aeroelastic response at
M=0.915

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Bifurcation Goland Wing

A Goland wing aeroelastic response at
M=0.92

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Bifurcation Goland Wing

A Goland wing aeroelastic response at
M=0.93

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Bifurcation Goland Wing

A Goland wing aeroelastic response at
M=0.94

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Bifurcation Goland Wing

A Goland wing aeroelastic response at
M=0.945

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Bifurcation Goland Wing

A Goland wing aeroelastic response at
M=0.95

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

LCO simulation videos

Goland+ wing, Euler aerodynamics, aeroelastic responses

M=0.910
Introduction to Aeroelasticity

M=0.915

Bifurcation Diagram
A This is called an atypical bifurcation. LCOs
appear as M is increased but then disappear.

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

Supersonic region-static results at zero angle

of attack

LCOs appear when shock wave lies on wing surface.

Subsonic flow
M=0.88

Introduction to Aeroelasticity

M=0.90

Supersonic flow
M=0.93

M=0.96

Conclusions
A Practical aeroelastic calculations for full
aircraft configurations are carried out using
panel methods, whether subsonic or
supersonic.
A Higher fidelity methods exist but they are
reserved for challenging flowfields, such as
transonic flow.
A Even so, they are very computationally
expensive and are not routinely used for
aircraft design purposes.
Introduction to Aeroelasticity